Road To Zero

The Road to Zero
Next steps towards cleaner road

transport and delivering our
Industrial Strategy
July 2018
The Road to Zero
Next steps towards cleaner road
transport and delivering our
Industrial Strategy
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Contents
Foreword 1
Policies at a glance 2
Executive Summary 7
Part 1: Drivers of change 21
Part 2: Vehicle Supply and Demand 33
Part 2a: Reducing emissions from vehicles already on our roads 34
Part 2b: Driving uptake of the cleanest new cars and vans 42
Part 2c: Setting a clear pathway to reducing emissions from HGVs and progress
to zero emission solutions 61
Part 2d: Putting the UK at the forefront of the design and manufacturing of zero
emission vehicles 67
Part 3: Infrastructure 81
Part 3a: Developing one of the best electric vehicle infrastructure networks in the world 82
Part 3b: Hydrogen 103
Part 4: Leadership at all levels 105
Annex A: Transport Energy Model – summary of the environmental

performance of fuel and powertrains 115
Endnotes 131
i
Foreword
Foreword
Last year the Government set out a bold
and integrated Industrial Strategy, designed
to help build a high-growth, high-
productivity, green economy across the UK
– an economy fit for the 21st century.
As part of that, our UK Plan for Tackling

Roadside Nitrogen Dioxide Concentrations
(‘the NO2 Plan’) and Clean Growth Strategy
will cut exposure to air pollutants, reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and improve our
energy security.
Now we want to go further still, through new

measures set out in this strategy towards
cleaner road transport and to put the UK at
the forefront of the design and globally, as countries embrace a cleaner
manufacturing of zero emission vehicles. future for road transport.
This adds up to nearly £1.5 billion of Government cannot deliver these ambitions
investment and one of the most alone. At the heart of this strategy is a
comprehensive packages of support for commitment to work in partnership with
the transition to zero emission vehicles in industry, businesses, academia,
the world. environmental groups, devolved
administrations, local government,
It is underpinned by our latest analysis,
consumers and international partners.
which appraises the environmental
performance of the full range of road vehicle Cleaner air, a better environment, zero
fuel and powertrain options available to emission vehicles, a strong clean economy
consumers. We will use this analysis to – those are our goals. This document
work with industry and consumer groups to explains how we plan to achieve them.
develop consumer advice, giving motorists
the best possible information on the
environmental impact of different vehicles
and fuels, so they can make choices that
are right for them.
The UK’s low emission vehicle industry is a

huge success story and a great potential
source of strength in our economy. We want Rt Hon Chris Grayling MP
to take advantage of the unprecedented Secretary of State for Transport
economic opportunities now emerging
1
The Road to Zero: Next steps towards cleaner road transport and delivering our Industrial Strategy
Policies at a glance
Long-term ambitions
Our mission is to put the UK at the forefront of the design and manufacturing of zero
emission vehicles, and for all new cars and vans to be effectively zero emission by 2040.
As set out in the NO2 plan, we will end the sale of new conventional petrol and diesel
cars and vans by 2040. By then, we expect the majority of new cars and vans sold to be
100% zero emission and all new cars and vans to have significant zero emission
capability. By 2050 we want almost every car and van to be zero emission.
We want to see at least 50%, and as many as 70%, of new car sales and up to 40% of
new van sales being ultra low emission by 2030.
We expect this transition to be industry and consumer led, supported in the coming
years by the measures set out in this strategy. We will review progress towards our
ambitions by 2025. Against a rapidly evolving international context, we will seek to
maintain the UK’s leadership position and meet our ambitions, and will consider what
interventions are required if not enough progress is being made.
We will reduce emissions from the vehicles already on our roads by:
1. Increasing the supply and sustainability of low carbon fuels in the UK through a
legally-binding 15-year strategy to more than double their use, reaching 7% of road
transport fuel by 2032.
2. Taking action against garages offering the removal of emissions reduction

technology, working with the DVSA, VCA and industry to ensure our regulatory and
enforcement regimes give us the levers we need to tackle this problem.
3. Extending the Clean Vehicle Retrofit Accreditation Scheme (CVRAS) beyond buses,
coaches and HGVs to include vans and black cabs.
4. Taking steps to accelerate the adoption of fuel-efficient motoring by company car

drivers, businesses operating fleets, and private motorists.
We will drive uptake of the cleanest new vehicles by:
5. Pursuing a future approach as we leave the European Union that is at least as

ambitious as the current arrangements for vehicle emissions regulation.
6. Continuing to offer grants for plug-in cars, vans, taxis and motorcycles until at least
2020. The plug-in car and van grants will be maintained at the current rates until at
least October 2018. Consumer incentives in some form will continue to play a role
beyond 2020.
2
7. Consulting on reforming Vehicle Excise Duty to incentivise van drivers to make the
cleanest choices when purchasing a new van.
8. Leading the way by ensuring 25% of the central Government car fleet is ultra low
emission by 2022 and that all new car purchases are ultra low emission by default.
Committing to 100% of the central Government car fleet being ultra low emission
by 2030.1
9. Launching a 2018/19 Go Ultra Low campaign and continuing to work with industry
on consumer communications about ultra low emission vehicles until at least 2020.
10. Setting up a new Road Transport Emissions Advice Group, bringing government,
industry and consumer groups together to help ensure clear and consistent
consumer messaging and advice on fuel and technology choices.
11. As set out in the Clean Air Strategy consultation, legislating to enable government to
compel vehicle manufacturers to recall vehicles for an environmental nonconformity
or failure, and to make tampering with emissions control systems a legal offence.
12. Supporting the early market for used ultra low emission vehicles by producing
guidance, funding training and making appropriate changes to the DVLA V5
documentation.
13. Launching a call for evidence on particulate emissions from tyre, brake and road
wear to improve our understanding of these emissions and consider options for how
they might be reduced.
14. Continuing to take a technology neutral approach to meeting our ambitions.
We will reduce emissions from heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) and road freight by:
15. Introducing a new voluntary industry-supported commitment to reduce HGV

greenhouse gas emissions by 15% by 2025, from 2015 levels.
16. Launching a joint research project with Highways England to identify and assess
zero emission technologies suitable for HGV traffic on the UK road network.
17. Working with industry to develop an ultra low emission standard for trucks.
18. Undertaking further emissions testing of the latest natural gas HGVs to gather
evidence that will inform decisions on future government policy and support for
natural gas as a potential near-term, lower emission fuel for HGVs.
3
We will put the UK at the forefront of the design and manufacturing of zero
emission vehicles by:
19. Making the biggest increase in public investment in R&D in our history (towards a
target for total R&D investment of 2.4% of GDP by 2027) and increasing the rate of
R&D tax credit to 12%.
20. Fulfilling our commitment to provide £246 million to research next generation battery
technology through the Faraday Battery Challenge.
21. Working with industry to set an ambition for a UK content target for the ultra low
emission vehicle supply chain that is at least as ambitious as for conventional
vehicles, as we look to secure investment in battery manufacturing in the UK.
22. Launching a new supply chain competitiveness and productivity improvement

programme targeting areas where key businesses need to improve to match the
best in Europe.
23. Working with the Institute of the Motor Industry to ensure the UK’s workforce of
mechanics are well trained and have the skills they need to repair these vehicles
safely, delivering for consumers.
24. Working with the Office for National Statistics to extend their data collection to
include jobs and exports attributable to both low and ultra low emission vehicle
technologies.
25. Making sustainable supply chains a key theme of our Zero Emission Vehicle Summit
in September 2018.
We will support the development of one of the best electric vehicle infrastructure
networks in the world by:
26. Launching a £400 million Charging Infrastructure Investment Fund to help accelerate
charging infrastructure deployment.
27. Taking powers through the Automated and Electric Vehicles Bill to ensure:
●● that chargepoints are available at motorway service areas and large fuel retailers;
●● that chargepoints are easily accessed and used across the UK. This includes
powers to provide a uniform method of accessing public chargepoints and
refuelling points; make certain information publicly available in an open and
transparent format and set reliability standards; and
●● that chargepoints are smart ready by giving government powers to set

requirements prohibiting the sale or installation of chargepoints unless they meet
certain requirements.
4
28. Ensuring the houses we build in the coming years are electric vehicle ready. It is our
intention that all new homes, where appropriate, should have a chargepoint
available. We plan to consult as soon as possible on introducing a requirement for
chargepoint infrastructure for new dwellings in England where appropriate.
29. Future-proofing our streets. We want all new street lighting columns to include
charging points, where appropriately located, in areas with current on-street parking
provision.
30. Continuing to provide grant support through the Electric Vehicle Homecharge
Scheme (EVHS) until March 2019, with installations becoming smart enabled.
31. Increasing the grant level of the Workplace Charging Scheme from £300 per socket
to 75% of the purchase and installation costs of a chargepoint capped at a
maximum of £500 per socket.
32. Reviewing the provision of residential chargepoint infrastructure for those who have
communal parking facilities, or do not own their own home, as part of the Law
Commission’s work to review and reinvigorate the commonhold tenure in England
and Wales.
33. Investing £4.5 million in the On-street Residential Chargepoint Scheme until 2020.
34. Consulting in summer 2018 on a proposal to increase the height limit for the
Permitted Development Right in England for the installation of electric vehicle
chargepoints in designated off-street parking spaces.
35. Ensuring local planning policies incorporate facilities for charging electric vehicles via
the National Planning Policy Framework.
36. Consulting on amending Building Regulations to require relevant charging provision

in new non-residential buildings.
37. Launching the process for a R&D programme of up to £40 million by summer 2018
to develop and trial innovative, low cost wireless charging and public on-street
charging solutions that can be deployed across entire residential streets.
38. Continuing to future proof the Strategic Road Network by running a pilot to increase
electrical capacity at a motorway service area working closely with Highways
England.
39. Launching an Electric Vehicle Energy Taskforce to bring together the energy and
automotive industries, in order to plan for future electric vehicle uptake and ensure
the energy system can meet future demand in an efficient and sustainable way.
5
40. As part of the forthcoming call for evidence on last mile deliveries, gathering further
evidence of any key network connection infrastructure barriers, which may prevent
further uptake of ultra low emission vehicles, specifically for fleet operators.
41. Launching an electric vehicle chargepoint design competition.
42. Monitoring market developments to determine whether any significant gaps in

charging infrastructure provision appear over the medium term, and considering
whether there may be a case for direct central government support in areas of
market failure, which may include rural areas.
We will support local action by:
43. Fulfilling a £48m ultra low emission bus scheme funding round to accelerate uptake
and deployment of supporting infrastructure.
44. Launching a second round of funding for local authorities to roll out dedicated taxi
charging infrastructure. We will make available a minimum of £6 million to support
more local areas to make the switch.
45. Setting out definitions of ultra low and zero emission vehicles that local areas may
adopt.
46. Running a series of roadshows across the UK on best practice approaches to

driving the uptake of ultra low emission vehicles.
6
Executive Summary
Executive Summary
Our strategy is built around a core mission: Driving this change is the Government’s
to put the UK at the forefront of the design commitment to be the first generation to
and manufacturing of zero emission vehicles leave the environment in a better state than
and for all new cars and vans to be we inherited it, and to improve the health
effectively zero emission by 2040. and lives of people across the UK. Although
today’s new cars are more efficient than
As set out in the NO2 plan, we will end the
those bought in 1990, transport greenhouse
sale of new conventional petrol and diesel
emissions have fallen just 2% since 1990.5,6
cars and vans by 2040. By then, we expect
As a result, transport is now the largest
the majority of new cars and vans sold to be
sector for UK greenhouse gas emissions
100% zero emission and all new cars and
(27%), of which road transport accounts for
vans to have significant zero emission
over 90%.7 Road transport is one of the
capability. By 2050 we want almost every
biggest contributors to poor air quality in
car and van to be zero emission.
some of the UK’s towns and cities.8
This level of ambition puts the UK at the
We have been one of the most successful
forefront of the global transition to cleaner
countries in the developed world in growing
road transport. Petrol and diesel vehicles
our economy while reducing economy-wide
have dominated the market for over a
emissions. Since 1990, we have cut
century and still account for more than 99%
greenhouse gas emissions by 41% while our
of global sales.2 But change has arrived:
economy has grown by two thirds.9 This
sales of ultra low emission vehicles are
progress has altered the way that we see
increasing rapidly and countries, regions and
some of the trade-offs between investing in
cities across the world have announced
low emission technologies that help secure
long-term plans for cleaner road transport.
our future and growing our economy.
By some estimates, ultra low emission
Action to drive down emissions from road
vehicles will make up over half of global car
transport can be win-win: cutting consumer
sales by 2040.3 The transition will mean
bills, improving our environment and quality
fundamental changes to the global
of life, driving clean economic growth and
automotive market, worth over £1.5 trillion
creating high value jobs.
a year, and new opportunities for the UK.4
Progress towards our mission has already
Leading the industries of the future and
started. There are more than 150,000 ultra
building the UK’s competitiveness in the face
low emission vehicles and around 14,000
of major global economic trends are key
public chargepoints across the UK.10 More
parts of our Industrial Strategy. That is why
than 15,000 people are employed in the low
our 2040 mission is central to the Future of
emission vehicle sector and 1 in every 8 zero
Mobility and Clean Growth Industrial
emission cars bought in Europe in 2017 was
Strategy Grand Challenges.
built in the UK.11,12
7
But there is more to do building on progress This strategy is for the whole UK and builds
so far and the great success story of the UK on our existing commitments in the Industrial
automotive industry. This document sets out Strategy, the Automotive Sector Deal, the
the action government will take to support UK Plan for Tackling Roadside Nitrogen
our mission. Our approach is deliberately Dioxide Concentrations (‘the NO2 Plan’) and
holistic. Adequate vehicle supply, a strong the Clean Growth Strategy to build an
consumer base, the right market conditions environment and an economy fit for the
and a fit for purpose infrastructure network future.15,16,17
are all vital to meeting our ambitions.
This strategy also sets out the steps we will Our 2040 mission
take to drive down emissions from
conventional vehicles during the transition. Our mission is to put the UK at the forefront
The measures outlined amount to nearly of the design and manufacturing of zero
£1.5 billion of investment and one of the emission vehicles and for all new cars and
most comprehensive packages of support vans to be effectively zero emission by
for the transition to zero emission vehicles 2040.18 As set out in the NO2 plan, we will
in the world. end the sale of new conventional petrol and
diesel cars and vans by 2040. By then, we
Road transport is fundamental to the way expect the majority of new cars and vans
people, goods and services move across sold to be 100% zero emission and all new
the UK. More than 60% of UK journeys are cars and vans to have significant zero
by car.13 More than 75% of the goods we emission capability. By 2050 we want
consume travel across the UK in vans and almost every car and van to be zero
trucks.14 Therefore central to our approach emission.
are commitments to put consumers at the
heart of everything we do and work with We expect this transition to be industry and
industry to deliver the maximum possible consumer led, supported in the coming
benefits to the UK economy from the years by the measures set out in this
transition. strategy. Against a rapidly evolving
international context, we will seek to
This strategy is long-term in scope and maintain the UK’s leadership position and
ambition, considering the drivers of change, meet our ambitions, and will consider what
opportunities and risks out to 2050. But its interventions are required if not enough
central focus is on what the UK will do in the progress is being made.
coming years to lay the foundations for the
transition. It covers road vehicles from Our approach has been, and will remain,
motorcycles to 44 tonne heavy goods technology neutral and it would be
vehicles (HGVs). The strategy considers air premature to speculate precisely which
pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions technologies might and might not be able
together (“emissions”). to deliver our long-term ambitions.
8
Executive Summary
The Clean Growth Strategy set out a broad ●● adequate vehicle supply: adequate
range of possible ultra low emission vehicle vehicle supply is currently a key constraint
uptake levels in 2030 (30-70% of new car on the market. There are 38 cars eligible
sales and up to 40% of new van sales). Our for the plug-in car grant, compared to
ambition is to reach the upper end of these hundreds of conventional vehicle options.
ranges. We want to see at least 50%, and Some of the recent announcements of
as many as 70%, of new car sales being vehicle manufacturer electrification plans
ultra low emission by 2030 to improve the air are not specific about the planned
we breathe, help ensure we meet our future volumes of ultra low emission vehicles.
carbon budgets and to build a new market Supply is a particular challenge for
for zero emission vehicle technologies in commercial vehicles. There are only nine
the UK. van models eligible for our plug-in grant
available for purchase, all of which are
The EU Commission has proposed a
3.5 tonnes or less. Technologies for zero
minimum regulatory expectation on
emission HGVs are less developed than
manufacturers of 15% of new car sales to be
for cars and vans. More innovation and
‘zero or low emission vehicles’ (defined as
investment is needed so that ultra low
having tailpipe emissions of less than 50g of
emission vehicles are ready for mass
CO2 per km) by 2025 and 30% by 2030.
adoption across all vehicle types in a
This is below the UK’s level of ambition.
sustainable and affordable way. We
By setting long-term ambitions, we want to welcome the billions of pounds industry is
send a clear signal of the UK’s direction of investing and look forward to seeing a
travel to provide industry and consumers greater range and number of ultra low
with certainty. There is significant uncertainty emission options for sale in the UK in the
over some of the key drivers of the transition coming years.
– including battery technology and new
●● a strong consumer base and the
mobility services. So we will review progress
right market conditions: a recent
towards our ambitions by 2025.
survey indicated that around 38% of
As a clear statement of intent to industry and consumers considering a new car
consumers, this government wants to see purchase would consider an electric car.19
new cars and vans delivering as many zero However, only around 2% of new car
emission miles as possible, as fast as sales are currently ultra low emission.20
possible, starting today. Recent surveys indicate concerns and
confusion around the technology;
Our bold ambitions need to be matched by
concerns about the higher upfront costs
bold action. We will only achieve them with:
of the vehicles and infrastructure provision
remains a barrier.21 The right incentives
and policy framework will be vital to
increasing the numbers of consumers
who want to buy ultra low emission
vehicles.
9
●● a fit for purpose infrastructure

