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Sli c kli n e / C oil e d T u bi n g I n t e r v e n ti o n s
Sli k P a k ™
Pl u s S e t ti n g S y s t e m
W ell I n t e r v e n ti o n s R e q ui r e
Fl e xi bl e S ol u ti o n s
A n y i nt er v e nti o n s ol uti o n n e e d s fl e xi bilit y. T A M’s s ol uti o n s c a n b e
d e pl o y e d o n c oil e d t u bi n g or wir eli n e.
O ur Sli k P a k ™ Pl u s i s a 2¹艠 8 i n. O D a s s e m bl y wit h a b att er y- p o w er e d
m e m or y s y st e m t h at c a n b e u s e d t o r u n i n fl at a bl e p a c k er s or bri d g e
pl u g s fr o m 2¹艠 8 i n. t o 1 4 ½ i n. O D o n sli c kli n e or el e ctri c li n e. A n y of
o ur i n fl at a bl e pr o d u ct s c a n b e r u n o n c oil e d t u bi n g.
E xcellence at the Wellsite ® T h e s e fi el d- pr o v e n s y st e m s h a v e b e e n u s e d w orl d wi d e i n a p pli c ati o n s
f or t e m p or ar y or p er m a n e nt pl u g- b a c k, r e c o m pl eti o n s, w ell h e a d c h a n g e
o ut, w ell a b a n d o n m e nt, s c a b li n er s, a n d w ell i nt e grit y t e sti n g.
w w w.t a mi ntl. c o m
80 EOR OPERATIONS
Stephen Goodyear, SPE, EOR Deployment Lead, Shell
84 Optimizing the Use of Miscible Injectant at the Greater Prudhoe Bay Fields Re-Frac Zone
86 Overview of Carbon Dioxide Injection and Water-Alternating-Gas
Sensitivity
Depleted Zone
www.mohawkenergy.com
The complete SPE technical papers featured in this issue are available
free to SPE members for 2 months at www.spe.org/jpt. Mohawk Energy
expanding the limits
S OF T W A RE
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© 2 0 1 7 W e at h erf or d. All ri g ht s r e s er v e d.
2016 President
Nathan Meehan, Baker Hughes
Matthias Meister, Baker Hughes
WORLD CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION+‡ HENRY HUB GULF COAST NATURAL GAS SPOT PRICE‡
THOUSAND BOPD
6
2017
O PEC OCT NOV DEC JAN 5 USD/million Btu
Algeria 1350 1350 1350 1340 4
Angola 1618 1698 1668 1668
3
Ecuador 552 544 544 536
Gabon 200 220 220 200 2
Iran 4200 4220 4280 4300
1
Iraq 4565 4645 4685 4565
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
2017
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
Kuwait1 2960 2970 2970 2830
Libya 550 580 620 678
Nigeria 1988 2023 1888 1923
Qatar 1507 1527 1527 1487
WORLD CRUDE OIL PRICES (USD/bbl)‡
Saudi Arabia1 10590 10640 10540 10020
UAE 3196 3226 3226 3066
Venezuela 2190 2180 2150 2100 2017
SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
TOTAL 35466 35823 35668 34713
Brent 46.57 49.52 44.73 53.32 54.58 54.87 51.59 52.31
THOUSAND BOPD WTI 45.18 49.78 45.71 51.97 52.50 53.47 49.33 51.06
2017
NON-OPEC OCT NOV DEC JAN
Canada 3893 4135 3968 4107
WORLD ROTARY RIG COUNT†
China 3780 3915 3949 3855
TOTAL 45968 46545 46360 46014 Middle East 391 380 376 382 382 386 389
Africa 77 79 78 79 77 80 89
Total World 81434 82368 82028 80727
Asia Pacific 182 188 192 198 196 198 205
INDICES KEY
TOTAL 1620 1678 1772 1918 2027 1985 1917
Numbers revised by EIA are given in italics.
+
Figures do not include natural gas plant liquids.
1
Includes approximately one-half of Neutral Zone production.
2
Additional annual and monthly international crude oil production statistics WORLD OIL SUPPLY AND DEMAND‡
are available at http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/.
† Source: Baker Hughes.
‡ Source: EIA.
MILLION BOPD 2016 2017
Quarter 2nd 3rd 4th 1st
begin commercial FLNG operations. The said the well has been suspended with
AFRICA
cargo was loaded onto the LNG carrier future possibilities of deepening and/or
Z BP has discovered natural gas in the Seri Camellia, which was expected to further testing.
North Damietta offshore concession block set sail for a South Asian market. “This
in Egypt’s East Nile Delta, the company’s accomplishment effectively demonstrates MIDDLE EAST
third discovery in the block. The Qattameya Petronas’ proven technology and capability
Shallow-1 exploration well, in which BP of adapting a conventionally land-based Z Qatar Petroleum (QP) is planning a new
has a 100% interest, was drilled to a total installation to a floating LNG facility, a development in the offshore North field,
depth of 6,434 ft in water depth of 354 ft. game-changer in today’s LNG business ending a 12-year ban on new projects so
“This latest discovery confirms our belief landscape,” Petronas President and Group it could assess the effect of its extraction
that the Nile Delta is a world-class basin,” Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Datuk Wan rate on the giant reservoir it shares with
BP Chief Executive Bob Dudley said on Zulkiflee Wan Ariffin said. Operated by an Iran. The patch, in the southern section of
26 March. The well is 37 miles north of onboard team of 145 crew members, PFLNG the field, will have a capacity of 2 Bcf/D,
Damietta city in the northern part of SATU has an LNG processing capacity of or 400,000 BOE/D, and should start
the country. The company produces 1.2 million metric tons/yr. production in 5 to 7 years, President and
approximately 40% of Egypt’s gas. CEO Saad Sherida Al Kaabi told reporters on
3 April. The North field and the connected
AUSTRALIA/OCEANIA
South Pars field in Iran constitute the world’s
ASIA
Z Shell said it will drill 161 new gas wells biggest reservoir of nonassociated gas. QP
Z Petronas’ floating liquefied natural gas at its Queensland operations by the end of was quicker to exploit it, but Iran has begun
(FLNG) facility PFLNG SATU loaded its first 2018, helping to secure its ongoing promise to catch up.
cargo at the Kanowit gas field offshore to supply 10% of the country’s gas market
Miri in the state of Sarawak, Malaysia, on demand. The drilling will not affect exports NORTH AMERICA
3 April. The facility is the world’s first to from the company’s Queensland Curtis
LNG plant. Shell’s announcement came a Z Eni said its recent discovery offshore
week after Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull Mexico would hold more than the
met with the company and gas producer 800 million bbl of oil it originally estimated.
ExxonMobil to discuss how to increase “This is an important find and we’ve found
supplies to offset a predicted market new layers of good light oil that make us
shortage within 2 years. Eastern Australia think there’s more,” CEO Claudio Descalzi
has experienced power blackouts and said at an industry conference on 29 March.
brownouts over the past year, and growing The company said earlier in March that its
LNG exports have led to soaring gas prices Amoca-2 well in the Bay of Campeche had
for manufacturers. found “meaningful” oil reserves. With the
exploratory project, Eni became the first
international operator to drill a well in Mexico
EUROPE
following the 2013 reform that opened the oil
Z Hurricane Energy reported that it believes sector to foreign investors.
the Greater Lancaster Area is a single
hydrocarbon accumulation, which would SOUTH AMERICA
make it the largest undeveloped discovery
on the United Kingdom Continental Shelf. Z Shell has opened a treatment plant
Operations on the 205/23-3A Halifax well for shale oil and gas in Argentina’s Vaca
were complete with the well leading to Muerta shale play, one of the world’s largest.
an oil discovery, the company said. Initial The plant has the ability to process up
data analysis also indicated that the well to 10,000 B/D of oil from the company-
is linked to the Lancaster field and forms operated Sierras Blancas, Cruz de Lorena,
a single large hydrocarbon accumulation. and Coiron Amargo Sur Oeste blocks.
Preliminary third-party analysis of the well Investment has been increasing in the
shows a “very significant” hydrocarbon Vaca Muerta in recent months, following a
column of at least 3,792 ft within the national government agreement with labor
basement rock and it extends well below unions to lower costs, the clarification of
the local structural closure, Hurricane price supports by the national government,
said. Following discussions with the and a provincial government agreement to
UK Oil and Gas Authority, the company stabilize taxes. JPT
In early April, the shipping lanes along of a more flexible power generation system, and pushing oil
the coastlines of Newfoundland and into new markets as it is displaced from some of its current uses
Labrador, Canada, were quite congest- (such as transportation).
ed, but not with tankers. This area of Based on these expected changes, the task force proposed
Canada—often called “Iceberg Alley”— that SPE adopt a climate change strategy that maximizes align-
was filled with 450 icebergs, floating ment with SPE’s mission and vision, while positioning us to ex-
south. This overabundance appeared pand the mission and vision should the landscape change this
suddenly; the US Coast Guard reported century. The twofold strategy includes ensuring the inclusion of
the increase from 37 to 450 icebergs in a week. SPE technologies and practices that may help address climate
What is the cause? Scientists disagree. Some state that rising change while meeting the growing energy needs of the world.
temperatures caused by global warming triggered this massive The second component is to take the necessary steps to inform
iceberg jam. Others say that it could have been caused by a SPE members about climate change issues and their connection
violent windstorm in St. John’s, Canada, a few weeks earlier. to what members do, the technologies they know and apply,
In either case, the “bergy water”—the term used by the and the partnerships and communities to which they belong
Canadian Coast Guard in its ice bulletin—has officials believ- or could belong.
ing that the number of icebergs this year will eclipse last year’s Using the power of SPE to support our members, the activi-
total of 687. ties that SPE can take include:
Opinions regarding climate change—is it real or not—are ◗ JPT articles that identify public policy developments
polar opposite. There are just as many people who passionate- related to climate change and associated public
ly believe it exists and needs to be slowed as those who do not perceptions that could impact our ability to deliver our
believe it exists. mission
Typically, SPE does not take positions on political or con- ◗ Case history knowledge sharing that promotes energy
troversial matters. We are a society that disseminates techni- efficiency in oil and gas E&P
cal knowledge for the upstream segment of the oil and gas in- ◗ Knowledge sharing to promote reduction of planned and
dustry. But this concern is so prevalent globally that last year, unplanned emissions and releases in E&P operations
the SPE Board of Directors formed a climate change task force ◗ Knowledge sharing about physical risks associated with
to identify “key aspects of climate change and public percep- changing climate and successfully managing those risks
tions of climate change.” This group also was charged with de- ◗ Supporting development of CCUS technology and
veloping a strategy for SPE’s response and recommending any practices to use within and beyond the E&P industry
actions that the society should take. ◗ Discussing new technical opportunities for members
The board also requested that recommendations developed related to climate change
by the task force avoid any approach that could be construed Of course, SPE already is actively involved in some of these
as lobbying or political advocacy, as neither is consistent with steps. The strategy further enables us to broaden our suite
SPE’s role and status as a not-for-profit organization. of activities.
The task force worked diligently for nearly a year studying Lastly, the task force reviewed the positions of other profes-
climate change policies such as the Paris Agreement, which was sional organizations, including most of our related engineering
developed at the 21st annual Conference of Parties. Population and geoscience organizations, and discovered a wide range of
growth and economic development are driving increased need approaches on climate change. For example, some organiza-
for and access to energy, so the Paris Agreement is expected to tions offered high-level assessments on climate science while
bring change over the course of this century. It has the potential others offered only policy guidance. A third set had neither
to usher in new opportunities for SPE members through deploy- assessments nor guidance.
ing carbon dioxide capture, use, and storage (CCUS), further ac- Since SPE does not have a focus on assessing climate sci-
celerating natural gas as an option to coal, changing the infra- ence or guiding policy, the task force recommended that we
structural load as natural gas becomes an essential component not develop a public position statement on climate change. At
its meeting in March, the SPE Board of Directors accepted the are both creative and doable while also being meaningful and
task force’s recommendation. reliable. These recommendations dovetail nicely with the sus-
The board approved the success plan created by the task tainability messages of my SPE president predecessor, Nathan
force. The success vision for the recommended SPE climate Meehan. If you heard him speak or read his JPT columns, you
change strategy states that: know that his common refrain was that as engineers we must
◗ The Paris Agreement calls for “a balance between “improve people’s lives,” and the key ways Nathan listed are
anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by minimizing methane emissions, reducing/eliminating flares,
sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this focusing on energy efficiency and conservation, ensuring well-
century” (net-zero), which will require significant input bore integrity, reducing our surface footprint, and eliminating
from the energy sector. oil spills. In other words, he espoused that we can go about our
◗ SPE puts its technical resources behind achieving a net- business as petroleum engineers but with a “commitment to
zero emissions world while continuing to capture the doing the right job and getting that job done right.”
value (more than energy) provided by oil and gas. I, too, have a special concern about operating in a safe and
◗ SPE events and publications should include technical environmentally responsible manner, and I have written on
content relevant to the achievement of a net-zero these topics a few times in this space. For example, in my
emissions world. November column, “To be Leaders of Integrity, We Must Earn
◗ The recommended strategy aligns with SPE member Trust,” I explained my viewpoint that small-footprint opera-
interests. tions save money. And, in a time when concern about use of
◗ SPE’s climate change strategy will drive a multiyear focus fossil fuels is growing in North America and Western Europe,
that includes technologies, skills development, our past actions affect our social license to continue to operate.
knowledge sharing, and partnerships, which will be People are concerned about our approach to sustainability and
represented in near- and long-term action plans. the potential for climate change.
