BST COLLEGE

UNIT ONE

THE NATURE OF RESEARC

By: Bonson Alemu (Assist. Prof.)

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 WHAT IS RESEARCH?
A voyage of discovery or a journey/movement
from the known to unknown.
An art of scientific investigation
• a scientific and systematic search for
pertinent information on a specific topic
• Process of arriving at dependable solutions
to problems through the planned and
systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data
A systematized effort to gain new
knowledge
• Search for (new) knowledge, facts through objective,
systematic and scientific method of finding solution to
a problem
• Not synonymous with commonsense, but systematic,
objective(purposeful), reproducible, relevant activity
having control over some factors
• the systematic method consisting of problem
statement, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the
facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards
the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for
some theoretical formulation.
Comprehensive definition:
Research is a systematic attempt to obtain answers
to meaningful questions about phenomena or
events through the application of scientific
procedures. It is an objective, impartial, empirical
and logical analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of
generalizations, principles, theories, resulting in to
some extent in prediction and control of events
that may consequences or causes of specific
phenomena.
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 WHY RESEARCH ?
• To get a research degree
• To get respectability
• To face a challenge
• To solve a problem
• To get intellectual joy
• To serve society by increasing standard of living in
case of science & Technology, and by showing right
path to society in case of social and behavioral
sciences.
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 TYPES OF RESEARCH
APPLIED FUNDAMENTAL/BASIC OR PURE/
concerned with generalizations
Finding a solution for an
and formulation of a theory.
immediate problem & not
rigorous / flexible in knowledge for knowledge’s
sake ( i.e., ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
applications o the condition research)
DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY
ANALYTICAL
(ex-post facto)
use facts or information
Surveys and fact finding enquires already available, and analyze
State of affairs as it exists these to make a critical
No control over variables evaluation to the material.
What is happened or what is
happening most ex-post facto
research project.
 QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
• Measured and expressed in terms • Involves quality or kind
of quantity • Helps in having insight into
• Expression of a property or problems or cases
quantity in numerical terms
• Quantitative research helps:
– To use precise measurements
– Knowing trends or changes
overtime
– Comparing trends or individual units

CONCEPTUAL EMPIRICAL
• Relies to some abstract idea or • Relies on experience or
theory (for philosophers and observation alone, i.e., Data-
thinkers) based research
• Relies on literature • Capable of being verified by
observation or experiment.
• Experimenter has control
over variables under study
Other types
• One time/cross-sectional or
longitudinal/developmental and trend or
prediction studies (the time domain)
• Field-setting or laboratory or simulation
research
• Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented
research
 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
• Research is directed towards the solution of a
problem.
• Research emphasizes the development of
generalizations, principles, or theories to
predict future occurrences.
• Research is based upon observable experiences
or empirical evidence.
• Research demands accurate observation and
description.
• Research involves gathering new data primary
or first- hand sources or using existing data a
new purpose.
• Research is characterized by carefully
designed procedures, always applying
rigorous analysis.
• Research requires expertise.
• Research strives to be objective and logical,
applying every possible test to validate the
procedures employed, the data collected,
and the conclusions reached
• Research is characterized by patient and
unhurried activity.
• Research is carefully recorded and reported.
Criteria of Good Research
• Purpose/ objectives clearly defined in common
concepts
• Procedure enumerated to keep continuity
• Carefully planned design leading to objective
results
• Adequate analysis of data with appropriate
methods of analysis
• Conclusions confined to those justified by the
data
• Confidence, competence/ reputation,
experience, honesty & integrity of researcher
Summarizing the above stated criteria of a
scientific research leads to derivation of the
qualities of good research as follows.
• SYSTEMATIC - Reject the use of guessing & intuition, but
does not rule out creative thinking
• CONTROLLED – Variables are identified & controlled,
wherever possible
• LOGICAL - Guided by rules of logical reasoning & logical
process of induction & deduction
• EMPIRICAL- Provides a basis for external validity to results
(validation)
• REPLICABLE - Verified by replicating the study
• SELF CORRECTING - Built in mechanism & open to public
scrutiny by fellow professionals
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
• Formulating the research problem;
• Extensive literature survey;
• Developing the hypothesis/Research
question;
• Preparing the research design (including
sample design);
• Collecting the data;
• Analysis of data (hypothesis testing if any);
• Interpret and report the results.

