HO

History of Architecture
A
MODULE
2
Classical Architecture and
the Western Succession
Early
Christian
Early Christian (200-1025)
▪ The final phase of Roman architecture.
▪ Christianity became the state religion.
▪ House-churches, early venue for religious practices.
▪ Roman basilica form was adopted as the ground
plan for most churches: rectangular plan and a nave
with two side aisles.
▪ Basilican churches were constructed over the
burial place of a saint.
▪ Facades faced west.
BASILIC
A
Basilica Papale San Paolo fuori le
Mura.

An early Christian church,

characterized by a long, rectangular
plan, a high colonnaded nave lit by a
clerestory and covered by a timbered
gable roof.
Early Christian Basilica. San Clemente, Rome; 4th century AD. (Opus Grecanicum, glass mosaic
Main Parts of an
Early Christian
Basilica

▪ Apse,
sanctuary.
▪ Bema, stage for
clergy
▪ Altar, under the
baldacchino
▪ Nave, central
aisle
▪ Atrium, forecourt
▪ Narthex, for
the penitents
▪ Choir, enclosed by
a cancelli
▪ Ambo, pulpit
 EARLY CHRISTIAN:
TERMINOLOGY  ORATORY – a small private chapel
 AMBULATORY – a passageway furnished w/ an altar and a crucifix
around the apse of church  REREDOS – an ornamental screen
 ANTEPODIUM – a seat behind the choir or
reserved for the clergy wall at the back of an altar
 BEMA – a stage reserved for the clergy  TRANSEPT –the portion of a church
 CHEVET – the apse, ambulatory, & crossing the main axis at the right
radiating terminal of a church angle & forming a cruciform plan
 CLERESTOREY – an upper stage in the  TRIBUNE – a slightly elevated
church w/ windows above the adjacent platform or dais for the speaker
roof  TRIFORIUM – roof over the aisles
 CLERGY – priest with the religious elders below the clerestorey
 DAIS – a raised platform reserved for the  SEPULCHER – a tomb or a
seating of speakers or dignitaries receptacles for relics especially in a
Christian altar
 1apse
15northern aisle, gospel side,
2cathedra, bishop’s throne
women’s side
3 synthronos, synthronon
16southern aisle, epistle side,
(podium or benches)
men’s side
5bema, altar platform
17 side chapel
6solea (raised floor, used by
18 sacristy, vestry, revestry,
the clergy) vestiary
7 choir screen 20exonarthex
8apsidiole (secondary apse) 21 belltower
10 choir, schola cantorum 22 cloister
11 cancelli 23atrium, atrium paradisus,
12 gospel ambo paradise
13 epistle ambo 24prothyron (space in front of the
14 nave entrance)

Early Christian Basilica. San Clemente, Rome; 4th century

 Byzantine
Architecture
CONSTANTINOPLE
Byzantine (300-1450)
▪ Circular or polygonal plans for churches, tombs,
and baptisteries.
▪ Characterized by masonry construction, round
arches,
shallow domes carried on pendentives, and the
extensive use of rich frescoes, and colored
glass mosaics to cover whole interiors.
 3 Types of Dome:
 SIMPLE DOME – dome & pendentives were
part of the same sphere.
 COMPOUND DOME – dome is not a part but rises
independently above them.
 MELON-SHAPEDDOME/ ONION OR BULBOUS –
consist of curved flutings which avoided the
necessity of pendentives
19 basket capital; 20 dosseret and basket capital; 21 dosseret and trapezoidal capital.

Dosseret. A thickened abacus or supplementary capital set above a column capital to receive the thrust of an
arch; also called a pulvin, impost block or supercapital.

Byzantine capitals.
Basilica di
San Vitale
Ravenna, Italy.

A Byzantine centralized church.

Prime example of Byzantine
architecture in the West.
Basilica di San Vitale, Ravenna,
 1 apse
3 synthronos, synthronon
5 bema, altar platform
25 prothesis, pastophorium (niche
reserved for objects used in
worship) 26 diaconicon,
pastophorium (for the keeping of
garments and vessels)
27 ambulatory (ground floor)
28 gallery (upper level)
29 narthex

San Vitale, Ravenna, 526–

St. Mark’s Basilica; Venice, Italy. (Greek cross
St. Mark’s
Basilica
Venice, Italy.

