UNIT FIVE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES

FROM THE EARLY 16th TO THE END OF THE 18th
CENTURIES (10 hrs)
5.1. Conflict b/n the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate
of Adal
 rivalry to control trade and trade routes lay at the heart of the
conflict. The despite to establish political hegemony in the
region was another factor
 religion provided ideological justification for the wars
 The conflict culminated in the wars between the Christian
Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal that lasted from 1529 to
1543
 internal strife, corruption and anarchy among the Muslim
Sultanates intensified a new leadership
 The War of Ahmed Gragn
 He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and
raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases on the
route to Zeila. He was devoted Muslim and the soldiers of
Garad Abun of Adal
 Causes of his battles were
To control long-distance trade route
Environmental pressure by Afar and Somali pastoralists

 Ahmed Gragn convinced and mobilized the pastoral

communities of the Afar, the Somali and Harari and others
to a common cause, i.e. to control the territory of Christian
Kingdom
 The young Libne Dingil, assisted by Queen Elleni, and
exploiting internal conflicts in Adal, scored significant
victories in the early 16th c against Adal and the Christian
Kingdom could be able to establish its hegemony over the
region until 1529
 The army of Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi fought
fiercely and controlled the territories including Bali,
Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and in
1527 and put the Christian Kingdom at risk
 Due to logistic and leadership problem, the Christian army
failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s force
 The Adal army under the command of Ahmed Gragn
defeated christian army of Libne Dingil at the Battle of
Shimbra Kure , near Mojo
 Ahmed Gragn completed his campaign against Christian
Kingdom in 1535 and his empire stretched from Zeila to
Massawa on the coast including the Ethiopian interior .
Ahmed established Adal’s hegemony over the region from
1535-1543.He established a civil administrative
bureaucracy.
 During the campaign of Ahmed, his wife, the daughter of
Mahfuz, Bati Del Wanbara, was one of the most
illuminating figures. she delivered her two sons during the
campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and Tigray respectively
Causes for the success of Ahmed Gragn
 Logistic and leadership problem of Christian army
 Motivation and determination of Muslim army
 Excellent leadership provided by the Imam
 The 400 Portuguese soldiers under the command of
Christopher da Gama came in 1541 to assist the Christian
army under Gelawdewos (1540-1559), son and successor of
Libine Dingil, and his mother, Seble Wongel. Libine Dingil
asked Portuguese military assistance in 1535. Ahmed
(Adal) was assisted by Ottoman Turks, who provided him
200 Muslim musketeers and ten cannons
 In August 1542, at the Battle of Ofla (in southern Tigray),
Adal army of Ahmed Gragn defeated about 200 Portuguese
including Christian arm Christopher da Gama.
 Advised by his mother Seble Wongel, Gelawdewos
employed hit and run strategy and attacked and killed the
Imam at the Battle of Woyna-Dega in 1543, which marked
the end of Adal’s hegemony in the region.
 After the Battle of Woyna, Goyna Dega, Gelawdewos’s
Christian Kingdom faced challenges from retreating soldiers
of the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude,
and Oromo advance into the center
 In 1559, the Adal (Muslim) army under the command of Nur
Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid and his wife Bati Dil Wanbara
beheaded Gelwdewos, which marked the end age-old hostility
between the two forces in the region.
The Christian Kingdom after Gelawdewos
 Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) defeated the Ottoman Turkish
force and reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa.
However, in the early 1560s, Bahir Negash Yishaq revolted
and allied with the Turks against him. Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle
(r.1563-1598) fought with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel,
Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo and defeated Turkish force in
the north.