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 The Research Problem and
Preparation of the Research
Proposal

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Research problem
• The focal point of every research activity is a
research problem.
• It takes place when there is a problematic
situation and a need to solve the problem.
• According to Kotari (2004:24), a research
problem refers to some difficulty which a
researcher experiences in the context of
either a theoretical or practical situation and
wants to obtain a solution for the same.

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 Selecting the problem
• The identification of a research problem is
an important phase of the entire research
process.
• It requires a great deal of time, energy,
and logical thinking on the part of the
researcher.
• Therefore, a considerable care must be
taken while selecting a research problem.
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Some important sources for selecting a problem:

• Professional Experience,
– The researchers’ every day experience provides a rich
supply of problems for investigations.
• Contact and Discussion with People
– Contact and discussions with research- oriented people in
conferences, seminars or public lectures serve as important
sources of problem.
• Inference from theory,
– lies in the theoretical system and conceptual schemes which
have been developed in the required disciplines
• Professional Literature
– Consultation of research reports, books and articles, periodicals,
research abstracts, dictionaries and research guides can be used
as a sources of a research problem in a given field
• Technological and Social Changes, directly or indirectly, exert an
influence in the function of an organization
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Criteria for selecting a problem
Internal External
– Researchability i.e., Amenability
– researcher’s (problems having solutions)
interest – Importance/usefulness , urgency, and
social relevance, i.e., relative importance
– researcher’s and significance of problem.
competence – Novelty or originality
– researcher’s own – Feasibility
resources i.e., • Availability of data
• Suitable methodology
finance, time, etc.
• Cooperation of organizations and
individuals
• Available time
– Facilities /infrastructure

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Moreover, the following points as stated by Kothari
(1990:32-33), may be observed by a researcher in selecting a
research problem or a subject for research:
• Subject which is overdone should not be normally
chosen
• Controversial subject should not become the choice of
an average researcher.
• Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
• The subject selected for research should be feasible
• The importance of the subject, the qualifications and
the training of researcher
• the costs involved, and the time factor

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 Steps in formulating a research problem:
(Kumar 2011:48-50)
1. Identify a broad field or subject area of interest in
your academic /professional field
2. Dissect the broad area in to sub areas(brainstorm)
3. Select the sub area in which you have decided to
conduct the research (process of elimination)
4. Raise research questions that you would like to
answer through the study

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5. Formulate objectives for the study (one main
aim/objectives and three or four sub objectives)
6. Assess objectives to make sure that they can be
attained in time available, and with financial
human resources and technical expertise
available
7. Double check you are sufficiently interested in
the study and have adequate resources for
doing it.

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 Example 1, Suppose you want to study in the area of alcoholism

Step 2 Step 4
Dissect Raise questions
Step 3
1. profile of alcoholics Select 1. what impact has
Step 1 2.The causes of alcoholism
3.The process of becoming an The
alcoholism on marital
relations?
Identify alcoholic effects of 2.How does it affect the
alcoholism various aspects of
4.The effects of alcoholism on children’s lives?
ALCOHOLISM the family on the 3.What are the effects on
5.Community attitudes family the family's finance
towards alcoholism
6.The effectiveness of a
treatment model, etc.