network: as we move to the mass The measures outlined amount to nearly
adoption of ultra low emission vehicles, £1.5 billion of investment and one
more infrastructure will be needed and we of the most comprehensive packages
want to see improvements to the of support for the transition to zero
consumer experience of using it. Our emission vehicles in the world.
vision is for current and prospective
electric vehicle drivers to be able to easily
But the Government cannot deliver a zero
locate and access charging infrastructure
emission future for the UK alone. At the
that is affordable, efficient and reliable.
heart of this strategy is a commitment to
The Government will need to play its part to work in partnership with industry,
address these challenges. In this strategy, businesses, academia, environmental
we set out how we will provide a world- groups, devolved administrations, local
leading and wide-ranging package of government, consumers and international
consumer incentives; research and partners.
development (R&D) and innovation support;
support for the development of one of the
best infrastructure networks in the world;
and will take steps to ensure the energy
system is ready to meet future demand.
Figure 1: Illustrative ultra low emission car uptake trajectory as a percentage of new car sales
100%
90%
Ultra low emission cars as a % of new car sales
80%
70% Progress review 70%
60%
50% 50%
40%
30% 30%
20%
10%
0%
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
10
Executive Summary
Understanding the challenge: Between now and 2050, we project

assessing the options for road electricity grid emissions will fall by around
90%, with total greenhouse gas emissions
transport from electric vehicles falling in parallel.23
The Government remains committed to
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles also
policies and incentives that are technology
have zero tailpipe emissions. Like battery
neutral. But it is essential that we
electric vehicles, their well-to-wheel
understand the relative environmental
greenhouse gas emissions depend on the
performance of different technologies in the
method of energy production.
real world. In addition, the diesel emissions
scandal and the ongoing gap between Although the environmental performance of
laboratory and real world emissions range extenders, plug-in, and non-plug-
performance of new cars has undermined in hybrids depends on their use and zero
public confidence and made it difficult for emission range, these vehicles are amongst
consumers to determine the environmental the cleanest vehicles on the market and can
impact of their vehicle choices. bring significant environmental benefits.
They are an important way of helping
For these reasons we have conducted an
motorists make the switch to a different way
independently verified assessment of the
of powering their vehicles.
environmental performance of the fuels and
technologies available to consumers. Petrol cars and vans tend to have higher
This document sets out the results of this greenhouse gas emissions than their diesel
assessment and government’s view on the equivalents but significantly lower emissions
relative environmental performance of of NOX. Real world particulate emissions
different fuels and technologies, in terms of from petrol cars and vans are variable, with
both greenhouse gas and air pollutant some petrol cars and vans (particularly those
emissions over the period to 2050. Further with direct injection engines) emitting higher
details of the assessment are provided in levels of particulates than diesel equivalents.
Annex A and in the Transport Energy Model We expect this to be addressed by the
Report, published alongside this strategy. introduction of the Real Driving Emission
(RDE) standards.
Battery electric vehicles are highly
energy efficient and have zero tailpipe Real world emissions of NOX from diesel
emissions. The assessment shows that they cars and vans that do not meet RDE
also have substantially lower greenhouse standards are typically much higher than
gas emissions than conventional vehicles, from petrol equivalents. Cleaner diesel cars
even when taking into account the electricity and vans can play an important part in
source and the electricity used for battery reducing CO2 emissions from road transport
production. Assuming the current UK energy during the transition to zero emission
mix, battery electric vehicles produce the vehicles whilst meeting ever more stringent
lowest greenhouse gas emissions of all the air quality standards. For diesel vehicles to
energy sources and fuels assessed, play their part fully, their air quality impact
irrespective of vehicle type and operation.22 must continue to be reduced. We want new
11
cars and vans to be as clean as possible as There are more than 150,000 ultra low
fast as possible. We welcome the continued emission vehicles on UK roads and zero
innovation and investment by vehicle emission vehicles are an attractive option for
manufacturers to develop cleaner diesel many consumers today – offering the best
vehicles that meet the more challenging environmental performance and in many
RDE requirements, delivering critical cases cheaper running costs. As a clear
improvements in NOX emissions on the road. statement of intent to industry and
consumers, this government wants to see
Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) vehicles have
new cars and vans delivering as many zero
similar well-to-wheel greenhouse gas
emission miles as possible, as fast as
emissions as diesel equivalents but generally
possible, starting today.
have lower air pollutant emissions. Although
a niche market, LPG vehicles may be a If zero emission technologies are not
good current alternative to diesel in urban currently practical for a consumer or
driving conditions. Natural gas vehicles business, the most appropriate vehicle
also generally have lower air pollutant technology will depend on individual
emissions than diesel equivalents but more circumstances, including location and usage
efficient engines are required if they are to pattern. For cars principally being used in
deliver significant greenhouse gas savings in urban areas where journeys tend to be
heavy vehicles. shorter and at slower speeds, petrol hybrid,
other alternatively fuelled or new
For heavy goods vehicles (HGVs),
conventional petrol cars are likely to be most
technology development is now moving
suitable. Diesel is more suitable for cars that
towards zero emission options. However,
regularly drive long distances or carry heavy
these are not yet widely available and
loads. Fleet turn-over to the newest,
regulation has been successful at
cleanest cars and vans will play an important
significantly reducing real world pollutant
part in reducing emissions from the vehicle
emissions from new diesel vehicles. So while
fleet. In air quality terms, a new conventional
work is underway to commercialise zero
vehicle will almost always be cleaner than an
emission and other low emission options,
older one of the same fuel type.
diesel can be a sensible current fuel choice.
To help provide consumers with the
Whilst the focus of this assessment is on
information they need about the
tailpipe air pollutant emissions, we recognise
environmental performance of different
that vehicles also produce non-tailpipe
vehicle and fuel options we will, in
pollutant emissions. We are committed to
partnership with industry, consumer groups
reducing these emissions and will launch a
call for evidence on particulate emissions
from tyre, brake and road wear to improve Range extenders, plug‑in
our understanding of these emissions and and non‑plug-in hybrids are
consider options for how they might be amongst the cleanest vehicles
reduced. on the market and can bring significant
environmental benefits.
12
Executive Summary
and motoring organisations, set up a Road the context of demands across the
Transport Emissions Advice Group to work economy, given its potential importance
together to ensure clear and consistent to other sectors such as heat.
consumer messaging and advice on fuel
Retrofitting new technologies to existing
and technology choices.
vehicles can reduce emissions in the short
term at lower cost than purchasing a new
Cleaning up the conventional vehicle. The Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership
vehicle fleet has extended the Clean Vehicle Retrofit
Accreditation Scheme to cover a range of
Conventional vehicles on our roads have an
vehicles including buses, HGVs, vans and
average lifespan of around 14 years – so
black cabs.
vehicles bought today could still be on our
roads in the 2030s.24 Without further action To ensure that we have only the cleanest
to reduce emissions from the vehicles new vehicles being rolled out onto UK roads,
already on our roads it will be difficult to as we leave the European Union, we will
meet our air quality and greenhouse gas pursue a future approach that is at least as
reduction ambitions. We also expect ambitious as the current arrangements for
conventional vehicles to continue to make vehicle emissions regulation.
up a large proportion of new sales. We will
therefore also take steps to ensure that new Moving to zero: cars and vans
conventional vehicles are as clean as
possible. The technology to deliver our ambitions for
cars and vans exists and is being driven
We will renew action to encourage the today: ultra low emission vehicles made up
widespread adoption of fuel-efficient motoring 1.8% of new car sales in 2017 and continue
by businesses operating fleets, company car to gain market share.26 The zero emission
owners and private motorists. This will include range of today’s plug-in hybrid and range
the creation of a taskforce with the motoring extender vehicles can already cover the vast
and insurance industry to promote the use of majority of UK journeys. For example based
vehicle telematics technology. on the National Travel Survey, a 50 mile
Low carbon fuels will continue to be vital to continuous zero emission range could cover
drive down emissions from conventional up to 98% of all UK journeys and a 25 mile
vehicles, and in sectors which are harder to continuous zero emission range could cover
decarbonise such as heavy goods vehicles. up to 94%.27 We are on track to meet our
We want to increase the supply and previous forecast that 3-7% new car sales
sustainability of low carbon fuels, doubling would be ultra low emission by 2020.28
use by 2020 and increasing it further to Further uptake will be driven by adequate
2032.25 We will also provide policy and vehicle supply, a strong consumer base, the
funding incentives to encourage the right market conditions and a fit for purpose
production of advanced low carbon fuels. infrastructure network.
Government will continue to consider further Adequate vehicle choice and supply of
expansion of bioenergy use in transport in existing models is currently a key constraint
13
on the market.29 We welcome the billions of due course and to continue to support the
pounds industry is investing into new ultra uptake of ultra low emission vehicles through
low emission technologies and the other measures.
announcement of long-term electrification
We will continue to ensure the tax system
plans by a number of vehicle manufacturers,
incentivises the purchase of the cleanest
and look forward to seeing a greater range
vehicles, and in particular zero emission
and number of ultra low emission options for
vehicles. We have launched a consultation
sale in the UK in the coming years.
on a new VED approach for vans to ensure
We will continue to encourage more that this system incentivises the cleanest
consumers to make the switch to ultra low options.
emission vehicles by providing one of the
We will continue to work with industry on
most comprehensive package of incentives
messaging to consumers and fleets about
in the world. This includes continuing the
the benefits of switching to ultra low
plug-in car, van, taxi and motorcycle grants
emission vehicles until at least 2020. We will
until at least 2020 to reduce the upfront
launch a 2018/19 Go Ultra Low campaign.
price premium of ultra low emission vehicles.
Consumer incentives in some form will Government leadership is also vital. We have
continue to play a role in driving uptake already committed to 25% of central
beyond 2020. As the market becomes government’s car fleets being ultra low
better established and more competitive, emission vehicles by 2022 and for all new
the need for direct government financial central Government car fleet purchases to
support will decrease. We therefore expect be ultra low emission by default.30 In this
to deliver a managed exit from the grant in strategy, we set out our aim for 100% of the
Zero Emission Vehicle

Source: Go Ultra Low
14
Executive Summary
central government car fleet to be ultra low We are also working with industry to test the
emission by 2030. We want to see similar environmental performance of the latest gas
ambition from other public sector fleets. HGVs. The results of this testing will be used
to assess further the potential for gas HGVs
Moving to zero: Heavy Goods to deliver emissions reductions in the short
to medium term while zero emission options
Vehicles
are being developed and deployed.
Although the new emissions standards for
HGVs have achieved significant air quality Supporting the development of
improvements, CO2 emissions from HGVs
one of the best electric vehicle
have remained relatively constant in recent
years and zero emission options must be infrastructure networks in the
developed and made available commercially world
for all types of HGVs.
The transition to zero emission vehicles does
That is why we are launching a joint research not just require the vehicles to be available
project with Highways England to identify and affordable. An infrastructure network
and assess zero emission HGV technologies needs to be in place that is easy for current
and their suitability to the UK road network and prospective drivers to locate and use,
and freight operations. We have extended and is affordable, efficient and reliable.
the plug-in van grant to cover vehicles This is part of our wider plans to have high
weighing more than 3.5 tonnes, and will quality infrastructure to support economic
collaborate with industry to develop an ultra growth and prosperity across all regions of
low emission truck (ULET) standard to the UK. We will support the development of
provide certainty on emission standards and the infrastructure for electric vehicles as well
encourage industry R&D in this area. as for hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles,
where the market is at a much earlier stage
We also need to reduce emissions from
of development.
existing HGVs significantly. We have agreed
a new industry-wide voluntary target for For electric vehicles, we will continue to
reducing HGV greenhouse gas emissions provide grants to encourage people to
by 15% by 2025, from 2015 levels. We will charge at home overnight, both on and off
collaborate with and support industry in streets. This is how we envisage the majority
achieving this goal. We are funding the of charging will take place. It is our intention
Energy Saving Trust to develop a freight that all new homes, where appropriate,
portal that will ensure HGV operators have should have a chargepoint available. We
access to reliable information on cost- plan to consult as soon as possible on
effective measures to improve fuel efficiency
and reduce their emissions in the short-term.
We have agreed a new industry‑wide
We have also recently announced changes
to the HGV levy to help improve air quality voluntary target for reducing HGV
across the UK alongside work to consider greenhouse gas emissions by
long term changes.31 15% by 2025, from 2015 levels.
15
introducing a requirement for chargepoint Regulations to require relevant charging

infrastructure for new dwellings in England, provision in new non-residential buildings.
where appropriate, and will look at how to And we will increase the grant level for the
achieve this in the most cost effective way, workplace charging scheme.
mindful of the Government’s Housing supply
But government will not own or operate a
objectives. To future-proof our streets, we
chargepoint network now or in the future:
want all new street lighting columns to
the private sector is already delivering. Our
include charging points, where appropriately
role is to create the right enabling conditions.
located, in residential areas with current
on-street parking. We will take steps to improve the consumer
experience of public infrastructure to ensure
We will consider how to best ensure all
charging is straightforward. The Alternative
types of residential property owners,
Fuels Infrastructure Regulations 2017 and
including leaseholders or legal occupants
the Automated and Electric Vehicles Bill will
with private off-street car parking, are able
improve the experience of using
to access a chargepoint for their electric
chargepoints by enabling government to
vehicle and are not disadvantaged merely
mandate a common minimum method of
on the basis of having communal parking
accessing public chargepoints, allowing
facilities or not owning their own home.
recharging without a pre-existing contract;
We will review the provision of chargepoint
compel operators to make the geographic
infrastructure for these groups as part of
location of their chargepoints publicly
the Law Commission’s work to review and
available; and mandate minimum technical
reinvigorate the commonhold tenure in
specifications for connectors to ensure
England and Wales.
greater interoperability. The Bill provides
Workplace and public infrastructure will also powers to central government to mandate
be vital. There are already around 14,000 the installation of charging infrastructure at
public chargepoints (including more than key strategic locations if required, and
1,300 rapid chargers) across the UK, and enables Metro Mayors to designate
these numbers are increasing at pace. chargepoint provision at large fuel retailers.
There have been hundreds of millions of
We will continue to monitor market
pounds of investment into the UK charging
developments to determine whether any
infrastructure sector in the last year alone.
significant gaps in charging infrastructure
But more chargepoints will be needed. provision emerge in the medium term and
Highways England are committed to whether there may be a case for direct
ensuring there is a chargepoint every 20 central government support in areas of
miles along the strategic road network by market failure, which may include rural
2020.32 We will support the development of areas.
the public chargepoint network working with
The global market for hydrogen fuel cell
local areas, including the eight Go Ultra Low
electric vehicles is at an earlier stage of
Cities, and through the £400 million
development than for plug-in electric
Charging Infrastructure Investment Fund.
vehicles. But there is also potential to use
We will consult on amending Building
16
Executive Summary
hydrogen in applications beyond transport. electric vehicles on the electricity system.