 Consequences of Muslim-Christian conflict
 huge human and material cost
 By weakening both sides, it contributed for the success of
Oromo movement
 cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia
 Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by
intermarriages among peoples of the various cultural groups
were one of these manifestations in the long history of
Ethiopia and the Horn
 The Portuguese and the Ottoman Turkish involvement in
the 16th Christian-Muslim conflict made it global in
dimension
5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
 The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an
alliance with Roman Catholicism as a tactic to secure
sufficient modern weaponry and training to restore its lost
territories
 In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop,
Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand
Catholicism. The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two
different and therefore separate, natures of Christ-divine and
human, which was contrary to Monophysite theology of
EOC, which taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo
had a perfect human nature inseparable from the divine
 The leading members of the mission who played key role in
efforts to catholic evangelization the country were Joao
Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso
Mendez.
 The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor
Gelawdewos. However, he defended the teaching of EOC in
a document entitled the “Confession of Faith”
 Minas and Sertse-Dengel were busy fighting against the
Oromo and the Turkish forces to engage the Jesuits in their
courts
 In his short lived reign, the Jesuits got relative success with
Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to have been
sympathetic to Catholicism. He was overthrown by Yaqob
(r. 1598-1603; 1604-7). Susenyos (r. 1607-32) defeated
Yacob.
 Advised by Pedro Paez, Susenyos officially converted in to
Catholicism in 1612 and announced it to be a state religion
in 1622
 Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered re-consecration of
Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of the mass. He
called for the suspension of male circumcision and the
observance of the Sabbath, prohibition of preaching in
Ge’ez, fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence
(veneration) for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant
(Tabot) he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian
calendar to be adopted
 The changes initiated by the Jesuits was opposed by the
peasants, the ecclesiastics and the nobility and the
Emperor’s son, Fasiledes.
 In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their
lives in one day. Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in
favor of Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic
transformation.
 Measures taken by Fasiledes
 restored the position of Orthodox Church
 expelled the Jesuits
 punished local converts including his uncle, Se'ela Kristos,
who was the most fervent supporter of Catholicism,
 introduced a “closed-door” policy, which isolated the
country from all Europeans. During this period, the two
Europeans secretly visited ethiopia were a French Doctor
Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler James
Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively
 Initiated closer diplomatic relations with the Islamic world
 doctrinal divisions and controversy within EOC as a result
of Jesuit intervention, which reached its peak during the
Zemene Mesafint are
1. Tewahedo Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ
 eternity as a Divine Being and born from St.
Mary as a perfect man. Thus, perfect man and
perfect divinity united in one nature,i.e.
Tewahido.
Dominant in Tigray and Lasta
2. Qibat (Unction) (Hulet Lidet-two birth )
 eternal birth (1st birth) and anointment by
Holy Ghost (2nd birth). Dominant in Gojjam
3. Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through
Grace
 Eternal birth as divine being (1st birth), born again in the
womb of St. Mary (2nd birth) and anointed by Holy Ghost
(3rd birth) . Dominant in Gonder and Shawa
5.3. Population Movements
 The movements of people from one place to another have
played important roles in shaping the history of Ethiopia
and the Horn
 People moved from place to place due to pull and push
factors, which can be summed up as natural and social
 The causes of population movement in the region could be
attributed to the region's long socio-political conditions
involving military conflicts, drought and demographic
factors
Effects of population movement in the Medieval Horn
of Africa
 integration of peoples across ethnic and religious lines
 religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and intermingling of
peoples (major outlines)
 intermarriage of peoples
 change of abode, original culture
 evolution of new identities
5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and
Somali
Causes
 Christian-Muslim (Adal) conflicts in the late 15th & early 16th
centuries
 pressure on the environment was a major factor for the
population movement
 The Argoba
 They were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and
Muslim state formation in the Horn
 The sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant,
became the center of Muslim resistance
 On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, the Argoba
joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian Kingdom
 Since the major caravan trade route passed through Argoba
territory, it had been the target of the expanding Christian
Kingdom and was the major center of conflict
The Afar
 Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the
Afar's territory. As a result, the region was the center of
competition between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
sultanates to control the trade routes
 the Afar to move into different directions to avoid the risk of
the conflicts. Their pastoral economy helped the Afar to
survive the destructive effects of the wars of the 16thc.
