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Copyright 2012 Smashing Media GmbH, Freiburg, Germany

Version 1: February 2012
ISBN: 978-3-943075-24-3

Cover Design: Ricardo Gimenes

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ABOUT SMASHING MEDIA GMBH
Smashing Media GmbH is one of the world's leading online publishing
companies in the field of Web design. Founded in 2009 by Sven Lennartz
and Vitaly Friedman, the company's headquarters is situated in southern
Germany, in the sunny city of Freiburg im Breisgau. Smashing Media's lead
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About this eBook
Among the most important ingredients for successful Web designs are
creativity, planning, coding and design skills. However, many people forget
that various psychological factors also play an important role when making
design decisions. Psychology of Web Design gives you insights on how the
human brain deals with different elements, colors, contrast, symmetry and
balance. Combining the usability guidelines from Maslow's pyramid will
surely help you design closer to your audience's desires.

Table of Contents
Designing For The Mind
Persuasion Triggers In Web Design
Designing For A Hierarchy Of Needs
10 Useful Usability Findings And Guidelines
30 Usability Issues To Be Aware Of
Designing For Start-Ups: How To Deliver The Message Across
Color Theory For Designers, Part 1: The Meaning Of Colorhyperlink
Color Theory For Designers, Part 2: Understanding Concepts And
Terminology
Color Theory For Designer, Part 3: Creating Your Own Color Palettes
About The Authors
Designing For The Mind
Francisco Inchauste

Do you know what makes a design good?

Is it merely an opinion, or is there something more to it? Breaking design
down seems like such an abstract thing. Even the designers who are able to
create thought-provoking work seem purely talented and have natural
abilities that can’t really be nailed down to a process. But what if there were
principles that captured why design and art worked the way that they do?
There are many beautiful designs that have been created on both a conscious
and unconscious level. The downside of a designer continuing to create on an
unconscious level is that the decisions they make appear somewhat random.
For example, think if you were to ask a pilot why they clicked a few switches
and they answered, “It just feels like the right switches to me,” rather than, “I
need to adjust the wings to reduce wind drag.” As a passenger, the second
would make us feel safer and confident in the pilot’s abilities.
There is a real power that comes from being able to identify and speak to
what makes your design meaningful. In the story of the Joshua Tree (Sidebar)
we learn that once you recognize and understand something, it unlocks a new
level of perception. In this article we’ll take a look at some principles that
make the aesthetics of design attractive to people, and explanations on why
they do. The more you become conscious of how design works the better you
are able to communicate and judge design decisions.

“Many years ago I received a tree identification book for Christmas. The
first tree in the book was the Joshua tree because it took only two clues to
identify it. Now the Joshua tree is a really weird-looking tree and I looked
at that picture and said to myself, ”Oh, we don’t have that kind of tree in
Northern California. That is a weird-looking tree. I would know if I saw
that tree, and I’ve never seen one before.”
 So I took my book and went outside. I had lived in that house for thirteen
years, and I had never seen a Joshua tree. I took a walk around the block,
and there must have been a sale at the nursery when everyone was
landscaping their new homes — at least 80 percent of the homes had
Joshua trees in the front yards. And I had never seen one before. Once I
was conscious of the tree, once I could name it, I saw it everywhere.
Which is exactly my point. Once you can name something, you’re
conscious of it. You have power over it. You own it. You’re in control.”

Hello, I’m Your Brain

Design is powerful because of the way our brain processes visuals. We might
think of vision working by our eyes pulling in images and projecting them in
the back of our mind. If this were the case then there would no be design or
art. There are in fact 30 areas in the back of your brain that process different
aspects of the image. The various vision processing areas of the brain are
individually recreating the design. So, in a way, the viewer is also an artist. In
reality, design and art stimulate the mind more than a realistic image would
do. Which is why it affects us differently. Randomly placing objects on a
screen do not create the same reaction. There must be purpose to the visual
distortion/arrangement for the mind to pick up.
It would be nearly impossible to lock down all the various styles of design
that are out there. Sure, we can categorize them into bigger buckets and
generalize with words like “clean,” or “grunge,” and designers certainly
understand what kind of design to expect from those words. Although at the
surface there is a difference between them, at their very core the brain is
being stimulated by them in the same way.
The principles below are based on studies of the brain and neurological
research that have been presented a variety of ways online. In this article I
have attempted to present them in a way that best relates them to design.

The Principles of Aesthetic Experience

GROUPING
When you look at a design layout and notice subtle touches — like the links
of a specific color — this is not just a nice design touch, or good usability. It
is tapping into the way your mind groups together things like shapes or
colors. This technique is used heavily in design and plays off the mind’s
natural tendency to try and find connections in elements. For example, in
logos like FedEx, the arrow is created in the mind by grouping the negative
space between the “E” and the “X.”

The neural mechanisms that we are tapping into are the same as those that
evolved as a survival trait in the brain to protect us from predators and defeat
their camouflage. Consider an early human seeing a golden color behind
some foliage. The mind grouped those together as one whole so we can tell
that there is a lion waiting behind the leaves. There are a set of design
principles known as Gestalt Theory which breakdown the various types of
grouping into specific categories. These can be explored for further
understanding of grouping.

SYMMETRY AND BALANCE

A symmetrical object taps into the same neural machinery made to help the
mind detect other people or predators. The more symmetrical and balanced
something like a human face is, the more perceived beauty that is interpreted
by the mind. No human face is perfectly symmetrical, however when the two
sides are nearly equal, they are seen at a metacognitive level as more
beautiful. Some scientists have argued this is because asymmetrical
organisms are suffering from disease and the mind has evolved to recognize
that.

So, when we create symmetry and balance in a design through the use of
guides like the grid and specific sizing of elements, we are creating
something that is more perfect (almost hyperreal) compared to what is found
in naturally created objects or organisms. It can be argued that most design is
asymmetrical, however there must be a balance in the design. If that balance
is not there, the mind will see the layout as asymmetrical and potentially
awkward or wrong.

PEAK SHIFT
Peak shift is how the mind reacts to differences between elements. The more
you exaggerate those differences the more you are drawn to them. For
example, If you were to present a lab rat with a square and a rectangle and
teach it that the rectangle will get them food, and the square will not, it will
obviously go for the rectangle. If you add a third element, a longer, skinny
rectangle, the rat will be drawn to that more than the other one because the
form has been exaggerated.

This same principle is applied to viewing a realistic drawing and a caricature

of a person. To the mind the caricature looks almost closer to the person than
the realistic drawing. The mind picks up on the differences that have been
accentuated.

We notice this done in many designs with lighting for example. The shadows
and reflections, or soft spotlights behind elements is an exaggerated version
of what occurs with natural lighting. By pumping up these effects we are
creating a more aesthetically appealing lighting in our compositions.
ISOLATION
As designers we learn to create focus on the essential elements of a layout
and simplify the message that we are trying to communicate. In art, a drawing
that is merely a minimal outline of the subject can be much more powerful
than a 3D rendition of the same thing. This is why a sketch is more effective
as art than a full color photo.

The principle of isolation is removing the gratuitous visual information that

might clutter the design and concentrating on the essentials. It directs
attention to what matters. By extracting what is critical and only showing
that, the mind reacts strongly to this.

PERCEPTUAL PROBLEM SOLVING

When watching a horror movie the directors have setup the scenes to play off
of this principle. The longer the monster or killer in the film remain in the
shadows or only revealed in small pieces, the more frightening the film is.
The fear is created in your mind and imagination. If during the entire film
you saw the killer or creature in daylight, there would be nothing that scary
about it.
Perceptual Problem Solving is forcing the mind to try and figure out, or
imagine, what the object looks like. The struggle almost introduces pleasure
and forces the mind to figure out the image. This stimulates the mind more
than just being literal with something, but rather teasing the mind with pieces
of it and building up to a big reveal.

CONTRAST
We know contrast well as a graphic design principle in relation to light versus
dark, curves versus angles, and dynamic versus static. This contrast is in how
the human retina and brain respond more to the edges and sharp stepped
changes in color or gradation. The visual information mainly is in the area of
change like the outline/edge of a person and the color wash background.
Therefore, this becomes a more interesting and attention grabbing area for the
eye and brain to focus.
So, by adding other dimensions of contrast to the design, like texture or color,
the design attracts the cells and holds their attention. Contrast can also exist
as repetitive elements like black and white lines that create a sort of visual
rhythm for the eye to follow. Creating areas of that contrast each other is vital
to a dynamic and well-composed design.

GENERIC VIEWPOINT
When given an object to view the mind prefers a less complex vantage point.
Take for example the cubes in the image to the right. The one on the left
looks to us like what a cube should look like, because it is from a generic
viewpoint. The cube on the right appears to be a flat hexagon to most people
because it is from a very specific viewpoint. With the sides filled in with
color we can finally see the cube. So although there are exceptions to this
rule, this more generic viewpoint is usually more aesthetically pleasing.

METAPHOR
Designers understand the use of metaphor very well. It is used in creating a
familiar user experience by tapping into real objects that people already
understand. In this case the understanding of metaphor is a bit different. The
metaphor is a sort of mental tunnel between two objects that at first seem
unrelated. On an unconscious level though, the mind has already made the
association.
Some examples of this are Shakespeare saying, “Juliet is the sun.” In this
case he is relating Juliet to being warm and nurturing, not that she is an object
in our solar system. Good metaphors are easy to grasp and universal. Some
design or imagery is compelling — because of the use of metaphor — the
moment we see it. That is because before we even understand why, our mind
has already deciphered it.

Knowledge Is Power
Great artists, like Monet, were experts at employing principles like peak shift
into their work. Although, I’m not sure he ever had to present designs to a
client like we do today. Sometimes it seems like a lack of (design)
understanding gives the client an upper hand. The difference between you
and your client’s neighbor’s friend’s 13 year-old kid with a copy of
Photoshop is that they have to pay you more. Which really means that
unfortunately to many clients you are both the same.
Experience and your portfolio of work certainly matter. But each client is
completely different with how they judge design. Paul Rand described
business clients as this:

“It is their uninformed, unfocused preferences or prejudices, their likes

or dislikes that too often determine the look of things. Yet, much of the
time, they are not even discriminating enough to distinguish between
good and bad, between trendy and original, nor can they always
 recognize talent or specialized skills.”

In the end it is up to the designer to communicate the decisions they made in

creating their solution. Understanding some of these principles won’t help
you decide what style of design to use, or what colors are best. There are
differences on cultural levels or project goals that affect things like that.
However, knowing what these principles are and why they work will help
you create effective designs and hopefully help to give you (the designer)
some of that power back.
Persuasion Triggers In Web Design
David Travis

How do you make decisions? If you’re like most people, you’ll probably
answer that you pride yourself on weighing the pros and cons of a situation
carefully and then make a decision based on logic. You know that other
people have weak personalities and are easily swayed by their emotions, but
this rarely happens to you.
You’ve just experienced the fundamental attribution error — the tendency to
believe that other people’s behaviour is due to their personality (“Josh is late
because he’s a disorganised person”) whereas our behaviour is due to
external circumstances (“I’m late because the directions were useless”).
Cognitive biases like these play a significant role in the way we make
decisions so it’s not surprising that people are now examining these biases to
see how to exploit them in the design of web sites. I’m going to use the term
‘persuasion architects’ to describe designers who knowingly use these
techniques to influence the behaviour of users. (Many skilled designers
already use some of these psychological techniques intuitively — but they
wouldn’t be able to articulate why they have made a particular design choice.
The difference between these designers and persuasion architects is that
persuasion architects use these techniques intentionally).
There are 7 main weapons of influence in the persuasion architect’s arsenal:
• Reciprocation
• Commitment
• Social Proof
• Authority
• Scarcity
• Framing
• Salience
How do persuasion architects apply these principles to influence our
behaviour on the web?

Reciprocation

“I LIKE TO RETURN FAVORS.”

This principle tells us that if we feel we have been done a favor, we will want
to return it. If somebody gives you a gift, invites you to a party or does you a
good turn, you feel obliged to do the same at some future date.
Persuasion architects exploit this principle by giving users small gifts — a
sample chapter from a book, a regular newsletter or just useful information
— in the knowledge that users will feel a commitment to offer something in
return.

Fig. 1: Book publishers offer free sample chapters in the hope that you’ll reciprocate the
favour and buy the book.

That ‘something in return’ need not be a purchase (not yet, anyway).

Persuasion architects know that they need to contact prospective customers
on several occasions before they become an actual customer — this is why
regular newsletters are a staple offering in the persuasion architect’s toolkit.
So in return they may simply ask for a referral, or a link to a web site, or a
comment on a blog. And note the emphasis on ‘ask’. Persuasion architects
are not shy of asking for the favor that you ‘owe’ them. (By the way, if
you’ve enjoyed this article, please share it on Twitter!).

Fig. 2: Seth Godin knows how to leverage the principle of reciprocation. This comes from
one of Seth’s free PDFs and you’ll notice he’s not shy of asking you to return the favor.
Large view

Commitment

“I LIKE TO DO WHAT I SAY.”

This principle tells us that we like to believe that our behavior is consistent
with our beliefs. Once you take a stand on something that is visible to other
people, you suddenly feel a drive to maintain that point of view to appear
reliable and constant.
A familiar example of this in action is when comments on a blog degrade into
a flame war. Commentators are driven to justify their earlier comments and
often become even more polarized in their positions.
Fig. 3: Flamewars.net contains many examples of people justifying their commitment to
comments they have made on a blog posting.

