SESSION 2

Perception, Attribution &

Diversity
Learning Objectives
L1 Define perception and discuss some of the
general factors that influence perception.
L2 Explain Bruner’s model of the perceptual
process.
L3 Describe the main biases in person perception.
L4 Describe how people form attributions about
the causes of behaviour and various biases in
attribution.
Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
L5 Discuss the concepts of workforce diversity and
valuing diversity and how racial, ethnic,
religious, gender, age, and LGBTQ stereotypes
affect organizational behaviour and what
organizations can do to manage diversity.
L6 Define trust perceptions and its importance to
the workplace.
L7 Discuss person perception and perceptual biases
in human resources management.
 Perception
The process of interpreting the messages of our
senses to provide order and meaning to the
environment.

People base their actions on the interpretation of

reality that their perceptual system provides, rather
than on reality itself.
Why is perception important at work?

• How we perceive others/situations will influence

how we deal with those others/situations

• A person will behave in ways consistent with how

he or she is perceived by others.

QUESTION:

ARE BOTH THESE STATEMENTS TRUE?

Why is perception important?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oLc2E4P87QE
Where Does Perception Matter Most in the
Workplace?
Where Does Perception Matter Most in the Workplace?

 Most obvious applications of perceptions in

the workplace:
 Employment interviews
 Performance expectations
 Performance evaluations
 Selection & evaluation of leaders…
Perception at work
IMAGINE…you’ve started a new job and your boss
has developed a certain perception of your ability

1) Your boss thinks YOU are talented.

 Would that affect his/her treatment of you?

2) Your boss does NOT think YOU are talented.

 Would that affect his/her treatment of you?

3) Would either of 1 or 2 have an impact on you? What?

 The Pygmalion Effect &
the Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Your boss/teacher treats you based on their perception of

you…
The boss’s perceptions and attitudes toward you can create a
self- fulfilling prophecy.

 The Pygmalion Effect: A manager’s perceptions of the

subordinate will affect attitudes/treatment of the subordinate
which will in turn influence subordinate self-perceptions and
ultimately performance.
Internalizing others’ perceptions of us
The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle
Supervisor
forms
expectations

Employee’s Expectations
behaviour matches affect supervisor’s
expectations behaviour

Supervisor’s
behaviour affects
employee
The Challenges of Perception

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_bnnmWYI0lM&ab_channel=MarissaWebb
Factors Influencing Perception

- We need to simplify the world – objects

are perceived as “tools” or obstacles” and
we try to make everything else irrelevant.

- We need to “cognitively cope” with the

infinite amount of data out there.
Factors Influencing Perception

- So be careful what you focus on

because it will blind you to other
possibilities
- Perception is based on our goals, values

and what we deem as important!

- Perception CANNOT be objective.

HOW ACCURATE ARE OUR PERCEPTIONS?

1. How accurate are others’ perceptions of you?

2. How accurate do you think your perceptions of

others are?

3. At work? At home? Elsewhere?

4. What influences the degree to which perceptions are accurate?

Components of Perception
 Perception has three components:
 A perceiver
 A target that is being perceived
 Some situational context in which the perception is
occurring
 Each component influences the perceiver’s
impression or interpretation of the target.
The Perceiver –
 - Past experiences lead the perceiver to develop
expectations that affect current perceptions.
 - Needs unconsciously influence perceptions by
causing us to perceive what we wish to perceive.
 - Emotions, such as anger, happiness, or fear, can
influence our perceptions.
The Target
 - Ambiguous targets are especially susceptible to
interpretation and the addition of meaning.
 - what/who are ambiguous targets?
 - Perceivers have a need to resolve ambiguities.
 - The perceiver does not or cannot use all the
information provided by the target.
 The Situation
 - Perception occurs in some situational context - this
context can affect what is perceived.
 - Perception of can change with the situation even when
the perceiver and target remain the same.