◗ SPE provides its members with information needed to SPE is not in the business of making or establishing policy
understand the issue of climate change and the change. But I believe our decisions and actions as engineers
interconnectivity of their roles, technologies, and can make a positive influence on our world. As I speak to SPE
partnerships in this context. members worldwide, I usually end my presentations with a
◗ SPE pushes the thinking of what is possible with regard NASA image of Earth at night. First World nations are bright-
to research and development to address technology ly lit with electricity while other regions, primarily Africa, are
gaps. largely in the dark. We have so much work to do to bring en-
◗ SPE promotes technologies and practices that help ergy to everyone, but we must do so wisely. I like to tell people
address climate change while meeting the growing that in addition to my engineering degree from Texas A&M
energy needs of the world. University, I have a law degree, too. But lawyers don’t solve the
As SPE president, I am satisfied with the task force’s find- world’s problems; engineers do. We can engineer a better and
ings and recommendation. I believe that these action points brighter future for generations to come. JPT
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When oil prices began to fall rapidly in While a few member during ATCE. The costs had increased
the last half of 2014, the impact was significantly. The Board modified the
quickly felt in all of SPE’s programs. Our way in which regional teams are select-
magazines were affected first by a reduc- programs have been ed for the finals at ATCE and reduced the
tion in advertising as companies reduced costs being borne by SPE for this pop-
their marketing budgets. Training course reduced or modified, the ular program.
attendance was next as companies cut On the events side, industry layoffs
back training and travel. Conference essential services we affected many of the volunteers who
and workshop participation declined as plan our events, putting more work
travel was constrained, and technical provide to members are in the hands of staff. SPE reduced the
programs for conferences were affect- number of workshops and forums, and
ed as authors were unable to present reduced or eliminated the exhibits at
their papers. Participation in exhibitions unchanged. some smaller conferences. Larger con-
held up for a while as many companies ferences may have had smaller exhibi-
honored commitments that had already through harder times. As it became clear tions, but SPE made every effort to give
been made, but subsequent rebooking that the industry was facing a “lower for the exhibitors good exposure to attend-
of exhibits declined. It quickly became longer” situation, we recognized that we ees and tailor the venues to the expected
apparent that all of SPE’s main programs needed to adjust our operations to fit level of activity. Staff worked to reduce
were going to be suppressed as long as industry conditions. costs associated with putting on events
prices remained low and would likely When oil prices were high, SPE ini- without negatively affecting the experi-
trail the recovery of prices on the way out tiated a number of new member pro- ence of attendees.
of the downturn. grams. One of our first steps was to As we worked to reduce expenses, it
Understanding that SPE could not examine these newer programs to deter- was necessary to make some very pain-
continue to operate in a business-as- mine whether they could be paused until ful decisions about one of our largest
usual fashion, the Board of Directors conditions improved, or reduced in expenses—SPE staff. During previous
and senior staff began examining the some manner to improve their econom- industry downturns, SPE had managed
impact to SPE and options for adjusting ics. This effort quickly spread to lon- without a layoff. But the growth over the
operations to the downturn. SPE is very ger-standing programs as well. Changes previous decade and the rapid decline
fortunate to have financial reserves to made to PetroBowl are an example of the left us with no choice but to undertake
smooth the impacts of the economic fluc- type of action taken by the Board. The a reduction in force. Over the course
tuations common to our industry. During program had grown the number of teams of 2015 and 2016, we reduced staff by
the years of high prices, we were able to involved, and SPE was covering the travel 32%. This brought SPE’s staffing back to
build a reserve fund and invest it to see us costs for many teams to attend the finals 2009 levels.
We have reviewed every SPE program
and reduced or eliminated many that are
Steve Byrne is SPE’s chief financial officer and director of business
not essential to SPE’s mission. Through-
services, responsible for global financial reporting and
out this process, our focus wasn’t solely
consolidation of SPE; treasury and investment services; facilities
management; and coordination of the global audit and on cutting back. Even as we were trying to
consolidation of all SPE legal entities. Before joining SPE, Byrne reduce costs to better align with econom-
was controller for ThinkSpark, an Oracle database and consulting ic conditions, we launched our Members
firm. Prior to ThinkSpark, he worked for Arco for 16 years where in Transition toolkit, increased online
he held various financial and tax positions in US operations as well webinars, offered free attendance days
as in the international division. He received his BBA degree in accounting and finance
from Texas A&M University and is a certified public accountant. (Continued on page 29)
Apply now.
www.aramco.jobs/jpt
COMMENTS EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Bernt Aadnøy, University of Stavanger
Public and government concern over unconventional oil and gas Alex Crabtree, Hess Corporation
production continues. Hardly a month goes by before anoth- Gunnar DeBruijn, Schlumberger
er study into the potential health effects of shale production is Mark Egan, Retired
launched or a public hearing is conducted regarding the impact Mark Elkins, Retired
of a project on the local landscape.
Alexandre Emerick,
For example, last month the Southwest Pennsylvania Envi- Petrobras Research Center
ronmental Health Project opened a public health registry to Niall Fleming, Statoil
track and analyze the impact of shale gas development on peo-
Ted Frankiewicz, SPEC Services
ple living near wells, pipelines, and other infrastructure. That followed the release of a
Duke University study that concluded that hydraulic fracturing in the Marcellus Shale Stephen Goodyear, Shell
did not pollute groundwater in West Virginia but that wastewater spillage contami- Omer M. Gurpinar, Schlumberger
nated some surface water. Many of the reports and studies are drawing similar con- A.G. Guzman-Garcia, Retired
clusions—that hydraulic fracturing poses little or no risk but that contamination can Greg Horton, Retired
occur during the transportation or treatment process.
John Hudson, Shell
Shale oil and gas development has certainly changed the world order in these com-
Morten Iversen, Karachaganak Petroleum
modities, from OPEC strategy and commodity prices to global import/export patterns.
The US, with abundant gas still depressing prices, is becoming an exporter of lique- Leonard Kalfayan, Hess Corporation
fied natural gas rather than an importer. Shale oil is largely responsible for the low oil Thomas Knode, Contek Solutions
prices of the past 2 years, turning the US into the world’s “swing” producer, a position Sunil Kokal, Saudi Aramco
Saudi Arabia once held. Industry resiliency amid low oil prices led to slashing of ser- Marc Kuck, Eni US Operating
vice company costs, operational efficiencies, and high-grading of properties. As ser-
Jesse C. Lee, Schlumberger
vice costs now begin to rise, profitable production in a world of USD 40–60/bbl oil will
Douglas Lehr, Baker Hughes
require further innovation.
But the industry also continues to face regulatory challenges based on environmen- Silviu Livescu, Baker Hughes
tal concerns. Maryland has recently followed New York in legislating against hydrau- Shouxiang (Mark) Ma, Saudi Aramco
lic fracturing. A new book, Sustainable Shale Oil and Gas: Analytical Chemistry, Geo- John Macpherson, Baker Hughes
chemistry, and Biochemistry Methods by Vikram Rao and Rob Knight argues that Stéphane Menand, DrillScan
this type of policymaking is hampered by inadequate data, which in turn is caused by
Graham Mensa-Wilmot, Chevron
shortcomings in analytical techniques. The authors describe new cost-effective analyt-
Badrul H. Mohamed Jan, University of Malaya
ical methods for detecting fugitive methane as well as particulate matter and volatile
organic chemicals, including a portable shoe-box-sized mass spectrometer with per- Zillur Rahim, Saudi Aramco
prominent roles in hydraulic fracturing and that they are central to the three tenets of Win Thornton, BP plc
sustainable production: protecting the environment, protecting the well-being of local Xiuli Wang, Baker Hughes
communities, and profitability. Mike Weatherl, Well Integrity
Innovation has been a necessity for survival in the low oil and gas price market, and
Scott Wilson, Ryder Scott Company
continued innovation will result in an industry resilient to future unexpected challeng-
Jonathan Wylde, Clariant Oil Services
es. And the authors contend that that innovation and production is achievable in envi-
ronmentally responsible fashion. JPT Robert Ziegler, Weatherford
More than ever, it is time to make the right decisions: develop production in the
short term, increase reserves, improve economics, update Field Development
Plans, implement adequate IOR/EOR strategy, prepare for the rebound.
Make sure your decision is supported by the best available expertise. Contact Beicip-Franlab.
Beicip-Franlab Headquarters
232, avenue Napoléon Bonaparte - BP 213
92500 Rueil-Malmaison Cedex - France
Phone: +33 1 47 08 80 00 - Fax: +33 1 47 08 41 85
Email: info@beicip.com
www.beicip.com
GUEST EDITORIAL
When I started working in the oil and gas For example, vertical injection wells and vetted against the available technolo-
business in the 1970s, we spent a great can be refractured using more advanced gies. How much money do you want to
deal of time designing vertical wells. The diversion technology, ultimately extend- invest in the project? What is the estimated
horizontal well was by and large a far- ing the life of the well or even potentially attainable production yield? Do you want
fetched idea on everyone’s wish list— adding more reserves. Or we can accu- quick returns or a long-term solution?
the capability to have a completion go rately apply acid in a vertical well to estab- The second step entails adopting an
through the sweet spot was almost too lish better communication with a reser- open mind regarding the application of
good to be true. Fast forward to 2017 and voir. Such applications are now part of advanced technologies, to think outside
we are now drilling horizontals every- the mature field landscape, but the wide- the box of convention and seriously con-
where, surpassing drilling times again spread adoption of newer technologies sider the full range of what is available.
and again. often moves at a glacial pace. You can then assess and analyze various
But what about vertical wells, are we The second factor is cost. We know that technologies to determine which is best-
not still drilling those? The answer is the application of advanced technologies suited to achieve the desired results in a
“Yes, we are.” From 2011 to 2016, the can prolong the life of mature fields, but cost-effective manner. Risk can be miti-
industry drilled 117,624 vertical wells in it has to be done cost-effectively. Mature gated by “doing the homework” or by
the United States while, in that same time fields are exceptionally cost-sensitive, application of learnings from others cur-
frame, it drilled 84,200 horizontals. and any high-dollar application must rently finding success in the surround-
The fact is, vertical wells still have sev- yield acceptable returns: You are not ing areas.
eral key applications: They are typically going to pump an expensive chemical into One example is a vertical well that
used as the preliminary wellbore in explo- a well for a 0.5% return—it just does not is located in south Texas. The well was
ration, production, and acreage delinea- make sense. drilled in 1996 and declined to the point
tion, and can be used for infill drilling, Looking ahead, the well intervention that it was shut in in 2013. The well was
injection, and disposal. market for mature fields will be demand- refractured in 1996 and 1999 to keep
So, can we not apply advanced tech- ing more and more of our attention. By the production up but it continued to
nologies more often to mature vertical 2019, it is expected to be in the range of decline rapidly. Tubing was replaced in
wells? We can, but two factors need to be USD 13 billion per year globally. 2003 but even with all the maintenance
considered when doing so—technology So, what is the best approach for apply- effort, the well went from initial produc-
and cost. ing advanced technologies to the vertical tion of 400 Mcf/D to 10 Mcf/D.