Persuasion architects apply this principle by asking for a relatively minor, but
visible, commitment from you. They know that if they can get you to act in a
particular way, you’ll soon start believing it. For example, an organization
may ask you to ‘Like’ one of their products on Facebook to watch a video or
get access to particular content. Once this appears in your NewsFeed, you
have made a public commitment to the product and feel more inclined to
support it.
Fig. 4: Oxfam uses the principle of commitment in the knowledge that a small change in
behaviour will lead to larger changes later on.

Social Proof

“I GO WITH THE FLOW.”

This principle tells us that we like to observe other people’s behavior to judge
what’s normal, and then we copy it.
Persuasion architects apply this principle by showing us what other people
are doing on their web sites. For example, researchers at Columbia University
set up a web site that asked people to listen to, rate and download songs by
unsigned bands. Some people just saw the names of the songs and bands,
while others — the “social influence” group — also saw how many times the
songs had been downloaded by other people.
In this second group, the most popular songs were much more popular (and
the least popular songs were less popular) than in the independent condition,
showing that people’s behaviour was influenced by the crowd. Even more
surprisingly, when they ran the experiment again, the particular songs that
became “hits” were different, showing that social influence didn’t just make
the hits bigger but also made them more unpredictable.
Fig. 5: 1 million people can’t be wrong (from thenextweb.com).

Some familiar examples of social proof on the web are, “People who shopped
for this product also looked at…” feature and Amazon’s, “What do customers
ultimately buy after viewing this item?”.
Persuasion architects also exploit this principle in the power of defaults. They
know that the default setting of a user interface control has a powerful
influence over people’s behavior. We tend to see the default setting as a
‘recommended’ option — the option that most other people would choose in
our situation. There are many examples of this being used as a black hat
usability technique, where additional items (like insurance) are sneaked into
the user’s basket.

Fig. 6: When you book a flight, RyanAir sneak travel insurance into your basket too.

Authority

“I’M MORE LIKELY TO ACT ON INFORMATION IF IT’S

COMMUNICATED BY AN EXPERT.”
This principle is about influencing behavior through credibility. People are
more likely to take action if the message comes from a credible and
authoritative source. That’s why you’ll hear people name dropping and it’s
also what drives retweets on Twitter.

Fig. 7: A tweet from @smashingmag is likely to be retweeted because the brand has such
authority.

For design guidance, we can turn to the Stanford Persuasive Technology Lab
(founded by B.J. Fogg) as they have developed a number of guidelines for the
credibility of web sites. These guidelines are based on research with over
4,500 people and are based on peer-reviewed, scientific research. Thanks to
their research, we know that you should highlight the expertise in your
organisation and in the content and services you provide; show that honest
and trustworthy people stand behind your site; and avoid errors of all types,
no matter how small they seem.
Persuasion architects exploit this principle by providing glowing testimonials
on their web site. If it’s an e-commerce site they will have highly visible
icons showing the site is secure and can be trusted. If the site includes a
forum, they’ll give people the opportunity to rate their peers: for example,
some web forums (like Yahoo! Answers) let users vote up (or down) answers
to posted questions. The top ranked answer is then perceived to be the most
authoritative.
Fig. 8: UXExchange allows users to vote up and vote down answers to questions, ensuring
that the most authoritative answer rises to the top.

Scarcity

“IF IT’S RUNNING OUT, I WANT IT.”

This principle tells us that people are more likely to want something if they
think it is available only for a limited time or if it is in short supply.
Intriguingly, this isn’t just about the fear of missing out (a kind of reverse
social proof). Scarcity actually makes stuff appear more valuable. For
example, psychologists have shown that if you give people a chocolate
biscuit from a jar, they rate the biscuit as more enjoyable if it comes from a
jar with just 2 biscuits than from a jar with 10.
Persuasion architects exploit this by revealing scarcity in the design of the
interface. This could be an item of clothing that is running short in your size,
theatre tickets that are running out, or invitations to a beta launch. They know
that perceived scarcity will generate demand.
Related to this is the ‘closing down’ sale. One of the artists at my friend’s art
co-op recently decided to quit the co-op and announced this with a sign in-
store. She had a big rush on sales of her art. Then she decided not to quit after
all. So pretending to go out of business might be a ploy!

Fig. 9: Phrases like ‘only 4 left in stock’ seem to stimulate a primal urge not to miss out.

Framing

“I’M STRONGLY INFLUENCED BY THE WAY PRICES ARE

FRAMED.”
This principle acknowledges that people aren’t very good at estimating the
absolute value of what they are buying. People make comparisons, either
against the alternatives you show them or some external benchmark.
One example is the way a restaurant uses an “anchor” dish on its menu: this
is an overpriced dish whose sole aim is to make everything else near it look
like a relative bargain. Another example is the Goldilocks effect where you
provide users with three alternative choices. However, two of the choices are
decoys: one is an overpriced, gold plated version of your product; another is a
barely functional base version. The third choice — the one you want people
to choose — sits midway between the other two and so feels “just right.”
Fig. 10: BT’s ‘Unlimited broadband and calls’ options seem deliberately overpriced
compared to the ‘TV, Broadband and Calls’ option presumably since it wants to to boost
its share of TV customers.

Salience

“MY ATTENTION IS DRAWN TO WHAT’S RELEVANT TO ME

RIGHT NOW.”
This principle tells us that people are more likely to pay attention to elements
in your user interface that are novel (such as a coloured ‘submit’ button) and
that are relevant to where there are in their task. For example, there are
specific times during a purchase when shoppers are more likely to investigate
a promotion or a special offer. By identifying these seducible moments you’ll
learn when to offer a customer an accessory for a product they have bought.

Fig. 11: After placing an order for a TV at the Comet web site, the designers encourage
you to add other relevant items to your basket. This is exactly the right time to make the
offer: once you’ve ordered the TV they remind you that you’ll need to install it.
Designing For A Hierarchy Of Needs
Steven Bradley

Based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the idea of a design hierarchy of

needs rests on the assumption that in order to be successful, a design must
meet basic needs before it can satisfy higher-level needs. Before a design can
“Wow” us, it must work as intended. It must meet some minimal need or
nothing else will really matter.
Is this true? Or could a design that’s hard to use still succeed because it
makes users more proficient or meets certain creative needs? Do you have to
get all of the low-level needs exactly right before considering higher-level
needs? To answer these questions, let’s start by looking at Maslow’s
hierarchy.

Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs

In his 1943 paper, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” American psychologist

Abraham Maslow proposed the idea of a psychological hierarchy of needs in
human beings.
• Physiological needs are the requirements for human survival. They
include breathing, food, water, shelter, sex, clothing, sleep and comfort.
• Safety needs can be seen as a way to meet tomorrow’s physiological
needs. They include personal and financial security, health, order, law
and protection from elements.
• Love and belonging needs are about social interactions. We don’t want
to go through life alone. Social needs include friendship, love, intimacy,
family, community, belonging and relationships.
• Esteem needs include self-esteem as well as recognition from others.
Esteem can come in the form of achievement, status, prestige,
recognition, mastery, independence and responsibility.
• Self-actualization needs relate to becoming more than what we are, and
they can come from peace, knowledge, self-fulfillment, realization of
personal potential, personal growth and peak experiences.
According to Maslow, if you try to satisfy the needs of one level in the
hierarchy without having first met the needs of the prior level, your place in
the hierarchy will be unstable. You can’t be expected to work well on a team
(level 3) if you’re awaiting medical test results to determine whether you
have cancer (level 2).
Lower levels in the hierarchy serve as the foundation for higher levels. If
your foundation shakes, then you get pulled back down to a lower level to
stabilize your foundation before moving back up the hierarchy. If not, you’re
led to thoughts and feelings of stress and anxiety.

CRITICISM OF MASLOW’S HIERARCHY

Not everyone agrees with Maslow. Many challenge the hierarchy because it
doesn’t account for selfless acts, bravery and charity. Nor does it account for
the phenomenon of “starving artists,” who seek self-actualization even while
their basic physiological needs are hardly being met.
Critics point to a lack of empirical evidence and the limited scope of
observation before Maslow developed his theories. Maslow doesn’t account
for the spiritual side of people and leaves out too many instances that don’t fit
his theory. A good idea and start, perhaps, but still far from being accepted as
is. Intuitively, it feels right, but Maslow’s hierarchy has limitations, as
summarized below:

While Maslow’s hierarchy makes sense from an intuitive standpoint,

there is little evidence to support its hierarchical aspect. In fact, there is
evidence that contradicts the order of needs specified by the model. For
example, some cultures appear to place social needs before any others.
Maslow’s hierarchy also has difficulty explaining cases such as the
“starving artist” in which a person neglects lower needs in pursuit of
higher ones. Finally, there is little evidence to suggest that people are
motivated to satisfy only one need level at a time, except in situations
where there is a conflict between needs.

Chilean economist and environmentalist Manfred Arthur Max-Neef has put

forth a different theory of fundamental human needs, one without a hierarchy
beyond the fulfillment of basic human survival. Instead, the satisfaction of
needs is inter-related and pursued simultaneously, with trade-offs in the
process.
In this system, one could fulfill creative needs without having first to fulfill
needs for protection and safety.

Design Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy can be translated to design, for which the hierarchy from
low to high would be functionality, reliability, usability, proficiency and
creativity.
FUNCTIONALITY
A design must be able to function before anything else. An MP3 player needs
to be able to play, pause, rewind and fast-forward MP3 and other digital
audio files in order to be considered an MP3 player. If it can’t perform these
functions, then the design has failed.
Number of features is another story. Even though one MP3 player can pull in
album cover art, others don’t necessarily have to. But if most MP3 players
can do this, then yours will need to as well. What defines which features are
required? The product itself? The designer? The market?
Designs that meet only basic functionality needs are considered to be of little
to no value. A design is expected to meet basic functionality needs; doing so
isn’t considered anything special.
Characteristics of a website that meets functionality needs might be pages
that load in a reasonable amount of time, working links and pages that
respond to basic browser buttons like “Back” and “Forward.”
RELIABILITY
Once your design has met functional needs, it can move up to the next level
in the design hierarchy: reliability. Your design should now offer stable and
consistent performance. It not only works, but works again and again.
If your MP3 player sometimes plays and sometimes doesn’t, then it has failed
to meet reliability needs. If it always plays but does it erratically (skipping
here and there, slowing down and speeding up at times), then it has also
failed to meet reliability needs.
Designs that meet only reliability needs are perceived to be of low value.
Again, we expect the products that we buy to work and to work consistently.
A reliable website functions consistently. What worked yesterday should
work today. When new pages and sections are added, they function just as
well as existing pages and sections.

USABILITY
How easily can users accomplish basic tasks? Can the person with the MP3
player easily figure out how to turn it on and off? What about how to play,
stop, pause and select a song? These are usability needs. Your design now
works consistently. The question is, can people figure out how to use it?
In addition to being easy to use, is your design forgiving? Pressing the wrong
button shouldn’t delete all of the songs on your MP3 player. Consequences
for simple mistakes shouldn’t be dire. If a slip of the finger deletes all music,
then the MP3 player has failed to be usable.
Usable designs are perceived to be of moderate value. We do have some
basic expectations of usability, but we recognize that many things don’t quite
work as we expect or would like. A usable design partly distinguishes your
website from those on lower levels.
A usable website has a navigation system that is easy to understand and use,
an organization that makes content easy to browse, readable text, and a layout
in which orienting oneself is straightforward.
PROFICIENCY
Does your design empower people to do more and to do better? Does the
MP3 player allow you to build playlists and easily search through songs?
Does it provide an easy mechanism for downloading songs from the Internet
and transferring them to and from other devices?
These are proficiency needs. It is not imperative that your MP3 player makes
recommendations of new songs based on your favorites, but it is desirable
and would improve the design considerably.
Designs regarded as proficient are perceived to function at a high level. A
design that allows people to do things not previously possible and to expand
on basic functionality is considered to be great.
A proficient website might include advanced search options, the ability to
combine data from different sources into more sophisticated levels of
information and Web-based tools.

CREATIVITY
Once all of the lower-level needs have been met, your design can move on to
creative needs. With these met, your design can now interact with people in
innovative ways. The design can explore and create things that expand on the
product itself.
Perhaps your MP3 player teaches music theory by making recommendations
based on the musical structure of the songs you listen to most, and it provides
chord charts and notes that play visually in time with the audio. Your MP3
player might allow custom skins or allow you to combine parts of songs to
create new music. Your MP3 player might be the most beautiful one on the
market.
Designs that meet creative needs are perceived to be of the highest level.
They generate a loyal fan base. If you’re confounded by Apple’s success,
wonder no longer. It satisfies creative design needs.
A creative website might include AJAX effects, aesthetic appeal and
interaction through voice commands.
CRITICISM OF THE DESIGN HIERARCHY
The same criticism applied to Maslow’s hierarchy could be applied to the
design hierarchy. Does a design have to be reliable before it can be usable?
Can’t you meet both at the same time? Could your design satisfy proficiency
needs for advanced users while not being the most usable for beginners?
Do we really have to get everything right at one level before committing
resources to higher levels? Will a market tolerate a product that fails for no
reason 10% of the time if it does everything beyond expectations the other
90%?
Again, while the hierarchy intuitively makes sense, the needs and desires of
the market will likely determine what is most critical to improve in the
hierarchy.