We will ensure the UK retains its leadership We are launching an Electric Vehicle Energy
position through our £23 million Hydrogen Taskforce, bringing together the energy and
Transport Programme.33 automotive industry, to bring forward
proposals for government and industry to
Powering the transition – take to ensure the energy system is ready
for the transition.
preparing the electricity system
We do not want grid connections to be a
The electricity system of 2050 will look very
barrier to the further development of the
different from today’s. There will be more
UK’s charging infrastructure and will take
low carbon generation, and new
action to ensure this is not the case. As part
technologies such as battery storage and
of the forthcoming call for evidence on last
onsite generation will play a bigger role.
mile deliveries, we will gather further
Decarbonising how we heat our homes and
evidence of any potential key network
businesses will also bring further changes to
connection infrastructure barriers, which
the demands placed on the energy system.
may prevent further uptake of ultra low
Electric vehicles are a key part of our future emission vehicles, specifically for fleet
smart and flexible energy system, supporting operators. To continue to future proof the
the use of storage in homes and potentially Strategic Road Network, Highways England
providing power back to the grid – which we will run a pilot, working closely with OLEV to
are supporting through a £30 million vehicle- increase electrical capacity at a motorway
to-grid R&D competition. We will ensure the service area.
electricity system now and in the future is
ready and that we maximise the Delivering our Industrial Strategy
opportunities that electric vehicles present,
in terms of vehicle-to-grid, flexibility services The UK is not alone in recognising the
and demand-side response. benefits of cleaner road transport. Many
countries, regions and cities now have
We are confident that existing market long-term targets for cleaner road transport,
mechanisms will be able to meet additional creating a new and multi-billion pound
electricity demand from electric vehicles. industry across the world. In response,
The powers we have taken in the Automated we are seeing extraordinary innovation and
and Electric Vehicles Bill – that will allow investment from industry and new market
government to bring forward regulations so entrants bringing fresh ideas and
that all new chargepoints are smart – will competition. The size of the opportunity is
help to reduce and manage the impact of huge: some estimate the global market
for low emission vehicles could be worth
£1.0–2.0 trillion per year by 2030, and £3.6–
There are more than 150,000 ultra low 7.6 trillion per year by 2050.34
emission vehicles and around 14,000
That is why we want to put the UK at the
public chargepoints across the UK.
forefront of the design and manufacturing of
17
zero emission vehicles. We also want the long-term direction for the UK to help
UK to lead the world in associated provide industry with certainty.
technologies – including infrastructure
In our Automotive Sector Deal, we made
and vehicle-to-grid systems.
major new commitments to research and
The UK is well placed to seize these new development in zero emission vehicle
opportunities as home to the manufacture of technology, and to developing competitive
the fastest selling electric vehicle in Europe UK supply chains. This included the £246m
(the Nissan LEAF in Sunderland), the world’s Faraday Battery Challenge, which is already
first electric black cab (made by the London supporting the development of battery
Electric Vehicle Company in Coventry), a technology in the UK. We will continue to
world-class R&D ecosystem and supply support our established multi-million pound
chain and a number of new ultra low research and development programme for
emission vehicle manufacturers, including ultra low emission vehicles, which has been
Arrival and Tevva.35 This strategy provides a running since 2007 and has been estimated
18
Executive Summary
to have a rate of return of £8 for every Go Ultra Low cities, across the UK through a
£1 invested.36 series of roadshows during 2018.
The Automotive Sector Deal set out Finally, we will work with the international
industry’s ambition to increase the level of community to accelerate the global shift to
UK content by value in domestically-built cleaner transport. The UK wants to play an
vehicles to 50% by 2022. Our ambition is to active, leading role internationally. At the
work with industry to set a target at least as Zero Emission Vehicle Summit in September
ambitious for the ultra low emission vehicle 2018 we will bring together the international
supply chain as we look to secure community to discuss how to seize
investment in battery manufacturing in the collective opportunities and tackle our
UK. We will launch marketing materials later shared challenges.
this year on the UK’s strengths in zero
emission technologies to help highlight some The Future of Mobility
of our leading companies to the world.
The move to zero emission road transport
will not be the only shift in the way we move
Leadership at all levels goods, people and services around our
This is a strategy for the whole UK and all towns, cities and countryside over the
the measures outlined (except where coming decades. Significant investments are
indicated) are available across the UK.37 being made in the automation of road
We will continue to collaborate closely with vehicles, while new business models, such
the devolved administrations in Scotland, as ride‑hailing services, ride sharing and
Wales and Northern Ireland, and partners in new mobility services are challenging our
local government. assumptions about how we travel.
The devolved administrations and local The way we travel and who owns vehicles in
authorities have a crucial role to play during the coming years will affect the trajectory of
the transition to zero emission vehicles and ultra low emission vehicle uptake, the
addressing local air quality issues. Many infrastructure these vehicles will need and
local authorities are already taking action to emissions from conventional vehicles.
accelerate the transition to zero emission Relevant trends include:
road transport, including the eight Go Ultra
●● Connectivity and automation: vehicles
Low cities.
where some or all of the driving task is
To support the move to cleaner buses, we automated may result in smoother more
have launched a new ultra low emission bus efficient drives. In addition, vehicles which
scheme in England and Wales. We are also communicate with each other and with
launching a second round of funding for infrastructure could improve traffic flow
local authorities to roll out dedicated taxi and therefore reduce emissions.
charging infrastructure. We will work with
local authorities and others to disseminate
good practice, in particular from the eight
19
●● New business models: fewer young

people are learning to drive and buying
cars.38 Digitally enabled, on-demand and
shared transport services are already
changing how people consume mobility
in the UK. This could signal a shift to
fewer vehicles on the road with higher
utilisation rates. Some analysts forecast
dramatic declines in individual car
ownership in the coming decades.39
●● Changing travel demand: people

increasingly work from home and fewer
people commute Monday to Friday.40
This means the patterns of road vehicle
use and levels of congestion in urban
areas are changing.
We launched the Future of Mobility Grand

Challenge to recognise the magnitude of
changes such as these on our transport
system and will launch a call for evidence
on the Future of Mobility shortly ahead of
publishing a strategy later in 2018. We are
committed to monitoring these
developments and will consider their impact
on our strategic approach to support the
transition to clean road vehicles, including
when we review our progress by 2025.
20
Part 1
Drivers of change
Part 1: Drivers of change

Strategy structure the cleanest conventional vehicles. Part 3
sets out how we will ensure a fit for purpose
Part 1 considers the factors that are driving infrastructure network and prepare the
the global transition to zero emission energy system. Part 4 sets out how we will
vehicles. Parts 2 and 3 focus on the key support leadership at all levels during the
strategic challenges for the UK and what transition to zero emission vehicles. Annex
government will do to address them. Part 2 A provides the details of our appraisal of the
sets out how we will drive supply and current fuel and powertrain options available.
demand of ultra low emission vehicles and
Action to support modal shift

Enabling people to choose the most sustainable mode of travel for their journey is vital for
reducing emissions from road transport. The steps we are taking are not within scope of
this strategy.
We published the first ever statutory Cycling and Walking Investment Strategy in 2017. The
strategy identified £1.2bn that may be invested in cycling and walking from 2016 to 2021,
with a goal to double the level of cycling by 2025 and to reverse the decline in walking.41
We have run two freight grant schemes to encourage the use of rail or water instead of
road, helping remove more than 800,000 HGV journeys a year from Britain’s roads.42
The £1.7bn Transforming Cities Fund will provide investment on public transport and cycling
and walking infrastructure in some of England’s largest cities, to reduce congestion and
increase productivity, with benefits for air quality. £840 million has already been allocated to
the six mayoral combined authorities, and a ‘Call for Proposals’ for access to the remaining
funding was launched for non-mayoral city regions in March 2018.43
Source: Transport for Greater Manchester
22
Strategy scope and vehicle terminology

The strategy focuses on the emissions that result from the way in which road vehicles are
powered – considering air pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions together.
Air pollutants are any particles or chemicals that are released into the atmosphere with
the potential to cause harm to human health or the natural environment. A wide range of
substances are released as a result of human activities. These can have a localised
impact or can cause harm considerable distances from their sources. Air pollutants can
be chemically converted into different compounds, often mixing with other pollutants.
This strategy focuses on reducing vehicle exhaust emissions of air pollutants (also known
as tailpipe emissions).
We will publish a call for evidence on non-exhaust emissions of particulates from road
transport – including tyre and brakewear particulate emissions – shortly. The Clean Air
Strategy set out action to reduce emissions from energy production and manufacturing.44
Greenhouse gas emissions have a global impact. This strategy therefore looks at both
direct and indirect emissions of greenhouse gases. This includes those from the vehicle
tailpipe, and from the production and distribution of the fuels or energy sources (known
as ‘well-to-wheel’ for fossil fuels). We have also completed a sensitivity test to take
account of the emissions associated with electric vehicle battery production. Annex A
sets out the relative greenhouse gas emissions of different vehicle technologies, fuels
and energy sources and this is used to underpin the policies and actions set out in
this strategy.
Action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from energy production and manufacturing
were set out in government’s Clean Growth Strategy, published in October 2017.
Motorcycles: 2-wheel vehicles powered by an engine. Includes scooters and mopeds.
Cars: 4-wheel vehicles including people carriers and all passenger-carrying vehicles that
can carry no more than eight passengers (excluding the driver). Includes private hire cars
(PHV – Private Hire Vehicles) and taxis (hackney carriages) that are car based.
Vans/Light goods vehicles: 4-wheel vehicles constructed for transporting goods.

Must have a gross weight of less than 3.5 tonnes.
Heavy goods vehicles: Larger vehicles constructed for transporting goods. Must have
a gross weight more than a light goods vehicle.
Buses/coaches: Vehicles designed to carry more than 8 passengers, in addition to

the driver.45
23
Ultra low emission vehicles (ULEVs): Since 2009, the Office for Low Emission
Vehicles has considered an ultra low emission vehicle to be a car or van that emits less
than 75 grams of CO2 from the tailpipe per kilometre driven measured against the
European test cycle.
Recognising advancements in technology, from 2021 we expect to define an ultra low

emission vehicle as a car or van that emits less than 50 grams of CO2 from the tailpipe
per kilometre driven measured against the relevant test cycle.
Part 2c commits to the development, in partnership with industry, of a definition of an

Ultra Low Emission Truck (ULET). The definition of an Ultra Low Emission Bus (ULEB) is
set out in the Ultra Low Emission Bus Scheme, launched in March 2018.
Zero emission vehicles: vehicles with no greenhouse gas or air pollutant tailpipe
emissions.
24
The current UK road vehicle market

There are 38.9 million vehicles on UK roads. In the UK fleet, cars and vans are on average
8.1 years old and HGVs are on average 7.5 years old.46,47 In 2017 the following new
vehicles were registered:
●● 2.5 million cars
●● 362,000 light goods vehicles
●● 52,000 heavy goods vehicles
●● 115,000 motorcycles
In 2017, over 8.1 million used cars were sold in the UK, of which over 10,000 were zero
emission (an increase of 77% from 2016).48
Figure 1.1: The vast majority of the vehicles currently on UK roads are petrol or diesel fuelled49
Other
3%
Cars:
Cars:
12.9 million
18.8 million
Petrol Total size of Diesel Light

52% fleet in 2017: 45% Goods
38.9 million Vehicles:
Motorcycles: 3.9 million
1.3 million
Heavy Goods
Vehicles:
Light Goods 0.5 million
Vehicles:
0.1 million Buses:
0.2 million
Source: DfT, Vehicle Licensing Statistics 2017
The size of the opportunity is huge: some estimate the global market for low emission
vehicles could be worth £1.0–2.0 trillion per year by 2030, and £3.6–7.6 trillion
per year by 2050.
25
Delivering our Industrial Strategy low emission vehicle manufacturers,

including Arrival and Tevva.
Although there are ultra low emission
vehicles available today, more innovation Low carbon fuels also offer economic
and investment will be needed before these opportunities. For example the UK is now
technologies are available for mass adoption producing over £250 million worth of low
across all vehicle types. Our mission is to carbon biodiesel from waste each year.51
put the UK at the forefront of the design and Looking ahead, we expect the global market
manufacturing of zero emission vehicles. for advanced low carbon fuels to be worth
The size of the global opportunity is huge: up to £15 billion by 2030, with significant
independent analysis estimates the global demand for such fuels from hard-to-
market for low emission vehicles could be decarbonise sectors such as aviation and
worth £1.0 – 2.0 trillion per year by 2030, heavy freight.52 A strong domestic industry
and £3.6 – 7.6 trillion per year by 2050.50 will provide highly skilled jobs in this sector
and contribute to economic growth in the UK.
The UK is well placed to seize these new
opportunities as home to the manufacture
of the fastest selling electric vehicle in
Improving Air Quality
Europe (the Nissan LEAF in Sunderland), the Over recent decades, UK air quality has
world’s first electric black cab (made by the improved significantly thanks to action at all
London Electric Vehicle Company in levels. Total UK emissions of nitrogen oxides
Coventry), a world-class R&D ecosystem (NOX) fell by almost 72% between 1970
and supply chain and a number of new ultra and 2016 and by over 27% between 2010
and 2016.53
Figure 1.2: UK road transport NOx emissions are primarily from diesel cars and vans; most road
transport PM2.5 emissions are not from the tailpipe 54
Motorcycles
<1%
Buses
5%
HGVs Road Abrassion Diesel Cars
13% 20% 20%
Petrol
Diesel Cars Cars
Total domestic Total domestic
42% 2%
NOx road transport PM2.5 road
transport
emissions in 2016: Vans
emissions in 2016:
299.8 thousand 12%
Tyre Wear 13.4 thousand
tonnes
Vans 26% tonnes
33% HGVs
Petrol Break 5%
Cars wear
14% Buses &
6%
Motorcycles
2%
Source: National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory
26
Key air pollutants from road transport

Nitrogen oxides (NOX) – Compounds formed when nitrogen and oxygen combine. NOX,
which comprises nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), is emitted from combustion
processes. The main sources include power generation, industrial combustion and road
transport. At high concentrations NO2 is an irritant to the airways. NO2 can also make
people more likely to catch respiratory infections (such as flu), react to allergens, and over
a long period, affect how well our lungs function.55
Particulate matter (PM) – Small airborne particles. PM may include materials such as
soot, wind-blown dust or secondary components which are formed within the
atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions. Some PM is natural and some is
man‑made. PM can be harmful to human health when inhaled, with the World Health
Organization classifying it as carcinogenic to humans.56 In general, the smaller the particle
the deeper it can be inhaled into the lungs, and the greater the risk that it is transferred to
the bloodstream or body tissues. PM10 is particulate matter 10 micrometres or less in
diameter, PM2.5 is particulate matter 2.5 micrometres or less in diameter. By way of
comparison, a human hair is about 100 micrometres in width. Ultrafine particles, classified
as being 0.1 micrometres or less in diameter, are covered down to 0.023 micrometres in
vehicle emissions regulation (the limit of the current detection technology), but there is
increasing interest around the world in their effects and how they can be mitigated.
Non Methane Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOC) – Can cause irritation to eyes,
nose & throat and organ damage. React with other pollutants to produce ground level
ozone and therefore cause inflammation of the respiratory tract, eyes, nose & throat.
Ozone produced by VOCs can travel large distances and reach high concentrations far
from the original source. It affects plant growth and can impact on biodiversity and
climate change.
Hydrocarbons (HC) – Organic compounds often found in fuels including crude oil and
natural gas. Unburnt hydrocarbons react with NOX to produce harmful pollutants.
Carbon monoxide (CO) – A colourless, tasteless, odourless and toxic gas. Carbon
monoxide vehicle emissions are produced through inefficient fuel combustion.
Although outdoor concentrations do not generally reach dangerous levels, they may
still have adverse health effects for vulnerable people.
Despite this, poor air quality remains the by 2035.57 This is a cumulative cost for
largest environmental risk to public health. diseases where there is a strong association
Recent research commissioned by Public with air pollution such as coronary heart
Health England found that the health and disease, strokes, lung cancer, and child
social care costs of air pollution (PM2.5 and asthma. When diseases with weaker
NO2) in England could reach £5.3 billion evidence of association are also added,
27
including chronic obstructive pulmonary We know that there are no safe levels of the
disease, diabetes, low birth weight, lung particulate matter that petrol, diesel and
cancer, and dementia, the costs could reach other internal combustion engine vehicles
to £18.6 billion by 2035. We know that the emit, and that the UK still has more to do to
effects of poor air quality are felt reduce emissions of all major air pollutants
disproportionately by the most vulnerable to meet longer-term legal limits. The
groups in society and that the public are measures set out in this strategy and the
concerned.58,59 transition to zero emission road transport are
therefore vital parts of any long-term solution
Road transport is a major source of air
to the poor air quality in our towns and
pollutants, including 34% of NOX
cities.
(contributing to 80% of concentrations at
the roadside), 12% of PM2.5 and 4% of Poor air quality is also a result of the way we
non-methane volatile organic compounds currently generate power, heat our homes,
(NMVOCs).60 Investing in clean air and taking produce food and manufacture consumer
action to tackle poor air quality are key goods. Better, cleaner technologies and
priorities. simple changes in behaviour can improve air
quality while boosting the economy. We are
That is why in 2017 we set out our plan to
consulting on a Clean Air Strategy, which will
bring roadside NO2 concentrations in line
set out actions to cut damaging air pollution
with legal limits in the shortest time possible
from a range of everyday sources.61
and are currently consulting on our
long‑term Clean Air Strategy.
Figure 1.3: In 2016, road transport accounted for 91% of UK greenhouse gas emissions from
transport
Energy Other Road