First, embracing advanced technolo- wells in mature fields? In 2014, the operator made one more
gies. Some energy and production com- The first step is defining exactly what effort to revitalize the well by using
panies lead the way in innovation while you want to accomplish in a given well—a advanced technology. A tool was run via
others are more risk-adverse. Regardless, clear objective sharpens the focus of what slickline that discovered a hole in the
new technologies are consistently being you will need to get there. The strategic tubing. The tubing was replaced, and a
developed, refined, and eventually adopt- approach to understanding is ensuring two-stage refracture was performed using
ed more broadly. that the correct diagnostics are completed advanced proppant technology. The well
came back on producing 1.5 MMcf/D. With
a USD 250,000 investment by the opera-
Rob Hull is director of Halliburton Global Technical Solutions, tor, a little design work, and some faith in
leading a global team in assisting customers with using
applying newer techniques, the operator
Halliburton technology to address challenges in deep water,
was able to exponentially increase pro-
mature fields, and unconventional assets. He has more than 35
years of experience with various evaluation and production duction and avoid abandoning the well.
operators, technology providers, and consulting groups. Hull Can we afford not to use the right appli-
holds a BS degree in management and an MBA, both from cation of technology to get the maximum
Canterbury University. value for the asset? JPT
EVG1468e
Multistage-Fracturing Service
Baker Hughes introduced the DEEPFRAC
deepwater multistage-fracturing service,
which can save operators hundreds of
millions of dollars in offshore develop-
ments through efficiency gains across
the completion phase. By use of multi-
position sleeves and patented flowback-
control technology, the service acceler-
ates or eliminates certain steps of con-
ventional multizone completion opera-
tions and enables rapid stimulation of
multiple stages. This translates into sig-
nificantly greater reservoir contact, with
an average operating-expense savings of
USD 30 to 40 million per well. Typi-
cally, after a deepwater well has been Fig. 1—Baker Hughes’ DEEPFRAC multistage-fracturing service. Proprietary
drilled, the subsequent completion phase flowback-control media is incorporated directly into the multiposition sleeve’s
involves multiple time-consuming steps. production ports to enable long-term, sand-free production without the need
In contrast, the DEEPFRAC service elimi- for conventional sand screens.
nates casing and cementing operations
and simplifies fluid logistics by using sleeve’s ball activation enables contin- ration flexibility. The sleeves used in the
ball-activated, multiposition sleeves that uous pumping, cutting the lower com- DEEPFRAC service are modular and flex-
can be installed in openhole wellbores pletion phase from weeks to days. Con- ible, enabling placement of 20 or more
containing drilling mud (Fig. 1). No tool ventional offshore stimulation systems tightly spaced stages across the pay zone
movement is needed during the DEEP- are often limited to only five zones or to ensure more-uniform treatments and
FRAC service’s stimulation process. The stages, and these systems lack configu- to maximize reservoir contact.
◗ For additional information, visit
www.bakerhughes.com.
Perforation-for-Diversion
System
GEODynamics introduced the SandIQ
optimized perforating technology, now
undergoing field evaluations in the Perm-
ian and Bakken. The system generates
optimized perforating geometry that
leads to improved proppant transport
in fracturing stages (Fig. 2). In addition,
SandIQ uses constant and consistent
perforating entry holes and penetration
depths in wells regardless of gun posi-
tion, well casing, and formation. Par-
ticle transport at a high fluid velocity is
complex. With the SandIQ perforating
system, proppant-placement efficiency
is improved because of the creation of a
diversion ledge in combination with a 45°
formation-entry ramp. The added down-
Fig. 2—Perforations using a conventional perforating system (top) vs. stream ledge in the casing further assists
perforations using GEODynamics’ SandIQ technology. the sand to exit more evenly along the
Slickline System
Horizontal wells are known to have pro-
duction challenges as a result of inconsis-
tent slug-fluid flow, damaging solids, and
excessive gas interference. Production
through the life cycle of these wells often
requires complex and expensive artificial-
Fig. 3—Production Plus’ HEAL Slickline System enables fewer, and simpler,
artificial-lift transitions. lift strategies. Production Plus Energy
Services introduced the retrievable Hor-
izontal Enhanced Artificial Lift (HEAL)
Slickline System, which provides great-
er access to the wellbore, easier instal-
lation, simpler integrity testing, and an
economical protection solution for dam-
aging offset interwellbore communica-
tion (Fig. 3). With no moving parts, the
system easily joins to the horizontal as
part of a standard well completion and
is designed to perform for the life of the
well. The system is part of a set of config-
urations that offers producers increased
efficiency, more cost options, and the
flexibility to enhance the performance of
any artificial system, including electrical
submersible pumps, rod pumping, pro-
gressive cavity pumping, and plunger lift
through the life of a horizontal well. The
products in the HEAL suite are designed
to benefit a horizontal well’s entire pro-
ducing life—controlling fracturing flow-
back, extending the natural flow period,
simplifying transitions between artificial-
lift phases, lowering operating expenses,
and eliminating costly intermediate arti-
ficial lift.
◗ For additional information, visit
www.pdnplus.com.
Fluid-Characterization Service
The average quality of discovered oil is
Fig. 4—The G9+ service from Geolog can characterize reservoir fluids in near- decreasing through time, and oils with
real-time. very different properties coexist in many
wells. Consequently, good completion
Deeper boreholes and longer, more devi- ogies offer several key benefits, including
ated laterals are driving an evolution in a reduced footprint, accurate measure-
well intervention operations, opening ments of bottomhole pressures and tem-
opportunities for the industry to develop peratures, proper depth correlation, and
challenging wells in new frontiers as inter- precise load measurements in a unique,
vention capability expands to support the robust package for harsh and complex
most complex wells and completions. environments. These features allow
From a service company standpoint, operators to eliminate guesswork and
this phenomenon has challenged the make educated decisions as the job pro-
industry to make continued improve- gresses, respond immediately, and adjust
ments in the delivery of well intervention parameters as conditions change.
services and technologies to meet the
needs of customers and do the job right, New CT System Advantages
the first time. Development of advanced Toward that end, an innovative meth-
equipment, such as coiled tubing (CT) od for selective perforating and plug-
Fig. 1—The real-time selective
and other downhole tools that trans- perforating and activation system setting with CT provides several impor-
mit critical data and measurements in minimizes downtime, risk, and cost tant advantages, including the ability to
real time, is helping operators move into with fewer runs for single perforation accurately correlate depth between each
these new arenas and produce from wells attempts. Source: Schlumberger. detonation using fiber-optic telemetry to
that once would have been inaccessible to transmit signals.
intervention methods. well with lower drawdowns on the reser- The Schlumberger ACTive OptiFIRE
By far the most used and exposed piece voir can take 2 or more days to run in and CT real-time selective perforating and
of equipment in the oil field, CT has out of the hole. Traditionally, operators activation system is able to reach tar-
been a critical tool in moving well inter- have used surface measurements to infer get depth safely, efficiently, and cost-
vention services forward. The need for the depth from length measurements, effectively in a single CT run, a capability
accurate, real-time data in CT operations with little information and control over previously unavailable.
will continue to be a key driver for fur- what the CT is doing downhole. In a dif- The tool’s accessibility to the targeted
ther innovation. Downhole tools that can ficult horizontal well, reliance on those area is equal to that of a wireline trac-
provide real-time information on depth, assumptions can very easily lead to dis- tor but without the need for a wireline
pressure, and temperature and depth crepancies in measurements and inaccu- crew at the wellsite. Thus, the use of the
correlation are critically important and rate decision making. system minimizes environmental impact
represent a significant change from the Schlumberger made a conscious deci- and reduces time and rig costs. The tool
requirements of 10 or 20 years ago in sion more than 10 years ago to focus on accesses the zone, positions the perforat-
shallow, vertical wells, where a 0.1% dis- developing high-tech sensors that pro- ing guns, fires, and confirms detonation
crepancy was acceptable. vide real-time downhole measurements in one run (Fig. 1).
For example, intervention in an off- for greater accuracy. Today, tools that Especially suited for high-flow-rate
shore well of more than 20,000 ft deliver the capability to digitally operate wells, sub-hydrostatic wells, and unstable
requires better resolution and greater key well intervention services and equip- formations, the CT real-time selective
accuracy in the critical parameters, such ment are aiding rig crews in conducting perforating and activation system is part
as depth, pressure, and the specific activ- efficient, safer well interventions. of the platform of live CT services, includ-
ity of the CT than intervention in shorter Optimizing the performance of exist- ing depth correlation, real-time pres-
wells in less challenging settings. ing wells is a practical choice that reduc- sure and temperature monitoring, and
In this situation, a stimulation treat- es the costs and risks associated with accelerometer data obtained by means of
ment to increase the productivity of a well intervention. Innovative CT technol- built-in sensors.
Researchers at Rice University in Hous- er and easier to make than other forms on the makeup of the feed gas, these
ton have advanced their efforts to devel- of activated carbon, enough so that it parameters can be tweaked to produce
op a low-cost and relatively simple- will be commercially feasible to pro- a variation of porous carbon that is
to-make filtering material for carbon duce at scale. “Our material is also high- most effective.
dioxide separation and capture. Their ly recyclable—you can use it more than Ghosh said that the key enabling fac-
aim is for this new material to be used at 200 or 300 times,” he said. “It’s one of tor of the porous carbon is the size and
natural gas gathering facilities where it the most interesting properties of this width of its pores. Through trial and
will absorb carbon dioxide from natural porous carbon.” error, the researchers have found that
gas streams while allowing the methane In addition to midstream oil and gas some forms may have a high surface
product to pass through. applications, researchers hope the mate- area, needed to provide plenty of real
JPT featured the work in 2014 and, rial will serve as an alternative to con- estate for the separation process, but
since then, the researchers say they have ventional amine-based scrubbers used lack the optimal pore size.
figured out how to optimize their pro- in refineries, power plants, and other “If the pore sizes are too big, 3–4 nm
cess to make the material, described as industrial facilities. Ghosh pointed out wide, the [carbon dioxide molecules]
a porous-carbon sorbent, to address the that a major drawback of these scrub- will become stacked,” Ghosh explained.
different chemical makeups of natural bers is that they can be used for only “But through thermal agitation, they
gas sources. a few cycles. “After that, they become will fly out and maybe only a small
The project has received funding from useless and you have to change your amount will stay in the material.”
US independent operator Apache Cor- whole filter setup or buy a new one,” The conclusion is that the pores must
poration. The latest details were pub- he said. be no more than 1–2 nm across in order
lished last month in the Royal Society of To make the porous carbon, the Rice to effectively trap the carbon dioxide
Chemistry’s journal, Sustainable Energy researchers say only three simple con- without also trapping too much meth-
& Fuels. trols are involved: temperature, time, ane. In general, Ghosh said the material
Saunab Ghosh, a research scientist at and the ratio of potassium hydrox- absorbs eight times more carbon diox-
Rice, described the material as cheap- ide to polymer additives. Depending ide by mass than the methane.
Once the material is filled to capac-
ity, both the carbon dioxide and resid-
(a) (b) ual methane can be released by heat-
ing it to a specific temperature. This
process could be automated in a com-
mercial product, and the release of the
two gases can be controlled since they
react to different temperatures. Using
a temperature-swing technique, Ghosh
said a “high-purity” grade of methane
can be recovered and sold.
Critical for commercialization, he also
emphasized that oil and gas companies
should be able to create the porous
carbon in their own laboratories or by
those run by their third-party develop-
Microscopic images of a porous carbon that that can be optimized as it is
made to achieve a specific selectivity for natural gas and methane at natural ers. While the foundational research for
gas facilities or other types of industrial plants. Scientists say the material is this project requires a deep knowledge
affordable and will be commercially scalable. Source: Rice University. of organic chemistry, Ghosh said the
Wet-gas production in east and cen- The gas wells are located in the Teague shoal trend with higher porosity zones
tral Texas can often be a complicat- field in east central Texas. There are sev- that can produce significant amounts of
ed process, as corrosive fluids in gas eral producing reservoirs in the field, water and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
wells often lead to significant depo- but the Upper Jurassic Bossier and Cot- Wylde said the requirements for an
sition of iron sulfide scale in produc- ton Valley Lime reservoirs are the most adequate chemical component were
tion tubing. Speaking at the SPE Oil- prolific. Wylde said the gas produced by borne of a unique combination of chal-
field Chemistry Conference, Jonathan the two reservoirs has different charac- lenges, including gas well liquid loading,
Wylde discussed the challenges in cre- teristics, which indicates that they come iron sulfide scale deposition, sulfate and
ating a chemical component to deli- from different source rock despite being carbonate scale deposition, and sweet
quefy gas wells while reducing cor- in the same field. The Bossier Sands and sour corrosion from the H2S.
rosion and preventing iron sulfide are a blend of centered gas accumula- “All in all, it was pretty challenging.
scale. Wylde is the global head of tions and prograding deltaic channel We started to see some pretty nasty stuff
application development at Clariant systems with minimal formation water, once we produced a little bit of water,”
Oil Services. and the Cotton Valley Lime is an oolitic he said.