■ Greek cross plan

■ Golden mosaics (Church of
Gold)
■ It lies at the eastern end of the
Piazza San Marco, adjacent
and connected to the Doge's
Palace.
Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey, 532–537 AD, architect Anthemios of Tralles & Isidorus of
Hagia
Sophia
▪ “Sacred wisdom” in Greek.
▪ Constructed by Emperor
Justinian; designed by
Anthemios of Tralles and
Isidorus of Miletus.
▪ The interiors were beautified by
richly colored marble pavements
in opus sectile or opus
Alexandrinum.
▪ Used as a church, mosque,
and presently a museum.
Hagia
Sophia
Spatial configuration.

A 30-meter square forms the

center. At the corners, piers rise
up to support four arches,
between which are pendentives
that hold a dome scalloped with
forty ribs. Windows line the base
of the dome, making it seem to
float.
 12 high altar
13 apse
2arcade, cloister
15 parecclesion: side
3atrium paradisus: forecourt
chapel 16 pastophorium:
4 cantharus, piscina:
clerical chamber
fountain, font
17prothesis: table/niche
5 exonarthex: outer
18diaconicon: garments and
vestibule 6 esonarthex:
vessels
inner vestibule 10 navis
19 aisle
media: nave
21 campanile: belltower
11 bema: altar platform
22 baptistery

Hagia Sophia (prior to addition of minarets), Constantinople (now Istanbul), Turkey, 532–537 AD,
architect Anthemios of Tralles & Isidorus of Miletus.
St. Basil’s Cathedral, Moscow, Russia. Designed by Postnik Yakovlev and Ivan
Romanesque
Architecture
Romanesque (800-1180)
▪ "Roman-like”
▪ Heavy articulated masonry construction with
narrow openings, round arches, barrel vaults,
introduction of central and western towers, and
sparse ornament.
▪ Churches gradually changed to cross-shaped plans
formed by wings called transepts and the choir.
▪ known in England as Norman architecture.
Character of Romanesque Architecture
 Rib & Panel Vaulting - framework of ribs support thin stone
panels
 Use of Massive wall structures , Round Arches & Powerful
Vaults
 Latin Cross Plan in churches

 Use of Corbelled Arches found underneath the eaves of a church

Character of Romanesque Architecture
 Semi Circular arches

 Columns and Piers to support the Arches

 Thick Walls

 Rose Windows
The cathedral complex of Pisa; Tuscany, Italy.
ROMANESQUE: EXAMPLES
BAPTISTERY
 designed by Dioti Salvi
 39.3 m circular plan in diameter
 Built of marble
 largest Baptistery in Italy
 The lower part is 12th century
Romanesque (with round arches)
and the upper parts are
predominantly 13th century Gothic
(with pointed arches)
ROMANESQUE: EXAMPLES
CAMPANILE
 a circular structure 52 feet in
diameter
 ornamented with eight stories of
arcades
 During its erection the foundations
gave way, thus causing the tower to
lean about 11 feet from the vertical
 Architect: Bonanno Pisano
ROMANESQUE: EXAMPLES
CAMPANILE
 The cathedral complex of Pisa

▪ Cathedral
▪ Baptistery

A space, area or separate

building of a church or cathedral,
containing a font where baptism
takes place.

▪ Campanile

Bell tower, freestanding

or attached to a building.

▪ Camposanto

A cemetery surrounded by
a colonnade.
Plan, Cathedral of Pisa.
SOUTH FRANCE. Notre Dame du
The 13th-century Romanesque cathedral in Ruvo di Puglia, Italy.
SPAIN. Santiago de
SPAIN. Loarre
ENGLAND. Durham
ENGLAND. Worcester
ENGLAND. Canterbury Cathedral.
 1 apse
17atrium, atrium paradisus,
2 choir bay
paradise
3 presbytery
18 cloister
6crossing (crypt of Virgin
20baptistery (chapel of John
Mary)
the Baptist)
7 transept
21singers' gallery, minstrel
9 altar screen
gallery
11 nave
23 imperial choir,
12 aisle
capella imperialis
13 narthex

GERMANY. Benedictine Abbey of Corvey on the

Benedictine
Abbey of
Corvey
Carolingian
Pertaining to the pre- and early
Romanesque art and Byzantine-
influenced architecture in
France.