Other Hierarchies of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy has been applied to more than design. Many related
disciplines use it to describe what they do and propose how to do it better.

MASLOW APPLIED TO MARKETING

Maslow’s ideas are often applied to marketing. Whatever you are selling, the
product is intended to fulfill a need somewhere in the hierarchy. To best
market your product or service, identify where in the hierarchy it sits, and
understand your target user’s motivation to meet those needs. A classic
example is Michelin Tires. Rather than simply list the specs of its tires and
boast how well they grip the road, Michelin commercials show tires that are
protecting babies, with the tagline, “Because so much is riding on your tires.”
The commercial taps into our need for safety. It also tap into the next level in
the hierarchy, our social needs—in this case, our love for our children. Specs
are boring. A story about making sure that you and your family are safe
satisfies deep psychological needs.
Maslow’s hierarchy also helps us determine which market to target and how
best to reach that market. For example, you have a great idea to fill the niche
demand for confidence-building. Fantastic.
But you’re targeting new business owners. This group is at level two in the
hierarchy: security. They’re worried about their jobs and supporting their
family. They don’t care yet about feeling confident.
You would need to find either a different story to tell in your marketing or a
different group to target.

MASLOW APPLIED TO WRITING CODE

Patrick Dubrow has looked at Maslow’s hierarchy and the design hierarchy
and has put forth a hierarchy of needs for writing code:

If you’ve ever written code, you can easily see how this hierarchy fits in with
both Maslow’s and the design hierarchy. It too is intuitive and could be given
the same criticisms as Maslow’s. Sure, poorly functioning code has to be
fixed right away, but there’s no reason one couldn’t write elegant and
efficient code from the very first line.

Examples
All of the websites below are well designed. Each has its own style and, for
our purposes, addresses a different level in the design hierarchy. Most
naturally meet lower-level needs, but some are more concerned with higher
levels and neglect some lower-level details.
Oliver James Gosling

Y3K

The websites of Oliver James Gosling and Y3K are both single-page
portfolios. They both meet functionality and reliability needs. They are also
aesthetically pleasing and start to meet creative needs. Oliver’s website has a
“Back to top” link that moves down the page as you do; this nice touch in
usability is absent on the Y3K website. Oliver also offers a PDF containing
all the information of his website, perhaps adding a bit of proficiency to the
design.
Cellar Thief
Cellar Thief meets functionality requirements and is another aesthetically
pleasing website. The aesthetics match the overall message about wines. But
reliability and usability could both stand some improvement. The three main
links at the bottom of the home page (“Choose a wine,” “Tell your friends,”
“Feel good”) all lead unexpectedly to the “About” page. Also, the website
sells only the three wines of the day, which is perfectly fine but not
immediately obvious.

Elan Snowboards
Elan Snowboards meets basic functionality and has an interesting aesthetic. A
lot is going on, and it’s hard knowing where to look. Links aren’t always
obvious, and as you click deeper into the website, it’s not always clear where
you are. On the other hand, the website offers a forum, community blogs and
video, all of which make the website more proficient for visitors. Overall, the
website focuses more on higher-level needs at the cost of some lower levels.
Given the audience of the website, this approach is probably justified.
CSS-Tricks
CSS Tricks is likely familiar to most of you. It meets needs of functionality,
reliability and usability. Chris Coyier has sections for a forum, screencasts,
freebies and code snippets, giving the website a layer of proficiency.
Creatively, the website has a nice, albeit familiar, blog aesthetic, and it has
appropriate touches of AJAX in the sidebar. Chris has also put a lot of work
into small details that help to fulfill creative needs.
Ali Felski
Ali Felski’s website is a combination portfolio and blog. It functions
consistently, and finding your way around is easy. With the three lower-level
needs met, the website adds creativity. One of the nice things about the
design is that you could remove all of the aesthetic touches and still have a
highly functional, reliable and usable design.

Antique Piano Shop

The Antique Piano Shop meets all the lower-level design needs while
offering a pleasing aesthetic. It meets proficiency needs by offering pages
where you can identify your piano and sell it. Given the nature of the website,
letting visitors hear what the pianos sound like might have helped to meet
proficiency needs.

Fluid 960 Grid

The Fluid 960 Grid System meets lower-level design needs well. It works,
works consistently and is easy to use. While not the most beautiful page
you’ll encounter, it has quite a few things to meet higher-level design needs.
Most every part of the page is a working demo. You can view how each will
work using either the jQuery or MooTools libraries, or you can turn
JavaScript off completely to see how the demos function. You can also
switch between 12- and 16-column fluid and fixed grids.
Summary
While Maslow’s hierarchy makes sense intuitively, critics point out the scant
evidence to support it, particularly the assumption that lower levels must be
satisfied before higher levels. The same could be said of the hierarchy of
design needs, or even any hierarchy based on Maslow’s. They make sense on
the surface but lack in empirical evidence.
These hierarchies are not absolutes that you must follow. As with all design,
look at your success criteria to determine your design objectives. Your
audience may well prefer an aesthetically beautiful website that has
occasional hiccups to a boring website that is perfectly reliable.
There’s no reason why you couldn’t satisfy higher-level needs before
completely satisfying all lower-level needs, as long as you understand that
some low-level needs are absolutely essential. Naturally, if none of your
pages load, then everything else is irrelevant. You will have to remedy that
problem before worrying about progressive enhancement.
Look at the design hierarchy as a guide. Most of the time, meeting lower-
level needs before attempting to satisfy higher-level needs makes sense. If
your website isn’t usable, you will probably want to fix that before giving
visitors more ways to be proficient.
10 Useful Usability Findings And
Guidelines
Dmitry Fadeyev

Everyone would agree that usability is an important aspect of Web design.

Whether you’re working on a portfolio website, online store or Web app,
making your pages easy and enjoyable for your visitors to use is key. Many
studies have been done over the years on various aspects of Web and
interface design, and the findings are valuable in helping us improve our
work. Here are 10 useful usability findings and guidelines that may help
you improve the user experience on your websites.

1. Form Labels Work Best Above The Field

A study by UX Matters found that the ideal position for labels in forms is
above the fields. On many forms, labels are put to the left of the fields,
creating a two-column layout; while this looks good, it’s not the easiest
layout to use. Why is that? Because forms are generally vertically oriented;
i.e. users fill the form from top to bottom. Users scan the form downwards
as they go along. And following the label to the field below is easier than
finding the field to the right of the label.
Tumblr features a simple and elegant sign-up form that adheres to UX Matter’s
recommendation.

Positioning labels on the left also poses another problem: do you left-align or
right-align the labels? Left-aligning makes the form scannable but
disconnects the labels from the fields, making it difficult to see which label
applies to which field. Right-aligning does the reverses: it makes for a good-
looking but less scannable form. Labels above fields work best in most
circumstances. The study also found that labels should not be bold, although
this recommendation is not conclusive.

2. Users Focus On Faces

People instinctively notice other people right away when they come into
view. On Web pages, we tend to focus on people’s faces and eyes, which
gives marketers a good technique for attracting attention. But our attraction to
people’s faces and eyes is only the beginning; it turns out we actually glance
in the direction the person in the image is looking in.
Eye-tracking heat map of a baby looking directly at us, from the UsableWorld study.

And now the baby is looking at the content. Notice the increase in people looking at the
headline and text.

Here’s an eye-tracking study that demonstrates this. We’re instinctively

drawn to faces, but if that face is looking somewhere other than at us, we’ll
also look in that direction. Take advantage of this phenomenon by drawing
your users’ attention to the most important parts of your page or ad.

3. Quality Of Design Is An Indicator Of Credibility

Various studies have been conducted to find out just what influences people’s
perception of a website’s credibility:
• Stanford-Makovsy Web Credibility Study 2002: Investigating What
Makes Web Sites Credible Today
• What Makes A Web Site Credible? A Report on a Large Quantitative
Study
• The Elements of Computer Credibility
• Elements that Affect Web Credibility: Early Results from a Self-Report
Study (Proceedings of ACM CHI 2000 Conference on Human Factors in
Computing Systems, v.2, New York: ACM Press)

We don’t know if Fever app is any good, but the sleek user interface and website make a
great first impression.

One interesting finding of these studies is that users really do judge a book by
its cover… or rather, a website by its design. Elements such as layout,
consistency, typography, color and style all affect how users perceive your
website and what kind of image you project. Your website should project not
only a good image but also the right one for your audience.
Other factors that influence credibility are: the quality of the website’s
content, amount of errors, rate of updates, ease of use and trustworthiness of
authors.

4. Most Users Do Not Scroll

Jakob Nielsen’s study on how much users scroll (in Prioritizing Web
Usability) revealed that only 23% of visitors scroll on their first visit to a
website. This means that 77% of visitors won’t scroll; they’ll just view the
content above the fold (i.e. the area of the page that is visible on the screen
without scrolling down). What’s more, the percentage of users who scroll
decreases with subsequent visits, with only 16% scrolling on their second
visit. This data highlights just how important it is to place your key content
on a prominent position, especially on landing pages.
This doesn’t mean you should cram everything in the upper area of the page,
just that you should make the best use of that area. Crowding it with content
will just make the content inaccessible; when the user sees too much
information, they don’t know where to begin looking.
Basecamp makes great use of space. Above the fold (768 pixels high), it shows a large
screenshot, tagline, value proposition, call to action, client list, videos and short feature list
with images.

This is most important for the home page, where most new visitors will land.
So provide the core essentials there:
1. Name of the website,
2. Value proposition of the website (i.e. what benefit users will get from
using it),
3. Navigation for the main sections of the website that are relevant to the
user.
However, users’ habits have significantly changed since then. Recent studies
prove that users are quite comfortable with scrolling and in some situations
they are willing to scroll to the bottom of the page. Many users are more
comfortable with scrolling than with a pagination, and for many users the
most important information of the page isn’t necessarily placed “above the
fold” (which is because of the variety of available display resolutions a quite
outdated, deprecated term). So it is a good idea to divide your layout into
sections for easy scanning, separating them with a lot of white space.
For further information please take a look at the articles Unfolding the fold
(Clicktale), Paging VS Scrolling (Wichita University – SURL), Blasting the
Myth of the Fold (Boxes and Arrows). (thanks, Fred Leuck).

5. Blue Is The Best Color For Links

While giving your website a unique design is great, when it comes to
usability, doing what everyone else is doing is best. Follow conventions,
because when people visit a new website, the first place they look for things
are in the places where they found them on most other websites; they tap into
their experience to make sense of this new content. This is known as usage
patterns. People expect certain things to be the same, such as link colors, the
location of the website’s logo, the behavior of tabbed navigation and so on.

Google keeps all links on its websites blue for a reason: the color is familiar to most users,
which makes it easy to locate.

What color should your links be? The first consideration is contrast: links
have to be dark (or light) enough to contrast with the background color.
Secondly, they should stand out from the color of the rest of the text; so, no
black links with black text. And finally, research shows (Van Schaik and
Ling) that if usability if your priority, sticking to blue for links is best. The
browser’s default link color is blue, so people expect it. Choosing a different
color is by no means a problem, but it may affect the speed with which users
find it.

6. The Ideal Search Box Is 27-Characters Wide

What’s the ideal width of a search box? Is there such a thing? Jakob Nielsen
performed a usability study on the length of search queries in website search
boxes (Prioritizing Web Usability). It turns out that most of today’s search
boxes are too short. The problem with short boxes is that even though you
can type out a long query, only a portion of the text will be visible at a time,
making it difficult to review or edit what you’ve typed.
The study found that the average search box is 18-characters wide. The data
showed that 27% of queries were too long to fit into it. Extending the box to
27 characters would accommodate 90% of queries. Remember, you can set
widths using ems, not just pixels and points. One em is the width and height
of one “m” character (using whatever font size a website is set to). So, use
this measure to scale the width of the text input field to 27-characters wide.

Google‘s search box is wide enough to accommodate long sentences.

Apple‘s search box is a little too short, cutting off the query, “Microsoft Office 2008.”

In general, search boxes are better too wide than too short, so that users can
quickly review, verify and submit the query. This guideline is very simple but
unfortunately too often dismissed or ignored. Some padding in the input field
can also improve the design and user experience.

7. White Space Improves Comprehension

Most designers know the value of white space, which is the empty space
between paragraphs, pictures, buttons and other items on the page. White
space de-clutters a page by giving items room to breathe. We can also group
items together by decreasing the space between them and increasing the
space between them and other items on the page. This is important for
showing relationships between items (e.g. showing that this button applies to
this set of items) and building a hierarchy of elements on the page.

Notice the big content margin, padding and paragraph spacing on The Netsetter. All that
space makes the content easy and comfortable to read.

White space also makes content more readable. A study (Lin, 2004) found
that good use of white space between paragraphs and in the left and right
margins increases comprehension by almost 20%. Readers find it easier to
focus on and process generously spaced content.
In fact, according to Chaperro, Shaikh and Baker, the layout on a Web page
(including white space, headers, indentation and figures) may not measurably
influence performance but does influence user satisfaction and experience.

8. Effective User Testing Doesn’t Have To Be Extensive

Jakob Nielsen’s study on the ideal number of test subjects in usability tests
found that tests with just five users would reveal about 85% of all problems
with your website, whereas 15 users would find pretty much all problems.