Step 5
Formulate Objectives
Step 7 Step 6
Double Check Make Sure Main Objectives
- to find out the effects of
1. that you are really assess these objectives alcoholism on the family
interested in the study in the light of : specific objectives:
2. that you agree with the 1.the work involved -to ascertain the impact of
objectives 2.the time available to alcoholism on marital relations
3.that you have adequate you - to determine the ways in which
resources 3.the financial alcoholism affects the different
4.that you have the resources at your aspects of children's lives.
technical expertise to disposal - to find out the effects of
undertake the study 4.your technical alcoholism on the financial situation
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expertise in the area of the family, etc.
 Example 2, Relationship b/n Fertility and Mortality
Step 4
Step 3 Raise questions
Step 2 Select 1.what happens to fertility
Step 1 Dissect when mortality declines?
Identify 1.Trends in fertility and
Relation- 2.what is the time lag
ship between the start of decline
mortality in mortality and the start of
FERTILITY between decline in fertility?
2.Determinants of fertility
fertility 3.what are the factors that
AND behavior
and contribute to the decline in
MORTALITY 3.Relationship b/n fertility and
mortality fertility,? etc
mortality
4.Impact of health services on
mortality
5.Impact of contraceptives on
fertility behavior, etc
Step 5
Formulate Objectives
Step 7 Main Objectives
- to explore the relationship between
Double Check Step 6 fertility and mortality
1. that you are really Make Sure specific objectives:
interested in the study to find out the extent of the decline in fertility
assess these objectives
2. that you agree with the in relation to the decline in mortality.
in the light of :  to ascertain the time lag between the decline
objectives 1.the work involved in mortality and the decline in fertility.
3.that you have adequate 2.the time available to you  to identify the factors that affect the changes
resources 3.the financial resources at in fertility.
4.that you have the your disposal  to explore the relationship between socio-
technical expertise to 4.your technical expertise in economic-demographic characteristics of the
the area population and the extent of changes in fertility
undertake the study and mortality. etc 23
According to Kothari (2004:34-35), the technique
of defining a problem involves the undertaking of
the following steps:
1. Statement of the problem in a general way;
2. Understanding the nature of the problem;
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing the ideas through discussions;
and
5. Rephrasing the research problem into a
working proposition.
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 Evaluation of the Problem
• Before the final decision is passed on the investigation of
the problem, the feasibility of the problem has to be
tested in terms of personal suitability of the researcher
and social value of the problem.
• In short, the research problem should be evaluated
in terms of the following criteria:
• Is the problem researchable?
• Is the problem new?
• Is the problem significant?
• Is the problem feasible for the particular researcher?

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 Research Objectives.
• Kumar 2011:50 notes that ‘objectives are the goals
you set out to attain in your study“. Since these
objectives inform a reader of what you want to
achieve through the study, it is extremely
important to word clearly, completely, and
specifically, and are free from ambiguity.
The objectives should be listed under the following two
headings:
• Main objectives/major
• Sub objective /specific

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• The Main objective is an overall statement of
the thrust of your study.
• It is also a statement of the main associations
and relationships that you seek to discover or
establish.
• The sub objectives are the specific aspects of
the topic that you want to investigate within
the framework of your study.

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• Make sure that each sub objective contains only
one aspect of the study
• Use action oriented words or verbs when writing
your objectives. The objectives should start with
words such as ‘to determine’, ‘to find out’, ‘to
ascertain’, ‘to measure’ and ‘to explore’.
• Be SMART when you state your objective
• The way the main objectives and sub objectives
are worded determine how your research is
classified ( descriptive, correlational or experimental)

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 THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• After the selection of a research problem and setting
proper direction for investigation, the researcher should
write out a proposal, synopsis, or plan for research.

What is the Research proposal ?

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The importance of research proposal:
• It serves as a basis for determining the
feasibility of the project.
• It provides a systematic plan of procedure for
the researcher to follow.
• It gives the research supervisor a basis for
guiding the researcher while conducting the
study.
• It reduces the probability of costly mistakes.

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Components of the Research Proposal

• Three parts of proposal

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A. The preliminaries:
• Title / cover page
• Table of content
• Abstract

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B. The Body
1. The problem and its Approach
1) Introduction
2) Statement of the problem
3) Objectives of the Study
4) Significance of the study
5) Delimitation of the study
6) Definition of used terms
7) Research methodology
8) Organization of the paper
2. Review of related literature

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C. The supplemental
1) Budget and time schedule
2) Bibliography

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 A) The preliminaries
1) Title or cover page
 The title should not be too lengthy or too
involved.
 The title should not be too brief or too short.
 The title should not be burdened by
pompous words and should not include
terms of unscientific; rhetorical,
argumentative, emotional, or biased nature.
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2) Table of content
• In this section the major and sub topics in
the proposal should be appear along with
the page number.
• It out line each topic and show the reader
where each title is located in the
proposal.