 Curb 1:35
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BZUZcZkanp8&ab_channel=CurbYourTube

 Colbert 1:31
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K-bZQJ3P9N0&ab_channel=TheLateShowwithStephenColbert
Bruner’s Model of the Perceptual Process

 - When the perceiver encounters an unfamiliar

target, the perceiver is very open to the
informational cues in the target and the situation.
 - The perceiver will actively seek out cues to
resolve ambiguity.
 - As the perceiver encounters some familiar cues, a
crude categorization of the target is made.
Bruner’s Model of the Perceptual Process

 - The search for cues then becomes less open and

more selective. (e.g., employment interviews - first
impressions/primacy effect)
 - The perceiver will search for cues that confirm
the categorization of the target.
 - As the categorization becomes stronger, the
perceiver will ignore or even distort cues that
violate initial perceptions.
Characteristics of the Perceptual Process

 Bruner’s model demonstrates three important

characteristics of the perceptual process:
 Perception is selective
 Perceptual constancy
 Perceptual consistency
Perception Is Selective
 - Perceivers do not use all of the available cues, and
those they do use are given special emphasis.
 - Perception is efficient but this can aid and hinder
perceptual accuracy.
Perceptual Constancy
 - The tendency for the target to be perceived in the
same way over time and across situations.
 - The experience of “getting off on the wrong foot.”
Perceptual Consistency
 - The tendency to select, ignore, and distort cues so
that they fit together to form a homogenous picture
of the target.

 - We strive for consistency in our perception of

 people.
Bruner’s Model of the Perceptual Process

Do we become the “product” & “prisoner” of

other people’s perceptions?

“Judging” behavior:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLA7dQ-uxR0&ab_channel=SteveRoss

Question: Was this fair?

Attribution Theory & Perception

 Attribution theory asserts that we want to know

the reasons behind why another person acted the
way they did. We desire to generate an explanation
behind actions we observe in others.
Assigning causes of behaviour
 I REMEMBER WHEN THIS HAPPENED…
 THE STORY OF THE SLEEPING STUDENT
AND THE ANGRY PROFESSOR
Attribution: Perceiving Causes and
Motives
Attribution is the process by which we assign causes or
motives to explain people’s behaviour.
Rewards and punishments in organizations are based
on judgments about what really caused a target person
to behave in a certain way.
An important goal is to determine whether some
behaviour is caused by dispositional or situational
factors.
Dispositional/Internal Attributions
 Dispositional attributions suggest that some
personality or intellectual characteristic unique to
the person is responsible for the behaviour.
 Intelligence, greed, friendliness, or laziness.
Situational/External Attributions
 Situational attributions suggest that the external
situation or environment in which the target person
exists was responsible for the behaviour.
 Bad weather, good luck, proper tools, or poor
advice.
How Attributions Get Distorted
 Fundamental Attribution Error
 The tendency to underestimate situational/external
factors and overestimate dispositional/internal factors
when making judgments about others’ behaviour.
Fundamental Attribution Error
 Where might this happen?
Other ways we distort Attributions

 Self-Serving Bias
 The tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal
factors while putting the blame for failures on external
factors.
 To preserve our self-esteem we attribute reasons for
success and failure accordingly
 In the workplace we can look for more support for
our judgements: Attribution Cues

We rely on external cues and make inferences

from these cues when making attributions.
Cues used…
 Example: The boss observes subordinate’s behavior
and considers 3 questions:
 Distinctiveness
 Does the individual act the same way in other situations?
 Consensus
 Does the individual act the same as others in the same
situation?
 Consistency
 Does the individual act the same way over time?
Basic Biases in Person Perception
 The impressions we form of others are susceptible
to a number of perceptual biases:
 Primacy and recency effects
 Reliance on central traits
 Implicit personality theories
 Projection
 Stereotyping
 DISCUSSION

What do you think are the most common perceptual

biases that people deal with?

 In high school?
 In university?
 In the workplace?
Primacy Effect
 The reliance on early cues or first impressions is
known as the primacy effect.
 Primacy can have a lasting impact.
 Primacy is a form of selectivity and its lasting
effects illustrate the operation of constancy.

 Example?
Recency Effect
 The tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent cues
or last impressions is known as the recency effect.
 Last impressions count most.

 Example?
Reliance on Central Traits
 People tend to organize their perceptions around
central traits.
 Central traits are personal characteristics of a target
person that are of particular interest to a perceiver.
 Central traits often have a very powerful influence
on our perceptions of others.

