Chapter One

Communication and Instruction

Instruction and communication are inseparable.
Without communication there will be no
instruction. Teachers at any educational level are
responsible to have good communication skills in
order to help their learners achieve what is
intended. Teacher’s subject knowledge can be
successfully shared with their students when
teachers are able to communicate effectively.
1. Communication
1.1. Meaning of Communication
How do you define communication?
_______________________________________
There are many definitions of
communication as there are experts in
the field. Different scholars attempt to
define the concept in different ways
based on their own understanding,
philosophy, etc. Thus, we can find
different definitions for the term.
Communication is the transmission of
information from one place to another. It is
the capacity of an individual to pass
his/her feeling, ideas to another or groups
and organizations, materials etc to convey
information where it is required.
Communication, as Charles
Cooley/sociologist/refers to the mechanism
through which human relation exists and
develops all the symbols of the mind,
together with the means of conveying them
through space and preserving in time.
Based on the above definitions, it is possible
to infer the following points about
communication
•Communication makes social life possible
because it realizes sharing of interest
•Social organizations including schools and
classrooms cannot exist without
communication because they involve
information transmission.
•When communication among individuals
and organizations fails, their capacity to
know, understand and own skills will also
fail.
1.2. The communication process
1.2.1 Components of Communication

What are the major components in the

communication process?
___________________________________________
It is said that communication is the process
of exchange or sharing of information, ideas,
feelings, thoughts, etc. Therefore, for
communication to happen, there are
different components which must operate
together. Hence, communication as a
process involves five basic components.
 They are:
A. source
The source of communication is the sender
who has a message to impart. The sender
has to decide how to communicate a
message, which channel is to be selected
for the message and what type of
strategies should be planned so that the
message makes the desired response. The
source could be a person, group of people,
or an institution. In the process of the
instruction, the source could be a student,
group of students, a teacher or group of
teachers.
Factors that Influence Operation of the Source
The common ones are the following.
•Communication skills: the ability of the source to
think, write, draw or speak can impede its operation.
•Attitude of the source: the attitude of the
sender/source towards his/her audience, the subject
matter he/she is communicating or him/her.
• Knowledge of the subject: his/her audience,
language, media and resources used for
communication, and social acceptance of the subject.
•The social situation in which he/she operates:
The role of the source in society, the group he/she
belongs to, the social background and age etc.
•Availability of resources:
knowledge of these factors can help us to examine
ourselves as sources and to evaluate communication
that we receive in light of what we know about the
source.
B. Message
Message is the other component of
communication. It refers to the content, idea,
or feeling produced and sent by the source to
the receiver. To make the message effective,
the sender has to understand the nature and
profile of the receiver of the message, his/her
needs and expectations and possible
response to the message.
The source needs to consider mainly the
following factors during communication.
•Code: the code has to be chosen for the
message. This can be expressed in terms of
a given language and the level of difficulty
of the code for the audience.
•Content: the content of the message has
to be selected and properly organized. In
this case, the ideas to be presented have to
be selected, tested and organized.
The message is prepared and channeled by
the source. Considering the receiver in
mind in coding, structuring and treating
the message is indispensable in the process
of communication
C. Channel (Medium)
Channel is the medium used to
communicate a message from the sender
to receiver. The channel could be spoken
word, printed word, electronic media, or
even non-verbal cues such as signs,
gestures, body language, facial
expressions, etc. The selection of an
appropriate channel is crucial for the
success of communication.
D. The receiver (Audience)
This refers to a person or
persons expected to take the
message and as a result show a
behavioral change. The factors
that affect the operation of the
source could also affect the
operation of the receiver.
E. Feedback:-is a key component in the
communication process because it allows the
sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the
message.
Some of the importance of feedback in
communication include:-
1. It completes the whole process of
communication and makes it continuous.
2. It sustains communication process
3. It is a basis for measuring the effectiveness
of communication
4. It is a good basis for planning on what
next to be done especially statistical report.
5. Communication will be useless without
feedback
6. Feedback paves way for generating new
idea.
 Noise
Noise is interference with the decoding of messages sent
over a channel by an encoder. Noise can occur during any
stage of the communication process. The major noises
are:-
a.Physiological-Impairment Noise:
Physical maladies prevent effective communication. For
instance, actual deafness or blindness.
2. Semantic Noise:
Different interpretations of the meaning of certain words
affect communication.
3. Syntactical Noise:
The quality of language clearly affects communication.
4. Organizational Noise:
Poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver
from accurate interpretation.
5. Cultural Noise:
Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings.
6. Psychological Noise:
Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult.
For instance, great anger or sadness.
 1.3 Procedures for Effective Communication
Communication is a complicated process. There is no
clear criterion for effective communication. Some are:-
1. Know your goals
State your goals /objectives clearly.
2. Understand your audience
•What is my audience’s background, experience?
•What is their attitude?
•What factors affect their learning?
3. Understand the ideas you are communicating
•Good knowledge of the subject matter.
4. Organize ideas as effectively as possible
•The ideas should be broken down in to meaningful
logical units
5. Choose appropriate media to the audience
6. Present materials to gain the attention of
audience
7. Evaluate each steps of the process
1.4. Models of communication
What is a Model?