Domestic
supply Transport
Aviation &
26% 4%
Shipping
Other 6% Vans
4% 17%
Waste
4% Road
Total UK Transport HGVs
Agriculture Transport Road 18% Transport
Emissions: Emissions: Transport
& LULUCF* 27% Emissions:
468 MtCO2e 126 MtCO2e 91%
7% 114 MtCO2e
Residential Other Passenger Cars

15% Transport 62%
Business 3%
17%
“Other Road Transport” includes Bus,

“Other Sectors” includes emissions from “Other Transport” includes emissions Motorcycle, Other (vehicle engines),
Public and Industrial Processes sectors from Rail, Military Aircraft and Shipping, Urea Use and LPG emissions
and Aircraft Support Vehicles
*LULUCF – Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry Figures may not add up to 100% due to rounding
Source: BEIS final UK greenhouse gas emissions 1990-2016
28
Reducing greenhouse gas three years greenhouse gas emissions from

emissions domestic transport have started to rise.
We urgently need to reverse this trend and
The UK is a world leader in clean growth, reduce road transport emissions.
which is at the heart of our Industrial
Strategy. Clean growth means reducing our Ultra low emission vehicles can deliver
emissions while growing our economy. substantial greenhouse gas emission
We have a series of legally binding carbon savings compared to conventional vehicles
budgets that track progress against our (see Annex A). The transition to zero
long-term ambition to reduce economy-wide emission vehicles and reducing emissions
emissions by 80% by 2050.62 Today, from new and existing conventional vehicles
transport is the largest greenhouse is crucial to meeting our long-term
gas‑emitting sector in the UK, accounting greenhouse gas reduction goals.
for 27% of greenhouse gas emissions.
Road transport accounts for 91% of this.63
Average laboratory-test based CO2

emissions from new cars have fallen by over
one third since 1997.64 However, in the real
world, total greenhouse gas emissions from
road transport have fallen only slightly (by
around 2%) since 1990.65,66 Over the last
Figure 1.4: Annual car and van mileage has increased since 1990. Road transport greenhouse gas
emissions have only fallen slightly since this date.
300
Cars
250
200
Billion vehicle miles
150
100
50 Vans
HGVs
0 Other Road1
1950 1961 1972 1983 1994 2005 2016
Source: DfT Road Traffic Statistics 2016 – Traffic volumes (miles) 1 Includes Motorcycles, Buses & Coaches
29
Figure 1.5: The UK electricity grid is increasingly powered by renewable sources67
2016 2017
Oil and Other Oil and Other
3.1% 3.2%
Coal
Coal 6.7%
9.0%
Renewables Renewables
22.0% 29.4%
Gas Gas
42.2% 39.7%
Nuclear
21.1%
Nuclear
20.9%
Source: BEIS (2018). UK energy statistics: statistical press release – March 2018
Lowering costs for consumers The Energy Saving Trust estimate that
and businesses efficient driving alone could save drivers up
to 5-10% of their annual fuel bill – on average
Today, owners of electric vehicles can have around £95.70 For the freight industry,
substantially lower fuel and maintenance improving the overall efficiency of operations
costs compared to those with conventional can have significant costs savings as well as
vehicles.68 More fuel-efficient vehicles and overall emissions reduction benefits.
operations, and the use of alternative fuels
can help drive down the cost of driving. Improving energy security
Improvements to the efficiency of automotive
engine technology have meant that a new Since 2013/14, the UK has become a net
car bought in 2015 will save car owners up importer of oil. Imports of road transport
to £200 on their annual fuel bill, compared to fuels have also increased over the last
a new car in 2000.69 These savings will decade, in particular to meet the growth in
increase as cars become ever more efficient. demand for diesel.71 In 2016, the costs of
these imports were £1bn and £5bn for petrol
Use of alternative fuels, such as road fuel and diesel respectively.72
gases, can also generate savings, in part
because these fuels benefit from a lower duty Ultra low emission vehicles can help reduce
rate than diesel or petrol. The Government the UK’s reliance on oil, and exposure to the
has committed to review whether current fuel volatility of global markets. The transition to
duty rates for alternatives to petrol and diesel zero emission vehicles could partly replace
are appropriate, ahead of decisions at our reliance on imported oil with largely UK
Budget 2018. generated energy sources, helping to
30
improve the UK’s long-term energy of urban road noise is estimated to be

security.73,74 £7–£10 billion.76 Although the noise of
vehicles travelling above 12 mph is
More efficient conventional vehicles on UK
principally due to tyres and road surface
roads will mean lower overall fuel
noise, at the lower speeds typically found in
consumption for the economy. We have
town and city centres engine noise is the
already reduced our reliance on oil imports
main contributor. At low speeds, vehicles
by producing over £250 million worth of low
driven by electric motors are significantly
carbon biodiesel in the UK each year, and
quieter than those powered by conventional
the benefit is set to increase with the
engines.77
planned growth in biofuel use.
The potential reduction in noise should be
Cleaner, quieter cities transformative for those living close to busy
roads and city centres. A reduction of urban
Noise from conventional vehicles affects noise levels by 3dB can reduce annoyance
human health and damages the effects by 30%.78 At average central London
environment. The World Health Organization speeds, the reduction in vehicle noise is
(WHO) estimates that the noise impact of approximately 8dB.79
road traffic is second only to pollution as the
biggest environmental impact of vehicles.75
In England alone, the annual social cost
Figure 1.6: Electric and hybrid vehicles are significantly quieter than internal combustion engine
vehicles at low speed80
0
Noise reducation (dB). compared to conventional vehicles
-5
-10
-15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Speed (km/h)
Hybrid Battery electric
Source: Verheijen, E & Jabben, J (2010). Effect of electric cars on traffic noise and safety
31
Inclusive Travel
We want our transport systems to be developed in an inclusive way, with the needs of
everyone considered. We are due to launch the Inclusive Transport Strategy shortly,
which will provide further details on the steps we will take across the entire transport
system to ensure this is the case. We will also launch a call for evidence on the Future of
Mobility shortly. As part of this, we would welcome views and evidence on the right role
for government in helping to ensure that future transport technologies and services are
developed in an inclusive manner.
We want chargepoints to be easy to locate and access for all users. Existing legislation
means that the provision of chargepoints is covered by the Equality Act 2010. This
includes a reasonable adjustments duty that applies to, amongst others, a person or
organisation providing services, goods or facilities to the public.
We also recognise the importance of vehicle noise to alert pedestrians and other road
users to a vehicle’s presence. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
(UNECE) has adopted a technical standard for electric vehicle noise generators to
improve pedestrian safety. Legislation will require fitment to electric vehicles entering
the UK market from July 2019 and will improve safety for road users while still reducing
noise pollution.81
32
Part 2
Vehicle Supply and
Demand
Part 2: Vehicle Supply and Demand
Part 2a: Reducing emissions from vehicles already

on our roads
In this section we consider the actions being greenhouse gas emissions of UK road
taken to reduce emissions from the transport over the last ten years. In 2008 the
38.9 million vehicles already on UK roads by: Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO)
was introduced, requiring fossil fuel suppliers
●● increasing the use of low carbon fuels
to ensure a percentage of their fuels are
●● improving existing vehicles by retrofitting renewable. As a result, sustainable, low
new technology carbon fuels are blended with the petrol
and diesel used every day.
●● influencing driver behaviour.
Over the next few decades demand for
Increasing the use of low liquid fuels will remain high – as the majority
of vehicles already on our roads and being
carbon fuels
sold today still use petrol and diesel.
Low carbon fuels have been one of the most That means low carbon fuels will continue to
significant contributors to reducing the play a vital role in reducing greenhouse gas
Figure 2a.1. The use of low carbon fuels in transport is increasing, delivering substantial
greenhouse gas savings82
90 9%
80 8%
Biofuel share of UK transport energy
70 7%
60 6%
Megatonnes CO2e
50 5%
40 4%
30 3%
20 2%
10 1%
0 0%
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032
Cumulative carbon savings RTFO share of transport energy
Source: Department for Transport (2017). The Renewable Transport Fuel Obligations Order - Government response to the consultation
on amendments. Tables 13 & 28
34
emissions from the vehicle fleet as we move reduce emissions from the most challenging
to zero emission road transport. transport sectors, including the heaviest
HGVs, as well as aviation.
In September 2017 we announced a new
strategy for low carbon transport fuels for the In addition to the sub-target we are providing
next 15 years, aligned with our Clean Growth funding to support the development of new
Strategy commitments and designed to technologies to produce advanced low
provide a firm platform for investment in carbon fuels that can lead to reduced
sustainable advanced fuels for automotive, greenhouse gas emissions in the real world.
road freight and aviation use.83 We committed The Department for Transport’s Future Fuels
to increasing the use of low carbon fuels in for Flight and Freight Competition (the F4C)
transport from its current level of around makes £22m of funding available from the
2.63% in energy terms to around 5.26% by National Productivity Investment Fund to
2020, and 6.7% by 2032. These targets have projects that will produce low carbon
been enshrined in legislation.84 The amended waste‑based fuels to be used in aeroplanes
RTFO is expected to save nearly 85 million and heavy goods vehicles.
tonnes of CO2 over the 15-year period, and
The F4C is intended to help demonstrate
represents around a third of transport’s
the technical and commercial viability of
projected contribution to UK carbon budget
high‑potential technologies by removing
savings during the 2020s.
fundamental barriers to scale up, enabling
This growth is supported by the them to reach commercial-scale production.
‘development fuels’ sub-target within the Government funding will be matched by the
RTFO, which further incentivises waste- private sector, and is expected to support
based fuels made using new technologies construction of up to five UK based, first of
by setting a target for specific fuels.85 These a kind plants by 2021.
advanced fuels deliver a range of benefits
In June 2018 we announced the seven
including very high greenhouse gas savings,
applicants who were successful in bidding
reduced waste disposal and improvements
for Stage 1 funding. Each will receive a
in fuel quality, potentially with air quality
share of £2 million funding to develop their
benefits too. This is also designed to
proposal for an advanced fuel production
support investment in UK infrastructure for
facility.
the types of low carbon fuel required to help
Case study: turning wastes into sustainable fuels – fatbergs

Fatbergs are the congealed lumps of waste oils and fats that block our sewers. Thanks
to the incentives to utilise wastes set under the RTFO, suppliers are converting these into
biodiesel to fuel our vehicles. Argent Energy recently invested £75 million in a new plant
in Ellesmere Port which has the capacity to produce 85 million litres of biodiesel from
these wastes. This underlines our commitment to further increasing the use of wastes to
make biofuels in the UK.
35
We are mindful of the fact that some kinds Alternative uses of low carbon fuels
of crop biofuels can indirectly lead to
Low carbon fuels have potential use in other
increased emissions.86 To minimise this risk
sectors beyond transport, specifically in the
and support the move to advanced waste
decarbonisation of heat. While incentivising
based fuels we will, over the 15-year period,
their use, government will maintain an
reduce the maximum contribution that
economy wide view of where these fuels
biofuels made from agricultural crops can
can be used to deliver emission savings at
make to our renewable transport fuel
least cost. Government will publish a new
targets, sending a clear signal to industry to
Bioeconomy Strategy soon that will set out
focus future investment in waste-derived
a framework for growth in the sector to
fuels. The use of waste-derived fuels has
develop new low carbon bio-based
increased from 12% of UK low carbon fuels
products and processes.
in 2008/09 to 66% in 2016/17.87
Increasing the bioethanol in petrol – E10 New Fuels

There is also an opportunity to increase the We welcome innovation in technologies and
amount of bioethanol in petrol, from up to fuels that can reduce poor air quality and
5% today to up to 10%. This is known as greenhouse gas emissions in the real world.
E10. E10 has been part of the industry It is ultimately for industry to develop new
standard for petrol since March 2013, and fuels and provide evidence of their
became the mandated reference fuel for effectiveness to vehicle manufacturers,
official testing of fuel consumption and government and other interested parties.
emissions for new models in March 2016. Any new product must also perform in terms
Bioethanol offers greenhouse gas savings of safety, performance, durability and
compared to fossil fuels, even when taking economy; complying with appropriate
other factors such as indirect land use performance standards.
change into account. A vehicle using E10 However, where there is uncertainty over the
would emit around 2% less CO2 than one environmental performance of a technology,
using E5 (petrol with up to 5% bioethanol) or the need to independently verify the
for the same distance travelled. claims made by individual manufacturers,
Suppliers have the option of introducing E10 we will work with industry to do this.
today, but there are some challenges to Clearing up this uncertainty is important not
deployment, in particular incompatibility only in providing consumers and businesses
with some older (pre-2000) petrol vehicles. with the right information to support their
The Government is working with industry to investment but also informing government
facilitate any future introduction of E10 petrol policy around these technologies.
to ensure that it is managed carefully,
avoiding unreasonable cost rises for
consumers, and ensuring ongoing availability
of fuel suitable for older petrol vehicles.
36
For example, we are conducting significant reductions in emissions of air

independent tests on paraffinic diesel, pollutants, greenhouse gases, or both. For
which industry claims has the potential to example, accredited retrofit SCR after-
reduce NOX emissions from diesel vehicles. treatment systems can deliver reductions in
The results will be used to assess the tailpipe NOX emissions of over 80% and
potential environmental benefits of using retrofitted battery electric engines deliver
paraffinic diesel in road transport. Initial 100% reductions in tailpipe emissions.88
findings show considerable variability
Retrofitting vehicles with pollution-reducing
depending on the vehicle and how it is used.
technology can offer a relatively low cost
alternative to purchasing new low emission
Retrofitting engines vehicles. It also reduces the incentive to
Retrofitting refers to all or part of an engine relocate dirtier vehicles away from areas
being modified with pollution-reducing and/ with the worst air quality problems and thus
or fuel saving technologies. Examples reduces overall emissions of NOX. At present
include: exhaust gas treatment technologies, retrofitting is particularly relevant for heavy
such as selective catalytic reduction (SCR) vehicles, taxis and vans operating in areas
technology; thermal management with poor air quality.
technology; fuel saving technologies such The Government believes that the continued
as hybridisation; and more extensive development, promotion and implementation
modification for fuel conversion to of innovative retrofit technology is important
compressed natural gas, liquefied natural in reducing emissions, particularly of air
gas, electric, hydrogen or liquefied pollutants, and cleaning up the existing fleet
petroleum gas. These have the potential for of vehicles.
Bus retrofitted with SCR technology

Source: Low CVP, Eminox
37
There is a small but successful retrofit eligible for support from the fund. In London,
industry in the UK which currently focuses air quality funding was explicitly addressed
mainly on buses. Several thousand vehicles through the 2015 £5.7 billion Transport for
have already been retrofitted in recent years London funding agreement.
under government grant programmes.
Between 2013 and 2015, government Fuel-efficient motoring
awarded over £27m to retrofit almost 3,000
of the oldest vehicles (mainly buses) in Alongside physical improvements to the
England. In 2018 we launched the Clean vehicle fleet, significant emissions reductions
Bus Technology Fund 2017-19, awarding can be delivered relatively easily today by
nearly £40 million to twenty English local changing how vehicles are driven. Driving
authorities to retrofit more than 2,700 with good anticipation and smooth
buses.89 These programmes aim to stimulate acceleration and braking saves fuel and cuts
the retrofit market in the UK, supporting emissions. Correctly inflated tyres, avoiding
businesses to seize the economic carrying unnecessary weight and removing
opportunities of technological change and carriers and racks when not needed
create new jobs in skilled sectors. increases these benefits. The emphasis on
greater anticipation brings safety benefits,
The Government has further supported this and the resultant reduced tyre and brake
work by funding the Low Carbon Vehicle wear delivers further cost savings and
Partnership’s Clean Vehicle Retrofit reduced pollution.
Accreditation Scheme for buses, coaches,
HGVs, vans and black cabs. The scheme Evidence from 60,000 fleet drivers receiving
provides independent evidence that a training through the Energy Saving Trust
vehicle retrofit technology will deliver the (EST), a key partner supporting the efficient
expected emissions reductions and air motoring agenda, gave an average 15%
quality benefits. It enables drivers, saving of fuel and CO2. For electric vehicles
technology manufacturers, businesses range increased by 20%. Organisations that
and local authorities to be confident that have incorporated a wider package of
accredited technologies provide the behavioural and procedural measures in
appropriate emissions reductions for free managing their fleets (see the case study
entry to Clean Air Zones. below) have delivered typical emission
savings of between 10-30%.91
At Budget 2017, government announced a
£220 million Clean Air Fund which English This is why we are supporting a range of
local authorities with the most challenging complementary measures – driver training
pollution problems will be able to bid into. and standards, information and new
The detail of this fund was clarified further in technology to promote a step change in
the recently published consultation response driver behaviours across company fleets
on Additional measures to support individuals and private car use.
and businesses affected by local NO2 plans.90
Retrofitting vehicles with accredited
technology is one of the measures that is
38
Drive DeVilbiss Healthcare