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3) Abstract
• also known as Executive summary
• Present the highlight of the main aspects of
the proposal concisely and clearly.
• Therefore, it starts by stating the problem to
be solved through the purpose, expected
outcomes, beneficiaries, expected impact of
the work being proposed and the methods to
be used.

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 B) The body of the proposal
1. THE PROBLEM AND ITS APPROACH
1) Introduction/Background:
This section should contain a rationale for your
research which answers the following questions:
– Why are you undertaking the research project?
– Why is the research needed?
This rationale should be placed within the
context of existing research or within your own
experience and/or observation.
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2) Statement of the problem
• More specifically, statement of the
problem is targeted towards the
following:
– stating the background facts, which justify the
study to be in order:
– developing hypotheses or key research
questions, which may show the direction of
the whole exercise

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3) Objectives of the study:
– Typically very brief
– Both general and specific objectives
• The general objectives provide a short
summary of the scientific goal being pursued
by the research
• The specific objectives are operational in
nature. They may indicate specific types of
knowledge to be pursued.

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 4) Significance of the study
• The following are some of the points in
which the justification stresses:
– A wide time gap between the earlier study and
the present one.
– Existence of knowledge gaps that were
uncovered by the previous studies.
– Lack /Shortage of information about a problem.

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5) Definition of Terms or Concepts
• The technical terms or words and
phrases having special meanings
need to be defined operationally by
the help of special dictionaries.

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 6) Delimitations of the Study
• Boundaries of the study should be made
clear with reference to:
– the scope of the study by specifying the areas
to which the conclusions will be confined, and
– the procedural treatment including the
sampling procedures, the techniques of data
collection and analysis, the development of
measuring tools and their use in the study.

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7) Limitations of the study
• The possible sources of the limitations of the study
include:
• Practical weaknesses in the methodologies the
researcher adapted.
• Lack of access to the right data.
• Poor choice/development/ delivery of instruments
• Sampling restriction
• Lack of up-to-date literature in the areas
• Usual time borne situation in the study site
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 8) Research methodology
• Clearly indicate the methods of data collection either within
a quantitative or qualitative methodology; as well as the
techniques for data collection, e.g. questionnaires, and
measurement (the validation of the techniques).
• A research proposal should clearly indicate the population
from which the researcher will draw his/her sample, and
describe the procedure he/she will use to select the sample.
In this section, the researcher describes how to organize,
analyze, and interpret data. The details of the statistical
techniques and the rationales for using such techniques
should be described in the research proposal.

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• In brief it include:
a) Research Design
b) Sampling Design
c) Data Collection
d) Data Analysis
e) Limitation
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 9) Organization of the study
• This section explains what each chapter of the
research report consists of.
• Eg. The study will be organized into four chapters:
• The first chapter deals with the problem and its
approach. The second chapter will be concerned with
presenting the review of the related literature. The
third chapter will threat the analysis of the data
collected. The fourth chapter will bring to an end this
study with summary, conclusion and recommendation.

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 2. REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
• The theoretical and empirical
framework from which the problem
arises must be briefly described.
• A brief resume of related studies found
in journals, magazines, abstracts and
reports should be made.

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c) The supplemental
1) Bibliography
This is a section where a list of books,
journals and other documents is
offered.
• The researcher should list all reference
materials that he has used in selecting
the problem and which he may used
during the conduct of study.

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2) Time Schedule
• The researcher should also prepare a
realistic time schedule for completing
the study within the time available.
• Dividing a study into phases and
assigning dates for the completion of
each phase help the researcher to use
his time systematically.

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3) Budget Schedule
• The research proposals which are
submitted to governmental or non-
governmental organizations for financial
assistance should also include a budget
schedule.
• This is a financial breakdown that helps to
estimate the cost of the study.