In the broadest sense, a model is a

systematic representation of an object
or event in idealized and abstract form.
Models are strategies for guiding
students and teachers through
complicated processes by pointing out
key elements of communication.
There is no single model that different
scholars agreed upon. As a result, we
will focus on some common models of
communication.
1.4.1 The Shannon and Weaver’s Model

Informati Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination

on source (Encoder) (Decoder)

Noise
source

The Shannon-weaver Mathematical model,

1949
This model is called the “mathematical theory of
communication” or “Information theory” typically
represents the one-way flow process. This model
was criticized by many scholars for its linear
nature. In this model the sender and the receiver
have separate roles, i.e., the sender encodes the
message and the receiver decodes the message.
1.4.2. Schramm’s Adaptation of the Shannon
model
Wilbur Schramm (1954) was one of the first to
alter the mathematical model of Shannon and
weaver. He conceived of decoding and encoding
as activities maintained simultaneously by
sender and receiver. He also made provisions
for two-way interchange of message. The roles
of encoder and decoder are interchangeable.
Thus, each person in the communication
process is encoder and decoder.
 Diagrammatically, Schramm’s model looks like as
follows.
____________________Field of experience_____________________

Sender Encode Signal Decode Receiver

Feedback

This model is called two way

communication or interaction model.
Strengths
•Schramm provided the additional notion of a
“field of experience,” or the psychological frame
of reference; this refers to the type of orientation
or attitude which interactants maintain toward
each other.
•Included Feedback and considered
communication as reciprocal, two-way.
According to this model, communication is an
interpretive transaction among individuals.
The sender of the message encodes it according
to his/her skill and knowledge/field of
experience/ and the receiver decode it according
to his/her field of experience. In the feedback
process the receiver does more than decode the
message.
 1.5 Instructional Communication
Communication and instruction are inseparable.
Without clear and effective communication,
students’ learning is unthinkable. Wrench,
etal.(2009), state that teaching is about
establishing effective and affective
communication relationships with students.
They further confirm that effective teachers are
effective communicators.
To make effective communication in the
classroom, their subject knowledge and skill of
methodology has a critical role. Teachers need to
prepare their instruction carefully and
implement it accordingly. As we obviously know,
today classroom communication should be two
way. Teachers and students interact actively.
The classroom communication model is presented as follows

Teacher/
Subject
Media/channel Students
matter/message/
sender

Noise: Learning env’t,

Students level of
motivation

Feedback
Students change in
behavior Comprehension of
subject matter
Effective instructional communication
is assumed to have the need for:
1. common understanding between
the teacher and students
2.sharing of interest
3.avoiding the atmosphere of
authoritarianism
4.participation as equals
In general, effective teaching and
communication are synonyms for
effective teachers are clear
communicators.
1.6 Functions of Communication

What are the functions of communication?