In the music world, a coda is the final costs were estimated by IHS Markit to Researchers at the Petroleum and
section of a movement or composition. be about USD 2.5 billion. That number Geosystems Engineering department
Appropriately, it is also the acronym for is expected to rise by more than 500% at UT have fashioned the consortium
the Consortium for Decommissioning to USD 13.2 billion by 2040. Abandon- after the team’s successful Rig Auto-
and Abandonment (CODA), a Universi- ment expenses are particularly oner- mation Performance Improvement in
ty of Texas at Austin (UT)-led initiative ous to operators because unlike other Drilling (RAPID) project. The CODA is
that is designed to bring together mem- operating costs, plug and abandonment conceived as an interdisciplinary team
bers of industry and academia to help (P&A) operations offer no prospect for of researchers and students joined by
operators efficiently orchestrate the return on investment. The consortium members from industry whose goal is
final days of deepwater developments. is working to minimize the economic to investigate and promote advances in
The CODA is a response to the grow- impact on operators and to ensure effec- decommissioning technology. The con-
ing number of onshore and offshore tive P&A operations through the devel- sortium is focusing its efforts on devel-
wells, platforms, and infrastructure that opment of innovative technologies. The oping reliable and permanent sealing
are approaching the end of econom- approach replicates industry efforts technologies, cost-efficient remedia-
ic viability and soon must be plugged over past decades to develop new tech- tion techniques and remote monitor-
and removed. nologies with which to drill and com- ing methods. Research targets include
In the Gulf of Mexico deep water plete wells in various challenging envi- identifying cementitious materials that
alone, for example, 2015 abandonment ronments around the world. are compatible with nonaqueous drill-
ing muds, possess improved mechani-
cal properties compared with Portland
cements, and self-heal when damaged.
Toward those ends, university re-
searchers have developed several sys-
tems, including geopolymer cements,
which are made from aluminosilicate
powder and caustic activators. These
systems appear better-suited than
Portland cements for P&A operations
because they are compatible with non-
Focus areas of the UT Well Abandonment Consortium. aqueous fluids (NAF) in terms of fresh
projects at USD 50/bbl and USD 55/bbl, reservoirs in deeper Jurassic horizons images, and surface features offer no
respectively. There are other barriers, covered the cost of the infrastructure. clues that they are below.
though, to North Slope development. The recent discoveries in the Nanushuk “Like what we had found the other
“It is not just about the break-even. were hard to find because these res- times it was not our primary objec-
These are not cheap projects; they are ervoirs are narrow targets. They are tive. It was a secondary objective and it
multibillion-dollar projects. The smaller wedges of sand deposited along narrow was almost invisible on the seismic, so
companies need to find partners to spread coastal beaches and deltas, constrained you can see why everybody missed it,”
some of the risk. That is not easy,” said by land and sea, and can be from 150 to Armstrong said in the interview.
Imran Khan, senior research manager for 250 ft thick. The northern part of the field was
Wood Mackenzie. “The infrastructure has The discoveries became visible as found in 2011 by Armstrong and its
to be there. Partners have to be there. The companies such as Armstrong, a small partner Repsol at about 4,000-ft depth.
state has to have its fiscal act together. Denver independent led by its found- Two wells drilled this year extended the
A lot of things have to be in place.” er and chief executive officer, Bill Arm- field 20 miles to the south. As a result,
strong, figured out how to spot traps explorers have confirmed what sort of
Unrealized Potential using 3D seismic and imaging methods geological features are likely to hold oil,
A 1979 USGS report said the Nanushuk to highlight likely reservoirs. and have set up their seismic imaging
could become a “major hydrocarbons In an interview with the Alaska Jour- systems to highlight those possibilities.
play” in the National Petroleum Reserve in nal of Commerce, Armstrong said the “I have seen Armstrong 3D images,”
Alaska but, in the decades that followed, work leading to the discovery began with Houseknecht said. “They have figured
companies met mainly frustration. buying “tons of seismic data” covering out how to make it light up.”
Wells penetrated the Nanushuk about 500,000 acres, and then deliberately Based on the recent discoveries, which
150 times on the way to deeper targets, searching for stratigraphic traps. suggest “dozens of prospects to test,” he
and only one discovery was made and It is a difficult process because the made a successful pitch for the USGS to
produced, Houseknecht said. That small stratigraphic traps with the oil are in update its assessment of the Nanushuk
pool was developed within Conoco- sand deposits that are difficult to detect and Torok, and now he is looking for low-
Phillips’ Alpine field, where large oil even in the most detailed 3D seismic cost sources of 3D seismic, particularly
Map Location
The locations of the three major oil discoveries are shown: Pikka in green at the center, Willow within the Greater
Mooses Tooth in purple, and Smith Bay in the upper left. Source: US Geological Survey.
surveys subsidized by the state of Alaska, agement, are given access to 3D seismic, While he said they do get looks at
which will be made public soon. they are not allowed to share it with the other people’s seismic, what they are
While federal agencies that engage in agency whose assessments are aimed at studying on their desktops is often older
leasing, such as the Bureau of Land Man- aiding those seeking exploration targets. surveys showing only 2D cross-sections
of the subsurface. On 2D, “it is virtually
impossible to see [traps],” Houseknecht
700 North Slope Liquids Production, 2017–2030 said. “These are very subtle features ...
It is way too risky drilling on 2D alone.”
600
Realizing Potential
Discoveries holding billions of barrels
Liquids Production (’000 b/d)
Discovery: 2016
Companies involved: Caelus Energy (operator), This interpretation of 2D seismic by David Houseknecht of the USGS
shows the Nanushuk formation (yellow) perched on top of the Torok
NordAq Energy, and L71 Resources
formation. Source: USGS and WesternGeco/Schlumberger.
Estimates: 1.8–2.4 million bbl recoverable, and
6–10 billion bbl oil in place
Formation: Torok Estimates: Could produce 300 million bbl of light oil
Terrain: Shallow offshore, with water depth of (early estimate)
around 10 ft Formation: Nanushuk
Pipeline connection: No Terrain: Onshore at Greater Mooses Tooth area in National
Highlights: Could produce 200,000 B/D of light oil Petroleum Reserve in Alaska
(40–45 °API) Pipeline connection: Under construction, 28 miles from
ConocoPhillips’ Alpine Field
Willow Highlights: Production of up to 100,000 B/D by 2023
Discovery: 2016 of light oil and condensate, plus 30,000 B/D under
Company: ConocoPhillips development nearby
up of coarse-to-medium sands to con- At this early stage, Wood Mackenzie Caelus’ Oooguruk Field, where it could
glomerate, with little cementing to block has not estimated the break-even cost be tied into a line feeding the Trans-
the flow. In that reservoir, the per- of development in Smith Bay because Alaska pipeline.
meability was measured in darcies. of the lack of appraisal information, The discoveries come at a critical time
Recent finds have been in tighter rock, Wolters said. for the North Slope, whose link to export
ranging from hundreds of millidarcies Building the infrastructure for the markets has been the Trans-Alaska Pipe-
in the Nanushuk down to tens of mil- Prudhoe field was simple compared line System. Without the volumes from
lidarcies in the Torok, which is deeper with the developing fields scattered these fields coming on line in the next
and tighter. over the harsh, environmentally sensi- decade, the flow through the aging line
While wells in the Pikka field could be tive Arctic environment. was expected to drop below the level
developed in a conventional way, House- Pikka has a pipeline running through needed to justify the cost of keeping
knecht said it is likely to be developed it, and Willow is building a short line run- it operating.
using long laterals and lateral injection ning past two earlier finds, but Smith Bay Falling production and low oil prices
wells like those in ConocoPhillips’ Alpine is about 125 miles from the nearest pipe- have also blown a hole in the state’s
field to maximize output. line connection, she said. budget, which depends on oil indus-
The Smith Bay discovery is in the Torok, The obvious onshore route to Smith try revenues. To fill that gap, Alaska’s
where Caelus will likely need to fracture Bay is off limits to development because it legislature is considering an oil indus-
the formation to generate enough pro- would go through land around Teshekpuk try tax increase for the second year
duction of the ultralight crude, he said. Lake, which is environmentally sensitive in a row.
On the plus side, the private company has and relied on by native peoples for sub- “We will see what happens,” Wolters
experience with lower-permeability pro- sistence, Houseknecht said. said, adding, “It could be difficult to plan
duction on the North Slope, and there is The likely solution would be con- development and secure capital when
a huge amount of oil under Smith Bay to structing a buried pipeline in the shal- there is so much volatility in the fis-
justify the investment. low coastal waters from Smith Bay to cal environment.” JPT
Described as an autopilot for rigs, a new process system for drilling rigs allows many of the most routine drilling tasks to be
carried out by a computer program. The human driller in this case becomes a process overseer. Source: National Oilwell Varco.
nanoActiv.com
nanoActiv™ HRT is made in the U.S.A. by Nissan Chemical America Corporation in Houston, Texas. · © 2017 All Rights Reserved · 1565
Total Drilled Vertical Depth
1,500
2,000 Closed-loop drilling operators now have something that helps
automation services them use the technology more effective-
2,500
Project authorization ly, and at scale.
3,000 for expenditure In the upcoming automated drilling
3,500
projects all the downhole data will be
4,000 organized by formation and loaded into
4,500 the rig’s process system. That informa-
Hole Depth, ft
4
3
2
1
0
4691 4785 4880 4975 5069
Connection Depth, ft
Bottom To Slips Slips To Slips Slips To Bottom
This chart showing the top five drillpipe connection times of a driller and a
process system software show clear performance differences and underline
why automating routine tasks drives rig efficiencies. Source: SPE/IADC 184694.
On most automated rigs today, a new a platform like this, you can deploy any
joint of pipe is still added to the drill- number of optimization applications.”
string by hand, which introduces room But new tricks will require more CALL FOR PAPERS
for unavoidable randomness in the speed downhole data and that could be coming Submission Deadline:
at which they can be screwed togeth- soon. Earlier this year, Precision Drilling
er. But Cuku said, “If the machine sets announced that automation upgrades 26 June 2017
the stump at the exact same height each will be part of a USD 52 million capital
time, the wrench doesn’t need to be expenditure program. Dozens of rigs
adjusted and the crew knows how long will be included in this plan; however, IADC/SPE
that will take, because the time spent
coming-off-bottom and into the slips is
the number to be equipped with auto-
mated technology was not specified. DRILLING
now standardized.”
He added that as the “crews on
In a separate project, and unrelated
to the NOV partnership, Precision Drill- CONFERENCE
the floor get into a cadence with the
machine,” that the consistency in such
ing is aiming to de-man its directional
drilling service with an automated advi-
AND EXHIBITION
routine tasks becomes clear to see in sory system (SPE/IADC 184682). Cuku
the data. One chart comparing the best said that this technology was tested in 6–8 March 2018
five connection times made by the pro- passive mode on hundreds of wells and Fort Worth, Texas, USA
cess system and those made by a drill- has recently been used in active mode
er Cuku described as “very competent” to drill the curve on several wells. JPT
Fort Worth Convention Center
does not even have to be labeled to tell
www.spe.org/go/DrillingCFP
which is which. The process system’s set For Further Reading
of times are very even, while the other SPE/IADC 184694 World First
times are noticeably uneven and signifi- Closed Loop Downhole Automation
cantly longer. Combined with Process Automation
Such examples represent only the low System Provides Integrated Drilling
hanging fruit of potential drilling effi- Automation in the Permian Basin
ciencies, Cuku said, who added, “With by T. Pink, D. Cuku, S. Pink, NOV et al.