In 2011 Drive DeVilbiss Healthcare formed a “Green Team” and engaged the Energy
Saving Trust to help identify opportunities to reduce the carbon footprint and the costs
of their vehicles, whilst also improving driver safety. Since then, as their fleet of vehicles
has more than doubled (to 68 vans, 26 cars and 2 lorries in 2016), they have:
●● installed advanced monitoring systems and speed limiting devices;
●● trained over 100 company and private vehicle drivers as part of the Energy Saving
Trust’s Eco-driving scheme;
●● introduced a driver handbook to help embed the practice amongst their drivers,
which is regularly assessed and updated;
●● introduced additional training for drivers with the lowest driving performance needing
improvement;
●● introduced better route planning to minimise mileage and relocated service centres
accordingly; and
●● replaced many older vehicles with Euro 6 compliant leased equivalents.
This delivered a reduction in fuel use per vehicle of around 20%. CO2 emissions per
vehicle reduced from 9.78 tonnes in 2014 to 8.40 tonnes in 2015. Moreover, the changes
have resulted in significant improvements in safety, with instances of speeding dropping
by over 25%.
Driving standards Going forward, we will therefore focus on

novice and fleet drivers, and how recent
There are close synergies between safe
changes to the driving test and the Driver
driving and fuel-efficient driving. The driving
and Vehicle Standards Agency’s (DVSA) new
test establishes minimum standards for safe
five-year strategy can reinforce the benefits
driving and the syllabus includes guidance
of efficient driving. This will include:
on fuel-efficient techniques. Only a small
proportion of newly-qualified drivers go on ●● working with the driver training industry
to take additional post-test training. Whilst and wider stakeholders to reiterate the
those opting to attend the police’s National benefits of driving in a more
Driving Offender Scheme (commonly known environmentally friendly fashion,
as speed awareness courses) will receive a particularly to learner and novice drivers;
reminder of fuel-efficient driving techniques,
●● promoting efficient driving more
these courses cannot be mandated purely
prominently in DVSA publications –
on this basis.
including those for training of instructors
to highlight that it could be a theme in the
assessment of instructional ability;
39
Source: Energy Saving Trust
●● appropriate communications and The EST and DVSA are committed to

messaging around fuel economy, working together, and with the driver training
reduced costs, journey time and wear industry, in particular on increasing the
and tear; number of EST-approved driving instructors,
with a greater awareness of efficient driving
●● encouraging fuel efficiency related
techniques.
initiatives as part of a new voluntary
accreditation scheme aimed at increasing
Sharing best practice
the number of DVSA recognised learning
and training products available to drivers; There are potentially large benefits both for
and fleets and for the private motorist. We will
work with the EST, the devolved
●● supporting the Driving for Better Business
administrations and industry groups such as
campaign (a Highways England initiative
the Federation of Small Businesses to seek
in partnership with Roadsafe) and
ways to support businesses, particularly
collaborating with other organisations
SMEs, to adopt fuel-efficient motoring and
through promotion of DVSA’s fleet register
encourage uptake of efficient driving
of trainers.
technology across the UK. We will work
with motorist and consumer groups such
as the AA, RAC, the Royal Society for the
40
Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA) and IAM fuel use and safe and fuel-efficient driving as
Roadsmart to develop and ensure well. We will:
widespread use of tailored messages for
●● improve our understanding of the scope
targeted driver groups. Given the potential
to use technology to embed best
for fuel-efficient driving to support improved
practice, examining driver trials, both for
vehicle range this will also include messages
on-road safety and fuel efficiency, driver
to support wider uptake of ultra low
and owner attitudes to wider adoption
emission vehicles.
and appropriate messaging looking to
Our new government buying standards and lessons learned from our fleet support
the government fleet commitment will mean programme; and
that central government fleets will be some
●● set up a task force with the motoring and
of the cleanest on the road. This includes
insurance industry to assess the extent to
embedding the use of telematics or similar
which vehicle technology is being actively
technology to manage fuel use, and
used and the benefits that it brings,
guidance will be published later this year.
understand the challenges to greater use
We will continue to support this work
and work with that industry to develop
through the work of the EST, who will
and put in place interventions to address
engage closely with the Crown Commercial
those challenges.
Services and other key partners to enable
and disseminate best practice.
New technology
The benefits of training and better
information can decline over time.
Previous examples have shown that after
a year savings from a single efficient driving
lesson fall from 15% to around 2% to 6%.
Technology looks to be the best means
for delivering substantial reductions in
the long-term. Evidence suggests a low
willingness to pay for technology if not
embedded in the vehicle at the point of
purchase. This is down to a lack of
awareness of the fuel cost and emissions
benefits, and because other than fuel
savings, there are few incentives for owners
and drivers to make use of the technology.
Telematics technology is in use by some
insurers to assess risk and set conditions
around the premiums, particularly of young
or novice drivers. It can be used to monitor
41
Part 2b: Driving uptake of the cleanest new cars

and vans
This part sets out government support for the development of a fit for purpose
ensuring new cars and vans are as clean as infrastructure network.
possible and accelerating the uptake of ultra
We will respond to these challenges through:
low emission cars and vans.
●● Regulation: regulation is one of the most
Since 2010, we have invested more than
important levers to ensure manufacturers
£500 million into one of the most
deliver cleaner and more fuel-efficient
comprehensive support packages in the
vehicles to the market and help provide
world for ultra low emission vehicles. It is
a stable environment for industry
thanks to this stable and consistent package
investment. As we leave the EU, we will
that the UK today has one of the largest ultra
pursue a future approach to vehicle
low emission vehicle markets in Europe.92
emissions regulation that is at least as
In recent months, ultra low emission vehicles
ambitious as current arrangements.
have accounted for as many as 2.7% of all
cars sold. ●● Affordability: ultra low emission vehicles
in many cases are still more expensive to
But while we have made a strong start,
purchase than their conventional
we cannot be complacent. Consumer
equivalents. We will continue to bring
acceptance and adequate supply of ultra
down the cost of purchasing and owning
low emission cars and vans and consumer
ultra low emission vehicles through grants
acceptance remain challenges. Part 3
and other incentives. Further innovation is
outlines the steps we are taking to support
Figure 2b.1: The number of vehicles ordered under the plug-in grant schemes is increasing
Cumulative total of vehicles bought through grant schemes

(thousands)
180
160
140
Total number of vehicles ordered using grant schemes
120 (January ’11 to June ’18)
100 Category 1 62,283
80
Category 2 and 3 96,251
60
4,645
40
20
0
Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan Jul Jan
’11 ’11 ’12 ’12 ’13 ’13 ’14 ’14 ’15 ’15 ’16 ’16 ’17 ’17 ’18
Cars (Category 1) Cars (Category 2&3) Vans

Source: DfT, Vehicle Licensing Statistics 2017
42
Figure 2b.2: New electric car* registrations GB
60 2.5%
50
2.0%
40
1.5%
Thousands
30
1.0%
20
0.5%
10
0 0.0%
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
New Car registrations (LHS) New electric cars as a % of all new car registrations (RHS)
*Includes plug-in hybrids, 100% electric, range extended electric and fuel cell electric cars
Source: DfT, Vehicle Licensing Statistics, 2018 - table VEH0253.
CO2 emissions Zero emission Price Cap

(g/km) range (miles)
Category 1
(battery electric, hydrogen, and <50 70+ N/A
range-extended vehicles)
Category 2
<50 10+ £60,000
(plug-in hybrid electric vehicles)
Category 3
50–74 20+ £60,000
(plug-in hybrid electric vehicles)
a vital part of bringing the price down of decisions about the environmental impact
ultra low emission vehicles in the long of their vehicle choices. We will continue
term. In Part 2d, we set out how we will to work with industry to promote the
continue to support the development of benefits of switching to ultra low emission
new ultra low emission vehicle vehicles to consumers and fleets.
technologies in the UK.
●● Leading the way: we will use
●● Consumer Information: supporting government’s buying power to lead the
consumers and businesses with the way in the transition to ultra low emission
information they need to make informed vehicles.
43
Environmental performance of battery electric, fuel cell electric

and hybrid vehicles
Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are highly energy efficient and have zero tailpipe
emissions. They also have substantially lower greenhouse gas emissions than
conventional vehicles, even when taking into account the electricity source and the
electricity used for battery production. Assuming the current UK energy mix, battery
electric vehicles produce the lowest greenhouse gas emissions of all the energy sources
and fuels assessed, irrespective of vehicle type and operation.93 For example, a battery
electric car is estimated to have greenhouse gas emissions around 66% lower than a
petrol car and 60% lower than a diesel car. Between now and 2050, we project
electricity grid emissions will fall by around 90%, with total greenhouse gas emissions
from electric vehicles falling in parallel.94
These vehicles deliver both air pollutant and greenhouse gas emission reductions under
all driving conditions.
The results are clear: battery electric vehicles have substantially lower greenhouse gas
emissions than conventional vehicles, even when taking into account the electricity
source and electricity used for battery production.
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) also have zero harmful tailpipe
emissions. Like battery electric vehicles, greenhouse gas emissions from FCEVs depend
on the method of energy production. Based on steam methane reformation (SMR),
FCEVs deliver greenhouse gas emissions savings of between 10% (compared with a
diesel HGV) and around 43% (compared with a petrol car).
A range of production pathways and technological improvements in hydrogen

production are under development, with the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse
gas emissions.
FCEVs have two advantages over early models of BEVs: fast refuelling with high-
pressure hydrogen (typically 5 minutes) and longer range (typically over 300 miles).
The development of longer range battery electric vehicles, greater deployment of higher
speed recharging has started to erode some of these advantages, and the lower
‘round‑trip’ efficiency of hydrogen as a fuel means that it remains more expensive than
electricity for the consumer. In the long term, hydrogen vehicle technologies may be well
suited to use in HGVs and by fleet operators.
At present, there are 12 hydrogen refuelling stations available for public use in the UK,
and providers have announced plans for at least four more. There will be approximately
250 FCEVs on UK roads by the end of 2018. Part 3 sets out our strategy for hydrogen
fuel cell electric vehicle infrastructure in the UK.
44
Although the environmental performance of range extenders, plug-in, and non‑plug-

in hybrids depends on their use and zero emission range, these vehicles are amongst the
cleanest vehicles on the market. They are an important way of helping motorists make the
switch to a different way of powering their vehicles. A full petrol hybrid electric car is
estimated to deliver greenhouse gas emissions reductions of around 5% (compared with a
diesel car) and 20% (compared with a petrol car). A plug-in petrol hybrid electric car is
estimated to deliver greenhouse gas emissions reductions of around 33% (compared with
a diesel car) and 43% (compared with a petrol car).
Regulation ●● Tailpipe CO2 emissions: these

regulations place a requirement on vehicle
EU emissions regulation currently cover: manufacturers to ensure that the average
●● Tailpipe pollutant emissions: these CO2 emissions from their sales of both
regulations set the maximum levels of new cars and new vans meet certain
certain air pollutants that can be emitted targets.
by vehicles during a range of test. These As we leave the EU, we will pursue a future
are known as Euro standards and cover approach that is at least as ambitious as
pollutants including hydrocarbons, carbon current arrangements for vehicle emissions
monoxide, nitrogen oxides and particulate regulation. We want to see an approach that
matter. improves air quality and reduces
Figure 2b.3: New Real Driving Emission (RDE) regulations set limits for new diesel cars which are
designed to decrease real world NOX emissions. RDE limits include measurement uncertainty.
0.600
0.500
0.400
gNOx/km
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.00
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Euro 6 (DfT Testing) RDE 1 New Types

RDE 1 All Sales RDE 2 All Sales
RDE 2 New Types Regulated Limit
Source: DfT testing, EU RDE Acts
45
greenhouse gas emissions, and regulation were over six times higher than the official
will be critical in supporting our ultimate aim legislative laboratory test limit.95
of delivering our 2040 mission.
While real world standards to address this
were introduced for heavy duty vehicles
Restricting tailpipe pollutant
(trucks and buses) in 2013, they have only
emissions: Euro standards
recently been agreed for cars, vans and
Since their inception in 1992, the Euro taxis. We led calls for action at a European
standard regulations have led to large level to ensure these standards became a
improvements in emissions of air pollutants reality.
from new vehicles. However, these
The Real Driving Emissions (RDE)
regulations have not achieved the reduction
requirements that came into force in
in emissions of NOX from diesel cars and
September 2017 require that manufacturers
vans in real world use expected from the
limit emissions of both NOX and particulates
laboratory test results. The gap in some
across a wide range of normal driving
cases is large. We published the results of
conditions. These measurements are taken
on-road emissions testing in April 2016 and
in the real world, which is a big step forward.
on average the measured road test NOX
We welcome the continued innovation and
emissions from Euro 5 and 6 diesel cars
investment by vehicle manufacturers to
The role of diesel in the transition to zero emission vehicles

Cleaner diesel cars and vans can play an important part in reducing CO2 emissions
from road transport during the transition to zero emission vehicles whilst meeting ever
more stringent air quality standards. For diesel vehicles to play their part fully, their air
quality impact must continue to be reduced. We want new cars and vans to be as clean
as possible as fast as possible. We welcome the continued innovation and investment
by vehicle manufacturers to develop cleaner diesel vehicles that meet the more
challenging Real Driving Emission (RDE) requirements, delivering critical improvements
in NOX emissions on the road.
Fleet turnover to the newest, cleanest cars and vans will play an important part in
reducing emissions from the vehicle fleet. In air quality terms a new conventional vehicle
will almost always be cleaner than an older one of the same type. But zero emission
cars and vans are now available and are the best option environmentally.
If zero emission technologies are not currently practical, the most appropriate vehicle
technology will depend on drivers’ individual circumstances, including location and
usage pattern. In most cases, for cars principally being used in urban areas where
journeys tend to be shorter and at slower speeds, petrol hybrid, other alternatively
fuelled or new conventional petrol cars are likely to be most suitable. Diesel is more
suitable for vehicles, including cars, that regularly drive long distances or carry
heavy loads.
46
develop cleaner diesel vehicles that meet regulations apply to emerging technologies
these more challenging requirements, and will commission research into the most
delivering critical improvements in NOX effective methods of detecting attempts to
emissions on the road. tamper with emissions reduction systems.
This will build on previous work conducted
Achieving these tougher standards for cars
here and elsewhere in the EU. As set out in
and vans will require wide scale adoption of
the Clean Air Strategy consultation, we intend
the most effective emissions control
to build on our existing regulations to make
technologies. Some of these technologies
tampering with an emissions control strategy
may cause emissions of other air pollutants
a legal offence.
or greenhouse gases. For instance selective
catalytic reduction (SCR) technology, which In 2016, the Government established a new
helps remove NOX from diesel tailpipe Market Surveillance Unit in DVSA to test
emissions, also emits small amounts of vehicles and components on the UK market
nitrous oxide (N2O) which is a powerful and ensure they meet the standards to
greenhouse gas. We will seek to work which they are approved. DVSA works
closely with the industry to monitor this and closely with the Department for Transport
consider options for tackling any issues and VCA to deliver this programme which
where necessary. has initially focused on vehicle emissions
testing. The Unit expects to continue
Enforcing emissions limits expanding its testing to a wider range of
vehicles and components in future years.97
It is vital that we know that the technologies
used to reduce emissions are working While Euro standards have focused on
effectively and achieving the real world tailpipe emissions, reducing particulate
reduction we expect to see throughout a matter from other sources such as brakes
vehicle’s lifetime. We are aware that, in some and tyres is also important. As the existing
trucks, for instance, these technologies are regulatory regime has driven substantial
being disabled. For HGVs the DVSA have reductions in tailpipe emissions, emissions
begun conducting roadside checks to identify from brakes, tyres, road wear and dust
drivers and operators circumventing emissions thrown up by vehicles now form around
controls and in targeted checks have found 60% of particulate matter attributed to
almost one in 12 trucks to have had their road transport.98
emissions control systems disabled.96
The UK government is actively involved in
We are committed to working further with the the United Nations Economic Commission
DVSA, VCA and industry to ensure that our for Europe (UNECE) working group
regulatory and enforcement regimes give us discussions and research to tackle this
the levers we need to tackle this problem. It is problem.99 We will launch a call for evidence
already an offence to use a vehicle which has on non-exhaust emissions of particulates
been modified in such a way that it no longer from tyre, brake and road wear to improve
complies with the air pollutant emissions our understanding of these emissions and
standards it was designed to meet. We will consider options for how they may be
continue work to ensure the relevant reduced.
47
Reducing CO2 emissions shown that while the CO2 emissions of new
vehicles in the laboratory have reduced
EU regulations on the CO2 emissions from
significantly in recent years, this level of
new cars and vans were introduced in 2009
reduction has not been seen on the road.
and 2011 respectively and have driven
This poses a risk to emission reduction
industry investment in improving fuel
efforts and is why a new laboratory test
efficiency. However, historically much of this
cycle known as WLTP (Worldwide
investment has been primarily focused on
Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure)
incremental improvements to internal
was introduced in September 2017. This test
combustion engine vehicles rather than a
is more stringent and we expect its
shift to zero emission vehicles.
introduction to significantly reduce this gap.
We continue to work at the European level to
Relying on incremental improvements in
develop future CO2 emission regulations for
internal combustion engine efficiency,
cars, vans and now heavy-duty vehicles
reducing the gap between real world
(HDVs).100 Recent draft proposals from the
emissions and lab tests, and extending
European Commission have adopted a
standards to heavier vehicles is not enough
familiar approach and do not mandate ultra
to meet our long-term ambitions. Our
low or zero emission technologies.
approach needs to drive towards delivering
As with air pollutants, there has been a our 2040 mission. It is important that future
difference between laboratory and real- emissions regulation enables Europe’s
world driving CO2 emissions. Studies have automotive industry to transition and
Figure 2b.4: International targets for fleet CO2 emissions are driving down average emissions101
220
9 Fuel consumption (I/100 km gasoline equivalent)
200
CO2 emission values (g/km), normalised to NEDC
8
180
160 7
140 6
120 5
100
4
80
3
60
2
40
20 1
0 0
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Historical performance Enacted target Proposed target
*Note that Japan has already met its 202 statutory target as of 2013
Source: ICCT (2018). Overview of Global Fuel Economy Policies
48
The Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP)102