The Somali
 Their territory lay in the region traversed by major trade
routes during medieval period. Before 16thc, Christian-
Muslim conflicts, there was environmental pressure on
Somali inhabited areas. Their movement had become strong
force for Ahmed’s military strength. They returned to their
home base in after the defeat of Ahmed in 1543.
5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement
(1522-1618)
A. The Gadaa System
 The Gadaa system was an institution through which the
Oromo
 socially organized themselves
 administered their affairs
 defended their territories
 maintained law and order
 managed their economies
 Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa
system emerged
 As to Abba Bahrey, an Orthodox Monk who lived in Gamo,
 Abba Bahrey’s account indicates in the early 16thc, Gadaa
system fully functioned because the Oromo were well
organized. Accordingly, it began long before 16thc
 Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and Gadaa
centers suggest that the system evolved from the earlier
Cushitic age-set social organization
 In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa period, 5-
gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation and
nine generations represented an era
 Prior to the beginning of Gadaa Borana-Barentu around
1450 AD, the Oromo passed through known eras of Taya,
Tasaa, Munyo, Suftu, Maddile, Abroji, Dhittacha and Warra-
Daye (warden), each of which survived for an era
 the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted (revitalized) after
interruption for nearly two generations. It was revived in
1450 at Madda Walabu that became the central Chaffe
(assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until 1900
Principles of Gadaa System
 periodic succession and power sharing to prevent a one-man
rule
 representation of all lineages, clans and confederacies
 mechanism of socialization, education, maintenance of
peace and order, and social cohesion
 rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma (compensation),
and rakoo (marriage
 The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into 10
age-grades and 5 generation sets. They operated in parallel
Age-grades and their roles
 The Gadaa Government
 Abba-Gadaa literally “father of the period” was the head of
the government. He was assisted by
• Abba Bokku (father of scepter)
• Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly)
• Abba-Dula (war leader)
• Abba Sera (father of law)
• Abba Alanga (judge)
• Abba Sa'a (father of treasury)
 the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in
power transfer and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class
 Sinqe-women institution in which they formed sisterhood
and solidarity
 Women were organized under Siqe institution from
childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-pubescent), qarre
(adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and
Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years
 Women involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict
resolution, thanks-giving. The kalale were also privileged to
support and advise the ruling class.
The Five Gadaa classes
B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
Factors/ Causes
 Natural: demographic pressure and the need for land to
accommodate the growing human and livestock population
 Human: the Christian-Muslim confect in the region (13th to
16th centuries) that pressurized Pastoral Oromo
 Before the 16th c movement, the Oromos were organized in
to two confederacies: the Borana and Barentu
 From their original homeland near Genale river and Madda
Wallabu, the Oromos moved out in to south, north and
western directions.
 The twelve Buta Wars of Oromo
1. Melba (1522-1530)-defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led
by Fasil and occupied Bali
2. Mudena (1530-1538)-reached the edge of Awash River
3. Kilole (1538-46)-controlled Dawaro after defeating
Christian regiment Adal Mabraq
4. Bifole (1546-54)-advanced to Waj and Erer.
5. Michille (1554-62)- defeated Christian army Dago and Jan
Amora led by Hamelmal and Muslim army Adal led by Emir
Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo
6. Harmufa (1562-70)-fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina
and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc
7. Robale (1571-1578)-the cavalry of Sarsa Dingil (r.1563-97) c
led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale Gadaa at
Woyna Daga in 1574. But Robale recovered by
defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force.
8. Birmaji (1579-1586)-controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama
to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti r
egiment
9. Mul’ata (1587-1594)-seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat,
Dambiya and Tigray.
10.Duuloo (1595-1602)
11. Malba (1603-1610)
12.Muudana (1611-1618)
 The Duuloo, Melba and Mudena expanded to West and
Northern parts of the Horn of Africa.