Some of the functions of communication are as

follows.
•Information:-helps in collecting, storage and
dissemination of information
•Socialization: communication helps individuals
become active members of the society to which
they belong.
•Motivation: it fosters the individual and
community activities and motivates people to
meet goals.
•Education: communication and education are
two sides of a coin.
•Entertainment: people find enjoyment and
entertainment
1.7 Means of Communication
There are various tools and media
which serve as a means of
communication among human beings.
Some of the prominent means of
communication are the following.
•Sign and sound
•Language
•Postal System
•Telephone
•Mass media
•Computers, internet etc.
1.8 Barriers to Verbal Classroom
Communication
Various factors can affect communication in
the classroom such as
•Inaudibility of speech
•Abnormal speed of speech
•Unfamiliar pronunciation of the teacher
•Use of unfamiliar words and technical terms.
without explanation
•Lack of understanding nature of students
•Daydreams and inattentiveness.
•Unsystematic presentation
•Lack of immediate feedback
•Lack of physical facilities
•Social, economic and cultural differences
among the students.
Chapter Two
Basic Concepts of Instructional Media

The history of utilization of instructional

media to communicate information may trace
back to the Stone Age. The use of
instructional media started somewhere from
the Stone Age period (World Encyclopedia,
2001). Today’s approaches of utilizing
modern instructional media and technologies
are the results of this long history. This
shows that instructional media are important
to facilitate communication not only in the
formal instructional process but also in our
everyday lives.
 1.What is Instructional Media?
The term instruction is a deliberate
arrangement of experiences within the
learning space, classroom, laboratory,
workshop etc
Media according to Vikoo (2008) is used
to think about Television, Satellite
Communication, Computer and other
sophisticated modern technologies.
Instructional media are important
elements of teaching and learning
activities. This is why teachers globally at
any level use instructional media for
teaching their students.
 1.Benefits of Using Instructional Media
The benefits of instructional media include:
•The Delivery of Learning Materials can be Standardized
•The Learning Process Becomes More Clear And
Interesting
•The Learning Process Becomes More Interactive
•Efficiency in Time and Labor
•Improving The Quality Of Student Learning Outcomes
•Foster Positive Attitudes Toward Students And Learning
Materials
Other benefits of using instructional media are:
•increases the rate of learning by the learners,
•makes learning to be real and permanent,
•saves teacher’s time
•promote learners participation
•makes learning available to wider audience and;
•helps teacher and learner overcome physical difficulties
 1.Classification of Instructional
Media
Vikoo (2003) believed that the
classification should be based on some
criteria. Such criteria he noted include:
•The degree of expertise/technical
skills required for the production.
•The nature of the material (Media)
•The physiological parameter or
sensory modality required
•Whether or not projection is involved
•Place produced
•Miscellaneous characteristic
Classifying Instructional Media Based on Convenience
•Durable and Non-Durable Media:
•Durable materials are those that last for very long time.
Eg. Computer, Projectors, Television, Radio, Cameras etc.
•Non-Durable media that have short life span.
•Audio-Visual Media: Media under this classification
appeal to the sense of hearing and seeing. Eg.video,
television, computer motion pictures etc.
•Print and Non-Print Media:
•Print media include books, newspapers, journals etc
•Non-Print Media are maps, charts, postal, graphs etc.
•Projected and Non-Projected Media:
•The projected materials require other equipments
especially projectors to function.
•The non-projected media are those that do not require
any other equipment to function. Materials like poster,
flash cards, charts, pictures etc fall under this category.
Chapter Three
Selection and Utilization of Instructional Media

The basic steps are outlined below (St.