In 2017 the WLTP was introduced to measure the official fuel consumption and CO2
emissions of new cars and to check their compliance with air pollutant emissions limits.
Manufacturers seeking type approval for new models are already required to use this
test, and it will become mandatory for all new cars by September 2018.
The new testing regime aims to provide a closer representation of ‘real-world’ fuel
consumption and CO2 figures and provide model specific values at the point of sale that
take into account the options specified. It differs from the outgoing NEDC process in a
number of ways although all tests will continue to be conducted in a laboratory allowing
meaningful comparisons between cars to be made. The WLTP driving cycle is divided
into four parts with different average speeds: low, medium, high and extra high. The
cycle contains a variety of driving phases, stops, acceleration and braking phases.
Source: HORIBA MIRA
compete with the significant investments in 50g CO2 per km) by 2025 and 30% by 2030.
zero emission vehicle technology taking This is below the UK’s level of ambition.
place across China, wider Asia and North
America. Local action
The EU Commission has proposed a National and international vehicle standards
minimum regulatory expectation on are not the only frameworks that will
manufacturers of 15% of new car sales to be incentivise the move to a clean and
‘zero or low emission vehicles’ (defined as ultimately zero emission fleet – ambitious
having tailpipe emissions of less than local action has a major role to play too.
49
Figure 2b.5: The gap between real world and NEDC new car CO2 emissions has increased
250 45%
40%
200 35%
30%
150
25%
gCO2/km
Gap
20%
100
15%
10%
50
5%
0 0%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Gap between NEDC and real world data % NEDC test (Source: SMMT) Real world (Source: ICCT)
Following publication of the NO2 plan in July Financial incentives: Cars, vans,
2017, Ministers directed 28 local authorities to HGVs and taxis
develop local air quality plans to bring their
areas into compliance with legal NO2 limits in Government currently offers a range of
the shortest time possible. For some, this is incentives to support consumers to make the
likely to involve introducing a Clean Air Zone shift to ultra low emission vehicles, including
to restrict entry of the most polluting vehicles. the tax system, direct grants and other
The Clean Air Zone framework, published by financial support. These remain important
government in May 2017, sets out the and consumer incentives in some form will
different classes of Clean Air Zone and the continue to play a role beyond 2020.
types of vehicles each applies to. Ministers
also directed a further 33 English local Tax incentives103
authorities with shorter-term air quality
For ultra low emission cars, the current UK
problems to carry out targeted feasibility
incentive package includes lower rates for
studies to recommend measures which
vehicle excise duty (VED) – with zero
would achieve compliance with NO2 limits in
emission vehicles paying no VED and from
the shortest possible time. Part 4 sets out the
2020-21, longer zero emission ranges will be
steps we will take to support local leadership
incentivised through the company car tax
to drive down road transport emissions.
system. As no fuel is consumed by battery
electric cars, no car fuel benefit charge is
due either. The combined savings can add
up to thousands of pounds.104
50
HMT announced in March 2018 that it will To help local authorities in England
exempt almost all drivers of purpose built implement their plans to reach legal NO2
ultra low emission taxis bought from April compliance, government has introduced a
2018 from paying the VED supplement for £255 million implementation Fund. The
vehicles over £40,000. This will save ultra additional £220 million Clean Air Fund will
low emission taxi drivers £1550 over 5 years. allow them to help individuals and
When coupled with considerable savings on businesses adapt to these plans.107 The
fuel and the plug-in taxi grant of £7,500, the Government published its response to a
package is a significant incentive to switch to consultation on the potential options local
the new electric taxis.105 authorities might consider in doing this,
including provision of financial incentives to
Zero emission vans only pay a small
encourage use of lower emission or ultra low
proportion of the van benefit charge (40%
emission vehicles.
for 2018-19). Electric vans are not subject
to van fuel benefit charge. To promote The Clean Air Fund and the Implementation
continued uptake of ultra low emission vans, Fund are paid for by:
we are consulting on a new van Vehicle
●● a VED supplement applied to new diesel
Excise Duty regime linked to vehicle
cars first registered from 1 April 2018, so
emissions.
that their first year rate is calculated as if
The Government continues to charge a they are in the VED band above;
reduced rate of VAT, currently 5%, on
●● a rise in the existing company car tax
electricity used to recharge a plug-in vehicle
diesel supplement from 3% to 4%, with
at home, lower than for other road fuels
effect from 6 April 2018.
charged at the standard rate, currently 20%.
Those purchasing diesel cars meeting the
For businesses:
Real Driving Emissions step 2 standards,
●● since April 2018, there has been no also known as Euro 6D-Final (see Figure
benefit in kind (BIK) liability for electricity 2b.2) do not pay either of these
provided to charge employees’ own supplements. These changes aim to
electric vehicles; encourage manufacturers to bring forward
next-generation, cleaner diesels as quickly
●● an enhanced capital allowance (ECA) is
as possible.
currently available for businesses
investing in new electric vehicle charging The Chancellor also announced that the
or gas refuelling infrastructure, allowing Government will end the fuel duty escalator
them to deduct the full cost from their for LPG, which will help to unlock investment
profits before tax. An ECA is also available in this niche market, supporting uptake of
for purchasing zero emission goods lower emission LPG vans and taxis in the
vehicles.106 transition to zero emission vehicles.
51
Direct grant support help offset the higher upfront purchase

price of ultra low emission cars. We will
Today, the upfront cost of ultra low emission
continue the plug-in car grant until at least
vehicles is still higher than for conventional
2020 and will continue current plug-in car
equivalents. Costs are coming down. For
grant rates until at least October 2018.
example, battery prices (a large part of the
By 2020, we will have supported this
current total cost of electric vehicles) have
market for almost a decade. We have
fallen almost 80% since 2010.108 However,
already supported the purchase of more
falling battery costs have largely been offset
than 150,000 vehicles. In the coming years,
by an increase in the battery size used in
we expect sales will increasingly be driven
vehicles, increasing the vehicle range.
by tougher global emission regulations,
Vehicle manufacturers also need time to
and accelerating consumer demand thanks
ramp up the production of ultra low emission
to longer vehicle ranges and greater
vehicles as demand grows.
vehicle choice.
We expect prices to continue to fall and for
With rising sales, the long-term continuation
vehicle manufacturers to bring increasing
of the plug-in car grant will become
numbers of affordable models to the market.
unviable in terms of cost to the taxpayer.
We therefore expect to deliver a managed
Cars
exit from the grant in due course and to
The plug-in car grant was introduced over continue to support the uptake of ultra low
7 years ago as an introductory measure to emission cars through other measures.
Figure 2b.6: Electric vehicle battery pack prices have fallen almost 80% between 2010 and 2017
Battery pack price ($/kWh)

20%
1000
20%
800 7% 10%
35%
642
599
540 22%
24%
350
273
209
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance
52
Vans availability of models – the majority of which

are battery electric vehicles.
Our 2016 greenhouse gas emissions
statistics show that emission reductions Other factors have also affected the growth
from cars have been partially offset by of the market, such as the reduced payload
increases in emissions of CO2 from light duty compared with a diesel vehicle. To help
vans.109 A variety of factors including the compensate for lost payload capacity due to
growth in popularity of internet shopping has the added weight and size of some current
led to an increase in the van miles travelled alternative fuel technologies, we are
in urban areas.110 Around 96% of the vans on legislating to allow category B (car) licence
the road in the UK in 2016 were diesel, holders to drive certain alternatively fuelled
compared to 60% in 1996.111 In 2016, 33% vehicles up to a maximum weight of 4.25
of the NOX emissions from road transport tonnes (rather than 3.5 tonnes).
were from vans.112
Faster progress is needed. There are
The market for vans is smaller than cars; by positive signs, with improvements to battery
way of comparison, in 2017 there were range in existing models as well as new
2.5 million new car registrations versus larger electric and range extended models
around 360,000 new light goods vehicle due to be released in the coming months
registrations.113 Since 2012 fewer than 5,000 and years. Some of the biggest van
vans have received the plug-in van grant. manufacturers such as Ford, Mercedes,
Demand has been constrained by the limited Volkswagen and Renault are trialling vans.
Figure 2b.7: Van mileage has increased in recent years relative to other vehicle types
130
120
110
Index: 2007 = 100
100
90
80
70
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Cars Vans HGVs Other
Source: Department for Transport – Road Traffic (vehicle miles) by vehicle type in Great Britain
53
Vans
There are more than 4 million vans in use across the UK and they are key part of the UK
economy. Vans do much higher mileage than cars and are largely for business use so
cost (in particular cost of ownership), utility, and reliability are key factors in purchasing
decisions. There has been a trend towards larger vans in recent years, giving drivers
more flexibility in terms of their use.114
Diesel vans offer good driveability and reliability when pulling heavy loads and good fuel
economy for high mileage vehicles. This has led to manufacturers offering predominantly
diesel vans in Europe, in response to consumer demand. However, current diesel vans
emit high levels of nitrogen oxides (NOX), contributing to air pollution problems in our
towns and cities. In 2016, 33% of road transport nitrogen oxides emissions were from
vans.115
We want vans to be as clean as possible, as fast as possible. We want up to 40% of

new van sales to be ultra low emission by 2030 and all new vans to be effectively zero
emission by 2040. Ultra low emission vans provide substantial reductions in both NOX
and greenhouse gas emissions but they currently make up only 0.3% of new sales and
these are principally small electric vans.116 We will continue to incentivise their purchase
and we want to see manufacturers bring forward more options.
Where ultra low emission vans are not currently practical, the purchase of (or repowering
to) methane or liquid petroleum gas vans can substantially reduce NOX emissions
compared to most current diesel equivalents without increasing greenhouse gas
emissions. However unfamiliarity and a lack of vehicles and refuelling infrastructure has
limited uptake of gas vans.
Petrol vans have lower NOX emissions than current equivalent diesel vans but are less
fuel efficient leading to higher greenhouse gas emissions. Nevertheless, they could be a
better option for those operating in urban areas and with lower mileage.
We welcome the investment and innovation that diesel van manufacturers are making to
meet the new RDE standard and deliver critical improvements in NOX emissions on the
road. These cleaner (RDE compliant) diesel vans are expected to have significantly lower
NOX emissions than those currently available and will play a key role in improving air
quality during the transition to zero emission vans.
54
Examples of fleets leading the way

Royal Mail
The Royal Mail fleet now has more than 49,000 vehicles in operation. Last year the
company made two ultra low emission vehicle announcements. The first was a trial of
large electric delivery vehicles (up to 7.5 tonnes), supplied by Oxfordshire-based
manufacturer Arrival. These vehicles will deliver mail from central London to sites around
the south east of England. The second was the purchase of 100 Peugeot Partner
electric vans, which are already in active duty around the UK.
Source: Royal Mail
A number of companies are developing and Like cars, ultra low emission vans and trucks
building ultra low emission vans in the UK, are more still expensive than their
supporting UK jobs and growth and new conventional equivalents. We will continue
export opportunities. the plug in van grant in some form until at
least 2020. We will continue current rates of
These include:
the plug in van grant until at least October
●● battery assembly for Nissan’s eNV200 in 2018 with a review around this time.
Sunderland;
●● Arrival is to build vans (from 4 tonnes) and

heavier vehicles at their Banbury site; and
●● the London Electric Vehicle Company is

building a range-extended electric van at
their Coventry site.
55
Examples of fleets leading the way

UPS
UPS has one of London’s largest fleets of electric vehicles. They currently operate 62
electric vehicles out of their Kentish town depot, but have plans to electrify 100% of their
central London fleet.
With the help of OLEV funding, a UPS-led consortium recently deployed new charging
technology that allows it to recharge an entire fleet of electric vehicles (EVs) without the
need for an upgrade to the power supply grid. This will allow UPS to replace all of the
170 trucks currently operating from its central London site with EVs.
The innovative charging solution combines smart-grid and energy storage technologies.
It is believed to be the first time these systems have been deployed at this scale
anywhere in the world. UPS believes the day is rapidly drawing closer when the cost of
an urban distribution electric vehicle, including the necessary power supply investments,
will be lower than that of its diesel counterpart.
Source: UPS
Motorcycles motorcycle grant in 2016, nine

manufacturers have had bikes approved to
The market for zero emission motorcycles is
the scheme with more than 20 models
at an earlier stage than either cars or vans.
currently available at a range of prices
Zero emission motorcycles can help reduce
and specifications.
congestion, improve urban air quality and
reduce noise. While cars outnumber In 2017, around 100 zero emission
motorcycles by more than 24 to one on UK motorcycles were ordered via the plug-in
roads, motorcycles are a sizeable vehicle motorcycle grant in the UK.118 To continue to
population, with almost 1.3 million currently support the development of the market and
licensed.117 Since the launch of the plug-in bridge the cost gap that remains between
56
Last mile deliveries

We are considering further options for reducing emissions for last mile deliveries,
particularly in urban areas. We will shortly launch a call for evidence on this subject,
including exploring for the first time providing grants and/or other financial incentives to
support the use of e-cargo bikes.
zero emission and petrol motorcycles, we There are reports of a lack of dealer and
will continue the plug-in motorcycle grant auction house understanding and a lack of
until at least 2020. We have also supported consumer confidence in the longevity of
research and development into zero vehicle batteries dampening the re-sale
emission motorcycle technology through the value of these vehicles. We have already
Niche Vehicle Network. Other, future R&D supported Energy Saving Trust to deliver
opportunities for zero emission motorcycles dealer training sessions. We will:
include OLEV’s Integrated Delivery
●● work with the National Association of
Programme and Innovate UK’s Open
Motor Auctions (NAMA) to publish electric
competitions for SMEs.
vehicle guidance for sellers, dealers and
auction houses;
Other vehicles
●● explore changes to the V5 documentation
We cover buses and purpose built taxis in
that is handed to new owners when a
Part 4 and HGVs in Part 2c. We are
vehicle is sold, to include the
confident the investment we are making
specifications of ultra low emission
across vehicle types will provide spill-over
vehicles e.g. battery size and electric
benefits and improvements to a wider range
energy consumption;
of vehicles, for instance refuse vehicles,
coaches and minibuses. We welcome more ●● continue to fund training sessions for new
ultra low emission versions of these vehicles and used car and van retailers and to the
being introduced and used. motor auction community; and
●● establish a regular forum with dealers,