Source: Jakob Nielsen’s AlertBox

The biggest issues are usually discovered by the first one or two users, and
the following testers confirm these issues and discover the remaining minor
issues. Only two test users would likely find half the problems on your
website. This means that testing doesn’t have to be extensive or expensive to
yield good results. The biggest gains are achieved when going from 0 test
users to 1, so don’t be afraid of doing too little: any testing is better than
none.
9. Informative Product Pages Help You Stand Out
If your website has product pages, people shopping online will definitely
look through them. But many product pages lack sufficient information, even
for visitors doing a quick scan. This is a serious problem, because product
information helps people make purchasing decision. Research shows that
poor product information accounts for around 8% of usability problems and
even 10% of user failure (i.e. the user gives up and leaves the website)
(Prioritizing Web Usability).

Apple provides separate “Tech Specs” pages for its products, which keeps complicated
details away from the simpler marketing pages, yet provides easy access when they’re
needed.

Provide detailed information about your products, but don’t fall into the trap
of bombarding users with too much text. Make the information easy to digest.
Make the page scannable by breaking up the text into smaller segments and
using plenty of sub-headings. Add plenty of images for your products, and
use the right language: don’t use jargon that your visitors might not
understand.

10. Most Users Are Blind To Advertising

Jakob Nielsen reports in his AlertBox entry that most users are essentially
blind to ad banners. If they’re looking for a snippet of information on a page
or are engrossed in content, they won’t be distracted by the ads on the side.
The implication of this is not only that users will avoid ads but that they’ll
avoid anything that looks like an ad, even if it’s not an ad. Some heavily
styled navigation items may look like banners, so be careful with these
elements.

The square banners on the left sidebar of FlashDen are actually not ads: they’re content
links. They do look uncomfortably close to ad banners and so may be overlooked by some
users.

That said, ads that look like content will get people looking and clicking. This
may generate more ad revenue but comes at the cost of your users’ trust, as
they click on things they thought were genuine content. Before you go down
that path, consider the trade-off: short-term revenue versus long-term trust.

Bonus: Findings From Our Case-Studies

In recent years, Smashing Magazine’s editorial team has conducted a number
of case studies in an attempt to identify common design solutions and
practices. So far, we have analyzed Web forms, blogs, typography and
portfolios; and more case studies will be published next month. We have
found some interesting patterns that could serve as guidelines for your next
design.
Here, we’ll review some of the practices and design patterns that we
discovered in our case studies in this brief, compact overview, for your
convenience.
According to our typography study:
• Line height (in pixels) ÷ body copy font size (in pixels) = 1.48
1.5 is commonly recommended in classic typographic books, so our
study backs up this rule of thumb. Very few websites use anything less
than this. And the number of websites that go over 1.48 decreases as you
get further from this value.
• Line length (pixels) ÷ line height (pixels) = 27.8
The average line length is 538.64 pixels (excluding margins and
padding), which is pretty large considering that many websites still have
body copy that is 12 to 13 pixels in font size.
• Space between paragraphs (pixels) ÷ line height (pixels) = 0.754
It turns out that paragraph spacing (i.e. the space between the last line of
one paragraph and the first line of the next) rarely equals the leading
(which would be the main characteristic of perfect vertical rhythm).
More often, paragraph spacing is just 75% of paragraph leading. The
reason may be that leading usually includes the space taken up by
descenders; and because most characters do not have descenders,
additional white space is created under the line.
• Optimal number of characters per line is 55 to 75
According to classic typographic books, the optimal number of
characters per line is between 55 and 75, but between 75 and 85
characters per line is more popular in practice.
According to our blog design study:
• Layouts usually have a fixed width (pixel-based) (92%) and are usually
centered (94%). The width of fixed layouts varies between 951 and 1000
pixels (56%).
• The home page shows excerpts of 10 to 20 posts (62%).
• 58% of a website’s overall layout is used to display the main content.
• According to our Web form design study:
• The registration link is titled “sign up” (40%) and is placed in the upper-
right corner.
• Sign-up forms have simple layouts, to avoid distracting users (61%).
• Titles of input fields are bolded (62%), and fields are vertically arranged
more than they are horizontally arranged (86%).
• Designers tend to include few mandatory fields and few optional fields.
• Email confirmation is not given (82%), but password confirmation is
(72%).
• The “Submit” button is either left-aligned (56%) or centered (26%).
• According to our portfolio design study:
• 89% of layouts are horizontally centered, and most of them have a large
horizontal navigation menu.
• 47.2% of portfolios have a client page, and 67.2% have some form of
standalone services page.
• 63.6% have a detailed page for every project, including case studies,
testimonials, slideshows with screenshots, drafts and sketches.
• Contact pages contain driving directions, phone number, email address,
postal address, vCard and online form,
30 Usability Issues To Be Aware Of
Vitaly Friedman

You don’t have to agree upon everything. As a professional web developer

you are the advocate of your visitors’ interests and needs; you have to protect
your understanding of good user experience and make sure the visitors will
find their way through (possibly) complex site architecture. And this means
that you need to be able to protect your position and communicate your ideas
effectively — in discussions with your clients and colleagues. In fact, it’s
your job to compromise wrong ideas and misleading concepts instead of
following them blindly.
In this context nothing can support you more than the profound knowledge of
fundamental issues related to your work. But even if you know most of them
it’s important to know how to name these concepts and how to refer to them
once they appear in the conversation. Furthermore, it’s always useful to have
some precise terms ready to hand once you might need them as an argument
in your discussions.
In this article we present 30 important usability issues, terms, rules and
principles which are usually forgotten, ignored or misunderstood. What is the
difference between readability and legibility? What exactly does 80/20 or
Pareto principle mean? What is meant with minesweeping and satisficing?
And what is Progressive Enhancement and Graceful Degradation? OK, it’s
time to dive in.

Usability: Rules and Principles

7±2 PRINCIPLE
Since human brain has some limits on its capacity for processing information,
it deals with complexity dividing information into chunks and units.
According to George A. Miller’s studies humans’ short term memory can
retain only about 5-9 things at one time. This fact is often used as an
argument for limiting the number of options in navigation menus to 7;
however there are heated debates about The Myth of “Seven, Plus or Minus
2″. Therefore it’s not clear how the 7±2 Principle can, could or should be
applied to the Web. Miller’s studies.

2-SECOND-RULE
A loose principle that a user shouldn’t need to wait more than 2 seconds for
certain types of system response, such as application-switching and
application launch time. The choice of 2 seconds is somewhat arbitrary, but a
reasonable order of magnitude. Reliable principle: the less users have to wait,
the better is the user experience. [UF]

3-CLICK-RULE
According to this rule users stop using the site if they aren’t able to find the
information or access the site feature within 3 mouse clicks. In other words,
the rule emphasizes the importance of clear navigation, logical structure and
easy-to-follow site hierarchy. In most situations the number of clicks is
irrelevant; what is really important is that visitors always know where they
are, where they were and where they can go next. Even 10 clicks are OK if
users feel that they have a full understanding of how the system works.

80/20 RULE (THE PARETO PRINCIPLE)

The Pareto principle (also known as the law of the vital few and the principle of
factor sparsity) states that 80% of the effects comes from 20% of the causes.
This is the basic rule of thumb in business (“80% of your sales comes from
20% of your clients”), but can also be applied to design and usability. For
instance, dramatic improvements can often be achieved by identifying the
20% of users, customers, activities, products or processes that account for the
80% of contribution to profit and maximizing the attention applied to them.

EIGHT GOLDEN RULES OF INTERFACE DESIGN

As a result of Interface Design Studies, Ben Shneiderman proposed a
collection of principles that are derived heuristically from experience and
applicable in most interactive systems. These principles are common for user
interface design, and as such also for web design.
1. Strive for consistency.
2. Enable frequent users to use shortcuts.
3. Offer informative feedback.
4. Design dialog to yield closure.
5. Offer simple error handling.
6. Permit easy reversal of actions.
7. Provide the sense of control. Support internal locus of control.
8. Reduce short-term memory load.

FITTS’ LAW
Published by Paul Fitts in 1954, Fitts’ law is a model of human movement
which predicts the time required to rapidly move to a target area, as a
function of the distance to the target and the size of the target. The law is
usually applied to the movement of the mouse visitors have to perform to get
from point A to point B. For instance, the rule can be important to place the
content areas in a more usable way to maximize their accessibility and
improve click rates.

INVERTED PYRAMID
The inverted pyramid is a writing style where the summary of the article is
presented in the beginning of the article. This approach makes use of the
“waterfall effect” well-known in journalism where writers try to give their
readers an instant idea about the topic they’re reporting. The article begins
with a conclusion, followed by key points and finally the minor details such
as background information. Since web users want instant gratification, the
inverted pyramid style, as supported by Nielsen, is important for web writing
and for better user experience.
SATISFICING
Web users don’t prefer optimal ways to find the information they’re looking
for. They aren’t interested in the most reasonable and sound solution to their
problem. Instead they permanently scan for quick’n'dirty-solutions which are
“good enough”. Applied to Web, satisficing describes exactly this approach:
users settle with a solution to a problem that is “good enough” — even if
alternative solutions can better fulfill their requirements in a long run. [I-D]

Psychology Behind Usability

BABY-DUCK-SYNDROME
Baby Duck Syndrome describes the tendency for visitors to stick to the first
design they learn and judge other designs by their similarity to that first
design. The result is that users generally prefer systems similar to those they
learned on and dislike unfamiliar systems. This results in the usability
problems most re-designs have: users, get used with previous designs, feel
uncomfortable with new site structure they have to find their way through.

BANNER-BLINDNESS
Web users tend to ignore everything that looks like advertisement and, what
is interesting, they’re pretty good at it. Although advertisement is noticed, it
is almost always ignored. Since users have constructed web related schemata
for different tasks on the Web, when searching for specific information on a
website, they focus only on the parts of the page where they would assume
the relevant information could be, i.e. small text and hyperlinks. Large
colourful or animated banners and other graphics are in this case ignored.
Source: Banner Blindness: Old and New Findings

CLIFFHANGER-EFFECT (ZEIGARNIK-EFFECT)
Human beings can’t stand uncertainty. We tend to find answers to
unanswered questions we are interested in as soon as possible. Cliffhanger-
effects are based upon this fact; movies, articles and plots with Cliffhanger-
effect have an abrupt ending, often leaving with a sudden shock revelation or
difficult situation. The effect is often used in advertisement: asking the
visitors unanswered and provocative questions advertisers often tend to force
them to read the ad, click on the banner or follow a link.
Found out by Bluma W. Zeigarnik in 1927, this effect establishes an
emotional connection with readers and is extremely effective in terms of
marketing. Visitors can better remember what the ad is about and even
smallest details are stored more clearly and precisely. In Web writing the
Cliffhanger-effect is also used to bound the visitors to a web-site (e.g. “Grab
our RSS-Feed to ensure you don’t miss the second part of the article!”).
GESTALT PRINCIPLES OF FORM PERCEPTION
These principles are the fundamental rules of human psychology in terms of
human-computer-interaction-design.
• The law of proximity posits that when we perceive a collection of
objects, we will see objects close to each other as forming a group.

A real-world example of the law of proximity from MTV Music Awards 2002. Source.

• The law of similarity captures the idea that elements will be grouped
perceptually if they are similar to each other.
• The Law of Prägnanz (figure-ground) captures the idea that in
perceiving a visual field, some objects take a prominent role (the figures)
while others recede into the background (the ground).

The Macintosh logo can be viewed as a regular happy face and a happy face in profile
(looking at a computer screen). Source.

• The law of symmetry captures the idea that when we perceive objects
we tend to perceive them as symmetrical shapes that form around their
 centre.
• The law of closure posits that we perceptually close up, or complete,
objects that are not, in fact, complete.

We perceive the letters ‘I’, ‘B’, and ‘M’ although the shapes we see, in fact, are only lines
of white space of differing length hovering above each other. Source.

You can find more information in the article Gestalt principles of form
perception

THE SELF-REFERENCE EFFECT

Self-reference effect is particularly important for web writing and can
dramatically improve the communication between authors and readers.
Things that are connected to our personal concept are remembered better than
those which aren’t directly connected to us. For instance, after reading an
article users better remember the characters, stories or facts they had personal
experience with. In Usability the self-reference effect is usually used in terms
of web writing and content presented on a web-site.

Usability Glossary: Terms and Concepts

EYE-TRACKING
Eye tracking is the process of measuring either the point of gaze (“where we
are looking”) or the motion of an eye relative to the head. eye tracking
monitor records every eye movement and highlights the most active areas on
the site visually. Eye-tracking studies can help to estimate how comfortable
web users are with the web-site they’re browsing through and how quickly
they can understand the structure and system behind it. You can find some
interesting usability findings from recent eye-tracking study Eyetrack07.
Eye-Tracking: Source.