Abbey
A community of monks overseen by an
abbot, or of nuns by an abbess; also
the main buildings of this community.
ENGLAND. Fountains Abbey;
ENGLAND. Windsor Castle.
 ROMANESQUE:
TERMINOLOGY
 Motte – a steep mound of earth surrounded by a ditch and
surmounted by a timber stockade and tower
 Motte and Bailey – a Norman castle of the 10th to 12th centuries,
consisting of a motte placed within a bailey
 Bailey – the outer wall of a castle or the courtyard enclosed by it
 Palisade – a fence of pales set firmly in the ground for enclosure or
defense
 Pale – a pointed stick of stake
 Fortification – a defensive military work constructed for the
purpose of strengthening a position
 Bastion – a projecting part of a rampart or other fortification, typically
forming an irregular pentagon attached at the base to the main work
 ROMANESQUE:
TERMINOLOGY
 Sally port – a gateway in a fortification permitting a large number of
troops to move rapidly from the besieged position and attack the besieges
 Parapet – a defensive wall or elevation of earth or stone protecting
soldiers from enemy fire
 Castle – a fortified group of buildings usually dominating the
surrounding country and held by a prince or noble in feudal times
 Citadel – a fortress in a commanding position in or near a city, used in the
control of the inhabitants and in defense during attack or siege
 Keep – the innermost and strongest structure or tower of a medieval
castle, used as a place of residence, especially in times of siege. Also
called donjon
 ROMANESQUE:
TERMINOLOGY
 Battlement - a parapet having a regular alternation of merlons
and crenels, originally for defense but later used as a decorative
motif. Also called embattlement
 Merlon – one of the solid parts between the crenels of a
battlement
 Crenel – any of the open spaces alternating with the merlons of a
battlement
 Embrasure – an opening, loophole or crenel, through which
missiles may be discharged
 Drawbridge - a bridge that can be raised, let down, or drawn
aside to prevent access or to permit passage beneath it
 ROMANESQUE:
TERMINOLOGY
 Moat – a broad deep ditch, usually filled with water, surrounding the
rampart of a fortified town, fortress or castle as protection against
assault
 Turret – a small tower forming part of a larger structure, frequently
beginning some distance above the ground. Also called tourelle
 Church - a building for public Christian worship
 Bema – a transverse open space separating the nave and the apse of an
early Christian church, later developing into the transept of later
cruciform churches
 Nave – the principal or central part of a church, extending from the
narthex to the choir or chancel and usually flanked by aisles
 Narthex – the portico before the nave of an early Christian or
Byzantine church, appropriated for penitents
 ROMANESQUE:
TERMINOLOGY
 Baptistery – a part of a church or a separate building in which
baptism is administered
 Font – a basin, usually of stone, holding the water used in
baptism
 Campanile – a bell tower, usually one near but not attached to the
body of a church
 Wheel window – a rose window having distinctly radiating
mullions or bars
 Tympanum – the space between an arch and the horizontal head of
a door or window below, often decorated with sculpture
 ROMANESQUE:
TERMINOLOGY
 Chevet – the rounded east end of a Gothic cathedral,
including the apse and ambulatory
 Apse – a semi-circular of polygonal projection of a building,
usually vaulted and used especially at the sanctuary or east end of a
church
 Cathedral – the principal church of a diocese, containing the
bishop’s throne called the cathedra
 Gothic
Architecture
Gothic (1050-1530)
▪ “Style Ogivale”
▪ Progressive lightening and heightening of
structure (made possible by the flying buttress)
▪ Use of the pointed arch and ribbed vault.
▪ Richly decorated fenestration.
Cathedral
A large and principal church of a diocese, the seat
of a bishop.
Amiens
Cathedral
Amiens,
France.
 1 arcade
3 triforium
3b triforium, blind
arcade
4 clerestory, clearstory
6 flying buttress
7 finial, pinnacle
8 gargoyle, water spout
9 buttress, pier
10 aisle
11 nave

Cathedral of Notre Dame, Amiens, France, c.1220–69, Robert of Luzarches, Thomas and Renault of Cormont (prior
to addition of chapels in 16th century)
 9buttress, pier
21choir stalls
10 aisle
22 chapel, radiating chapel
11 nave
23 high altar
12 west end
24chancel aisle, apse aisle,
13 body
ambulatory, deambulatory
14 transept
25 parclose, perclose (a
15 chancel
screen in a church to
16chevet, radiating chapels
seclude a chapel from the
17 arm, projecting transept
main space)
18 porch
26 Lady Chapel
19crossing
(chapel dedicated to
20choir screen, rood
the Virgin Mary)
screen