A ConocoPhillips rig drills a well in the Eagle Ford Shale, an area where the company has also seen encouraging results
by expanding its objectives to the Austin Chalk formation. Source: ConocoPhillips.
Newr
after-tax return of 30% at an oil price of year-on-year in 2016. With new com-
USD 40/bbl. Nikolai Gouliaev, who ana- pletion designs for enhancing well per-
lyzes the upstream oil and gas industry formance, the company said, “there is
for the investor website Seeking Alpha, potential to further expand …. premi-
fo
pointed out that “EOG’s Austin Chalk um-return well inventory” across the
wells outperform the ‘premium well’ Austin Chalk play.
7 !
definition by a wide margin.” In an April investor presentation, the
Stage #
Fig. 1—In most of the stages of this well, one perforation cluster gets far more proppant than the rest. This study by
Devon Energy using fiber-optic cables to monitor activity along the wellbore by detecting and analyzing sounds—
distributed acoustic sensing—showed most often the first cluster reached by the high-pressure stream of fracturing fluid
becomes the dominant one. Source: Devon, SPE 184862.
open and producing, said Clayton Smith, volume pumped are right, the diverter Saudi Aramco is interested in using
global director Research Development will block the dominant fractures send- diversion as a way to stimulate signifi-
and Engineering for Pressure Pumping ing the high-pressure stream down to cantly more perforations per stage, and
Services at Weatherford, adding that undertreated clusters. saving money by reducing the number
“there will never be any production from If the range of particle sizes is not of stages per well. “It is more efficient
out there.” right, it will not seal. If the total amount and cost-effective to have more clusters
Also, those long over-stimulated frac- pumped is too low, it will fail to plug. per stage,” said Kirk Bartko, a senior
tures are likely to extend to nearby Too much and it can block every perfora- petroleum engineering consultant for
wells, increasing the risk of damaging tion and stop the job. Saudi Aramco, during a presentation at
frac hits. One reason more companies are a conference.
The most widely used hydraulic frac- using diverters is that it costs a lot less
turing diverters finesse the problem by than it used to. In recent years, the Unexpected Observations
temporarily plugging dominant perfo- price has dropped by 80%, said Fran- When Devon Energy evaluated three dif-
rations by pumping pre-mixed volumes, cisco Fragachan, director of sales and ferent diverters in combination with dif-
or pills, of multisized grains of polylactic marketing for Weatherford Pressure ferent fluid formulas last year, it found
acid (PLA). Pumping Services. that one option was often doing the
Relatively small volumes of diverter Larger-sized particle types, such as opposite of what it was supposed to do
pills are dropped during short breaks flakes and pellets from Jamplast, are by frequently accelerating the growth
in pumping proppant within each stage, engineered to significantly reduce the of the dominant fracture, one had no
The particles are supposed to follow the volume of material needed in some open- impact on the growth of the largest frac-
fluid flow into the dominant opening and ings, such as an uncemented well, Mois- ture more than half the time, and one
form a plug that is strong enough to stand son said. was far more likely than the rest to con-
up to the hydraulic pressure—Weath- At this price point, Weddle said the trol the growth of the biggest fractures
erford has tested them up to 6,000 psi, additional time required to pump the (Fig. 2).
and is pushing that higher—and after- diverter during each stage is the main The combination of fluid and diverter
ward will go away by breaking down into cost consideration, not the cost of the most likely to halt growth, which is now
a benign liquid. material. He estimates the breaks added regularly used, was identified only as
Larger particles in the mix are in the pumping for diverter drops adds diverter C, Haustveit said.
designed to create a structure bridging about 6–9 hours per well. “It is still a very Details like that can be hard to find.
the opening while mid-sized and small- cost-effective way to drive performance,” Operators do not want to reveal any-
er ones fill in the gaps. If the mix and the he said. thing that gives them an edge, and ser-
Pressure Test
0.5
Fraction of Drops
Weatherford
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Fig. 1—A comparison of average monthly water volumes disposed in saltwater disposal wells (SDWs) and the average
pressure utilization of SDWs for each county in the Permian Basin. Source: Digital H2O.
utilization for SWDs was 65% in 2016, tances to dispose of their waters in less- barrel. Also, the landowners want to sell
with several wells reporting utilization utilized wells. This relationship has a fresh water and make money off of it. I
approaching 100%. direct impact on water costs. would too. And then, the low costs of pro-
Fig. 1 illustrates the average monthly “As utilization pressure increases, duced water disposal are a factor, and that
water volume disposed in an SWD com- transport pressure increases, therefore doesn’t include the costs for transport.
pared to the average pressure utilization the cost to transport that water increas- Then, of course, we’re recognizing the
for SWDs for each county in the Permian es,” Wells said. “In addition, as salt- contamination risk of transporting and
Basin. A range of 60% to 80% utilization water disposal capacity increases, the storing produced water in pits. You have
is considered high, and anything above fee charged to dispose that water in salt- to use tanks, and that’s a lot of tanks.”
that is considered full utilization, mean- water disposal wells also increases, so Wells et al. (2017) predicted that
ing that the wells in that county cannot you get two factors of costs going up— renewed completion activity, continued
accept any additional water for disposal. water transport costs and water dispos- drawdown of drilled-but-uncompleted
Wells identified four counties—Gaines, al costs driven by the capacity utiliza- wells, and high legacy well produced
Yoakum, Kent, and Hockley—that are tion of the installed base of the saltwater water volumes will drive demand for
either at high or full utilization, with sev- disposal infrastructure.” additional SWD capacity. However, given
eral other counties nearing the lower the recent slowdown in available SWD
bound of the high utilization range. Permian Outlook capacity, they wrote that even a slight
Wells said that SWD pressure utiliza- At a presentation hosted by the SPE Gulf increase in produced water volumes may
tion shares a fundamental relationship Coast Section’s Waste and Water Man- lead to increasing water costs until new
with transport distance costs, as shown agement Study Group, Bridget Scanlon disposal capacity becomes available.
in Fig. 2. The light blue line in the fig- outlined the numerous challenges oper- Presuming that the price of oil con-
ure represents the median pressure uti- ators face in reusing produced water in tinues to rise, they estimated that water
lization percentage in a given month, the Permian, ranging from the low cost production in the Permian could increase
while the light green line represents the of fresh water in the area and the cost of by as much as 50 million bbl each
median transport distance in a given disposal relative to the costs of storage month. If production increases by this
month. As the median pressure utiliza- and reuse. amount, approximately 70 million bbl of
tion increases, so does the transport dis- “Water is cheap in the Permian Basin,” produced water would need to be divert-
tance. Wells said this was likely due to said Scanlon, a senior research scientist ed from current disposal facilities to
the fact that, as SWDs near a well produc- for the Bureau of Economic Geology at new facilities or be diverted for reuse.
ing high volumes of produced water fill the University of Texas at Austin. “We A 15% volume increase in produced
up, operators have to drive longer dis- have it measured at about 25 cents per water would likely lead to multiple bot-
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MANAGEMENT
Production from oil fields can be The implementation of a chemical assets, a laboratory-screening program
increased by enhanced oil recovery EOR (cEOR) project is often a significant will start to identify a suitable chemi-
(EOR) techniques. Among several other endeavor that not only poses technical cal solution that not only will perform
EOR methods, the injection of chemicals challenges but also represents substan- under specific reservoir conditions but
has been studied since the 1970s. tial financial risk. In recent years, cEOR also meet financial targets. The princi-
In that time, anionic polyacrylamides projects also target challenging condi- pal workstreams of a cEOR project are
(PAM) have proven to be efficient vis- tions such as high temperatures, high illustrated in Fig. 1.
cosifiers for moderate field conditions salinity, and demanding locations such as EOR-specific application test work
to reduce mobility of the displacement offshore fields. is needed, such as rheology evalua-
fluid, thus increasing reservoir sweep A multidisciplinary and integrated tions for polymers, or phase-behavior
efficiency. Surfactants mobilize oil that is approach is vital to managing techni- and interfacial-tension measurements
trapped in formation rock pores by low- cal, regulatory, and economic challenges for surfactants. The quality of the work
ering the oil/water interfacial tension. with a team of geoscientists, engineers, will rely considerably on the collabo-
Polymer flooding is now considered an chemists, and mathematical modelers ration of an experienced multidisci-
established technology, which is applied working together to achieve an increase plinary team mainly because the experi-
on a commercial scale in several coun- in incremental oil recovery at the lowest mental evaluations cover a broad range
tries. In contrast, the commercial use of total cost of ownership. of knowledge fields such as chemistry,
EOR surfactants is still limited despite physical chemistry, and reservoir and
more than 50 years of research history in From Laboratory to Full Field petroleum engineering.
this area. This can be partly explained by Once the operator has verified that While laboratory research for EOR
the technical complexity of EOR surfac- injection of chemicals is a viable option polymers will focus on measuring rhe-
tant projects and the higher cost. to enhance oil recovery in one of its ology, thermal, and mechanical stabil-
Full-Field
Chemical Supplier
Implementation
Operator (Oil Company)
Chemicals
Commercial Prod.
Chemical Scaleup
Time
Coiled-Tubing Applications
Alex Crabtree, SPE, Senior Adviser, Hess Corporation
This time last year, there was uncer- Efficiency and effectiveness a decrease in activity, continuing rising
tainty as to what the future held for costs, and a reduced return. However,
our industry as a whole and the coiled- will continue to be even with the lower current situation,
tubing sector in particular. Today, the strong influencing factors overall activity has not dropped to 2005
mantra appears to be “lower for longer.” levels; the demand side of the curve is
With the price of oil hovering around
in the development still trending upward. (EIA world petro-
USD 50/bbl, is this really the case? of the coiled-tubing leum consumption data show 84.7 mil-
Looking at the US Energy Informa- market sector. lion B/D in 2005 to 95.1 million B/D in
tion Administration (EIA) data for West 2016.) Therefore, efficiency and effec-
Texas intermediate and Brent spot tiveness will continue to be strong influ-
crude oil prices, it was not until 2005 ing in 2014. Placing the coiled-tubing encing factors in the development of the
that prices rose and consistently stayed sector within this context, the global coiled-tubing market sector.
above the USD 50 mark, with a short coiled-tubing-unit count has increased Efficiency and effectiveness can be
dip below that in 2008. On the cost from 1,163 in 2005 to 1,951 in 2016, achieved in differing ways. This year’s
side of the equation, the US Consum- with the peak being 2,096 units in papers provide readers with exam-
er Price Index in 2005 was 195 (1982 is 2015 (Intervention and Coiled Tubing ples of efficiencies that have been
the base year of 100) and 240 for 2016. Association worldwide coiled-tubing achieved in coiled-tubing operations.
Looking at US Bureau of Labor Statis- rig count). The papers demonstrate how problem-
tics data, oil and gas extraction employ- So what do these statistics imply? solving techniques have been applied
ment rose from 1,287,000 to 1,932,000 They would seem to reflect trends that to improve such aspects as on-site
in the US between 2005 and 2015, peak- are currently manifesting themselves: processes, fit-for-purpose equipment,
coiled-tubing-string selection for pro-
cess optimization, and more-effective
Alex Crabtree, SPE, is senior adviser for well interventions and treatment placement. JPT
well integrity with the Hess Corporation E&P Technology depart-
ment. He has more than 33 years of experience in the upstream
oil and gas industry. Crabtree holds a BS degree in mechanical
engineering. He has worked in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Recommended additional reading
Europe, North America, and South America, both onshore and at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
offshore. Crabtree previously worked within the oilfield-services- OTC 26690 Journey to Success—
company sector, holding various engineering and management Advancement of Coiled-Tubing Drilling in
posts in research and development, field operations, downhole-tool design, and Malaysia by Zhon Wei Ooi, Petronas, et al.
technology implementation. He has authored several SPE papers and is a past SPE 182905 Coiled-Tubing Technology
program-committee chairperson for various SPE conferences and SPE Applied for Extending the Reach in Sand-Screen-
Technology Workshops. Crabtree was an SPE Distinguished Lecturer in 2001–02 and Completed and Openhole Wells by Karim
is a member of the JPT Editorial Committee. Elrashidi, Baker Hughes, et al.
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
70,700 lbm
0.190 in. 0.204-in. Dual Taper Strips 0.224 in. 0.156 in.
≈1,800 ft
68,700 lbm
0.190-in. Dual Taper Strips 0.204-in. Dual Taper Strips 0.204 in. 0.145 in.