FOLD
The fold is defined as the lowest point where a web-site is no longer visible
on the screen. The position of the fold is, of course, defined by the screen
resolution of your visitor. The region above the fold (also called screenful)
describes the region of a page that is visible without scrolling. Since the fold
is seen directly without scrolling, it is often considered as the area which
guarantees the highest possible ad click rates and revenues. However, Fold
area isn’t that important. [Usability.gov]

FOVEAL VIEWPORT (FOVEAL AREA)

The fovea, a part of human’s eye, is responsible for sharp central vision,
which is necessary in humans for reading, watching television or movies,
driving, and any activity where visual detail is of primary importance. Foveal
area is a small wide space area where your eyes are aimed at and it is the only
area where you can perceive the maximum level of detail. Foveal area is a
tight area of about two degrees of visual field or two thumbnails held in front
of your eyes. This is the place where you’d like to deliver the most important
messages of your visitors.
Foveal viewport is important, because outside of this wide screen area how
your visitors see your web-pages change dramatically. Inside this area is the
only part of your vision with the maximal resolution – only here no eye
scanning is necessary. [Source]

GLOSS
Gloss is an automated action that provides hints and summary information on
where the link refers to and where it will take the user once it’s clicked. Hints
can be provided via title-attribute of links. From the usability point of view
users want to have the full control over everything what is happening on a
web-site; clear and precise explanations of internal and outgoing links,
supported by sound anchor text, can improve the usability of a web-site.

GRACEFUL DEGRADATION (FAULT-TOLERANCE)

Graceful Degradation is the property of a web-site to present its content and
its basic features even if some of its components (partly or at all) can’t be
displayed or used. In practice it means that web-sites display their content in
every possible “fault” scenario and can be used in every configuration
(browser, plug-ins, connection, OS etc.) the visitor might have. “Power-
users” are still offered a full, enhanced version of the page. For instance, it’s
typical to offer alternatives for Multimedia-content (for instance image) to
ensure that the content can be perceived if images can’t be displayed.
[Wikipedia]

GRANULARITY
Granularity is the degree to which a large, usually complex data set or
information has been broken down into smaller units.

HOTSPOT
Hotspots are clickable site areas which change their form or/and outer
appearance once they are clicked. This is typical for :focus-effects when a link
or any other site element is clicked.

Hotspot and gloss on Smashingmagazine.com

LEGIBILITY
Legibility indicates how clear the text is visually.

MINESWEEPING
Minesweeping stands for user interactions which aim to identify the links on
a web-site. In most cases minesweeping is a clear alarm signal for usability
problems. Usually minesweeping involves the user rapidly moving the cursor
or pointer over a page, watching to see where the cursor or pointer changes to
indicate the presence of a link. [Usability.gov]

MYSTERY-MEAT NAVIGATION (MMN)

In Web mystery-meat navigation describes designs in which it is extremely
difficult for users to recognize the destinations of navigational hyperlinks —
or determine where the hyperlinks are.

PHYSICAL CONSISTENCY
This concept describes the consistent outer appearance of a web-site – e.g. the
position of logos, navigation, the use of graphic elements and typography.
Physical consistency is essential for better orientation and effective site
navigation.

PROGRESSIVE ENHANCEMENT (PE)

Progressive Enhancement is a design strategy in which sites are created in a
layered fashion — from the basic functionality for all browsers to the
additional, enhanced features for modern browsers. The main advantage of
progressive enhancement lies in its “universal usability” — i.e. the fact that it
allows everyone to access the basic content and functionality of a web page,
using any browser or Internet connection, while also providing those with
better bandwidth or more advanced browser software an enhanced version of
the page.

READABILITY
Readability describes the degree to which the meaning of text is
understandable, based on the complexity of sentences and the difficulty of
vocabulary. Indexes for readability usually rank usability by the age or grade
level required for someone to be able to readily understand a reading passage.
Readability is not legibility.

USER-CENTERED DESIGN (UCD)

User-centered design is a design philosophy in which users, their needs,
interests and behavior define the foundation of web-site in terms of site
structure, navigation and obtaining the information. UCD is considered as a
standard approach for modern web-applications, particularly due to the rise of
user generated content. In Web 2.0 visitors have to be motivated to
participate and therefore need conditions optimized for their needs.

VIGILANCE (SUSTAINED ATTENTION)

Vigilance is the ability to sustain attention during prolonged, monotonous
tasks such as proofreading a text looking for spelling errors, reminding of
appointments, auto-saving word processor documents etc. In modern web-
applications vigilance tasks are performed in background, automatically and
thus improve the usability of the service. [I-D]

WALK-UP-AND-USE DESIGN
A Walk-up-and-use design is self-explanatory and intuitive, so that first-time
or one-time users can use it effectively without any prior introduction or
training. [I-D]

WIREFRAME
A wireframe is a basic structure — skeleton — of a site that describes the
ideas, concepts and site structure of a web-site. Wireframes can be designed
as presentations which explain to the stake holders how the site is designed,
which functionality it offers and how users can accomplish their tasks.
Wireframes usually don’t have any visual elements or a complete page
layouts; they are often first drafts and sketches designers create on paper.
Example?
Wireframes: Example.
Designing For Start-Ups: How To Deliver
The Message Across
Andrew Maier

Start-up organizations provide an extraordinary example of chaos organized

into manageable chunks. Perhaps more than anyone else, the individuals who
comprise a start-up team are required to understand their team’s goals across
a variety of disciplines — research, marketing, design, development,
architecture, etc. — as well as their own responsibility to move the
company’s overarching objective forward. Entrepreneurs must choose the
direction, designers must think through the options, and developers must cull
a functional product or service, all while giving feedback to and receiving it
from their colleagues.
At least, that’s the idea. Most start-ups tend to take liberties somewhere
along the way. Some start-ups begin with a novel business model, whereas
others begin with a beautiful design. Still others try to test things out first
with a functional prototype, even if it is a bit ugly. All of them — regardless
of their initial approach — adapt their process over time in order to create a
well-rounded product or service. And for this reason, most of today’s start-
ups describe themselves as “agile.”
Agile start-ups, as the name implies, should be capable of changing their
design, development and/or business objectives on a dime. This is much
easier said than done — especially for today’s user experience designers. The
user experience (UX) designers who work at agile start-ups are required to do
two things exceptionally well: (1) grasp the intent of the product or service
being developed, and (2) effectively communicate those good intentions to
end users in a language they’ll understand. Neither of these is as
straightforward as it might sound.
Ideally, designers will jumpstart their design process by carefully selecting
well-reasoned entrepreneurs to work with; but what happens when the
designer is altogether alien to the community he is designing for? The
breakneck speed of agile start-ups makes it incredibly difficult for designers
to craft appropriate messages to their audience at large. Only by
understanding the processes and opinions that dominate start-ups can
designers begin to reach out and make a difference for the end users of their
product or service.

User-Centered Design, Sans User

Designing with a clear idea of who the users are has never been simple. Most
designers who have experience with the trial by fire known as a “lean start-
up” will almost vehemently agree: because there are more than a few fires to
fight, adopting a big-d Design process at start-up organizations is, simply put,
exceedingly difficult. Invariably, this means that most start-up organizations
devolve to the point that salability reigns supreme, or form trumps function.
But whereas flexible, agile environments are very good for getting those
things done, good design takes time, which makes the design process of start-
ups almost universally hamstrung.

Keep the levels of UX in mind. (Image: Jon and Barb)

In short, agile, user-centered design tends to ignore the aesthetic, intangible,

ambient qualities that good experiences are all about. As a consequence,
budding artistic directors, brand ninjas and interaction designers have been
apt to worry. Without the ability to intimately understand the audience for
whom they’re designing, these team members can’t do their jobs. The logical
question becomes, how can they? How can designers effectively
communicate with an audience they’ve yet to meet?
The textbook definition(s) of UX design yields some clue. User-centered
designers are encouraged to perform design research and then create personas
as well as other deliverables. Certainly those would spotlight the factors that
affect a company’s relationship with its users… right? Perhaps. While
research is undoubtedly necessary to the design process, its deliverables are
not.
I’ve written before that designers should bootstrap their own culture of UX
within an organization. In this article, I’ll take that idea one step further: in
order for a start-up to effectively communicate with its target audience, a
spirit of empathy must pervade its every design decision — empathy
cultivated by engaging in an ongoing, outward, user-centered conversation.

Where Has All The Empathy Gone?

The task of any designer who works in a start-up environment requires
empathy. The designer, perhaps more than any other team member, must
empathize with stakeholders (to understand the project’s business objectives),
developers (to understand its technical requirements) and, of course, users (to
understand the nature of the problem they’re solving), all at once. Designing
with consideration for all three parties effectively frames their strife.
Valuable though it may be, however, most start-up environments discourage
empathy. Consider the number of times you’ve heard something like, “We’re
targeting wealthy single males, ages 45 to 55,” or “We’re just like Amazon,
but for baby boomers.” Well, that’s just great. A product description like that
might initially help a team grok (a word that, ironically, means “understand
by empathy”) an idea, but as far as rhetoric goes, merely saying that you
know what segment you’re targeting isn’t enough.
Every e-commerce company sells products. Newcomers to the space can, and
often do, learn a lot by studying the desire paths paved by industry notables
(indeed, entire books are written on the subject). But let’s be clear: “I want to
be Amazon” doesn’t imbue the designer with empathy. Creating something
that looks and feels like Amazon will, of course, look and feel like Amazon.
If that website is then marketed to a wholly different crowd, then the resulting
outfit will be disingenuous — the polar opposite of empathetic.
In order to create something real, unique, of lasting value and with a look and
feel of its own, members of start-up teams must vacate their cubicles.

One… Erm, Three Processes

Adding to this perceived resistance are the various processes that drive start-
up organizations at any given time. A recent blog post by Whitney Hess
contrasts three specific types. It’s worth noting that all of the approaches
detailed below show the exact same verbs in the exact same sequence.
What’s different in each is the primary action that drives change along the
way. To cite Hess:

I see a lot of products developed using the Reactive Procedure:

1. I’m scratching my itch.
2. Should I keep scratching this itch?
3. I’ll scratch this other itch.

As a designer who frequently consults with agile start-ups, I concur with

Whitney’s sentiments: the reactive approach (“build it and they will come”)
is far and away the most common. There is, of course, a good reason for all
that action: development drives change. Start-ups act in order to build an
initial prototype. Prototypes, in turn, move the company — indeed, the user
feedback loop — forward. Unfortunately, the prototypes developed by most
start-ups exhibit a keen lack of consideration. Who is the prototype targeted
at? 40 to 50 somethings? There are certainly a lot of them. Will those 40 to
50 somethings be able to grok it? That is, will users be able to tell what it’s
“all about” from the design? Because this kind of subjectivity is incredibly
nebulous, prudent start-ups rely on experienced UX designers to help them
uncover the answers. It’s no wonder that Whitney and I see this in our line of
work.

As a user experience designer, consultant and member of the New York tech community, I
instead advocate for using the Preactive Procedure:

1. Who’s itchy?
2. That itch isn’t being scratched.
3. This is how to scratch that itch.

I believe that most UX designers would agree — dare I say, empathize —

with Whitney’s prescribed preactive approach. Beginning with thinking —
with research — is in a user-centered designer’s blood; it helps them
understand their audience and voice their messages appropriately. Further
still, “preactivity” appears to be the only real way for designers to gain
empathy. But most start-up environments run counter to this approach.
Acting and then thinking usually leaves little room for the voice of research.
Has Whitney encountered a start-up that tries to reconcile the two?
As luck would have it, she has. Whitney recently worked with an
entrepreneur who marches to a different beat:

Campbell McKellar, founder of Loosecubes, is the first person to make

me realize that there’s something even better than the Preactive
Procedure — the Proactive Procedure.

By acting sooner, you are actually achieving more. You are creating the
future instead of just predicting and accommodating for it. You are
inventing a new reality, based half in what people need, and half in what
you want them to have. You can observe behavior sooner and course-
correct. It is the most transformative of all three procedures for both the
subject and the object.

An entrepreneur at heart, I want to agree here, too. The proactive process

appears to be a viable alternative to the unenviable tension between designers
and developers at start-ups. But just because a group is humming along with
a decision-based proactive process doesn’t mean that the organization’s
designer understands its users any better. By UX standards, this process
almost seems to disenfranchise them: it moves “thinking” — and here, I
presume, research — all the way to the back of the bus.
In sum, it’s easy to envision scenarios at a start-up in which a given
development process proves more valuable, more productive, than its
alternative. Should the team think, act or decide? It depends. Regardless, as
designers join start-ups, they’re very likely to find that design is secondary to
the process unless, of course, their organization follows a preactive process.
But for most start-ups, that’s simply not the case.
In order for an organization to learn more about its users, the design-minded
members must advocate to that effect, changing the way that design is
approached. Designers must stand up for their part of the process. As UX
designer Joshua Porter attests, “The further a designer is from the people
they’re designing for, the harder it is to design for them.”
Start-ups — or more specifically, the designers at start-ups — need to get as
close to users as they can. Product development can’t rest in the
entrepreneurs’ and/or the developers’ hands alone.