 Other buta war like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and
Majertin in Somalia
The Major (Larger) Gadaa centers
 Oda Nabee of Tulama
 Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi)
 Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna
 Oda Bisil of Mecha
 Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha
The Minor (Smaller) Gadaa centers
 Gayo of Sabbo-Gona
 Me'e Bokko of Guji
 Oda Dogi of Ilu
 Oda Hulle of Jimma
 Oda Garado of Waloo
 Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji,
Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others established
Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws in their respective areas.
 The various Oromo groups kept their relations through the
office of Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at
Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of
difficulty. Besides, they obeyed similar ada (culture) and
sera (law) through sending their delegates to Madda-
Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-Oromo assembly
was forbidden in 1900 due to the political influence of the
Ethiopian state
 Land holding system to regulate resource and their
interaction among different clans is known as the qabiyye
system
 Causes of Success of the Oromo Pop. Movement
 the Christian-Muslim conflicts in the region that weakened
both sides
 The Buta wars-effective military leadership
 The Oromos were effectively organized under Gadaa
 Mass movement which was difficult to stop
 The Oromo institutions of Mogassa (adopting group) and
Gudifacha (adopting individuals)
5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and
Religious Diversities
 The political, social, and economic processes of the
medieval period were the major factors for the people's
interactions across regions
 The causes were trade contacts and conflicts to control
trade routes, religious expansion, and territorial expansion
and population movements
 One of the major consequences of the interactions in the
medieval period particularly in the population movement of
the 16th c was the integration of peoples across ethnic and
religious diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn
 The territorial and religious expansion by the Christian
kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to the south
 the wars of Imam Ahmed and the population movements of
the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali caused the expansion of
Islam into the central parts of Ethiopia.
Consequences of Oromo Population Movement
1. ended wars b/n the Christian and Muslim
2. halted southward expansion of the Christian state
3. the Oromo contact with diverse peoples
4. The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa
 Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster
parent
Moggasa the practice of incorporation of individuals or
groups to a clan. It was a system of adopting non-
Oromos (Oromsu )
 Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the
clan. Moggasa contributed to the social cohesions, national
integration, and the revival of long-distance trade
5. The adoption of Gadaa system by neighboring non-Oromo
and Oromo language
6. the Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and traditions of
other people
Example
 integration of the Oromo to the Christian and Muslim cultures
 Adoption of monarchical system of Christian Kingdom
 the rise of nobles in the northern Oromo in politics during the
Gondar period (1636-1769), Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
and the making of modern Ethiopia (since 1855)
7. destroyed the strong medieval states of Damot, Ennarya,
Bizamo
8. Ethiopia was fragmented and much reduced in size
9. economic, political, social and religious transformation of
the Oromos
10. The evolution of new identities
11. intermarriage, change of abode and original culture
5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern
and Western Regions
5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East
A. Somali
 practiced pastoral economy and moved between places for
centuries
 As noted by the Arab Geographer, Ibn Said (1214-860),
Merca was a capital
 lived close to the Christian Kingdom as songs celebrating
King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30) military success depicts
 contributed for Adali’s victory against Christian kingdom
 Society was governed by a council known as shir, which
was organized in to sub-clan, clan and inter-clan level
 shir acted as an enforcement of law and justice
 In decision making process, all-adult males were
democratically allowed equal access and participation
 A council of elders- guurti was the highest political council
mandated with resolving conflict and crisis.
B. Afars
 Inhabited Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea
 Makabanto-indigenous governance system
 first mentioned by Ibn Said
 occupied the lowland territory near Bab el-Mandeb in 13th c
 Their land was the site of historic cities such as Maduna and
Abasa
 Following Adal’s collapse in 16thc, they established Awsa,
Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad sultanates (Muslim
States)
 Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Awsa in
1577
 Awsa temporarily ended with the accession of Imam Umar
Din bin Adam in 1672 and re-established by Kedafo around
1734, who established Mudaito Dynasty.
 Awsa’s economy mainly depended on BatiGinda’e trade
route
 Muslim preachers like Tola Hanfire made Awsa the center
center of Islamic learning
C. Argoba
 The two version (theories) of their origin
1. Muslim-Arab immigrants, i.e. descended from the
followers of the Prophet Mohammed who came to
the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat.