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 Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism
• Plagiarism is the use of another person’s ideas
or words without giving them the proper credit.
Plagiarism can occur when you use someone
else’s exact words without giving them credit,
taking credit for someone else’s ideas, or even
presenting your own past work as a new idea.
Academic institutions take both intentional and
unintentional plagiarism seriously, and it can be
grounds for dismissal.
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 In-Text Citations
• In-text Parenthetical citations are used to give
credit to the authors whose ideas or thoughts are
used within the document. These internal
citations allow the reader to identify the source
and locate the information being addressed. APA
uses a system that includes the author’s last
name and the year of publication. For example:
(Small, 2009). If there is a direct quote or a
specific part of the work is being referred to, the
page numbers are also included. For example,
(Small, 2009, p. 23).
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 Paraphrasing
• Paraphrasing is used when you take someone
else’s direct quote and state their idea in your
own words. Changing a few words here and
there is still considered plagiarism even if you
do cite the author. Paraphrasing means that
you expressed the author’s information or
ideas in your own words and have given that
person credit for that information or idea. You
can prevent plagiarism by closing the document
and restating the idea in your own words.
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 Citation Placement
A. Citations for Paraphrased Information
Beginning of sentence
•Krankenstein (2006) reported that empirical
research verified compliance.
Middle of sentence
•After looking into the issue, Lynch (2007) stated
that the findings were not valid.
End of sentence
•The report concluded were victims of cyber
terrorism (Windhorst, 2004). 58
 Citations with Direct Quotes
Author and quote together
•The principal stated clearly that students “needed
parental permission to leave school” (Abbott, 2005, p.
25).
Author and quote separated
•MacDougall (2004) stated that the “Information
Literacy Model needed to be implemented” (p. 34).
Quote from non-paginated material
•Winkowski (2007) stated, “The research is unreliable”
(Conclusion section, para.4).

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Sampling Design

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 Why We Need Sampling?
Sampling makes possible the study of a large,
heterogeneous (different characteristics)
population.
The population to be studied maybe too large
or unlimited that it is almost impossible to
reach all of them.
Sampling makes possible this kind of study
because in sampling only a small portion of the
population maybe involved in the study, enabling
the researcher to reach all through this small
portion of the population.
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Sampling is for economy.
Research without sampling may be too costly.
Sampling reduces the study population to a
reasonable size that expenses are greatly reduced.
Sampling is for speed .
Research without sampling might be too time
consuming.
Sampling is for accuracy.
If it takes too long a time to cover the whole study
population, there maybe inaccuracy. The research
must be finished within a reasonable period of time
so that the data are still true, valid and reasonable.
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 Disadvantages of Sampling
If sampling is biased, or not representative,
or too small, the conclusion may not be valid
and reliable.
If the population is very large and there are
many sections and subsections, the
sampling procedure becomes very
complicated.
If the researcher does not possess the
necessary skill and technical knowhow in
sampling procedure.

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 Types of Sampling
• There are different kinds of sampling designs depending
on:
– the types of study being conducted and
– the kinds of conclusions the researcher would like to be able to
draw from the study results.
• Generally speaking, there are two broad categories of
sampling. These include the following:
- Probability sampling and
- Non-probability sampling

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Types of Sampling

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Data Collection

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 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA
• The task of data collection begins after a research
problem has been defined and research design/ plan
chalked out.
• While deciding about the method of data collection
to be used for the study, the researcher should keep
in mind two types of data viz., primary and
secondary.
• The primary data are those which are collected
afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character.
• The secondary data, on the other hand, are those
which have already been collected by someone else
and which have already been passed through the
statistical process. 68
 Primary and…
• The researcher would have to decide which sort of
data he would be using (thus collecting) for his
study and accordingly he will have to select one or
the other method of data collection.
• The methods of collecting primary and secondary
data differ since primary data are to be originally
collected, while in case of secondary data the
nature of data collection work is merely that of
compilation.
• We describe the different methods of data
collection, with the pros and cons of each method.

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 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA.
There is a wide variety of primary data gathering
tools available to researchers in the social sciences;
deciding which to use depend on:
 the particular methodology or type of research that has
been selected;
 What is feasible in a given research situation;
 What is likely to yield the most appropriate information?
Some of the more important data collecting methods for
survey or descriptive research studies are:
 questionnaire,
 interview,
 observation,
 focus group discussions and
 case study methods. 70
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