Residual values and resale of auction houses, price guides and BVRLA
ultra low emission vehicles to improve uptake of second hand
electric cars.
Residual values (i.e. the price a vehicle can
be sold for second hand) play an important
role in determining the first hand purchase
and lease costs of vehicles for consumers.
The second hand market makes ultra low
emission vehicles an option for consumers
and businesses unable to afford new cars or
vans and needs to be ready for an
increasing number of these vehicles.
57
Providing information to The Department for Transport will therefore,

consumers and businesses so in partnership with a number of key motoring
organisations, set up a Road Transport
they can make confident Emissions Advice Group. This Group will
decisions about what’s right bring together industry stakeholders with
for them consumer groups and communications
We want to provide clear information to experts to work together to address the
consumers about the environmental challenges of clear and consistent consumer
performance of different fuel and vehicle messaging and advice on fuel and
choices. This is a shared challenge with technology choices across the UK. Some
industry, dealerships and consumer groups. immediate challenges that the Group will
Go Ultra Low
Go Ultra Low (GUL) is a joint government-industry
Running low marketing campaign which aims to increase the

uptake of ultra low emission vehicles in the UK.
on facts? Launched in 2014, GUL has had considerable
Recharge success and has grown since its inception.
here. In 2017/18, the Go Ultra Low campaign set out to

Got questions about owning an electric car?
Get the answers at GoUltraLow.com
You can find out how easy it is to charge your
demonstrate how electric cars can fit into people’s
lives and fulfil their driving needs by addressing a
car at home, as well as how much you can
save by switching from a traditional car.
Our journey range calculator can even tell you
how far you can travel on a full charge.
Any more questions? You know where to go.
range of common concerns including cost, driving

GoUltraLow.com
range and charging.
The campaign told the story of ultra low emission
vehicle owners from across the UK and created a
series of videos and content through radio, video on
734918-1_ACOL_DriverLearnersRunning_420x297_MASTER_V4.indd 1 26/09/2017 10:23
A press advert from the 2017/18 Go Ultra Low demand, online, press and the GUL website. GUL
campaign. Source: Go Ultra Low
File: 734918-1_ACOL_DriverLearnersRunning_420x297_MASTER_V4 Size:420x297 Proof Design Creative Team
also developed four tools which allow consumers to

3
Client: COI OLEV
AMV Job No: AMV-PROJ016352
Publication: MAGAZINE MASTER
Op: Simon Date: 26/09/17
MASTER
Project Leader (Master only) Account Management
Page:1
calculate for themselves the benefit of owning an electric vehicle in terms of journey cost,
car tax, journey range and home charging. This included a journey cost saving calculator,
a car tax calculator, a journey range calculator, and a home charging calculator.
More than 600,000 people have visited the newly launched GUL website since October
2017 with over 115,000 landing on the tools. Videos which tell the stories of real owners
have been viewed more than 19 million times.
96% of a sample group surveyed said the adverts made them feel more positive about
electric vehicles. Attitudinal tracking carried out before and after the campaign showed a
13% increase in consumers who stated electric vehicles are a credible alternative to
petrol and diesel cars. Intention to purchase an electric vehicle also increased by 19%
after the campaign.
58
Moving to ultra low emission options: fleets

To provide fleets with the support they need to make the switch to ultra low emission
vehicles we will fund fleet reviews through the Energy Saving Trust. The Energy Saving
Trust programme will continue to focus on SMEs who often lack the organisational
capacity to take advantage of efficient fleet operations. With the potential implementation
of Clean Air Zones there is a growing need to ‘future proof’ smaller fleets and support
local authorities in implementing measures that will facilitate achieving compliance within
Clean Air Zone cities.
GUL Companies celebrates the public and private sector organisations that have made
a commitment to an ultra low emission future. The scheme is open to businesses that
have at least one plug-in vehicle on their fleet now, and commit to have them make up at
least 5% of their total vehicle fleet by 2020.
To date, more than 140 private and public sector organisations have joined the scheme.
Members range from small and medium-sized enterprises with a handful of plug-in
vehicles on their fleet, through to household names such as Microsoft and Europcar that
have over 100.
consider include how to provide clear We know confusion persists about the ultra
guidance to consumers on: low emission options now available. Surveys
indicate uncertainty about the technology,
●● the change in car and van CO2 emissions
price, infrastructure and range continue to
test methodology, which will result in
be barriers to further uptake. We want these
more representative fuel economy figures
vehicles to be a well-understood option for
than the current methodology used;119
consumers and to promote the benefits of
●● new fuel labels to be introduced, which making the switch.
will highlight to motorists the existing
We will continue working with industry on
biofuel content of conventional petrol and
consumer communications about ultra low
diesel fuels;
emission vehicles until at least 2020 and
●● the potential introduction, by fuel retailers, launch a 2018/19 Go Ultra Low campaign to
of a new fuel grade (known as E10) in promote the benefits of ultra low emission
order to help meet UK requirements for vehicles to consumers and businesses.
the supply of biofuel; and
●● the potential introduction of Clean Air

Zones, or other types of emissions
standard-based charging zones, by local
authorities in areas where this is
necessary to meet legal requirements in
the shortest possible time.
59
Defra and Environment Agency fleet

In 2016 Defra announced plans to bring together partners who have fleet operations
under a single service provided by the Environment Agency team. Following the
formation of Defra Group Fleet Service in 2016, the service delivered an annual saving of
£500k through the merging of policies and processes and by combining procurement
needs into a single aggregated tender.
In late 2017 they set out a strategy to be the leaders in government by committing to
purchase only petrol plug-in hybrid or battery electric cars by 2025. They anticipate this
will reduce CO2 and NOX significantly, and in the first year alone has seen new cars CO2
fall by 10% and NOX fall by 88%. Their aim is to have 100% of the car fleet ultra low
emission by 2025, alongside a high proportion of their commercial vehicles.
Government leading the way

We want central government to lead the way
on ultra low emission vehicles. In December
2017 new government buying standards for
transport committed to new government
vehicle purchases being ultra low emission
by default, with alternatives considered only
in exceptional circumstances. A requirement
within these standards is to electrify 25% of
the central government car fleet, meaning
that one in every four cars will be ultra low
emission by 2022.
It will be for individual government

departments to determine how they work
towards this target. However, OLEV is
providing guidance to fleet managers with
more detail on how the target will be met.
We expect these steps to encourage both
public and private fleets across the country
to adopt ambitious targets. We are
committed to 100% of the central
government car fleet being ultra low
emission by 2030.
60
Part 2c: Setting a clear pathway to reducing emissions

from HGVs and progress to zero emission solutions
Heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) are the Government can play a key role in
lifeblood of the UK economy transporting supporting R&D, real-world trials and
goods to consumers and businesses.120 demonstrations and we remain committed
However, HGVs are a major source of to supporting our industry to capture the
pollution – accounting for 18% of economic benefits of developing and
greenhouse gas emissions and 13% of deploying these exciting new technologies.
nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions for road
As solutions emerge it remains essential to
transport in 2016.121,122
scale up and expand the behavioural and
Government’s long-term goal is the efficiency measures that can reduce
development and deployment of zero emissions from existing HGVs.
emission HGVs. While the pathway to
achieving this is not as clear as for cars and Reducing emissions in the
vans, technologies are starting to emerge
near term
even for the largest vehicles – Cummins,
Mercedes and Tesla have now produced HGV operators are increasingly adopting
large electric battery trucks. measures that help deliver marginal
improvements in fuel efficiency and
But industry needs high confidence in the
environmental performance. This includes
operational performance of these
driver training, telematics, aerodynamic
technologies in order to invest further, before
equipment and more efficient tyres.
they will become a commercial reality.
R&D for low and zero emission HGVs

Low Emissions Freight and Logistics Trial (LEFT). In 2017, OLEV and Innovate UK
awarded £20 million of grant funding to 20 projects, leveraging £12m in private
investment. The aim is to support industry-led trials of alternative propulsion
technologies for commercial fleets in the UK, including electricity, hydrogen and gas.
This will include emissions testing of a number of the latest gas HGVs. The results of this
testing will be used to inform decisions on future government policy and support for
natural gas as a potential near term, lower emission fuel for HGVs.
Integrated Delivery Programme (IDP) 14. We recently announced this co-funded

programme for accelerating the transition to zero emission vehicles. A total of £18.1m will
be awarded to projects focusing on innovative low emission HGV technologies.
Zero emission research project and dynamic charging. We are taking forward a research
project to explore different zero emission HGV technologies, including dynamic charging
which involves vehicles receiving electricity as they travel.123
61
This activity has been supported by multiple This is a strong start, but there is still
initiatives which have made a significant potential for the HGV sector to deliver
impact. For example: significantly more emissions reductions.
●● the Freight Transport Association’s We have agreed a new industry-wide

Logistics Carbon Reduction Scheme voluntary target for reducing HGV
(LCRS) set HGV operators a target to greenhouse gas emissions by 15% by 2025,
reduce their 2015 carbon emissions by from 2015 levels. This is supported by
8% compared to 2010 levels.124 LCRS industry. This commitment promises to help
members who consistently provided data the industry achieve significant emissions
from 2010 and 2015 achieved a 7% reductions while realising concrete
reduction in CO2e emissions per vehicle commercial benefits through improved fuel
kilometre within this period compared to and logistical efficiency.
industry as a whole; and
This is the first time that the industry has
●● the ECOStars scheme, a Barnsley come together to agree such a target: both
Metropolitan Borough Council owned the major trade bodies – the Freight
initiative, is delivered by Transport Transport Association (FTA) and Road
Research Laboratories and provides Haulage Association (RHA) – support it.
operators with bespoke advice and Other industry organisations also support
guidance about how best to reduce the initiative. This backing from industry will
emissions and run their fleets efficiently. be very important for successfully engaging
Figure 2c.1: Uptake of technologies by operators – Many operators are already taking action but
there is potential for greater take up of relevant technologies125
Spray reduction mud flaps

Voluntary speed limiter
Cab roof air deflector
Automated Manual Transmission
Telematics to optimise vehicle routing
Electronic driver performance monitoring
Technology to reduce engine idling
Low rolling resistance tyres
Cab collar
Predictive cruise control
Body skirts
Voluntary rev limiter
Full gap fairings
Tyre pressure monitoring system
Trailer rear end (taper/boat-tail)
Teardrop-shaped trailer
Automatic tyre inflation
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
Source: DfT (2017), Freight Carbon Review, Appendix B – HGV technology survey 2015
62
road haulage companies, and particularly ●● We will also support the freight portal and
smaller operators. the industry’s efforts to reduce its
emissions by investigating the practical
As part of the industry support for the
obstacles preventing many hauliers from
voluntary target, the FTA has re-launched
adopting measures to reduce emissions
their Logistics Carbon Reduction Scheme as
and how such barriers can be overcome.
the Logistics Emissions Reduction Scheme
(LERS). The new scheme (which the FTA ●● Reducing congestion for HGVs is a
provides free to all haulage operators) will crucial way for reducing their emissions
adopt the 15% target and help individual and achieving the 15% target will be all
companies both to meet it and to track their the more challenging if congestion
performance against it. LERS also has a increases. We, and Highways England,
separate shorter-term target of a 5% will continue to work with the HGV sector
greenhouse gas emissions reduction target to understand and respond to the freight
for 2020. This will provide a valuable step industry’s needs with respect to reducing
towards the industry-wide 15% commitment. congestion and ensuring freight can travel
The RHA has committed to supporting DfT efficiently. The second Road Investment
and the Energy Saving Trust (EST) with the Strategy will guarantee funding for further
development and promotion of good Strategic Road Network improvements
practice advice for HGV operators. and will consider options to reduce
congestion. The Government has also
The Government recognises that the target
recently consulted on creating a Major
of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by
Road Network (MRN) to improve the
15% by 2025 is challenging, and we will
middle tier of our busiest and most
support the industry in fulfilling this
economically important local authority ‘A’
commitment. In particular:
roads, including by reducing congestion.
●● We recognise the need to ensure that
●● The Rail Freight Strategy highlighted
independent and robust information is
potential for growing rail freight and we
available to HGV operators to enable
will continue to support shifting freight
them to identify relevant measures and
from road to rail. For example, Innovate
technologies for improving their fuel
UK are funding a project to develop
efficiency and reducing emissions. We
adaptable passenger train carriages with
have funded the EST to develop a freight
seats that fold away to create space for
portal with advice for HGV operators,
light freight.
particularly smaller hauliers, on improving
fuel and operational efficiency. This will ●● We are continually assessing the future
provide the sector with a valuable source role of longer semi-trailers that began
of advice in considering the measures trialling in January 2012. The initial
they need to adopt to meet the target. allocation of 1,800 vehicles was increased
We will work with the FTA, RHA and other by an additional 1,000 when the trial was
key industry bodies to provide advice and extended for a further five years to run
help for operators in this area. until 2027. As stated in the trial’s 2016
Annual Report, it is estimated to have
63
reduced carbon emissions through In 2017 the Government published a national

approximately 150,000 journeys saved. framework to provide a consistent approach
to the implementation of Clean Air Zones.
●● DfT will work over the course of this year
The framework includes suggestions on how
with industry to develop an Ultra-Low
local authorities might reduce emissions
Emission Truck (ULET) standard to
from HGVs in Clean Air Zones. For example,
provide clarity on expected emission
local authorities could consider giving
standards and therefore promote
exemptions to vehicles with zero tailpipe
increased research, development and
emissions in Clean Air Zones, such as
testing of suitable technologies.
allowing night-time deliveries or delivery
Establishing a ULET standard also has
access to pedestrian areas.
the potential to facilitate possible future
incentives for the use of, or infrastructure We are also considering the impact of
for, cleaner, alternatively fuelled HGVs. emissions from Transport Refrigeration Units
(TRUs). Conventional TRUs are powered
●● We will continue to pursue regulatory
either directly by the vehicle engine (vans
opportunities to support the road freight
and trucks) or by secondary (diesel) engines.
sector in switching to lower emission
The Clean Air Zone Framework for England
commercial vehicles. We have allowed up
encourages local authorities to consider
to an extra tonne for certain vehicle
incentives to encourage the upgrade of
categories using certain alternative fuels.
TRUs to the least polluting and zero
We are legislating to allow British car
emission TRUs. There is potentially scope
licence holders to operate certain
for including emissions from TRUs in the
alternatively fuelled vans up to 4.25
development of ULET standards.
tonnes (rather than 3.5 tonnes), thereby
addressing payload penalty issues We also want to understand whether the
associated with alternative powertrains. lower taxation of red diesel (which is used in
TRUs) is preventing uptake of lower emission
We have recently announced changes to the
TRU technologies.128 In 2017, the
HGV levy aimed at improving air quality.126
Government carried out a call for evidence
From February 2019, lorries that pay the levy
on the use of red diesel, including in
and meet the latest Euro VI emissions
non‑road mobile machinery (NRMM, which
standards will be eligible for a 10%
includes TRUs). We are following this up
reduction. The levy will increase by 20%
with a more detailed call for evidence to
for those that do not meet this standard.
understand the impact of NRMM and its use
We are also considering longer-term options
of red diesel in urban areas. “Red diesel” is
for reforming the levy to incentivise greater
the term used for gas oil which benefits from
efficiency and further improve environmental
preferential duty rates for uses other than in
performance and we will continue to engage
road transport.
industry on this.127
64
The potential for alternative fuels Natural gas