Cathedral of Notre Dame, Amiens, France, c.1220–69, Robert of Luzarches, Thomas and Renault of Cormont (prior
to addition of chapels in 16th century)
The Seven Key Characteristics of
Gothic Architecture
Grand, Tall Designs,

1
Which Swept Upwards
With Height and Grace
 Cologne Cathedral

The Flying

2
Buttress
 The Pointed

3
Arch
 The Pointed

3
Arch

Durham Cathedral
 The Vaulted
Ceiling

Peterborough Cathedral, Cambridgeshire

 Light, Airy Interiors
through stained glass.

5
Chartres Cathedral
 Ulm Munster, Germany

The Gargoyles of
Gothic Architecture
The Emphasis Upon the Decorative Style and
the Ornate

Cologne Cathedral
7 Prague Castle
Rib or Ribbed vault
A vault constructed of structural arched
stone members or ribs with an infill of
masonry.
 A bay
B haunch, hanche, rib
C cell, web, severy
D groin
E transverse rib
F wall rib, forcement
G diagonal rib, groin rib, ogive
H tierceron, secondary rib
K lierne, tertiary rib
L transverse ridge-rib
M longitudinal ridge-rib,
ridge rib
N boss, pendant
O compound
pier

Anatomy of a ribbed vault.

Parts of a Rib Vault
▪ Diagonal Rib
A rib crossing a compartment of a rib vault on a
diagonal.
▪ Ridge Rib
A horizontal rib marking the crown of a
vaulting compartment.
▪ Boss
An ornamental, knob-like projection at the intersection
of ogives.
Parts of a Rib Vault
▪ Lierne
A tertiary rib in a vault often for decorative rather
than structural purposes.
▪ Tierceron
A subsidiary rib which connects a point on the ridge rib
or central boss with one of the main springers or
supports.
English
Gothic
Early English
▪ Also known as Lancet, First Pointed or
Early Plantagenet.
▪ Use of lancet-shaped arches and plate tracery
(tracery using masonry into which shapes has
been cut).
Worcester Cathedral. (Early
Decorated Style
▪ Also Geometrical and Curvilinear, Middle
Pointed, Edwardian, or Later Plantagenet.
▪ Rich tracery, elaborate ornamental vaulting,
and refined stone-cutting techniques.
Westminster Abbey. (Decorated)
Perpendicular
▪ Also Rectilinear, Late Pointed, or Lancastrian.
▪ Perpendicular tracery (use of a lacework of vertical
glazing bars), fine intricate stonework, and
elaborate fan vaults.
Gloucester Cathedral, Gloucester, England. (Perpendicular
Bath Abbey; Somerset, England; King's College Chapel; Cambridge,
French
Gothic
Three Phases of French Gothic
▪ Primarie: a lancettes, pointed arches and
geometric traceried windows.
▪ Secondaire: rayonnant, circular windows, wheel
tracery.
▪ Tertiaire: flamboyant, flowing and flamelike tracery.
Three Phases of French Gothic: A lancette, rayonnant, and
Notable
Structures
Englan
d
Salisbury Cathedral
Westminster Abbey
 Complex of church, royal palace
and burial grounds

 Most important medieval building in Britain

 widest (32 m) and highest vault in England

(102 ft)

Wells Cathedral
Windsor Castle
Franc
e
 AMIENS
CATHEDRAL

 famous for its

carved woodwork in the
choir stalls
 Designed by
Robert de Amiens Cathedral
Luzarches.
Amiens Cathedral
REIMS CATHEDRAL

 coronation church of France

 west façade is famous for its 500 statues

Rheims Cathedral
CHARTRES CATHEDRAL
 dominated by two contrasting spires
– a 105- meter plain pyramid
completed around 1160 and a 113-
metre early 16th- century
Flamboyant spire on top of an older
tower
 famous for its 176 stained glass
windows

Chartres Cathedral
NOTRE DAME, PARIS
 One of the oldest French cathedrals
 Begun by Bishop Maurice
de Sully
NOTRE DAME, PARIS
 Façade features successive tiers of
niches with statues: Christ and
French kings