≈1,500 ft
Fig. 1—Final optimized 2-in.-CT designs showing an hourglass configuration to improve reach and reduce overall
weight. Both designs benefit from reduced weight in the uphole section, proprietary dual tapered strips that protect
the bias welds in the high-cycled region of the string, and rapid transitions to thinner wall to reduce weight in the
horizontal section.
The advantage of vibration tools or lu- length to avoid helical buckling in the weight; reduces tubing costs; and, most
bricants is so significant that, depend- well. The effective axial force and the importantly, does not affect extended-
ing on the complexity of the extended- helical-buckling-load limits were ana- reach capacity.
reach wells, they can enable reaching lyzed for each wall-thickness change in
TDs with smaller CT sizes and lighter the designs. Optimized-2-in.-CT-Design
string makeups. After many design iterations and re- Field Performance
To maximize fatigue life, CT-design en- visions of the proposed strings with The 2-in. customized CT designs have
gineers carefully select the minimum wall the CT service companies and the op- been in operation since 2015. The ad-
thickness that has the proper diameter/ erator, the final designs were achieved ditional force transfer achieved by the
wall-thickness ratio for the CT geom- (Fig. 1). These strings have a unique optimal selection of the wall-thickness-
etry. Increasing wall thickness reduces continuous-taper configuration, which transition points allowed for more avail-
CT-bending-fatigue accumulation and in- provides rapid wall-thickness transi- able set-down weight while milling
creases pressure capacity. Therefore, it tions to help with the strategic place- fracture plugs, which increased the ef-
is recommended to cover the expected ment of the wall thickness and provide ficiency of the operation. The post-job
working area of the string with increased additional tubing strength where it is analysis performed in several wells in-
wall thickness where the fatigue tends to needed most. dicated that the apparent friction fac-
accumulate faster because of short trips The new string designs feature an tors are very similar to the previously
(from kickoff point to TD). hourglass configuration, which reduc- matched friction factors analyzed with
es some of the heavy wall in the upper the previous CT designs when using lu-
2-in. CT Design Optimized for section with thinner wall thickness- bricants and a vibration tool, which
Multistage Hydraulic Fracturing es. This reduces fluid frictional pres- was expected.
The design process started by placing sure losses inside the CT because of
specific thicknesses along the tubing the restricted inner diameters; reduces (Continued on page 60)
2.375-in. CT×20,300 ft
0.224 in. 0.236-in. Dual Taper Strips 0.250 in. 0.156-in. Dual Taper Strips 99,200 lbm
≈2,950 ft
Fig. 2—Final custom-fit 2.375-in. hourglass design that includes a lighter core for weight optimization, proprietary dual
taper strip technology that protects bias welds to improve fatigue performance, greater wall thickness extended to the
end of the vertical and deviated sections of the wells to increase CT stiffness in those sections, and quick transition of
six nominal wall thicknesses at 2,950 ft to place thin wall material in the horizontal section. In addition, a 130-ksi-yield-
strength CT grade was selected to optimize service life and prevent tubing deformation because of the challenging
operating conditions.
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For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
Stage 1 Stage 6
Boat Work and Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Boat Work and
Spotting Rig Up Pressure Test Operations Rig Down Backload
Equipment Equipment
exploited during rig down. This doubles up and rig down, the following improve- tion, standard work instructions, and
the reward for optimal work flow and ment opportunities were identified. operational checklists.
efficient design. Bottleneck Aversion. Bottleneck aver- Work-Flow Management. Work-flow
Understanding the process work flow sion involves recognizing and reducing management ensures that tasks are com-
of a rig-up or rig-down series is impera- the number of tasks that may cause con- pleted in the most efficient manner to
tive for process improvement. Rig up and gestion. Eliminating at-height tasks al- complete a total process. Additionally,
rig down involve significant time work- together can have a profound effect on work-flow management involves strate-
ing at heights. Activities performed while efficiency improvement. As previous- gically allocating the proper amount of
working at heights must be reduced. In ly mentioned, any task eliminated dur- personnel resources for each task.
fact, working at heights is the largest ing rig up will also be eliminated during Multiskilling of Personnel. Specifi-
bottleneck of all surface activities. Near- rig down. cally, multiskilling is perhaps the pinna-
ly every prolonged rig-up process can be Standardization. In both design and cle of efficiency. From a work-flow per-
traced back to undesirable performance execution, standardization can guar- spective, consistency and continuity are
while working at heights. antee consistent, efficient improve- realized across all performed services
ment. It should include, as a minimum, because multiskilled personnel perform a
Areas of Improvement. Upon applying pressure-control-stack configuration, variety of tasks. Naturally, cross-trained
the systematic efficiency method to rig low- and high-pressure-line configura- crews allow the work involving multiple
Unmanned Systems
Technical Section
SPE has formed a Technical Section for members This section seeks to:
to promote the exchange of information and • Develop capability through workshops and
technology, as well as develop understanding of and conferences
competence in the area of unmanned systems.
• Transfer knowledge through meetings,
This new technical area covers remotely operated and communication, and PetroWiki®
autonomous vehicle systems, software solutions, and
power systems for marine, air, and land environments • Promote safety, professionalism, and social
such as ROVs and drones. responsibility through ethics, certification, and
HSSE-SR
Deepen your learning and share your insights with
other SPE members on the subject both virtually and • Provide public education through STEM
face-to-face. volunteering and student competition engagement
Discover more.
TechnipFMC.com
T he treatment in a deepwater,
frac-packed well with fiber-optic-
equipped coiled tubing (CT) and a
The formation consists of two lobes
of one sand package at an approximate
angle of 33°. On the basis of log data and
mined. In addition, it was hoped that
a way to correct those points of failure
could be developed while the operation
rotating, hydraulic high-pressure core samples, the permeability of the was in progress, to produce improve-
jetting tool achieved successful formation across these lobes was highly ments and negate the need for addi-
stimulation of a 500-ft-long frac- variable. On the basis of that variability, tional treatments. A variety of methods
packed zone after several previous it was believed that the most likely sce- could be used to gather data on the op-
failures using different techniques. By nario was that the upper portion of the eration: electric line, CT with electric
using CT equipped with fiber optics lower lobe was the highest-conductivity line or fiber-optic cable installed, or
and downhole measurement tools, region of the completion and that the digital slickline. However, only the CT
engineers were able to perform a previous acid treatments had mostly option offered any reasonable expec-
data-driven operation based on real- been stimulating that portion of the tation to be able to alter the treatment
time bottomhole measurements and well to the detriment of other areas. It after it was started. Traditional CT with
distributed-temperature surveys. was believed that the more-laminated- electric line installed in it was consid-
This successful treatment improved looking pay in the upper lobe, in partic- ered for the operation but rejected. Or-
productivity by 75% compared to the ular, was underperforming. dinary electric-line cable has poor re-
well before treatment. Several problems had to be overcome sistance to acid. This can be overcome
to make another stimulation successful: by cladding the electric line in plastic or
Introduction ◗ There was uncertainty about polymer armor. However, this increases
Diagnostic work indicated that a well exactly what the production the outer diameter of the electric-line
had considerable skin and flow impair- problem was with the well. cable, greatly reducing fluid pumping
ment. Several acid treatments had been ◗ Conducting the stimulations would capacity through the CT. This would re-
bullheaded into the well since initial incur high cost. duce the potential opportunity to alter
completion. The treatments were inef- ◗ Excessive interruptions of new the course of the treatment once started
fective, either producing no material well-drilling operations would and would limit the ability to clean the
results or producing only short-lived threaten to put production from screens themselves with tools installed
improvements with a quick return to new wells behind schedule. on the CT. Traditional electric line also
original conditions. ◗ The fracture pressure of the zone lacks the ability to sense changes in tem-
Slickline diagnostic work conduct- was 12,700 psi, but the pore perature across the length of the cable.
ed on the well indicated the possible pressure was 12,100 psi, leaving This capability is critical to obtaining
presence of a mechanical obstruction only a small pressure margin to detailed information about where fluids
or fish of some sort near the bottom perform an operation at matrix are entering and exiting the wellbore.
of the lower lobe of a sand package injection rates. Without this capability, electric-line-
in the well. However, lacking corre- equipped equipment can only determine
lated depth measurements, it was un- Technological Solutions fluid entry and exit where the downhole
clear whether this obstruction was A solution that allowed for real-time tools are located at any given time.
below the entire producing zone or high monitoring of the treatment was de- CT with fiber-optic cable installed
enough to obstruct some of the lower sired so that the reasons for the previ- would allow real-time data gathering as
screen section. ous stimulation failures could be deter- well as the opportunity to pump down
the CT pipe at high enough rates to po-
tentially adjust the treatment. It would
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
allow for much-more-effective screen
of paper SPE 184753, “Overcoming Challenges of Stimulating a Deepwater, Frac-
cleaning of the completion than the op-
Pack-Completed Well in the Gulf of Mexico Using Coiled Tubing With Real-Time tion of electric line in CT. It would also
Downhole Measurements,” by Eric J. Gagen, SPE, Schlumberger, Alex D. Menkhaus, allow the use of distributed-temperature
Kellogg School of Management, prepared for the 2017 SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing and sensing to determine where along the
Well Intervention Conference and Exhibition, Houston, 21–22 March. The paper has 500-ft gross formation length the fluids
not been peer reviewed. were going.
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
Matrix Stimulation
Frank Chang, SPE, Petroleum Engineering Consultant, Saudi Aramco
Carbonate rock holds 60% of the global There has been ongoing induced fracturing is one idea to increase
oil and gas reserves, but they are becom- well and reservoir connectivity, although
ing more and more expensive and dif- development to add science the ability to control the depth of fractur-
ficult to develop. With large reservoirs and engineering to the art ing still needs to be worked out. It might
maturing, operators are forced to explore help operators tailor stimulation in par-
and produce from deeper resources,
of matrix stimulation so ticular reservoir and geological proper-
which are tight, highly stressed, and that the fluid volume can ties for bypassing near-wellbore damage.
under high temperature. In today’s eco- be reduced, the placement Tight formations are candidates for
nomic environment of USD 50/bbl, the hydraulic fracturing as the default. How-
cost of extracting hydrocarbon from can be more controlled, and ever, the solubility of carbonate by vari-
these reservoirs needs to be scrutinized the result can be measured ous chemicals provides opportunities to
to maximize profitability. This means extend the well drainage radius effec-
increasing drainage of wells using effec- more directly and reliably. tively without the intensive equipment,
tive stimulation and optimizing produc- material, and infrastructure demand of
tion profile along the well. stimulation so that the fluid volume can hydraulic fracturing. The industry has
Generically, carbonate matrix stimula- be reduced, the placement can be more developed significant portfolios of tech-
tion means pumping acids, retarded or controlled, and the result can be mea- nologies for stimulating carbonate reser-
unretarded with various functional addi- sured more directly and reliably. Adapt- voirs, covering intervention tools, pump-
tives, through coiled tubing or by bull- ing multiple operations in a single trip, ing processes, chemicals, and diagnostic
heading, followed with diverting agents. by combining mechanical tactics such as mechanisms. Standing alone, no tech-
Treatment volume and injection rate are jetting and chemical tactics such as ener- nology can deliver productivity optimi-
based on rules of thumb formed from gized or in-situ-generated acid, further zation and maximized cost-effectiveness.
experience accumulated in the industry allows time and cost saving while mini- Integrating technology-provider ingenu-
and based on laboratory studies with mizing risks and enhancing well produc- ity with operator knowledge in appli-
cores under achievable experimental tivity. Measuring real wormhole penetra- cability will be key to using these tech-
conditions. Success is evaluated from the tion in the reservoir will help complete nologies to make matrix stimulation
pressure and temperature response dur- the loop of design, execution, and evalu- more effective in delivering hydrocar-
ing treatments or incremental produc- ation. It adds tremendous value for engi- bons from the increasingly difficult-to-
tion increase after stimulation. There has neers to optimize the matrix treatment. tap resources. JPT
been ongoing development to add sci- Alternative physics and chemistry are
ence and engineering to the art of matrix on the horizon as well. Temperature-
Recommended additional reading
Frank Chang, SPE, is a petroleum engineering consultant in pro- at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
duction technology with Saudi Aramco, which he joined in 2012. SPE 181845 Far-Field Diversion in
He looks after a portfolio of projects focused on developing Hydraulic Fracturing and Acid Fracturing:
new technologies in hydraulic fracturing, carbonate stimulation, Using Solid Particulates To Improve
formation-damage removal, corrosion and scale mitigation, and Stimulation Efficiency by Vanessa Williams,
sand control. Chang started his career with Stimlab in 1992 after Baker Hughes, et al.
earning a PhD degree in petroleum engineering from the SPE 183465 A Novel Approach for
University of Oklahoma. He joined Schlumberger in 1996. Chang Stimulation of a Heterogeneous Thin-
progressed through his Schlumberger career, 1996–2012, from development engineer Layered Reservoir in an Offshore Field,
to engineering adviser. During his 16-year tenure at Schlumberger, he was involved in Abu Dhabi by S.F. Nofal, Abu Dhabi Marine
development of several new products and technologies in sand control, fracturing, Operating Company, et al.
acidizing, and perforating. Chang is an author of the new SPE acidizing monograph SPE 181823 A New Acid-Fracturing-Fluid
published in 2016. He holds 23 patents, is an author of more than 40 SPE technical System for High-Temperature Deep-Well
papers, and is a member of the JPT Editorial Committee. Chang can be reached at Carbonate Reservoir by Ying Gao, China
fakuen.chang@aramco.com. National Petroleum Corporation, et al.