2. Ancient peoples in the region converted in to Islam
by Arab Muslim religious leaders
D. The Emirate of Harar
 Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers
 Had become the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing
Dakar until shifted to Awsa in 1577 due to the pressure
from Oromo
 From his center of Harar, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-
Ghazi (Ahmed Gragn), invaded Christian Kingdom from
1527-1535 and controlled it until 1543
 The sultanate of the Harari developed inside the wall, which
was built by Ahmed’s successor, Emir Nur Mujahid
against the Barentu Oromo harassment
 With Oromo, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) strengthened
Harer in 17th c and established Dynasty
 Harer further strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur
(1783-94)
 Majilis (the council) established by Amirs assisted them
by supervising mosque land, Waqf and the like
 Steadily, Harer had become the center of Islamic culture
and power
 Economic power strengthened due to control of trade
routes from the Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila and Berbera
 Trade, inter-marriage, and expansion of Islamic
teachings enabled them to establish its authority over the
surrounding Oromo and Somali
 From 1875 to 1885, the Egyptians ruled Harer. The last
Harer emir defeated by the forces of Menelik at the Battle
of Chelenqo in 1887 was Abdulahi (ruled from 1885-1887)
5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central
Parts
A. The Kingdom of Shewa
 Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703) of Menz was founder and
controlled Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and Yifat districts
 Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos ruled from 1703-18
 Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his capital. But
the Karrayu Oromo killed him
 Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75), made failed attempt
to control the Afar and Abitchu Oromo and declared
authority over Bulga, Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with his
capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to Ankober
 Asfa-Wosen (r.1775- 1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo,
Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and Shewa Meda.
 Shewa reached its height of power during Negus
Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-47), who signed “Treaty of
Friendship and Commerce” with Henry Salt of Britain
in 1841
 The economy of Shewa was based on agriculture
(substantial component) supplemented by trade and craft
 Aleyu Amba, Near Ankobar, was important trade center
B. Gurage
1. Western (Sebat Bet Gurage): Chaha, Muher, Ezha,
Gumer (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna and Gyeto
2. Northern Gurage: Kistane, Aymallal (Soddo) Gurage
Additional Groups: Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan
 Enset (False Banana) is Grage’s staple food
 System of governance
 Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet
 Gordanna Sera among the Kistane
 In the traditional Gurage governance
 There was no centralized leadership
 Power was vested in clan or lineage groups
C. Kambata
 Formed by coalescence (union) of four communities of
separate origin by about 1550-70
 Kambata means, “this is the place” (where we live)
according to Kambata oral tradition
 Their original homeland was around Mount Hambericho
 the Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro trace their homeland from
Sidama highlands
 The Omotic and Semitic peoples moved into Kambata at
didfferent
 Kambata (from Omo to Bilate rivers) was incorporated in
to Christian Kingdom by Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30)
 The army of Ahmed Gragn captured Kambata In 1532
 The seven dominant clan groups recognized themselves as
Kambata after one of the dominant clan Kambata Lamala
at the end of the 16thc.