 Central wheel window

 Two western towers with high

pointed louvered openings
German
y
Ulm Cathedral (Regarded as the tallest cathedral in .)
Cologne Cathedral
Spai
n
 Strong Moorish influences: the use of
horseshoe arches and rich surface
decoration of intricate geometrical and
flowing patterns
 Churches had flat exterior appearance, due to
chapels inserted between buttresses
 Excessive ornament,
without regard to
constructive character

Burgos Cathedral
Seville Cathedral (Tallest cathedral in Spain.)
Seville Cathedral (Tallest cathedral in Spain.)
Burgos Cathedral
Barcelona Cathedral
Italy
Florence Cathedral or S. Maria del Fiore
 Designed by Arnolfo di Cambio
 Essentially Italian in character, without the vertical features of Gothic
 Peculiar latin cross plan with campanile and baptistery
 pointed dome added by Brunelleschi
 lantern in 1462 by Giuliano Majano
ITALY
Florence Cathedral or S.
Maria del Fiore
Florence Cathedral or S. Maria del Fiore
The Florence Cathedral is composed of three buildings:
the "Duomo," which is famous for its huge dome roof
and is the fourth-biggest cathedral in the world; the
"Baptistery of San Giovanni," an octagonal building
famous for the "Gates of Paradise;" and "Giotto's Bell
Tower," which stands to the side of the Duomo. The
white, green, and red marble exterior of the Cathedral
is decorated with beautiful sculptures and mosaic
works from many different artists.
Siena Cathedral (Use of striped
Milan Cathedral. (Largest Medieval cathedral in Italy)
Other Building
Types
CASTLES. Chateau D’Amboise, France. (Built on mounds above rivers, with thick walls and small
PALAIS DE JUSTICE. Palais de Justice de Rouen,
MANOR HOUSE. Ightham Mote, England. (A moated merchant’s
Renaissance
Architecture
Renaissance (1420-1550)
▪ Developed during the rebirth of classical art
and learning in Europe.
▪ Initially characterized by the use of the
classical
orders, round arches, and symmetrical
proportions.
▪ Pure Renaissance architecture was based on
regular order, symmetry, and a central axis with
grandiose plans and impressive facades.
Renaissance (1420-1550)
▪ Silhouettes were clean and simple, with flat roofs.
▪ Walls of large dressed masonry blocks gave
buildings an imposing sense of dignity and strength.
▪ Emphasis on horizontality.
▪ Ornamentation was based on pagan or
classical mythological subjects.
Periods
▪ Early Renaissance
▪ High Renaissance or Proto-Baroque
▪ Baroque
▪ Rococo
Periods
▪ Early Renaissance: Period of learning designers
were intent on the accurate Roman elements
 Periods
▪ High Renaissance
▪ Renaissance became an individual style in its own right

 Purist or Palladian, where Roman tradition was held in high respect (represented by
Andrea Palladio)

 Proto-Baroque, where there was more confidence in using the acquired vocabulary

freely (represented by Michelangelo)

 Mannerist, where practices which had no Roman precedent were interspersed with
the usual buildings, or entire buildings were conceived in a non-Roman way

 Mannerists used architectural elements in a free, decorative and illogical way,

unsanctioned by antique precedent

Periods
▪ Baroque:
▪ Architects worked with freedom knowledge.
▪ The true nature of Renaissance as a distinctive
style began to emerge
▪ Baroque saw architecture, painting, sculpture and
the minor arts being used in harmony to produce
the unified whole
Periods
▪ Rococo
▪ Style which is primarily French in origin
▪ Rock-like forms, fantastic scrolls, and crimped
shells
▪ Profuse, often semi-abstract ornamentation
▪ Light in color and weight
Architectural Features:
▪ Reintroduction of the (5) Classical Roman Orders of
Architecture. - Standardized by Renaissance
Architects; Palladio,Vignola, Scamozzi & Chambers.

▪ Use of the rusticated masonry.

▪ Parapets are usually with balusters.