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
Fig. 1—(a) Cracked cement annulus after acid-soluble-material test, and (b) perforation-hole diameter in the 6⅝-in. casing.
tic approach to determine whether the with a memory gauge to achieve precise chloric acid pill to increase injectivity in
acid-soluble abrasive material could con- depth correlation for the perforation and case the face of the formation had been
tact the formation as desired; if not suc- stimulation stages. The run was com- plugged. The CT was pulled out of hole
cessful, switching to conventional sand pleted successfully, and the depth offset (POOH) 2,000 ft to stay above the acid
would be required. If successful injectivi- was corrected with the flags made on the after being spotted. At this depth, the
ty was observed, then the rest of the stag- pipe. CT was run in hole (RIH) once more acid was squeezed into the formation,
es would be completed, with the stimula- with the perforating/jetting tool to per- and the pressure suddenly dropped to
tion performed sequentially immediately form the first two stages. The plan was zero psi while being squeezed. No pres-
after each CT-jetting stage. to perform the first two stages and then sure was observed at the surface. It was
to perform an injectivity test to verify determined that the well was on vacuum
Operational Report the effectiveness of the abrasive mate- from this point forward.
The equipment was rigged up per op- rial. The injectivity test showed a steady It was decided to proceed with a ni-
erator requirements. A drifting and pressure increase. The contingency plan trified CT-jetting-assisted acid injection,
casing-collar-locator run was performed was then to spot a 50-bbl 10% hydro- which would still produce fractures, al-
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CJENERGY.COM
CJENERGY.COM
Monitoring of Matrix Acidizing
by Use of Resistivity Measurements
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
Temperature (°C)
bution within samples.
–50
Wellbore Tubulars
Robello Samuel, SPE, Technology Fellow, Halliburton
This month, I would like to bring out Sometimes, while flying focus on torque and drag, which concern
some thoughts on the advancements that tubulars. Even though we have advanced
have been made in the tubular area, an at an altitude of 35,000 ft, in the prediction of torque, drag, and
important and complex system that has I think of a drillstring and hookload estimation, challenges remain
a very, very small diameter/length aspect concerning drillstring integrity, such as
ratio and a high slenderness ratio, mak-
the fact that, if I could prediction of tool failures, buckling, and
ing it a thin wall. hold it from the plane, string stability.
Sometimes, while flying at an alti- it would be touching Can we couple fewer casings? Vari-
tude of 35,000 ft, I think of a drill- ous underlying arguments could be made
string and the fact that, if I could hold the ground. to answer this question. In the world of
it from the plane, it would be touching exponential technologies, there are many
the ground. Amazingly, we are trying ogies. Tubular manufacturing, recom- opportunities where we are breaking the
to predict the health of this long string mended practices for material strength, status quo to reduce nonproductive time
in a constrained wellbore with a few and wear are important for drill- by providing shorter connection times.
sensors at the bottom. It is like saying string integrity. We have seen in recent One of the emerging technologies is braz-
I will touch your toe with a few instru- years many technological advancements ing of the connection, leading the way to
ments and then predict the health of in tubular-manufacturing technology. coupling fewer casing runs, which can be
your whole body. The greatest challenge Tubulars also have become part of the automated very well in the future with an
is being able to bring together all aspects data-transmission network and slowly autowelding tong on the rig floor instead
of tubulars to advance in lockstep with will converge with the data-handling and of casing tongs as the casings are run into
one another. We have advanced tremen- data-transmission systems. Common the hole.
dously not only in the modeling but also thoughts for drilling engineers—when I have selected papers that present a
in materials and manufacturing technol- it comes to planning and drilling—often balanced perspective on the advance-
ment of tubulars technology. Also, I
would like to encourage attendance at
Robello Samuel, SPE, is a technology fellow at Halliburton based the tubular session in the upcoming SPE
in Houston. He has more than 30 years of multidisciplinary expe- Annual Technical Conference and Exhibi-
rience in domestic and international oil and gas drilling and, for tion in San Antonio. JPT
the past 12 years, has held concurrent adjunct-professor appoint-
ments at the University of Houston. Samuel has published 12
books and more than 150 technical papers. In 2013, he received
the SPE Gulf Coast Section Drilling Engineering Award, and, the Recommended additional reading
following year, he was named an SPE Distinguished Lecturer. at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
Samuel holds BS and MS degrees in mechanical engineering and MS and PhD SPE 180437 Structural-Casing/Soil
degrees in petroleum engineering from The University of Tulsa and is a member of Interaction Effects on Wellhead Motion
the JPT Editorial Committee. He can be reached at robello.samuel@halliburton.com. by Udaya B. Sathuvalli, Blade Energy, et al.
Well-Temperature-Analysis
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights Model
of paper SPE 182515, “What Vacuum-Insulated Tubings (or Vacuum-Insulated The analysis model is a steady-state
Casings) Bring to Thermal Wells,” by J. Damour and D. Johannson, Majus, prepared thermal model of a horizontal slice of
for the 2016 SPE Thermal Well Integrity and Design Symposium, Banff, Canada, a well. It includes the different layers
29 November–1 December. The paper has not been peer reviewed. of a thermal well: the bare tubing or
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
#OTCBrasil
JPT • JUNE 2017
Improving Casing Integrity
by Induction Brazing of Casing Connections
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
◗ Cool brazed joint with forced-air Rig-Ready Brazing System. The proto- coincides with the tempering tempera-
convective cooling. type rig-ready unit was based on the ture of quenched-and-tempered mate-
existing laboratory brazing setup. This rial grades.
Induction Heating. The choice for the meant making use of proven compo- When microstructural changes were
heat source was governed by the need nents. Furthermore, all equipment from considered, it was observed that the large
for a fast heating process. In this case, the onset of the project was designed carbides are completely dissolved back
only induction heating was found to be with rig operations in mind. into the matrix because of the effect of
capable of reliably attaining the heat- The as-built brazing system consists the heating process softening the mate-
ing rates. The induction-heating prin- of an induction heating system, a power rial, as observed in the tensile tests.
ciple is based on combining a coil with tong, and an environmental chamber to The results of the brazing trials are dis-
the casing. When alternating current is shield the hot work. The components are cussed in detail in the complete paper.
passed through the coil, a magnetic field connected by a central control system
is generated. The magnetic field induc- to allow automatic makeup of brazed Conclusions
es an opposing current in the pipe body joints similar to regular casing running. An extensive test program was used to
and then causes the pipe body to heat Each component is discussed in detail prove the feasibility and applicability of
up. The primary heating is caused by the in the complete paper. An impression of brazing on expandable and regular con-
electric resistance of the pipe material. the final setup on the rig floor is given nections. The results show that for both
For practical purposes, and given a in Fig. 2. processes there are no microstructural
known power supply, the induced heat is changes to the substrate. The pin and box
maximized for magnetic, high-electrical- Trial Preparation were metallurgically bonded by the filler
resistance materials with a minimal gap Filler-Material Selection. The VM50- material. Consequently, both processes
between coil and pipe body. The induced grade casing material used in the ex- produced leak-tight casing connectors
heat is generated only in the outer skin of pandable application can cope with before and, when applicable, after expan-
the pipe. A resonant frequency of 2 kHz high temperatures without affecting sion, as shown by full-scale tests. On the
was chosen, which gave approximately microstructure, formability, or tensile basis of these results, the following con-
0.5 mm of penetration depth. strength. This was proved by expand- clusions can be reached:
The speed of the heating process is ing brazed joints. The brazed connec- ◗ A laboratory process was proved for
governed by the spacing between the coil tion expanded without issues. Therefore, producing brazed connections by
and the pipe body, the conduction of heat it was justified that a high-melting- spraying braze material on casing
from the induction heated zone, and the temperature filler material could be used threads, making up with induction
electric power that can be delivered by that provides the ductility and shear heating, and using conventional
the induction system. The laboratory ver- strength needed. casing makeup and torquing
sion of the technology was based on a For standard casing-connection appli- procedure.
150-kW power supply with a simple axi- cation, the aim was to braze L80 through ◗ A rig-ready prototype brazing
symmetric coil design with tight clear- the Q125 grade without machine was constructed, and the
ances for maximum power efficiency. In affecting the micro- brazing process was proved in the
the rig-ready system, a compromise was structure. It is clear laboratory using modified casing
made between heating efficiency and run- from the heating trials tongs for 8⅝- and 9⅝-in. casing.
ning clearance; therefore, a larger clear- that the onset of soft- ◗ Limited pressure testing conducted
ance (approximately ening is approxi- on brazed joints has demonstrated
12.7 mm) was chosen. mately 550°C. This that it is possible to produce leak-
tight brazed connections (for both
conventional and expandable casing
joints) for the pressures tested
(350 bar).
◗ The brazing process holds promise
to enhance sealing capability
compared with existing casing
Fig. 2—Schematic of the finalized system on the rig floor. pressure ratings. JPT
Introduction The geometrical properties were ob- entire tube. The tube is placed inside a
One of the most common challenges tained by means of a physical mapping, hyperbaric chamber, which is filled with
to high flow rates in mature fields is taking 10 measurements in the longitu- water at a rate of 200 psi/min until the
the migration of sand to the well. High dinal direction and five in the circumfer- space between the tube and the chamber
rates of oil production together with ential direction to calculate the average wall is completely free of air; the interi-
maximum sand retention is the opti- thickness, average diameter, and initial or of the tube, however, will remain full
mal result. In accomplishing this com- imperfections (ovalization and eccen- of air. The assembly is then finally pres-
plex goal, perforated pipes play a vital tricity) of each specimen. surized to collapse, which is character-
role because they are a simple and in- ized by a distinctive noise followed by an
expensive application, and they are Material Properties. The mechan- abrupt drop in applied pressure.
widely used in the industry. Failures of ical properties were also determined
such pipes are directly related to the for each specimen by means of trac- Numerical Simulation. A tridimen-
collapse resistance of a pipe weakened tion tests on 18 proof bodies, including sional finite-element model was devel-
by the perforations. Such failures can some in the longitudinal direction and oped by use of commercial software.
occur because of the plugging of holes others in the circumferential direction. Typical meshes were used in the numer-
or changes in differential pressure. This After processing the results, the aver- ical models for intact tubes and tubes
study might contribute to future predic- age curves and values for the mechanical with holes. These meshes were deter-
tion of collapse pressures of perforated properties for each tube were defined. mined following mesh sensitivity in the
pipes without resorting to costly full- Because of the remarkable differences in circumferential, axial, and radial direc-
scale experiments. shape and behavior of the curves, an av- tions. Also, a special mesh-sensitivity
erage curve was calculated also. The re- analysis was evaluated in the region
Methodology Development sults of monotonic traction tests in the near the holes. The models were devel-
Geometric Properties. This study in- circumferential direction are shown in oped to simulate the results of the ex-
volves four intact and eight perforated Table 4 of the complete paper, and the perimental tests, with the objective of
specimens as study bodies. All of them plots are shown in Figs. 3 and 4 of the verifying their capacity to reproduce
were obtained from four pipes designat- complete paper. the physical phenomena of collapse. The
ed as T3, T4, T5, and T6. A special no- radial and axial symmetry of the tube
menclature was defined to identify each Collapse Test in Full Scale. Initially, were recognized, to save computation-
one with a sequence of letters and num- the tube to be tested was prepared by al time. Thus, only half the length of
bers. An explanation of this nomencla- using a 10-mm-thick metal tape and a the specimens was modeled (750 mm)
ture is shown in Fig. 1. 1-mm-thick rubber blanket to cover the and the circumferential superior half,
obtaining only one-fourth of the tube.