Why Design Fails

When asked, most designers don’t take long to provide honest, valid reasons
why the design process is important to developers and entrepreneurs alike.
There is firm precedent to that end, and they are designers by choice, after all.
But just because the truth and beauty of good design is evident to most
designers doesn’t exactly mean that their colleagues share their sentiments.
If it isn’t making Dollars… (Image: Kristian Bjornard)

Start-ups — and more importantly, the individuals who comprise them —

have a great number of mental hurdles standing in the way of their empathy
with end users. The aforementioned quickened pace and changing processes
aside, here are those hurdles:
• Start-up teams have strong convictions.
Anyone who believes strongly in a cause (be it an idea or a Web
application… or both) will identify with it. If a designer questions the
validity of an idea, then they are questioning the team. This is a difficult,
integral part of the design process.
• Research doesn’t (immediately) sell.
It doesn’t take weeks of research to sell a product to someone, and given
enough time a good marketer can sell anyone almost anything —
especially something beautiful. As a consequence, team members are
likely to judge the design book by its cover. Research rarely affects their
notion of beauty.
• Start-ups trust results they can measure (preferably in dollars).
 Web metrics are currently the bread and butter of today’s Web-savvy
marketers. Saying that a design is good is one thing. Saying that a design
has increased conversions by 200% is another. Attaching a number to
something makes entrepreneurs (and, yes, designers, too) feel better
about the problem being addressed. If the current process is measurable,
should an up-front design process be allowed to slow that down?
In sum, short-term, yes-or-no, go-or-no-go (Decide! Act!) thinking pervades
the start-up space. The reality is that most agile start-ups favor a “design-
less” process. While UX designers might trust that empathy (or
understanding) is tantamount to a start-up’s success, their teammates won’t
necessarily believe so. In order to effect change, designers must fight for the
integrity of their design from the inside out.

Leading The Way With Empathy

To be clear, good design doesn’t come about at start-ups just by studying the
metrics generated from a prototype or by talking to users through a proxy —
say, support emails. That isn’t to say that these things aren’t valuable — they
certainly can (and often do) point to the consequences of prior decisions. But
feedback, by definition, cannot determine the company’s next — or, more
importantly, first — steps. There’s the rub. Unfortunately, that is the problem
routinely faced by start-up designers.
Create Empathy and Inclusion. (Image: Kristian Bjornard)

No one would argue that determining what’s “good” for a Web design is
subjective, which makes it a frightening prospect. As D. Keith Robinson
wrote on A List Apart all the way back in 2005:

Knowing what people want on the Web can be hard. You either need to
have incredible empathy or have done fairly extensive research. This
empathy I’m talking about, in my opinion, can really only be built up over
time observing all kinds of people doing all kinds of things on all kinds of
websites and applications. Even then, as you move from project to
project, the people, problems and needs change.

With every new project comes a new target user, a new person to empathize
with. And just as with meeting a new person, understanding what they like
and don’t like takes time. If designers are to appeal to this new person, they
first have to get to know them. As both Whitney Hess and Cennydd Bowles
have asserted, focusing on a rapid proactive process — decide, act, think —
gives most start-ups a solid plan of attack. Not only do teams get to test
market viability first, they can then think about how they’ll differentiate the
product shortly thereafter.
Yes, this process makes brand-conscious designers uneasy, and
understandably so. In the beginning, though, without the context that a
prototype creates, designers must lean towards the relatively “safe” side,
where all interaction design begins: buttons look like buttons, drop-downs
look like drop-downs and perhaps even the names of start-ups sound like
start-ups. Robert Hoekman, Jr. calls this Designing the Obvious. I call it
designing the boring bits.
Because what this approach makes up for in usability, it certainly lacks in
propriety. To determine what’s appropriate (which is subjective), designers
must conduct field research.

HOLD YOUR OWN CONVICTIONS

Plenty of UX designers preach preactivity; they are the ones who want to
understand — to empathize with — their audience and build something
tailored to them. Moreover, these designers have the relative luxury of
working within organizations. For them, Cennydd Bowles and James Box
have written a lovely book, Undercover User Experience Design. If you’re at
a company where design is ailing and you want to fix it, I suggest picking up
a copy right away.
If you’re an independent consultant or a designer working with a start-up
that’s out to craft the best possible experience, then I would suggest a couple
of things, all centered on the same concept, which is to make listening a part
of the company’s design process:
1. Create a design strategy.
Articulate who you’ll be designing for (even if they’re only make-
believe) and how they’ll use the website. I’ve written before how I do
this. Regardless of how you do it, know who you’re trying to know.
2. Have a solution.
Work with a development team to generate a quick prototype that
demonstrates your best (albeit uninformed) solution. Have at least two
people use the prototype the way it is intended to be used. Befriend
 them, and see if they’ll contribute feedback as you refine your vision.
3. See for yourself.
Finally, and most importantly, see for yourself. Visit your users in their
natural environment, and make sure their concerns are addressed. If
you’re in a position to do this, ask them questions related to the problem
your start-up addresses.
In all cases, start-up designers should center their design process on listening
to users. Instead of speaking to users by way of the design, converse with
users to inform the design. Empathy, the human connection, makes or breaks
an informed experience.
Because most of us work behind computers for hours, days or weeks at a
time, gaining empathy is obviously easier said than done. However, empathy
is the only way to turn a good business idea into a well-articulated design
conversation. Respect is earned, a brand is born, when every interaction that
an organization has with its users is open, earnest, honest and, most of all,
appropriate.
Color Theory For Designers, Part 1: The
Meaning Of Color
Cameron Chapman

Color in design is very subjective. What evokes one reaction in one person
may evoke a very different reaction in someone else. Sometimes this is due to
personal preference, and other times due to cultural background. Color theory
is a science in itself. Studying how colors affect different people, either
individually or as a group, is something some people build their careers on.
And there’s a lot to it. Something as simple as changing the exact hue or
saturation of a color can evoke a completely different feeling. Cultural
differences mean that something that’s happy and uplifting in one country
can be depressing in another.
This is the first in a three-part series on color theory. Here we’ll discuss the
meanings behind the different color families, and give some examples of how
these colors are used (with a bit of analysis for each). In Part 2 we’ll talk
about how hue, chroma, value, saturation, tones, tints and shades affect the
way we perceive colors. And in Part 3 we’ll discuss how to create effective
color palettes for your own designs.

Warm Colors

Warm colors include red, orange, and yellow, and variations of those three
colors. These are the colors of fire, of fall leaves, and of sunsets and sunrises,
and are generally energizing, passionate, and positive.
Red and yellow are both primary colors, with orange falling in the middle,
which means warm colors are all truly warm and aren’t created by combining
a warm color with a cool color. Use warm colors in your designs to reflect
passion, happiness, enthusiasm, and energy.
RED (PRIMARY COLOR)

Red is a very hot color. It’s associated with fire, violence, and warfare. It’s
also associated with love and passion. In history, it’s been associated with
both the Devil and Cupid. Red can actually have a physical effect on people,
raising blood pressure and respiration rates. It’s been shown to enhance
human metabolism, too.
Red can be associated with anger, but is also associated with importance
(think of the red carpet at awards shows and celebrity events). Red also
indicates danger (the reason stop lights and signs are red, and that most
warning labels are red).
Outside the western world, red has different associations. For example, in
China, red is the color of prosperity and happiness. It can also be used to
attract good luck. In other eastern cultures, red is worn by brides on their
wedding days. In South Africa, however, red is the color of mourning. Red is
also associated with communism. Red has become the color associated with
AIDS awareness in Africa due to the popularity of the [RED] campaign.
In design, red can be a powerful accent color. It can have an overwhelming
effect if it’s used too much in designs, especially in its purest form. It’s a
great color to use when power or passion want to be portrayed in the design.
Red can be very versatile, though, with brighter versions being more
energetic and darker shades being more powerful and elegant.
Examples
The dark shades of red in this design give a powerful and elegant feel to the
site.
The true red accents stand out against the dark black background, and give a
powerful and high-end feeling to the site.
The very bright red accents on this site give a sense of energy and movement.
The dark red on this site, because it’s combined with grunge elements, seems
more like the color of blood.

Dark red, when combined with white and gray, gives a very elegant and
professional impression.
ORANGE (SECONDARY COLOR)

Orange is a very vibrant and energetic color. In its muted forms, it can be
associated with the earth and with autumn. Because of its association with the
changing seasons, orange can represent change and movement in general.
Because orange is associated with the fruit of the same name, it can be
associated with health and vitality. In designs, orange commands attention
without being as overpowering as red. It’s often considered more friendly and
inviting, and less in-your-face.
Examples
The bright orange box draws attention to its contents, even with the other
bright red elements on the page.

Orange is used here in its most obvious incarnation, to represent fire.

The dark orange, when set against the lime green, almost acts as a neutral and
grounding color here.
Orange is used here to give a friendly and inviting impression.
The orange accents here add a lot of visual interest and bring attention to the
call to action.
YELLOW (PRIMARY COLOR)

Yellow is often considered the brightest and most energizing of the warm
colors. It’s associated with happiness and sunshine. Yellow can also be
associated with deceit and cowardice, though (calling someone yellow is
calling them a coward).
Yellow is also associated with hope, as can be seen in some countries when
yellow ribbons are displayed by families who have loved ones at war. Yellow
is also associated with danger, though not as strongly as red.
In some countries, yellow has very different connotations. In Egypt, for
example, yellow is for mourning. In Japan, it represents courage, and in India
it’s a color for merchants.
In your designs, bright yellow can lend a sense of happiness and
cheerfulness. Softer yellows are commonly used as a gender-neutral color for
babies (rather than blue or pink) and young children. Light yellows also give
a more calm feeling of happiness than bright yellows. Dark yellows and gold-
hued yellows can sometimes look antique and be used in designs where a
sense of permanence is desired.
Examples
The bright yellow header and graphics used throughout this site give a sense
of energy and positivity.
The light yellow is used almost as a neutral in the header here, and combined
with the hand-drawn illustrations gives a very cheerful impression.
The bright yellow accents bring attention to the most important parts of this
site.
The bright yellow sunflower reminds visitors of summer on this site, and
combined with the antique-yellow background, it gives a homey and
established feeling.
The bright yellow header here adds a bit of extra energy to this design.

Cool Colors

Cool colors include green, blue, and purple, are often more subdued than
warm colors. They are the colors of night, of water, of nature, and are usually
calming, relaxing, and somewhat reserved.
Blue is the only primary color within the cool spectrum, which means the
other colors are created by combining blue with a warm color (yellow for
green and red for purple). Greens take on some of the attributes of yellow,
and purple takes on some of the attributes of red. Use cool colors in your
designs to give a sense of calm or professionalism.
GREEN (SECONDARY COLOR)

Green is a very down-to-earth color. It can represent new beginnings and

growth. It also signifies renewal and abundance. Alternatively, green can also
represent envy or jealousy, and a lack of experience.
Green has many of the same calming attributes that blue has, but it also
incorporates some of the energy of yellow. In design, green can have a
balancing and harmonizing effect, and is very stable. It’s appropriate for
designs related to wealth, stability, renewal, and nature. Brighter greens are
more energizing and vibrant, while olive greens are more representative of
the natural world. Dark greens are the most stable and representative of
affluence.
Examples
The extremely muted greens of this site give it a very down-to-earth and
natural feeling.

The bright green header of this site mixed with the leaf motif gives it a very
natural and vibrant feeling.
The more olive-toned green of this site gives it a natural feeling, which is
very appropriate for the content.

The brighter, more retro-looking greens of this site give it a very fresh,
energized feeling.

Another olive green site with a very natural feeling.

BLUE (PRIMARY COLOR)

Blue is often associated with sadness in the English language. Blue is also
used extensively to represent calmness and responsibility. Light blues can be
refreshing and friendly. Dark blues are more strong and reliable. Blue is also
associated with peace, and has spiritual and religious connotations in many
cultures and traditions (for example, the Virgin Mary is generally depicted
wearing blue robes).
The meaning of blue is widely affected depending on the exact shade and
hue. In design, the exact shade of blue you select will have a huge impact on
how your designs are perceived. Light blues are often relaxed and calming.
Bright blues can be energizing and refreshing. Dark blues are excellent for
corporate sites or designs where strength and reliability are important.
Examples
The dark blues give this a feeling of reliability, while the brighter and lighter
blues keep it from feeling staid.
The dark blue gives this a site a professional feeling, especially when
combined with the white background. But the lighter blue accents add a bit
more interest.
The bright, sky blue of this site gives it a young and hip feeling, which is
emphasized by the reddish accents.
This site combines a range of blues, which gives it a refreshing feeling
overall.
The light, muted blue of this site gives a very relaxed and calm impression.
PURPLE (SECONDARY COLOR)

Purple was long associated with royalty. It’s a combination of red and blue,
and takes on some attributes of both. It’s associated with creativity and
imagination, too.
In Thailand, purple is the color of mourning for widows. Dark purples are
traditionally associated with wealth and royalty, while lighter purples (like
lavender) are considered more romantic.
In design, dark purples can give a sense wealth and luxury. Light purples are
softer and are associated with spring and romance.

The dark shade used here evokes the royal heritage of purple, which is very
appropriate for the Asprey luxury goods brand.
The light and medium purples here work well to convey a sense of creativity.
The brighter, more reddish purple of this site gives it both a rich and
energetic look.

The dark purple background here adds to the creative feeling of the overall
site.
The dark purple accents on this site give a sense of luxury and refinement.