 The Kambata were enset farmers and their language
Kambatissa belongs to highland east Cushitic
The a traditional administration System
 Hambericho Council
 administrative institution that had seven members
each representing the seven clans
  with a king at the top, it ruled until the late 19thc
D. Hadya
 Emerged around 13thc and was mentioned in the Kebre-
Negest (Glory of the Kings)
 referred to the area west of the Islamic states in the
federation of Zeila
 people were heterogeneous both linguistically and
culturally
 Northern part was dominated by Semitic speaking
agriculturalists while southern part was pastoral Cushitic
communities
 There was a considerable Muslim population
 Amde-Tsion defeated garad Amano and subjugated Hadya
in 1332 because Hadya aligned with Ifat leader, Sabraddin
 Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) replaced the rebellious garad
Mahiqo by his uncle Bamo in 1445. To stablize the
situation, the emperor married Princess Elleni from Hadiya
 Emperor Sartsa-Dengel (r.1563-98),suppressed the rebellion
of Garad Aze 1568/9 when he refused to pay tribute
 The wars between Adal and Christian Kingdom and the
the Oromo population movement interrupted relations
between Hadiya and the Christian Kingdom
 the four linguistic clusters of the descendants of the old
Hadiya the Oromo, the Sidama, the Kabena and Alaba
 The four sub clan groups of Hadya proper are Mareko,
Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and Badowacho
 The language of Hadya belongs to Highland East Cushitic
family
5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South
A. The Sidama
 Economy is based on agriculture
 Enset and coffee are important food and cash crops
respectively
Institutions of Sidama Society
1. Mote (king), consulted by Songo, exercised political and
administrative authority
2. Songo-council of elders
 raised agenda for discussion within the council
submitted their decisions to the Mote for approval
 rules were known by heart through generations
3. The Woma
 was cultural and ritual leader
since he was a man of peace, he could not participate in
war or cattle raiding
performed rituals like offering sacrifices to the spirits,
circumcision and marriage
Social Division
 divided into generation-sets called Luwa
 The five grades of Luwa each lasting for 8 years are
Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa
 The Luwa candidates received 5 months military training
and war songs (gerarsha) under gaden and his deputy-
Ja’lawa
 The gaden
 settled disputes within his Luwa
 with the Mote, defended the society
4. Seera: governed social life based on moral code, halale
(the ultimate truth) to judge the right and wrong
 People abide by the rules of halale to avoid curse or ostracization
by the society
B. Gedeo
 Supposed to be the ancestors of Daraso, who was the older
brother of Gujo (father of Guji Oromo)
 The seven clans of Gedeo were the ancestors of Daraso. They
are grouped in to two Houses:
1. Shole batte (senior house): comprised the first 4
clans. It had >25 sub-clans
2. Sase batte (junior house): comprised the last 3 clans, which
have 10 sub-clans
 Baalle-traditional governance system that worked with age
classes and ranking
 The baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period each
 Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho,
Ributa and Rikuta sharing one Abba Gadaa ruled them for
a period of 8 years
 All positions from top, Abba Gadaa to bottom, Hayitcha
assumed at baalle ceremony
 The Gedeo economy was based on the cultivation of enset
C. Konso
 Konso refers to their language, affa Konso and their land
 The literal meaning of Konso is “heavily forested hill/ area.”
 Low land Sagan and Woyito river valleys served as hunting
grounds
 Konso is one the earliest human settlement sites in the
world. Therefore, it attracted human evolution
researchers
 Konso’s economy depended on agriculture, bee keeping and
craftworks. Hot and dry lowlands at the edge of the Great
East African Rift Valley led farmers to adopt intensive
agriculture
 Farmers produce crop and breed cattle. For soil
conservation, farmers construct terraces.
 Until the late 19th c they used to live in walled villages,
paletas, which were further divided into wards called
Kanta
 No central authority over the Konso’s three regions
 a council of elders called hayyota, who were directly
selected by males, ruled each village
 Membership to the hayyota was not hereditary, but rotated
every 18 years
 the clan or lineage group and generation set called Tselta
was the core of the socio-political organization
 The nine clans are Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata, Pasanta,
Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and Argamyta
5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part
A. Wolayta
 It denotes people (ethnic group), language and the powerful
kingdom, which emerged in c. 13th c A.D.