 Example?
Reliance on Central Traits
 - Physical appearance is a common central trait in
work settings.
 - Conventionally attractive people fare better than
unattractive people in terms of a variety of job-
related outcomes (e.g., getting hired)…with
exceptions (see below)
- The shallowness of people & their perceptions…
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S_Ypu1-1bQ8&ab_channel=Newsy

 - popular culture reinforces this reliance…

Stereotyping
 The tendency to generalize about people in a social
category and ignore variations among them.
 Categories on which people might base a
stereotype include race, religion, age, gender,
ethnic background, social class, and occupation.
Stereotyping
 There are three specific aspects to stereotyping:
 We distinguish some category of people.
 We assume that the individuals in this category have
certain traits.
 We perceive that everyone in this category possesses
these traits.
Stereotyping
 People can evoke stereotypes with very little
information.
 Stereotypes help us develop impressions of
ambiguous targets.
 Most stereotypes are inaccurate, especially when
we use them to develop perceptions of specific
individuals.
Why Do Stereotypes Persist?
 Several factors work to reinforce inaccurate
stereotypes.
 Even incorrect stereotypes help us process
information about others quickly and efficiently.
 Inaccurate stereotypes are often reinforced by
selective perception.
 Stereotyping

Assigning traits to people in social categories

Why we stereotype:
• Categorical thinking – we tend to classify, categorize information – ie
categorize people
• We want to comprehend and predict others’ behaviour
• We want to enhance our own social identity

© Hero Images/Getty Images

Problems with Stereotyping

• Overgeneralizes, doesn’t represent everyone in category

• Stereotype threat effect
• Foundation of systemic and intentional discrimination

Overcoming stereotype biases

• Difficult to prevent stereotype activation
• Possible to minimize stereotype application

© Hero Images/Getty Images

PERCEPTIONS IN THE WORKPLACE: EXAMPLE LEADERSHIP

INTERVIEW… WITH FORMER CEO OF PEPSICO…

 PERCEPTIONS AND
LEADERSHIP
I’m the
interviewer (Did
you think I was
FORMER CEO OF PEPSICO…
the CEO?) LOL!
Stereotypes can influence our beliefs about who
makes a good leader.

Do we associate certain traits or characteristics with

a charismatic, powerful leader?

Do we categorize or stereotype individuals are being

good or poor leaders?
Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter?

CEO of Pepisco 2006-2018

Indra K. Nooyi (MBA, Yale University, ; BA, Madras

Christian College) is CEO of PepsiCo, oversaw 22 brands that
generate more than $1 billion each in annual retail sales.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Sw5FAqlasM
Gender Stereotypes
 - One of the most problematic stereotypes for
organizations is the gender stereotype.
 - Women are severely underrepresented in
managerial and administrative jobs.
 - Women in Canada hold only 25 percent of vice-
president positions and 15 percent of CEO
positions.
Gender Stereotypes
 - Successful managers are perceived as having
traits and attitudes that are generally ascribed to
men.
 - Successful managers are seen as more similar to
men in qualities such as leadership ability,
competitiveness, self-confidence, ambitiousness,
and objectivity.
 - Stereotypes of successful middle managers do not
correspond to stereotypes of women.
Gender Stereotypes
 - The stereotype of a leader is culturally masculine.
 - Gender stereotypes lead to biased human resource
decisions.
 - Women suffer from a stereotype that is
detrimental to their hiring, development,
promotion, and salaries.
 - Even women with MBAs earn less than men in
their first year of work and start in more junior
positions.
Gender Stereotypes
- It’s not only a challenge for a woman to be accepted as
a leader
- The workplace needs to be free of “gendered” behavior:
“I like your hair”, “Your dress looks great”… The use of
compliments.

We need to re-write the rules of acceptable behavior and

this requires a perception change. Backlash?
Gender Stereotypes
 The detrimental effects of gender stereotypes are
reduced or removed with increased experience and
training of decision makers and when decision
makers:
 Are held accountable for their decisions
DOUBLE PENALTY FOR WOMEN: PERCEPTIONS
OF LEADERSHIP AND TRADITIONAL GENDER
STEREOTYPES
 Educate but also manage the backlash – attempts to

de-legitimize concerns of harassment etc

Other significant stereotypes at work

- Age Stereotypes

- Racial, Ethnic, Religious Stereotypes

- LGBTQ Stereotypes
Person Perception &
Workforce Diversity
 Workforce diversity refers to differences among
recruits and employees in characteristics, such as
gender, race, age, religion, cultural background,
physical ability, or sexual orientation.
 The workforce is becoming more diverse.
 Many organizations have not successfully managed
workforce diversity.
The Changing Workplace
 Many organizations are seeking to recruit more
representatively from the labour pool.
 Many employees are required to interact with
people from substantially different national or
corporate cultures.
 The increased emphasis on teamwork as a means of
job design and quality enhancement also requires
people from different cultures to work together.
Valuing Diversity
 Diversity and its proper management can yield
strategic and competitive advantages:
 Improved problem solving and creativity.
 Improved recruiting and marketing.
 Improved competitiveness in global markets.
Stereotypes and Workforce Diversity