Neutrals

Neutral colors often serve as the backdrop in design. They’re commonly

combined with brighter accent colors. But they can also be used on their own
in designs, and can create very sophisticated layouts. The meanings and
impressions of neutral colors are much more affected by the colors that
surround them than are warm and cool colors.
BLACK

Black is the strongest of the neutral colors. On the positive side, it’s
commonly associated with power, elegance, and formality. On the negative
side, it can be associated with evil, death, and mystery. Black is the
traditional color of mourning in many Western countries. It’s also associated
with rebellion in some cultures, and is associated with Halloween and the
occult.
Black is commonly used in edgier designs, as well as in very elegant designs.
It can be either conservative or modern, traditional or unconventional,
depending on the colors it’s combined with. In design, black is commonly
used for typography and other functional parts, because of it’s neutrality.
Black can make it easier to convey a sense of sophistication and mystery in a
design.
Examples
The black accents, mixed with the brighter colors and very dark brown
background add an edgier look to the overall design.
Black, when mixed with icy blues, looks colder.
The black here, mixed with dark grays and lime green, and an overall grungy
theme, adds to the edginess of the design.

The black accents here add an extra layer of sophistication and modernity to
the site.
The strong black accents on this site add to the overall sophistication of the
design.
WHITE

White is at the opposite end of the spectrum from black, but like black, it can
work well with just about any other color. White is often associated with
purity, cleanliness, and virtue. In the West, white is commonly worn by
brides on their wedding day. It’s also associated with the health care industry,
especially with doctors, nurses and dentists. White is associated with
goodness, and angels are often depicted in white.
In design, white is generally considered a neutral backdrop that lets other
colors in a design have a larger voice. It can help to convey cleanliness and
simplicity, though, and is popular in minimalist designs. White in designs can
also portray either winter or summer, depending on the other design motifs
and colors that surround it.
Examples
The white on the Fuelhaus site is used to contrast against the electric blue.
White backgrounds are very popular on minimalistic sites, and provide great
contrast to black typography.

Here, white is used as an accent color, which lightens the overall effect of the
site.
White combined with gray gives a soft and clean feeling to this design.
Again, white used as a background lightens the whole design.
GRAY

Gray is a neutral color, generally considered on the cool end of the color
spectrum. It can sometimes be considered moody or depressing. Light grays
can be used in place of white in some designs, and dark grays can be used in
place of black.
Gray is generally conservative and formal, but can also be modern. It is
sometimes considered a color of mourning. It’s commonly used in corporate
designs, where formality and professionalism are key. It can be a very
sophisticated color. Pure grays are shades of black, though other grays may
have blue or brown hues mixed in. In design, gray backgrounds are very
common, as is gray typography.
Examples
Light gray gives a very subdued and quiet feeling to this design.
The light gray background here adds to the modern feeling created by the
typography.

The cooler gray on this site gives a modern, sophisticated feel to the site.
The dark gray background and lighter gray typography lend a decidedly
modern look to this design.
The wide spectrum of gray shades used in this design combine to give a
sophisticated and professional look to the site.
BROWN

Brown is associated with the earth, wood, and stone. It’s a completely natural
color and a warm neutral. Brown can be associated with dependability and
reliability, with steadfastness, and with earthiness. It can also be considered
dull.
In design, brown is commonly used as a background color. It’s also seen in
wood textures and sometimes in stone textures. It helps bring a feeling of
warmth and wholesomeness to designs. It’s sometimes used in its darkest
forms as a replacement for black, either in backgrounds or typography.
Examples
The grayish-brown here lends a sense of responsibility and dependability.
The orangish-brown here gives a very earthy and dependable feeling.

The dark brown used in the background here lends an earthy and steadfast
look to the overall layout, and lets the brighter colors in the design really get
to stand out.
Woodgrain is a popular use of brown, and in this case the warm brown adds
some friendliness to an otherwise minimalist site.

The grayish-brown background here lends a feeling of stability and down-to-

earthness.
BEIGE AND TAN

Beige is somewhat unique in the color spectrum, as it can take on cool or

warm tones depending on the colors surrounding it. It has the warmth of
brown and the coolness of white, and, like brown, is sometimes seen as dull.
It’s a conservative color in most instances, and is usually reserved for
backgrounds. It can also symbolize piety.
Beige in design is generally used in backgrounds, and is commonly seen in
backgrounds with a paper texture. It will take on the characteristics of colors
around it, meaning it has little effect in itself on the final impression a design
gives when used with other colors.
Examples
The light tan background here feels young and fresh because of the bright
colors around it.
The light tan background here lends a more conservative and elegant feeling
to the overall design.
The yellowish tan background is made even warmer by the orange and brown
accents throughout this site’s design.
Tan is popularly used as a paper-bag texture, and in its more grayish form as
a concrete or stone texture.
The beige header background and other accents on the site lend a refined and
traditional feeling to the overall design.
CREAM AND IVORY

Ivory and cream are sophisticated colors, with some of the warmth of brown
and a lot of the coolness of white. They’re generally quiet, and can often
evoke a sense of history. Ivory is a calm color, with some of the pureness
associated with white, though it’s a bit warmer.
In design, ivory can lend a sense of elegance and calm to a site. When
combined with earthy colors like peach or brown, it can take on an earthy
quality. It can also be used to lighten darker colors, without the stark contrast
of using white.
Examples
The ivory background here has a warm quality that’s tempered by some of
the cooler colors on the site.
The grayish-cream background here is made warmer by the orangish-brown
accents.

The cream background adds a sense of understated elegance this site would
otherwise be lacking.
The cream background here reinforces the antique theme that runs throughout
the design’s graphics.
The ivory combined with other light colors and jewely tones makes this site
have a very elegant overall appearance.

In Brief…
While the information contained here might seem just a bit overwhelming,
color theory is as much about the feeling a particular shade evokes than
anything else. But here’s a quick reference guide for the common meanings
of the colors discussed above:
• Red: Passion, Love, Anger
• Orange: Energy, Happiness, Vitality
• Yellow: Happiness, Hope, Deceit
• Green: New Beginnings, Abundance, Nature
• Blue: Calm, Responsible, Sadness
• Purple: Creativity, Royalty, Wealth
• Black: Mystery, Elegance, Evil
• Gray: Moody, Conservative, Formality
• White: Purity, Cleanliness, Virtue
• Brown: Nature, Wholesomeness, Dependability
• Tan or Beige: Conservative, Piety, Dull
• Cream or Ivory: Calm, Elegant, Purity
Color Theory For Designers, Part 2:
Understanding Concepts And Terminology
Cameron Chapman

If you’re going to use color effectively in your designs, you’ll need to know
some color concepts and color theory terminology. A thorough working
knowledge of concepts like chroma, value and saturation is key to creating
your own awesome color schemes. In Part 1: The Meaning of Color of our
color theory series, we covered the meanings of different colors. Here, we’ll
go over the basics of what affects a given color, such as adding gray, white or
black to the pure hue, and its effect on a design, with examples of course.
Hue
Hue is the most basic of color terms and basically denotes an object’s color.
When we say “blue,” “green” or “red,” we’re talking about hue. The hues
you use in your designs convey important messages to your website’s
visitors. Read part 1 of this article for the meanings conveyed by various
hues.
EXAMPLES

The primary hue of the background and some of the typography on the
Happy Twitmas website is bright red.
Using a lot of pure hues together can add a fun and playful look to a design,
as done in the header and elsewhere on this website.
Pure red is a very popular hue in Web design.

Mix uses a number of pure hues in its header and logo.

Green in its purer forms is seen less often and so stands out more than some
other colors.
Chroma
Chroma refers to the purity of a color. A hue with high chroma has no black,
white or gray in it. Adding white, black or gray reduces its chroma. It’s
similar to saturation but not quite the same. Chroma can be thought of as the
brightness of a color in comparison to white.
In design, avoid using hues that have a very similar chroma. Opt instead for
hues with chromas that are the same or a few steps away from each other.
EXAMPLES

Cyan has a high chroma and so really stands out against black and white.
Another website with a high chroma blue, though it includes some tints and
shades with somewhat lower chromas.
Combining high and low saturation in the same hue can make for a
sophisticated and elegant design.
Colors with very high chroma are best used in moderation, as done here.

Differences in chroma can make for a visually pleasing gradient.

Saturation
Saturation refers to how a hue appears under particular lighting conditions.
Think of saturation in terms of weak vs. strong or pale vs. pure hues.
In design, colors with similar saturation levels make for more cohesive-
looking designs. As with chroma, colors with similar but not identical
saturations can have a jarring effect on visitors.
EXAMPLES

The saturation levels of many of the different hues used here are similar,
adding a sense of unity to the overall design.
Combining colors with similar muted saturation levels creates a soft design,
which is emphasized by the watercolor effects.
Hues with lower saturation levels aren’t necessarily lighter, as shown here.
An excellent example of how using a hue with a high saturation against a
background with low saturation can make the former really stand out.
Aother example of how low saturation colors make nearby high saturation
colors really stand out.
Value
Value could also be called “lightness.” It refers to how light or dark a color
is. Ligher colors have higher values. For example, orange has a higher value
than navy blue or dark purple. Black has the lowest value of any hue, and
white the highest.
When applying color values to your designs, favor colors with different
values, especially ones with high chroma. High contrast values generally
result in more aesthetically pleasing designs.
EXAMPLES

The high value of the yellow used here really stands out against the lower-
value black and gray.
This website combines blue hues with two different values. Because the
different values have enough contrast, the overall look is visually appealing.
Combining colors with similar values makes for an energetic and lively
background (which is enhanced by the design itself).
The red here has a lower value than the light blue, which itself has a lower
value than the white.
The human eye can pick up differences in value even among such similar
hues.
Tones
Tones are created when gray is added to a hue. Tones are generally duller or
softer-looking than pure hues.
Tones are sometimes easier to use in designs. Tones with more gray can lend
a certain vintage feel to websites. Depending on the hues, they can also add a
sophisticated or elegant look.
EXAMPLES

Tones can give websites a sophisticated look while adding some vintage and
antique flair.
This website combines blues in a variety of tones, shades and tints.
Tones can be intensified by adding gray around them, as done here.
The tones used in the navigation and background design here give this
website a vintage, hand-made feel.
A great example of how a pure hue can really stand out against a background
of tones.
Some colors that we might consider gray are actually tones of other colors. In
this case, the background is a blue tone but with a lot of gray added.
Shades
A shade is created when black is added to a hue, making it darker. The word
is often incorrectly used to describe tint or tone, but shade only applies to
hues made darker by the addition of black.
In design, very dark shades are sometimes used instead of black and can
serve as neutrals. Combining shades with tints is best to avoid too dark and
heavy a look.
EXAMPLES

Jonathan Moore’s website has a variety of different shades of purple in the

background (and a couple of tints in other parts).
Using different shades together works well, as long as sufficient contrast
between them is maintained.

An effective combination of shades and tints, particularly in the header.

Another background design that has shades (and a few tints) in a textured
gradient.
Combining shades within textures adds interest to this website.
Tints
A tint is formed when white is added to a hue, lightening it. Very light tints
are sometimes called pastels, but any pure hue with white added to it is a tint.
Tints are often used to create feminine or lighter designs. Pastel tints are
especially used to make designs more feminine. They also work well in
vintage designs and are popular on websites targeted at parents of babies and
toddlers.
EXAMPLES

Caio Cardoso’s website has a variety of green tints in the background and in
other elements.
The blue tint on Fernando Silanes’s website creates a soft and sophisticated
look.
Blue tints are popular for sky and nature motifs.
Tints are also popular in watercolor-based designs.
Tints combined together make for a sophisticated gradient.

Conclusion
While you don’t necessarily have to remember all of these technical terms,
you should be familiar with the actual concepts, especially if you want to
master part 3 of this series (in which we create our own color schemes). To
that end, here’s a cheat sheet to jog your memory:
• Hue is color (blue, green, red, etc.).
• Chroma is the purity of a color (a high chroma has no added black,
white or gray).
• Saturation refers to how strong or weak a color is (high saturation being
strong).
• Value refers to how light or dark a color is (light having a high value).
• Tones are created by adding gray to a color, making it duller than the
original.
• Shades are created by adding black to a color, making it darker than the
original.
• Tints are created by adding white to a color, making it lighter than the
original.
Color Theory For Designer, Part 3:
Creating Your Own Color Palettes
Cameron Chapman

Previous two parts of this series on color theory, we talked mostly about the
meanings behind colors and color terminology. While this information is
important, I’m sure a lot of people were wondering when we were going to
get into the nitty-gritty of actually creating some color schemes.
Well, that’s where Part 3 comes in. Here we’ll be talking about methods for
creating your own color schemes, from scratch. We’ll cover the traditional
color scheme patterns (monochrome, analogous, complementary, etc.) as well
as how to create custom schemes that aren’t based strictly on any one pattern.
By the end of this article, you’ll have the tools and skills to start creating
beautiful color palettes for your own design projects. The best way to
improve your skills is to practice, so why not set yourself a goal of creating a
new color scheme every day.
A Quick Review
Let’s start with a quick review of what was covered in parts 1 and 2. In part
1, we talked about how all colors have inherent meanings, which can vary
depending on the country or culture. These meanings have a direct impact on
the way your visitors perceive your site, even if it’s just subconsciously. The
colors you choose can either work for or against the brand identity you’re
trying to create.

In part 2, we covered color terminology: hue (what color something is, like
blue or red); chroma (how pure a color is, the lack of white, black or gray
added to it); saturation (the strength or weakness of a color); value (how light
or dark a color is); tone (created by adding gray to a pure hue); shade (created
by adding black to a pure hue); and tint (created by adding white to a hue).
These are important terms to know as we move forward and create our own
color schemes.
Traditional Color Scheme Types
There are a number of predefined color scheme standards that make creating
new schemes easier, especially for beginners. Below are the traditional
schemes, with a few examples for each.