Cloud State University, 1997):
•Review instructional goals, objectives,
•Determine the best medium for your
lesson components;
•Search for and review existing
media/materials;
•Adapt existing media/materials
•If new media/materials need to be
developed, determine format, script,
•Check for clarity and flow of ideas
•Conduct formative evaluation;
•Implement/apply;
•Evaluate/revise;
Three major criteria for selecting
instructional media:
•Practicality: This criterion indicates
whether the intended media is practical
or not.
•Student Appropriateness: It tells us
whether the intended media appropriate
for the developmental and experiential
levels of the students.
Instructional Appropriateness: This
criteria requires checking whether the
intended media is appropriate for the
planned instructional strategy.
 1.Utilization of Instructional Media
1.Procedures in the Utilization of
Instructional Materials.
Media utilization follows the following
procedures:
Preview the materials
Practice the presentation
Prepare the environment
Prepare the audience, and
 Present the materials
 1. Principles in the Use of Instructional
Material
•Principle of Selection: Instructional materials
prove effective only when they suit the teaching
objective and unique characteristics of learners.
•They should suit the age level, grade level etc
•They should have specific educational value
besides being interesting and motivating;
•They should be the true representative of the real
things;
•Principle of Preparation
•The teacher should receive some training in the
preparation of aids;
•Principle of Utilization
•The utilization of instructional materials should
be in line with the objectives of the lesson provided
•It should be effectively and efficiently utilized with
minimum wastage.
 1.Specific Characteristics of Particular
Instructional Media
A. Black board/Chalkboard
The reasons to use the chalk board could be:
•Speed: We write on the board at about the same
speed.
•Organization: You can outline the day’s agenda
or summarize main points
•Visuals: The board lends itself well to working on
formulas, solving problems,
•Interaction: helpful in generating interaction.
Tips for Using Chalkboards
•Always face the classroom when you use the
board even when you write
•Write clearly and legibly
•Give your students time to take notes
•Plan how to use the board and structure your
work
B. Printed Materials
As mentioned by Seth (2009),
printed materials are the literary
forms of information preserved
in autograph or transmitted
format. They include exercise
books, study guides, handouts
and other print materials. They
are important because they
provide common visual imagery
for both instructors and
students.
C. Graphics/Charts
These are probably much more
available and used and could be easily
made by teachers. Things to consider
in using charts include-
a) The chart should be simple,
accurate and attractive.
b) Consider whether the chart is
needed and would do better than other
resources.
c) The type of data and the number of
learners to benefit from the charts
should be considered .
There are 4 major types of
graphs.
1. Bar graphs
2. Pictorial graphs
3. Curve graphs
4. Circle (Pie) graphs
•MAP
A map is an accurate
representation of plain
surface in the form of a
diagram drawn to
scale, the details of
boundaries of
continents, countries
etc.
Effective use of maps requires:understanding
• key or index
•the lines-boundary lines, lines of communication
• the colors, tints, shadows, symbols in a map
•the position of earth in the universe
Types of maps
•Relief maps (regional and the world)
•Historical maps: maps in history reveal the
changing times and the growth and decline of
various kingdoms.
•Distribution maps Eg.
•Vegetation maps
•Population maps
•Geographical maps contour maps, weather maps
seismological study
Power Point and Other Forms of Computer
Projection
PowerPoint, along with other forms of
computer projections has quickly become the
standard for classroom lecture presentation.
There are many benefits:
•Visual information: with Power point, you
can now greatly expand the visual content of
lectures along the usual written information;
•Clarity: all lectures can be prepared before
class with attention of detail to areas more
problematic;
•Location: you are more free to face the class
•Efficiency: lectures can be revised after a class for
later use.
 Difficulties of Media Use
These include :
a) Bureaucracy and delay at the
Ministry of Education
b) Not many teachers see the need for
media use in the classroom.
c) Lack of adequate personnel to train
teachers.
d) Lack of enough support from heads
and supervisors of education
e) The impression that new technology
would replace teachers
f) Lack of flexible curricula
g) Inadequate time and laziness on the
part of teachers etc
Chapter Four
Learning Modality, Memory and
Instructional Media
1.Students Learning Styles and
Instructional Media
Everybody learns different things in different
ways. How one learns depends on what is to be
learned. We learn how to ride a bicycle by doing
(kinesthetic learning); make bread by kneading
dough with the hands (tactile learning); to sing,
play a musical instrument, or appreciate music
by listening (auditory learning); and, learn about
the movement of the stars and planets by
observing (visual learning).
A good teacher seeks as many ways as
possible to present information and ideas
to students and to stimulate their
thinking. Similarly, good teaching
practice includes providing opportunities
for students to be active learners, taking