 - A major barrier to valuing diversity is the

stereotype.
 - The tendency to generalize about people in a
certain social category and ignore variations among
them.
 - Common workplace stereotypes are based on
gender, age, race, religion, ethnicity, and sexual
orientation.
 - Stereotypes can have negative effects on how
individuals are treated in organizations.
Stereotypes and Workforce Diversity

 Research indicates that both subtle and overt

discrimination have a negative effect on
employees’ physical and psychological health and
work-related outcomes.
Person Perception in Human Resources
Management

 Perceptions play an important role in human

resources and can influence who gets hired and
how employees are evaluated once they are hired.
Perceptions in the Employment Interview

 The employment interview is one of the most

common organizational selection devices.
 The interview is a valid selection device although it
is far from perfectly accurate, especially when it is
unstructured.
 Validity improves when the interview is structured.
 What factors threaten the validity of the interview?
Factors that Threaten Interview Validity

 Applicants are motivated to present a favourable

impression of themselves.
 Interviewers compare applicants to a stereotype of
the ideal applicant.
 Interviewers have a tendency to exhibit primacy
reactions.
 Interviewers give less importance to positive
information about the applicant so negative
information has undue impact on the decision.
Perceptions and the Performance Appraisal

 - Once a person is hired, further perceptual tasks

confront organization members.
 - An index of a person’s job performance is
required for decisions regarding pay raises,
promotions, transfers, and training needs.
 - Employees with late start times receive lower job
performance ratings from their supervisors due to a
negative stereotype in which employees with late
start times are perceived as less conscientious – this
is known as a morning bias.
 Objective and Subjective Measures

 - It is possible to find objective measures of

performance for some jobs.
 - However, as we move up the organizational
hierarchy, it becomes more difficult to find
objective indicators of performance.
 - Organizations often rely on subjective measures
of employees’ performance provided by managers.
Subjective Measures of Performance

 Managers are confronted by a number of perceptual

roadblocks.
 Managers might not be in a position to observe
many instances of effective and ineffective
performance.
 As a result, the target is frequently ambiguous.
 Employees often alter their behaviour so that they
look good when their manager is around.
Perceptual Biases in Subjective Performance
Appraisals

 A subjective performance appraisal is susceptible

to some of the perceptual biases discussed earlier:
 Primacy
 Recency
 Stereotypes
 A number of other perceptual tendencies occur in
performance evaluations that are known as rater
errors.
Rater Errors
 Rater errors in performance evaluation include the
following:
 Leniency
 Harshness
 Central tendency
 Halo effect
 Similar-to-me effect
 Techniques for Reducing
Perceptual Errors and Biases
 It is difficult to obtain good subjective evaluations of
employee performance.

 Human resources specialists have developed techniques

for reducing perceptual errors and biases.
 Two examples of this are:

 Behaviourally anchored rating scale (BARS)

 Frame-of-reference (FOR) training
Managing Workforce Diversity
 What can organizations do to achieve and manage
a diverse workforce?

 NO EASY ANSWERS
 MANY ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES NEED TO
CHANGE - e.g., Hollywood Culture

 FIGHT STEREOTYPES & FIGHT BACKLASH

Managing Workforce Diversity
 - Ensure that those making career decisions about
employees have accurate information about them.
 - Train people to be aware of stereotypes and to
value diversity.
 - ie diversity training – far from perfect at this time
but needed to symbolize important of sensitivity
and importance of building awareness.
 Summary
Think about perception and what influences it. People act
on the basis of their perception of reality.

What is the relevance of perception at work?

Why can be done to manage perceptions at work? HR

practices and the challenge of embracing diversity…
QUESTIONS?