The basic, twelve-spoke color wheel is an important tool in creating color schemes.

MONOCHROMATIC
Monochromatic color schemes are made up of different tones, shades and
tints within a specific hue. These are the simplest color schemes to create, as
they’re all taken from the same hue, making it harder to create a jarring or
ugly scheme (though both are still possible).
Examples:
Here are three examples of monochrome color schemes. For the most part
with these schemes, the first color (if we look at this from left to right) would
likely be used for headlines. The second color would be used for body text or
possibly the background. The third color would likely be used for the
background (or body text if color #2 was used as the background). And the
last two colors would be used as accents or within graphics.

ANALOGOUS
Analogous color schemes are the next easiest to create. Analogous schemes
are created by using three colors that are next to each other on the 12-spoke
color wheel. Generally, analogous color schemes all have the same chroma
level, but by using tones, shades and tints we can add interest to these
schemes and adapt them to our needs for designing websites.
Examples:
This is a traditional analogous color scheme, and while it’s visually
appealing, there isn’t enough contrast between the colors for an effective
website design.

Here’s a color scheme with the same hues as the one above, but with the
chroma adjusted to give more variety. It’s now much more suitable for use in
a website.

Another example of a traditional analogous scheme.

And the above theme modified for use in a website design.

COMPLEMENTARY
Complementary schemes are created by combining colors from opposite
sides of the color wheel. In their most basic form, these schemes consist of
only two colors, but can easily be expanded using tones, tints, and shades. A
word of warning, though: using colors that are exact opposites with the same
chroma and/or value right next to each other can be very jarring visually
(they’ll appear to actually vibrate along their border in the most severe uses).
This is best avoided (either by leaving white space between them or by
adding another, transitional color between them).
Examples:

A wide range of tints, shades, and tones makes this a very versatile color
scheme.

Another complementary color scheme with a wide range of chromas.

Don’t forget that beige and brown are really tints and shades of orange.

SPLIT COMPLEMENTARY
Split complementary schemes are almost as easy as the complementary
scheme. In this scheme, instead of using colors that are opposites, you use
colors on either side of the hue opposite your base hue.
Examples:

A scheme where yellow-green is the base hue. It’s important to have enough
difference in chroma and value between the colors you select for this type of
scheme.

Another palette with a wide range of chromas.

TRIADIC
Triadic schemes are made up of hues equally spaced around the 12-spoke
color wheel. This is one of the more diverse color schemes.
Examples:

Using a very pale or dark version of one color in the triad, along with two
shades/tones/tints of the other two colors makes the single color almost work
as a neutral within the scheme.

Alternately, using one very bright hue with paired muted hues makes the
single bright hue stand out more.

DOUBLE-COMPLEMENTARY (TETRADIC)
Tetradic color schemes are probably the most difficult schemes to pull off
effectively.
Examples:
A rather unimpressive tetradic color scheme. The best way to use a scheme
like this is to use one color as the primary color in a design and the others just
as accents.

Tetradic color schemes can work well for creating color schemes with similar
chromas and values. Just add a neutral (such as dark gray or black) for text
and accents.

It works just as well for darker color schemes.

CUSTOM
Custom color schemes are the hardest to create. Instead of following the
predefined color schemes discussed above, a custom scheme isn’t based on
any formal rules. Keep in mind things like chroma, value, and saturation
when creating these kinds of color schemes.
Examples:

The colors here all have similar chroma and saturation levels.

Again, using colors with similar chroma and saturation is effective and
creates a sense of cohesion across a color scheme.

Using one color with a high chroma among other colors with lower chromas
is another effective method (the higher chroma color can act as an accent).
Creating a Color Scheme
Creating your own color schemes can be a bit intimidating. But it’s not as
complicated as many people think. And there are quite a few tricks you can
employ to create great color palettes right from the start.

We’ve been over the different types of color schemes above. Now, let’s try
creating a few of our own. There are plenty of tools online that will help you
create a color scheme, but let’s forget about those for now and just use
Photoshop.
Lets try breaking away from the color scheme types already mentioned, and
create some custom schemes. While it’s important to know the ways that
different colors interact and how traditional schemes are created, for most
design projects you’ll likely create custom schemes that don’t strictly adhere
to any predefined patterns.
So, for the purposes of our project here, we’ll create three color schemes each
for two different websites. Our hypothetical clients are a modern architecture
design blog and a high-end women’s clothing retailer who specializes in
Victorian-influenced apparel.
We’ll start with a basic monochromatic scheme, just to get a feel for each.
While I mentioned that traditional color scheme patterns aren’t used as often
in design, monochomatic color schemes are the exception to that rule. You’ll
likely find yourself using monochromatic schemes on a fairly regular basis.
For our apparel store, here’s a traditional monochromatic scheme, with white
added in as a neutral.

For our design blog, we’ve gone with a color scheme made up of shades and
tints of gray.

This is almost an analogous color scheme, but we’ve left out one color. It’s
made up of shades of purple and reddish-purple. These two colors fall next to
each other on the color wheel, and work well together, especially when
they’re used in different values and saturation levels.
Adding a couple shades of red to the gray color scheme adds a lot of visual
interest and the potential for creating extra emphasis on certain parts within
your designs.

Here, we’ve gotten rid of the purple hues and switched over to a burgundy.
Again this is next to the reddish-purple on the color wheel. We’ve also added
in a very pale yellow tone, which sits opposite purple on the color wheel.
This serves as our neutral, and looks more like an off-white color when
compared to our other hues.

While this color scheme at first glance looks like another standard gray and
red palette, if you look more closely you’ll see that the grays are actually
tones of blue. Blue and red make up two thirds of a tetradic color scheme, but
work just fine together without yellow, especially when the red is kept pure
but the blue is toned down to the point of almost being gray.
WHY SHADES, TONES, AND TINTS ARE IMPORTANT
As you can see from the color schemes above, using tints, tones, and shades
in your color schemes is vital. Pure hues all have similar values and
saturation levels. This leads to a color scheme that is both overwhelming and
boring at the same time.

When you mix in tones, shades, and tints, you expand the basic 12-spoke
color wheel into an infinite number of colors for use in your designs. One of
the simplest ways to create a professional looking color scheme is to take a
few tones, tints, and shades of a given color (avoiding the pure hue), and then
add in another pure hue (or close to pure) that’s at least three spaces away on
the color wheel (part of a tetradic, triatic, or split-complementary color
scheme) as an accent color. This adds visual interest to your color scheme
while still retaining a sense of balance.

ADDING IN SOME NEUTRALS

Neutrals are another important part of creating a color scheme. Gray, black,
white, brown, tan, and off-white are generally considered neutral colors.
Browns, tans, and off-whites tend to make color schemes feel warmer (as
they’re really all just tones, shades, and tints of orange and yellow). Gray will
take on a warm or cool impression depending on surrounding colors. Black
and white can also look either warm or cool depending on the surrounding
colors.
Black and white are the easiest neutrals to add into just about any color
scheme. To add a bit more visual interest, though, considering using a very
light or very dark shade of gray in place of white or black.
Adding browns, tans, and off-white hues are a bit trickier, but with some
practice you’ll find adding them gets easier. For browns, consider using a
very dark, chocolate brown in place of black. A pale off-white can be used in
place of white or light gray in many cases. And tan can be used in place of
gray, as well (create a tone by adding some gray to make it even easier).
USING PHOTOS FOR COLOR SCHEMES
One of my personal favorite ways to create a color scheme is to use a
photograph. There are automated tools online that can do this automatically
for you (Adobe Kuler is one of them, and my personal favorite), or you can
do it in Photoshop yourself.
Using Adobe Kuler, you can either browse or search for photos on Flickr, or
you can upload your own image. If you’re stumped for what colors you want
to use in a website design, try searching for related words on Flickr.
Sometimes this can result in finding color schemes that you might not have
thought of on your own.
Let’s try this method out, both ways (using Kuler and Photoshop). Find a
photo you like on Flickr, one that you think evokes the feeling of the design
you want to create. I chose this one:
Here’s the original color scheme that Kuler gives us when using this image:
One of the coolest features Kuler has for creating color schemes from images
is their “Select a Mood” option. Included here are Colorful, Bright, Muted,
Deep, and Dark. These are the schemes we get when using each of those
moods with the same photo:
Colorful

Bright
Muted

Deep
Dark

Now, let’s create a color scheme in Photoshop using the same image. This is
a bit less scientific than the way Kuler does it. I usually just pick a color with
the eyedropper tool, and then keep clicking on different spots in the image
until I find other colors that go with it. Here are the results (this took less than
five minutes to do in Photoshop, so it’s not as time-intensive as it sounds):

Creating color schemes from images in Photoshop is easiest with images that
are relatively monochromatic to begin with. With more colorful images, it
gets trickier.
Let’s try another one, something more colorful this time. Here’s the original
image we’ll work with:
And here are the five color schemes that Kuler gives us from this image:

Colorful
Bright

Muted
Deep

Dark
And here’s what I came up with in Photoshop using the same image:

As you can see, the Photoshop version I came up with is completely different
than what Kuler came up with, but all of the schemes above are visually
appealing. The Photoshop version here took a bit longer than the one above,
partly because of the diversity of colors present in the image.

THE EASIEST COLOR SCHEMES

We’ve touched on this a bit before, but adding a bright accent color into an
otherwise-neutral palette is one of the easiest color schemes to create. It’s
also one of the most striking, visually. If you’re unsure of your skills in
regard to creating custom schemes, try starting out with these types of
palettes.
Here are a few examples to give you an idea of what I’m talking about:
You can see here how using browns instead of grays makes the entire scheme
look warmer, even with the blue accent color.
You can use tones of any color instead of gray or brown in this type of
scheme, just keep it very close to the gray end of the spectrum for the most
fool-proof results. As a general rule, cool grays and pure grays are best for
more modern designs. For traditional designs, warmer grays and browns
often work better.

HOW MANY COLORS?

You’ll notice that throughout this article we’ve used color schemes with five
separate colors. Five is a good number that gives plenty of options for
illustrating the concepts here, and it’s a workable number in a design. But
feel free to have more or fewer colors in your own schemes.
A lot of websites might only use three colors in their designs. Others use only
two. And some might use eight or ten (which is a lot trickier than using fewer
colors). Experiment and use as many or as few colors as you need to for your
design. But you may want to start with a palette of five colors, and then add
or subtract as you see fit and as you progress through the design process.
The easiest way to add a color is to start with one of the predefined,
traditional color schemes and then work out from there. That at least gives
you a bit of direction as far as which other colors to consider.
10 Sites With Great Color Schemes
To give you more inspiration, here are ten websites that have excellent color
schemes. Some of the schemes below might look a bit odd at first glance but
seeing how they’re actually used shows the wide range of possibilities color
schemes can present.

WENTINGS CYCLE & MOUNTAIN SHOP

Scheme:

TRIVUONG.COM
Scheme:

OSCAR BARBER
Scheme:

NORTH EAST PEACE III PARTNERSHIP

Scheme:

MBA ARCHITECTS
Scheme:

STUDIO 13
Scheme:

JOY PROJECT
Scheme:

MORPHIX BLOG
Scheme:

EL DESIGNO
Scheme:

LEMONSTAND
Scheme:

Conclusion
We’ve really only just touched on color theory in this series. There are
specialists out there who have literally spent years refining their ability to
choose colors that are appropriate to any situation.
The best way to learn to create beautiful color schemes is to practice. Create a
scheme on a daily basis. You can use automated tools to do this at first (like
Kuler’s tool for creating schemes from images), or just open up Photoshop
and start. If you see a particularly beautiful or striking color in your daily life,
try creating a scheme around it. And take advantage of all the sites out there
that let you upload your color schemes and organize them for later reference.
This makes all those color schemes more practical and easier to use in the
future.
About The Authors

Andrew Maier
Andrew Maier designs interactions and user experiences for a variety of
clients having formerly worked with Hashrocket, a world-class web
application consultancy. He writes, speaks, and teaches about design and its
intersection with the internet. In addition he serves as the editor–in–chief of
the user experience blog, UX Booth. When he's not crazy busy, Andrew likes
singing, practicing yoga and drinking coffee. You should follow him on
twitter, here.

Cameron Chapman
Cameron Chapman is a professional Web and graphic designer with over 6
years of experience. She writes for a number of blogs, including her own,
Cameron Chapman On Writing. She’s also the author of The Smashing Idea
Book: From Inspiration to Application.

David Travis
David Travis is a user experience consultant and trainer at Userfocus. He has
a BSc and a PhD in psychology and he is a Chartered Psychologist.

Dmitry Fadeyev
Dmitry Fadeyev is the founder of the Usability Post blog, where you can read
his thoughts on good design and usability.

Francisco Inchauste
Francisco Inchauste is a UX designer who enjoys writing. You'll find more
about his adventures in the world of design and user experience on his blog
Finch. You can connect with him on Twitter.
Steven Bradley
Steven Bradley is a web designer and WordPress developer who moved to
Boulder, Colorado to be near the mountains. He blogs at Van SEO Design
and owns and operates a small business forum helping people learn how to
run and market their business better.

Vitaly Friedman
Vitaly Friedman loves beautiful content and doesn’t like to give in easily.
Vitaly is writer, speaker, author and editor-in-chief of Smashing Magazine,
an online magazine dedicated to designers and developers.