 Before the emergence of Wolaita as political unit, the region
was inhabited by Badia, Badiagadala & Aruja clans
 the material, human and territorial gains by wars enabled the
state of Wolaita flourish in the late 18thc and early 19thc
 At the apex of the social and political hierarchy (ladder) there
was the Kawo (king), who was assisted by a council of advisors
 Wolaita was ruled by
a. Wolayta-Malla Dynasty (13th to 15th centuries). Founded
by
Kawo Motalami
b.Tigre-Malla dynasty (end of 15th c to end of 19th c )
 supposedly founded by Tigreans
Land was nominally the property of the kawo, who
could grant it to his dependents
 land relationships were ordered according to 3 basic
principles of social organization i.e. kinship, polity and
social status
 The rights over land were vested in the lineage group, the
crown (royal estate), the nobility and the communal
lands (allocated for grazing and social gatherings)
 Enset was the dominant crop. There were also varieties of
crop grew including cereals, vegetables,…
B. Kafa
 emerged in the 14thc and attained prominence (around mid
17thc)
 The ruling Minjo dynasty and the kingdom of Enarya had
close contact
 Christianity and the royal title, tato, were introduced to
kaffa by Ennaryan ruling house who fled to Kaffa
following the Oromo subjugation
 economy was based on enset cultivation supported by
trade
 Peasants worked on their land, rendered free labor service
and tilled royal estates with the support of slaves
 a prosperous commerce took place with Oromo states of the
Gibe region
 musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet were
exported via markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya, etc
 Expanded to Bonesho, Mashengo, Maji, Nao, She and
Chara ( 17th to 18th centuries)
 At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was the
Tato (king) with his major political center at Bonga and or
Andarcha
 a council of seven advisors called Mikrecho assisted Tato.
It involved in power moderation of Tato and succession
 Kaffa was known for its defense system. They dug deep
trenches called Kuripo as defensive barrier
 Gojeb River served as natural protection for its survival
until 1894
C. Yem
 agriculture, trade and craft were economic basis
 Initially, ruled by Dida or Halmam-Gammad Dynasty
from its palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma
 the Amno (king) was at the top of the political ladder
acted as a chief priest with attributes of divinity
 in state administration, Amno was assisted by Astessor
(council of 12 members) and Waso (chairperson of
Astessor )
 The provincial governors called Erasho were responsible for
digging bero (ditches) and erecting nearly 50 pillars around
Brisi Bita (center Yem)
 The war father called Nomiaw could patrol the kindom’s
surrounding from top of pillars
 Special messengers, Wosi carried orders from Amno down
to district chiefs, Gagna and vice versa.
 People of northern origin overthrown the last King
Oyokam/Amo Dasha and founded a new dynasty called
Mowa (Howa) with its center at Angari n the 14thc
 In the 19thc, Jimma attempeted to subdue Yem. But both
were incorporated (absorbed) into the imperial state of
Menelik II
D. Gamo
 the geze (highland) and the bazo (lowland) are physical
landscapes
 indigenous laws called the Woga defined land-use in the
highlands. The woga governed all aspects of the Gamo
people
 Enset is the dominant crop in the highland and maize and
sweet potato in the lowland. Barely, wheat, teff, peas,
beans and cabbage are also grown in highland
 The other modes of the subsistence system include cattle
breeding, Craft, pottery, tanning, carpentry and
metalworking
 The Gamo people manufactured tools tools and weapons,
traditional musical and funeral instruments, weaving
colorful textiles etc.
 The Gamo were first mentioned in written records in the
praise songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30), in which they were
tributary states to the monarch.
 Between 16th to 19th centuries, Gamo was organized in
different communities called dere
 The dere were politically autonomous villages (units). Each
dere had
1) kawo, hereditary ruler
2) initiates called halaqa and
(3) own assembly place called dubusha
 At dubusha communal matters were discussed and disputes
solved.
 through initiation, a system of seniority called baira, could
reach to politico-ritual status
 Through initiation or election the dulata (assembly) elected
married men to position of halaqa or huduga or maga
 The institutional authority of dulata included
 giving decisions on different important matters
imposing sanctions as penalty against serious
 The Baira (senior)
 Was largely based on genealogical seniority
 had a privilege over lineage members (clan members)
 made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors at all
levels of the community
 The senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo, which refers
to the first rank status. He represented the unity of dere
and foreign relation
E. Dawuro
 climatic zones are geziya (highland), dashuwa (mid-
altitude) and gad’a (lowland).