The finite-element mesh was developed
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of with 3D solid elements, which have 20
paper SPE 184946, “Collapse Analysis of Perforated Pipes Under External Pressure,” nodes and three degrees of freedom per
by K. Beltrán and T. Netto, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, prepared for the node. This element presents quadratic
2017 SPE Latin American and Caribbean Mature Fields Symposium, Salvador, Bahia, displacement functions, and it is appro-
Brazil, 15–16 March. The paper has not been peer reviewed. priate for irregular meshes. Each model
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
consisted of approximately 60,000 Poisson’s coefficient obtained from the during the collapse, four sections are
nodes and 9,000 elements. tensile tests. In the elastoplastic case, formed that allow the collapse to occur.
Initial geometric imperfections were a law of potential flow was adopted and In general terms, this method consists
considered with the maximum mea- associated with the von Mises plasticity of obtaining the collapse pressure by
sured ovalization in each tube and locat- theory, with a nonlinear isotropic be- verifying the cross plots of elastic oval-
ed in the center of the tube to simulate havior. For the solution method of the ization and plastic collapse. A modi-
the real geometric conditions of each modified algorithm of risk, where the fication was proposed for this model
tube. The material was modeled in the load was evaluated at each increment of later to determine the analytical col-
elastic case with a linear isotropic be- displacement, the collapse occurs when lapse pressure of tubes with holes, in-
havior, with modulus of elasticity and the load drops. cluding a geometric parameter related
to the diameter of the hole and the spac-
Analytical Approximations for In- ing between holes.
tact Pipes. American Petroleum Insti-
Technical Papers tute (API) Standards 5C2 and 5C3 can Results
be used for different types of pipes: Collapse-Pressure Experimental Test
The complete SPE technical casings, drillpipes, line pipes, and tub- and Numeric Simulations. Figs. 2 and
papers synopsized in this ings. According to the approximation 3 show real pipe collapsed after the
issue are available free to therein, there are essentially four types testing. Generally, the perforated pipes
SPE members for 2 months of failure modes: yield strength, plastic show values of collapse pressure 10%
at www.spe.org/jpt.
collapse, transition collapse, and elas- lower than those of intact pipes, but this
tic collapse. To define which type of col- difference could increase or decrease
lapse formulation should be applied for as a function of other variables, such as
a specific tube, five constants must be material data, geometric hole distribu-
Subscriptions calculated and the intervals limiting the tion, and initial imperfections.
Address Change: application of each one must be evalu- The collapse values obtained from
ated. The collapse pressure is obtained the Group A material data (using the
Contact Customer Services by replacing the values of each formu- material plot obtained for each pipe)
lation. The Det Norske Veritas (DNV) show a difference of between 1 and 20%
at +1.972.952.9393 or
equation considers that the collapse is between the experimental and the nu-
+1.800.456.6863 (toll-free) a function of three properties: elastic merical pressures. This variation could
to notify of address change capacity, plastic capacity, and ovaliza- explain the differences in the material
or make changes online at tion. These functions are combined into behavior between pipes, where material
www.spe.org/members/ a polynomial of the third degree that re- properties obtained in some test bod-
update. solves the collapse pressure. ies could represent in a better way the
structure behavior, whereas other bod-
Analytical Approximations for Per- ies have important differences and can-
Subscriptions are USD 15 forated Pipes. The mechanism of the not represent as well. To avoid this vari-
per year (members). four-hinge method was proposed more ation, the most-divergent curves were
than 30 years ago and assumes that, disregarded. The authors then deter-
EOR Operations
Stephen Goodyear, SPE, EOR Deployment Lead, Shell
When I started editing this section in The discipline of improved to deliver more-robust invest-
2015, the year after the oil-price crash, ment opportunities.
many industry commentators were pre- a lower-for-longer world The discipline of a lower-for-longer
dicting a strong recovery in oil price by can create the conditions world can create the conditions in which
now; instead, the concept of “lower for long-term investment decisions can be
longer” has become the present real-
in which long-term made. In the mix of new projects need-
ity. Now, many commentators expect a investment decisions ed to fill any production shortfall in the
shortfall in supply by the mid-2020s and can be made. coming decade, brownfield improved
the effect of shorter-cycle shale oil devel- and enhanced oil recovery can com-
opments to be just two of the factors pete with the alternatives available to
affecting price in the future. when real-term costs are at their highest the industry.
Sometimes, I hear the view that, with- (pushed by the high oil price) may not be SPE continues to play an important
out high oil prices, enhanced oil recovery the best strategy. role in sharing best practices to allow the
(EOR) does not have a place in the mix Significant progress in cost reduction industry to reap the benefit of project
of projects delivering the new produc- has been made in the industry follow- learnings, and I hope you find that the
tion needed over the next decade. How- ing the price downturn, not only in the selected papers and recommended read-
ever, high oil prices are not the whole direct cost of construction and opera- ing provide useful insights. JPT
story. High oil prices may cause an over- tions but also through a determined
heated market that squeezes the value drive to simplify and streamline new
from EOR. By their nature, EOR projects projects in concepts selected for facili- Recommended additional reading
are often longer-term investments, so ties and wells. Through this competi- at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
investing in new EOR projects at a time tive scoping, project economics can be
SPE 180755 Enhanced SAGD Startup
Techniques for Improved Thermal Efficiency
Stephen Goodyear, SPE, is EOR deployment lead for Shell. He and Conformance—A Field-Test-Based
Investigation by J.M. Dragani, Cenovus
has 31 years of experience as a reservoir engineer, principally
Energy, et al.
working in EOR. Before joining Shell in 2002, Goodyear worked
for an oil and gas consultancy and, over his career, has per- SPE 180739 Results of a Polymer-
formed a wide variety of roles, including in research and field- Flooding Pilot in the Tambaredjo Heavy-
Oil Field, Suriname by E. Delamaide, IFP
development planning. He is Shell’s principal technical expert for
Technologies, et al.
gas EOR and storage solutions and has a particular interest in
next-generation carbon dioxide EOR projects and carbon cap- SPE 183362 Successful Flood-Front and
ture and storage. Goodyear holds an MMath degree from Cambridge University and Breakthrough Prediction of Miscible WAG
in a Complex Carbonate Reservoir—A Case
a PhD degree in physics from the University of Edinburgh. He is a member of the JPT
Study by Z.U.R. Qureshi, ADCO, et al.
Editorial Committee and can be reached at stephen.goodyear@shell.com.
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
Introduction
The MI-gas EOR process at Prudhoe Bay
began in late 1982. In late 1986, the Cen-
tral Gas Facility (CGF) began operation, Fig. 1—Area map of Alaska North Slope.
enabling the first field-scale EOR proj-
ect, the Prudhoe Bay Miscible Gas Proj-
ect (PBMGP), to start in early 1987. Since ly injected into the reservoir. The total gas (WAG) injection to improve areal and
then, the PBMGP has expanded to more amount of MI produced at the CGF is vertical sweep efficiencies.
than 170 injection patterns in the main the sum of the fresh MI (which can be
field of Prudhoe Bay. Fig. 1 provides forecast by the GPB full-field simulation EOR-Performance Analysis
a layout of the oil fields on the North model) and the recaptured RMI (which EOR-Benefit Evaluation in Produc-
Slope of Alaska. can be forecast by COBRA and process ers. The historical EOR oil benefit from
The CGF is a gas-processing plant that modeling). COBRA is a full-field scale- each producer can be estimated through
makes natural-gas liquids (NGLs) for up tool for predicting MI performance decline-curve analysis. For conven-
shipment in the Trans-Alaska Pipeline on the basis of type-pattern-simulation- tional WAG patterns, the incremental
System and MI for EOR projects. The model results. benefit from MI injection is evaluated
CGF currently processes an annual aver- MI gas produced at the Prudhoe Bay using an approach modified from the
age of approximately 7.5 billion scf/D of CGF is a rich gas composed primarily multiple-trend-forecasting technique.
produced gas to generate approximate- of carbon dioxide (approximately 21%), Water/oil ratio (WOR) is plotted on a log
ly 40,000 STB/D of NGL and more than methane (approximately 32%), ethane scale vs. recovery factor on a Cartesian
200 million scf/D of MI. The feed gas (20%), propane (25%), and a small scale to estimate the effect of MI injec-
comes from three different sources— amount of butane and heavier compo- tion on WOR. A WOR trend of water-
solution gas from the produced oil, free nents (approximately 2–3%). flood is established by matching the
reservoir gas from the gas cap, and re- Most of the GPB EOR projects are pat- WOR before MI injection to a waterflood
turned MI (RMI) that was previous- tern floods that use a water-alternating- type curve, which is generated from a
reservoir-simulation model. This hypo-
thetical WOR trend is compared with the
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
actual historical data, and any suppres-
of paper SPE 180420, “Optimizing the Use of Miscible Injectant at the Greater sion of WOR from the type curve is at-
Prudhoe Bay Fields,” by S.X. Ning, SPE, B.S. Jhaveri, E.M. Fueg, SPE, G. Stechauner, tributed to the effect of MI injection.
J.L. Jemison, SPE, and T.A. Hoang, BP Exploration (Alaska), prepared for the 2016
SPE Western Regional Meeting, Anchorage, 23–26 May. The paper has not been RMI Estimation in Producers. In
peer reviewed. the GPB fields, produced-gas samples
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
Introduction
The Kelly-Snyder field is the largest of a
chain of fields along the Pennsylvanian
Horseshoe atoll in the Midland Basin.
Within this field, the Scurry Area Canyon
Reef Operators Committee (SACROC)
Unit covers approximately 56,000 acres
with 2,800 million STB of original oil Fig. 1—SACROC 3D structure and thickness map.
in place (OOIP). Limestone is the dom-
inant mineral within the Canyon Reef
formation, and less than 3% of the for- Review 900 ft on the crest of the reef. A map
mation exists as thin sections of shale Primary Production. Completed in of the unit’s 3D structure and thick-
(1–10 ft in thickness) that are impor- November 1948, the Standard No. 1 ness is shown in Fig. 1. By late 1950,
tant stratigraphic markers. The forma- Jessie Brown 2 was drilled to 6,700 ft 1,600 production wells had been drilled
tion is divided into four major zones: the and produced 530 B/D from the Can- on the Kelly-Snyder field on irregular
Cisco, the Green Zone (GZ), the Upper yon Reef Formation. Located 9 miles 40-acre spacing.
Middle Canyon, and the Lower Middle northwest of Snyder, Texas, this well
Canyon (LMC). Of these, the GZ shows was the discovery well of the North Sny- Waterflooding. By 1954, the unit con-
the highest matrix permeability, signifi- der field. The Texas Railroad Commis- verted producers to water injectors
cant nonmatrix-flow features, and high- sion eventually merged this field with along a line in the center of the forma-
conductivity channels. Moreover, the the neighboring Kelly field upon rec- tion in a massive pressure-maintenance
transition zone (TZ) below the oil/water ognizing that both fields produce from program. This injection scheme allowed
contact has recently been developed in the same reservoir. The reservoir thick- injection of large volumes of water to the
parts of the SACROC Unit. ness varies from 10 ft on the flanks to thickest portion of the reservoir, ulti-
mately repressurizing the reservoir and
increasing oil production. By the end of
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
1971, the SACROC Unit was producing
of paper SPE 179569, “Overview of CO2 Injection and WAG Sensitivity in SACROC,” 134,000 BOPD and had a cumulative oil
by Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi, SPE, The University of Kansas, and Steve Pennell, production of 528 million STB.
Michael Matson, SPE, and Mark Linroth, SPE, Kinder Morgan, prepared for the
2016 SPE Improved Oil Recovery Conference, Tulsa, 11–13 April. The paper has not Early CO2 Flooding. In 1968, an inter-
been peer reviewed. company engineering planning commit-
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.
nov.com/NOVOS
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