into account individual differences in
learning modalities/styles and providing
encouragement for students to seek
solutions independently. Using varieties
of instructional media can be one strategy
to respond to this diversity effectively.
students vary according to their learning
preference and learning styles.
4.1.1 Learning through Direct Experience
Commenting on the importance of learning
through real objects and situations stressed
the benefits of learning through their senses
to make the subject of discussion more
effective than in the absence of it. The
implication is that pupils will remember what
they see better than what they hear only and
that more and better learning results from
experiences gained through as many of the
senses as possible.
4.1.2 Instructional Media and Memory
Instructional media help to facilitate the
learning of abstract concepts and ideas; to
save teachers’ energy of talking too much; to
broaden students’ knowledge; to increase
their level of understanding to stimulate and
motivate learners; and to meet individual
differences.
Instructional media enable learners to retain
more and forget less of what is retained.
They help to make learning relatively long
lasting.
There are research data that support these
advantages of using instructional media in
instructional process. One of such evidences
is the fact given on how human beings make
use of their senses
Edgar Dale’s Cone of experience clearly
shows this reality. The Cone of experience
shows the progression of learning
experiences from concrete to abstract.
Dale grouped the Cone’s categories
into three based on the level of
experience, concreteness or
abstractness. These are termed as
Enactive, Iconic, and Symbolic
experiences. Each category is
discussed as follows.
•Enactive – direct experiences
These are those media that are at the
bottom of the cone and provide most
concrete experience. This involves:
I. Direct and Purposeful Experiences
•Direct, firsthand experiences
•Have direct participation in the
outcome
•Use of all our senses
•Examples:
Working in a homeless shelter
Tutoring younger children
. Contrived Experiences
•Models and mock-ups
•“editing of reality”
•Necessary when real experience
cannot be used or are too
complicated
•Examples
Use of a pilot simulator
Mock up of an auto plant to show
the auto making process
•Dramatized Experiences
•Reconstructed experiences
•Can be used to simplify an event or idea to
its most important parts
•Divided into two categories
Acting – actual participation (more
concrete)
Observing – watching a dramatization
take place (more abstract)
2. Iconic Experiences on the Cone
•Progressively moving toward greater use of
imagination
•Successful use in a classroom depends on
how much imaginative involvement the
method can illicit from students.
This category Involves:
•Demonstrations
•Study trips
•Exhibits
•Motion pictures
•Educational television
•Radio, recordings, and still pictures
•Demonstrations
•Visualized explanation of an important fact, idea,
or process
•Shows how certain things are done
•Examples:
•How to make bread
•How to play the piano
•How to lift a fingerprint
•Study Trips
•Watch people do things in real situations
•Observe an event that is unavailable in the
classroom
•Examples:
 A trip to Lalibela
3. Exhibits
•Something seen by a spectator
•Two types
Ready made
e.g Museum
Home-made
Eg. Classroom project
. Television
•Bring immediate interaction with events from
around the world
•Edit an event to create clearer understanding
than if experienced actual event /first hand
5. Motion Pictures
•Can omit unnecessary or unimportant
material
•Used to slow down a fast process
•Viewing, seeing and hearing experience
•Can re-create events with simplistic drama
that even slower students can grasp
Example: video
6.Recordings, radio and still pictures
•Can often be understood by those who cannot read
•Helpful to students who cannot deal with the motion
or pace of a real event or television
•Examples:
Listening to radio broadcasts
Listening to music
•Symbolic Experiences
•Very little immediate physical action
•They are more abstract
•Difficult only if one doesn’t have enough direct
experience to support the symbol
•Used at all levels of the Cone in varying importance
•Involves:
Visual symbols
Verbal symbols
Visual Symbols
•No longer involves reproducing real situations
•Chalkboard and overhead projector are the most
widely used media for this purpose.
•Help students see an idea, event, or process
Examples:
Chalkboard
Flat maps
Diagrams
Charts
Verbal Symbols
•Two types
Written words
Spoken words
•Examples:
Discussion, Explanation/lecture
From the Cone of Learning it is clear that as
we go from the bottom of the cone up to the
apex/top/ the learning experience becomes
abstract.
Similarly it is said that an average person
learns
•1% through the sense of Taste
•1.5% through the sense of Touch
•3.5% through the sense of Smell
•11% through the sense of Hearing
•83% through the sense of Sight
From this we observe that 94% of what we
learn comes through visual and aural senses.
 Summary
Students learn meaningfully and easily
when teachers supplement their
instruction by appropriate instructional
media. Instructional media are not
substitute for the teacher but they are
aid for the teacher and students.
As learners do have different learning
styles, they will not be benefited equally
from the same media. It is the
responsibility of the teacher to select the
instructional media that fit to the
learning styles of students.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH
FOR YOUR ATTENTION!!!