 Economy is based on mixed agricultural activities
 Their language is Dawurotsuwa-Omotic family
 three major clans are Malla, Dogolla, and Amara, which are
altogether called Gok’as or K’omos
 Neighboring Omotic people of Wolayta, Kucha, Gamo,
Gofa, and Kafa and from Gondar, Gojjam, Tigray and Shewa
inhabited Dawuro. These people immigrated to Dawuro due
to a political alliance through royal marriages
 By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big state on
the territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north,
east and south and the Kafa high mountains in the west
 The famous rulers of the Kawuka dynasty were Kati Irashu
and Kati Halala
 Kati Halala was
 grandson of the king of Kafa
 incorporated Konta
 known for his stone fortifications
F. Ari
 Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet,
Nyangatom, Bodi, Male, etc. have been inhabited Omo
River basin
 The region’s economy was based on sedentary
agriculture, pastoralism and handcrafts
 The Ari
 language is called Araf , i.e.Omotic family
 organized into ten independent clan based chiefdoms
 Babi (hereditary clan chief) headed each chiefdom
 Each clan chief was entitled with both political and ritual
authorities over the people he governed. Appointed
officials assisted the Babi
 The Babi’s assistants were
 Godimis (religious leaders)
 Zis (village heads)
 Tsoikis (intelligence agents of Babi)
5.5.5.Peoples and States in the West
A. Berta and Gumuz
 The Berta people
 inhabited Beni-Shangul Regional State
 started to settle in the region in the 16th c
 speak a branch Nilo-Saharan language
 The Gumuz
 were mentioned by the Scottish explorer James Bruce
  speak the Gumuz language of Nilo-Saharan family
 The Berta, Gumuz and other people of the region had been
highly influenced by Islam due to trade and social contacts
with the northern Sudan
B. Anywa
 predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila,
Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers in Gambela
 According to local tradition, Oshoda was the founding father
 Their language is called Dha-anywaa-Nilo- Saharan family
Administrative System
 Administration was not centralized
 Kuaari- the chief of each village
 Kuaari and Nyiye (nobles)
managed the distribution of farm and grazing fields
  settled disputes, and etc.
 Economy they is based on small-scale cultivation, fishing
and hunting
 Religion-mostly Christians & also believed in traditional
religion.
C. Nuer
 Historically, lived in areas across the savannas and marshes
of the Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper Nile regions of the
Sudan
 Since 19thc, hey had been largely settled along the Sobat &
Baro Rivers in Gambella and in Sudan
 Economy was based on cattle breeding supplemented by
crop production
 had developed a complex spiritual culture around their
cattle, which were used as bride wealth
 had an age-set system combining social and political
functions
 boys had to pass through a rigorous test and a series of
rites t before they were initiated into adulthood.
D. Majang
 formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan settlement
 According to linguistic evidence, originated from Boma
plateau in South Sudan, where gradually moved northward
and settled in forested areas of western Ethiopia
 By mid 20thc, their settlement extended to areas near
Dembi-Dollo in the north
 Economic activities include shifting cultivation, animal
husbandry, bee keeping, hunting and fishing
E. The Kunama/ the Baza
 Inhabited western Eritrea on the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers
in ancient times
 Today live in northwestern and western Tigray
 The Arab traveller al-Ya’qubi in 872 A.D. mentioned the
kingdom as Baza, referring to Kunama
 a customary institution called sanga-anene
 administered the society
 Granted asylum to new comers
 Performed rituals as reconciliation process in case of
homicides
 The office of th e sanga-anene was
 held by males, i.e. matrilineal line
 transmitted hereditarily from the eldest brother to the
next born
 economy is based on mixed agriculture and their staple
crop is sorghum (kina), which also has a ceremonial
value. The other is keeping livestock mainly goats,
sheep, oxen, and camels.
5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
5.6.1. The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
 The period of Gondar began from the reign of Emperor
Sartsa-Dengle when the political center of Ethiopian
emperors shifted to Gondar area