▪ Dome on a drum
Architectural Character:
▪ Symmetry

▪ Proportion

▪ Geometry
St. Peter’s Cathedral, Vatican City.
St. Peter’s Cathedral
▪ Officially the Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano;
▪ Bramante was the first commissioned to design
the cathedral; Antonio da Sangallo the Younger;
Michelangelo (dome and colonnades)
▪ Bernini (baldacchino)
Plan of the Vatican in
 St. Peter’s Basilica’s 12 Architects
1.) Donatello Bramante
• His design was selected from several entries in a competition
• He proposed a Greek cross plan and a dome similar to the Pantheon in Rome
2.) Giuliano da Sangallo
• a student of Bramante, designed the Pauline Chapel
3.) Fra Giocondo
• Strengthening the foundation
4.) Raphael Santi
• Proposed a Latin cross plan
5.) Baldassare Peruzzi
• Reverted to Greek cross
6.) Antonio da Sangallo
• Slightly altered plan – extended vestibule and campanile, and elaborated the
central dome.
 St. Peter’s Basilica’s 12 Architects
7.) Michelangelo Bounarotti
• Undertook the project at 72 years old - present building owes
most of its outstanding features to him
• Greek-cross Plan and strengthen the Dome
8.) Giacomo della Porta
• Designed the cupola
9.) Domenico Fontana
• Completed the dome in 1590
10. ) Vignola
• Added sided cupolas or side domes
11.) Carlo Maderna
• Lengthened nave to form Latin cross and built the gigantic façade
12.) Gian Lorenzo Bernini
• Added the Cathedra Petri, and the Bronze Baldaccino.
Architect
s
Leon
Battista
Alberti
Helped promote architecture from an
artisan’s trade to a profession by calling
for such intellectual requirements as
mathematics, geometry, and philosophy.
Wrote the book, "De Re Aedificatoria,"
which largely influenced men's minds
in favour of the revived Roman style.
Other works are Santa Maria Novella in
Florence and Sant'andrea in Mantua.
Andrea
Palladio
The Four Books of Architecture
Villa Rotonda, transforming a house
into a classical temple.
Brunellesch
iTwas
he Dome of Florence Cathedral
Brunelleschi's principal work.
Other works are the Riccardi Palace
and San Lorenzo church in Florence.
da
Vignola
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola
Author of "The Five Orders
of Architecture."
Works include the Sant’andrea in
Rome and the two small cupolas at
St. Peter.
Michelangelo
Buonarotti
A famous Florentine sculptor, and
painter of the roof of the Sistine
Chapel in Vatican.
He finished the Farnese Palace,
and carried out the Dome of St.
Peter.
Mannerism
A reaction against the classical perfection of the
High Renaissance; it either responded with a
rigorous application of classical rules, or flaunted
classical convention, in terms of scale and shape.
Uffizi Palace, Florence, Italy. Giorgio
Baroque
French word meaning bizarre, fantastic, or irregular.
It was deliberate in its attempt to impress, and was
most lavish of all styles, both in its use of materials
and in the effects it achieves.
The Versailles Palace in France.
Winter Palace, St. Petersburg – main staircase
Rococo
-term Rococo from the French ROCAILLE
meaning shell.
-an exuberant and delicate flourish of decoration
-was an essentially interior style—playfully
decorated with flowers, birds, ribbons, etc.
-vivid colors replaced by pastel shades
-also referred to as "Late Baroque"
The Hermitage Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, Russia.
Sant'Agnese, Rome, Italy. Francesco
 Terminologies:
 QUIONS – hard stone or brick used w/ similar ones to reinforce an external
corner or edge of a wall.
 SCROLL – contains spiral wind band or “ volutes’.

 WREATH – or Swag or Festoon, twisted band, garland or chaplet representing

flowers, fruits, leaves for decoration.
 CHAINES –vertical stripe of a rusticated masonry.
 BOSS– a lump or knob, projected ornament at the
intersection of the ribs of a ceiling.
 RUSTICATION – a method of forming a stone work w/ roughened surface &
recessed joints.
 Terminologies:
 CORTILE – Italian name for internal court surrounded by an arcade.

 ASTYLAR – a treatment of façade without column.

 PIANO NOBILE – several steps going up & 3 steps going down before the principal
flooring o an Italian palace.
 PIETRA SERENA – a blue grey stone of fine quality.
 PIETA FORTE – a brown stone more suitable for exterior
 work.

 CANTORIA – a singer’s gallery or “choir”.

End of Module
2
Part
2