There is growing interest in the use of natural
Using higher blends of low carbon gas in HGVs because of its potential to
fuels reduce both greenhouse gas and air
While we work to develop lower and zero pollutant emissions compared to diesel
emission options for HGVs, diesel will HGVs. Natural gas vehicles can also provide
continue to dominate the market. Low other benefits, such as quieter operation,
carbon fuels, which can be used in existing that may make them more suitable for
diesel HGVs, have the potential to reduce certain tasks such as night operation.
greenhouse gas emissions from the current Government is working with industry,
HGV fleet. through OLEV’s Low Emissions Freight and
The vast majority of today’s low carbon Logistics Trial (LEFT), to test the latest gas
liquid fuels are delivered in low blends with trucks to assess their emissions compared
ordinary petrol and diesel, but higher blends to diesel alternatives. Where data is available
can be used too (for instance 20% or greater in time, it will also inform the government’s
biodiesel in HGVs) – with potentially review of duty rates for alternative fuels,
substantial greenhouse gas savings. There ahead of Budget 2018.
remain barriers to their widespread use, for
example, issues such as vehicle warranties The long term: zero emission
can reduce adoption of these fuels by solutions for HGVs
operators. We will work with industry to
better understand these issues and identify Zero emission technologies are at different
potential solutions. stages of development for different
segments of the HGV sector, with solutions
The government has asked the National more advanced for zero emission smaller,
Infrastructure Commission (NIC) to shorter-haul HGVs than for larger, long-haul
undertake a study to look at the future of HGVs. But zero emission technologies exist
freight. This will outline how the UK can and are technically proven for all types of
deliver efficient and productive freight whilst HGVs and operations. For example,
reducing its impact on congestion and electrification of large and long-haul HGVs is
carbon. It includes looking at the possible. Manufacturers have produced
opportunities that new technologies and large electric HGVs and there has been
alternative fuels may deliver, as well the several successful trials of dynamic charging
infrastructure improvements that may be technologies for HGVs internationally.
needed to ensure an effective freight system Hydrogen is also a feasible zero emission
out to 2050. solution for large, long-haul HGVs.
65
Government will play an active role in This research will evaluate the potential
stimulating research and development of costs, benefits and opportunities associated
emerging technologies while ensuring the with the various technologies as well as their
relevant infrastructure is available for suitability for different types of HGVs and
operators (e.g. charging stations for electric duty cycles across different parts of the
HGVs). The regulatory regime will need to network. This research will be conducted
facilitate the uptake of zero emission with a view to ultimately performing full-scale
solutions by operators. Government and demonstrator trials on the UK road network
industry will also need to collaborate if appropriate technologies are identified.
internationally to align the implementation of The research will be valuable in identifying
zero emission technologies given how freight the most promising solutions for the UK
companies operate across borders. network and how best to develop them.
In October 2016, we extended the plug-in We will also seek to use the outputs of this
van grant to cover all HGVs weighing more study to work with industry to accelerate
than 3.5 tonnes – we will provide up to research, development and adoption of zero
£20,000 for the first 200 such vehicles emission HGV technologies as part of the
(the grant offers up to £8,000 for vans up to Industrial Strategy Future of Mobility Grand
3.5 tonnes).129 No vehicles over 3.5 tonnes Challenge.
have yet applied for the grant. However, we
expect a number to do so in the near future
and we will consider ways that we can best
reward ambition in the future.
Large long-haul HGVs are the most

challenging segment of the HGV sector for
developing zero emission options. That is
why DfT and Highways England are taking
forward this year in-depth research and
analysis to identify and jointly assess the full
range of zero emission technologies with
potential for application to HGV traffic on the
UK road network, with a focus on large,
long-haul HGVs operating on the SRN.
66
Part 2d: Putting the UK at the forefront of the design and

manufacturing of zero emission vehicles
The UK automotive industry has been a New conditions require new thinking and we
great success story in recent years. We are want to work in partnership with the sector
one of the leading car manufacturers in to provide this. We have set out our ambition
Europe, manufacturing 1.67 million cars in in the Automotive Sector Deal. This builds on
2017 and exporting 14.6% of the UK’s total the longstanding partnership between the
export goods worth £44 billion.130,131 Government and industry, brought to life by
the Automotive Council, to work together on
In the next 10 years, the sector will see more
shifting the industry to zero emission
change than in the previous hundred.
vehicles. It will also create a world-leading
Technology is changing what the industry
test environment for connected and
looks like and providing new business
autonomous vehicles and raise the
opportunities as demand shifts to ultra low
competitiveness of UK suppliers to match
emission vehicles.
the best in Europe.
Figure 2d.1: There are companies across the UK developing ultra low emission technologies.
A selection are shown in this figure
67
Company Investment Location (City,

County)
Alexander Alexander Dennis has developed a range of low and Larbert,
Dennis Ltd zero emission buses for the global market. In addition Stirlingshire
to their own investment of more than £30m, Scottish
Enterprise awarded the company a £7.3 million R&D
grant to design and manufacture low carbon vehicles,
creating 100 new jobs.
Entek Have announced a £10 million investment in a new Newcastle Upon
International generation of battery separator for the automotive Tyne, Tyne and
Ltd industry. It is the only manufacturer of its kind in the Wear
UK and currently employs 130 staff at its
Camperdown Industrial Estate base and another 305
staff worldwide.
Nissan Nissan have invested in production of the next Sunderland, Tyne
generation of the Nissan LEAF at Sunderland, which and Wear
also makes EV batteries for the LEAF and eNV200
electric van.
Paneltex Manufacturer a 3.5 tonne to 11 tonne truck, including Hull, North
refrigerated and temperature-controlled vehicles, Humberside
which offer a zero-emission range of up to 150 miles.
Magnomatics Magnetic gear manufacturer part of a consortium with Sheffield, South
Limited Romax Technology and Changan UK to produce the Yorkshire
next-generation in efficient hybrid powertrains, with
£38 million of funding from OLEV and Innovate UK.
Formula-E Formula-E has operational headquarters at Donington Donington Park,
Park – housing teams, manufacturers and suppliers Leicestershire
competing in the ABB FIA Formula E Championship.
HORIBA MIRA Located at the MIRA Technology Park, a globally- Nuneaton,
recognised transport R&D facility – it is Europe’s Warwickshire
largest transport technology park.
London LEVC have invested £325 million in a dedicated Coventry, West
Electric Vehicle electric vehicle manufacturing facility in Coventry, Midlands
Company which will create 1,000 new jobs. The company’s first
(LEVC) product, a range-extended electric taxi, is currently on
sale and LEVC will be bringing an electric van to
market next year that uses the same range-extended
EV technology.
68

County)
Equipmake Equipmake Ltd supplies electric drive technology to Hethel, Norfolk
Ltd British sports car company Ariel who are producing
the Hipercar. They are also developing a low cost
electric bus drivetrain to enable more widespread
adoption of electric buses.
Mercedes- Mercedes will enter Formula-E in 2019 and will Northampton,
Benz produce an electric drivetrain for new electric Northamptonshire
motorsport cars at their base in Brixworth near
Northampton.
Cummins Cummins have committed to launch a leading all- Milton Keynes
electric powertrain to market by end of 2019 for buses
and delivery vehicles incorporating a Cummins-
developed battery pack. This is part of an overall
£380m global investment by Cummins to be a leader
in electrified power for commercial markets.
Tevva Chelmsford based company producing range- Chelmsford,
extender electric 7.5-14 tonne trucks to delivery Essex
companies, such as UPS, Kuehne+Nagel and others.
Ford The Ford Dunton Technical Centre is a global centre Queen Elizabeth
of excellence for the development of both Commercial Olympic Park,
Vehicles and Powertrains. Electrified powertrains are London
playing an increasing role in CO2 and air quality
improvement, as demonstrated by the plug-in hybrid
Transit Van fleet Ford is trialling in London.
BMW Electric MINI to be produced in Cowley, near Oxford Cowley,
from 2019, where currently 4,500 staff are employed Oxfordshire
at this site.
Yasa Growing Oxford-based electric motor manufacturer. Kidlington,
Oxfordshire
Arrival In August 2017, the Royal Mail announced an Kidlington,
agreement with Arrival to trial nine electric vehicles in Oxfordshire
the ranges of 3.5, 6 and 7 tonnes GVW. The
manufacturing facility will be based in Banbury and
will represent the first electric-only truck
manufacturing facility in the UK.
Detroit Electric To invest £304 million in Leamington Spa facilities to Royal Leamington
build electric sports cars and SUVs, creating 120 new Spa,
engineering jobs and 100 new manufacturing jobs. Warwickshire
69

County)
Jaguar Land Jaguar Land Rover’s £150 million investment Coventry, West
Rover (a) established the National Automotive Innovation Centre Midlands
(NAIC) at the University of Warwick. The centre
houses approximately 1,000 scientists, engineers,
academics, technicians and support staff working on
future automotive technology, including electric
vehicles; carbon reduction; and smart and connected
vehicles.
Jaguar Land Manufacturing Centre in Wolverhampton for research Cannock,
Rover (b) into reducing emissions and weight, employing 1,400 Staffordshire
people.
Toyota In February 2016, Toyota invested £5.8 million in Deeside, Clwyd
hybrid electric powertrain manufacture in Deeside,
helping to secure 400 jobs.
INEX Established in 2002, INEX produces innovative micro/ Newcastle Upon
nano technology and semiconductor based systems. Tyne, Tyne and
Wear
McLaren McLaren Automotive is building a £50m centre of Sheffield, South
excellence for innovating and manufacturing Yorkshire
lightweight materials, creating around 200 direct jobs
focusing on the development of advanced
composites technologies.
Wrightbus Ltd Northern Ireland based company designing and Ballymena,
manufacturing battery electric and fuel cell electric County Antrim
buses.
70
Government is committed to putting the UK UK industrial and supply chain capability.

at the forefront of the design and Since inception:
manufacturing of zero emission vehicles.
●● OLEV has supported 14 calls for projects,
We want to have one of the best packages
generating a total investment of £550
of support in the world, including:
million, of which £200 million of has been
●● funding for innovation and R&D; secured from partner co-investment.
●● promoting the growth of the UK supply ●● Funded 297 feasibility and R&D projects,
chain in the UK and internationally; involving 40 universities, 419 industry
participants and more than 900 partners,
●● ensuring we have the right skills;
all with a UK footprint.
●● creating a competitive business
The projects have been projected to provide
environment.
a return on investment of £8-14 by 2025 and
£20-34 by 2030 for every £1 spent, securing
Innovation and R&D total annual sales of £2.9bn and securing
We are a global leader in research and nearly 12,000 jobs by 2030.133
development: we come top in a number of
measures of research excellence and are The commercial pipeline
home to four of the top ten universities of The Advanced Propulsion Centre (APC) was
the world. In the Industrial Strategy, we launched in 2013 through the Automotive
announced the biggest increase in public Council to position the UK as a global centre
investment in R&D in our history (towards a of excellence for low carbon powertrain
target for total R&D investment of 2.4% of development and production. With a
GDP by 2027) and an increase in the rate of £1 billion budget over 10 years, 50:50 match
R&D tax credit to 12%.132 funded between government and Industry,
UKRI, the Advanced Propulsion Centre the APC supports projects at the later
(APC) and the Faraday Battery Challenge are stages of technology development, realising
working to accelerate innovation in ultra low the commercial potential of innovative
emission technologies from fundamental automotive technologies with carbon
research through to commercialisation. reduction impacts. To date, the APC has:
●● funded 36 collaborative R&D projects;

Early stage research and
development ●● a total portfolio value of £589 million with
grant funding of £289 million;
OLEV has awarded over £300 million in
grants via Innovate UK (now UKRI) into ultra ●● created or safeguarded more than 20,400
low emission technologies. This has jobs; and
supported a range of high quality, industry- ●● saved an estimated 34m tonnes of CO2
led R&D projects that have driven forward equivalent to taking 1.7 million cars off
advanced technologies and strengthened the road.
71
AMPLiFII
The AMPLiFII (Automated Module-to-pack Pilot Line for Industrial Innovation) project was
awarded £10 million in 2015 to create a new automotive battery pack manufacturing
research centre. Led by Warwick Manufacturing Group, the project brings together
vehicle manufacturers, supply chain organisations and research organisations, with the
aim of developing a pilot line to test and demonstrate manufacturing processes at
automotive production rates and quality. The technology developed to date provides a
modular battery solution that can be easily tailored to individual project requirements.
Amplifii automotive battery pack assembly line

Source: Innovate UK
Phillips 66 Limited’s Humber Refinery: A refinery for the future
Phillips 66 Limited’s Humber Refinery in North Lincolnshire is the only refinery in Europe
to produce high-grade graphite coke (alongside other petroleum products). Staff at the
Humber Refinery and Phillips 66’s US R&D group based in Oklahoma have worked with
battery anode makers in China to develop unique, new coke formulations suitable for
use as anodes in electric vehicle (EV) batteries.
Phillips 66 has grown its EV battery coke business from zero in 2014 to quantities in
2018 sufficient to put around 500,000 new EVs onto roads each year. Working with
government, Innovate UK, and other battery supply chain businesses, Phillips 66 Limited
is keen to promote a UK-based supply chain for EVs.
72
Delta Motorsport – MiTRE

Based next to the home of British motor racing at Silverstone, Delta Motorsport have
developed a low-cost micro-turbine technology specifically designed as a range
extender for electric vehicles to match petrol or diesel-powered equivalents.
The result of a £3.1 million collaborative R&D project, co-funded by the OLEV and
Innovate UK, its MiTRE (Micro Turbine Range Extender) features small, lightweight
turbo-machinery attached to an electric generator. This maintains the battery state of
charge or (at higher speeds) reduces the rate of discharge. The device has attracted
significant interest from across the industry and as far afield as China.134
We want to build on the success of this ●● Technology pipeline – it can take over a
approach and continue to directly support decade for new chemistries at proof of
match-funded innovation into ultra low concept to emerge as market products.
emission vehicles with a focus on real world We must ensure that innovative products
applications. and services we have supported can
progress to commercialisation, avoiding
We will leverage advances from the Faraday
the ‘valley of death’ – the point at which
Battery Challenge to cement and extend the
many new innovative ideas often fail.
UK’s position as a world leader in energy
storage and battery technologies. ●● UK Battery Industrialisation Centre (UK
BIC) – We have announced £80 million of
New battery technologies are key to
funding for the UK’s first ever battery
improving the range of electric vehicles and
development facility. This will be based in
represent the majority of the value of the
Coventry and Warwickshire and will
vehicle. The production of batteries is critical
deliver state-of-the-art innovation to
for anchoring future zero emission vehicle
support automotive battery
production in the UK. To help attract the first
industrialisation.136
UK largescale battery production facility in
the UK, we will deliver the £246 million ●● Production at scale – beyond the Nissan
Faraday Battery Challenge.135 facility in Sunderland, investment in new
UK automotive battery capability has been
The first phase of the Faraday Battery
small-scale. Given shipping constraints,
Challenge involves the establishment of a
electric vehicle manufacturing will require
Faraday Institution to coordinate battery
a supply of battery packs close to vehicle
research across the UK. The winning
assembly plants. This provides
consortium was announced in October 2017
opportunities for developing a UK based
and comprised of seven partner universities
battery cell and module supply chain.
working in collaboration with industry. This
has been broadened out to research groups
across a number of other universities.
Priorities for batteries include:
73
Batteries
The production of lithium-ion batteries, currently the most common type used for electric
vehicles (EVs), necessitates the use of lithium. A substantial increase in lithium
production will be required to meet the needs of a growing battery market. However,
based on current rates of production, geological availability is not considered to be an
issue and so supply constraints are unlikely to be long term.137,138
Similarly, studies have indicated that current reserves of rare earth metals are sufficient
so that increased production of electric vehicles will not be affected.139 Despite their
name, ‘rare’ earth metals are often not in fact very scarce; rather, they occur in low and
dispersed concentrations.
The government is aware of social, environmental and supply concerns surrounding the
mining of rare earth metals. We will work with industry and international partners on how
best to address these concerns. Replacement or reduction may help avoid such issues.
This is also a priority for vehicle manufacturers. AC induction motors, for instance, are
constructed without rare earth metals and have been successfully implemented in
electric vehicles by some manufacturers. Another example is the steps BMW are taking
to increase the transparency of its cobalt supply chain, as well as exploring how to
improve the social and ecological impact of mining.140
Source: Nissan
We also expect a recycling market for critical materials to emerge once electric vehicles
become more widespread, further easing issues around supply. Luton-based company
Cawleys has developed a solution to recover lithium content of batteries, offering the UK
a sustainable solution to meet increased demand for electric vehicles.141 New batteries
consisting of different materials have the potential to increase range and enable shorter
charging times. Innovation in materials may also provide a mechanism to reduce levels
of rare earth metals used currently.
74
We will make sustainable supply chains a key theme to the Zero Emission Vehicle
Summit in September 2018 to help drive up standards globally.
Emerging battery types: new batteries consisting of different materials have the
potential to increase range and enable shorter charging times. The Government is keen
to ensure the UK remains a world leader in battery research and development.
Source: Nissan
Solid-state batteries: Solid-state batteries replace liquid electrolyte solution, which

carries the charge in lithium-ion batteries, with solid components. It is envisaged this
technology would enable batteries to be smaller, cheaper, charge faster and last longer.
Manufacturers such as Dyson and Toyota are actively researching this technology and
hope to bring solid-state electric vehicles to market by 2020.142
Lithium-air: The combination of lithium and air can theoretically provide an extremely
high energy density, almost to the same level as petroleum engines. A pivotal
breakthrough was made by the University of Cambridge and Johnson Matthey PLC,
who produced a lithium-air demonstrator with a long shelf-life and high efficiency,
marking an important step towards commercialisation for lithium-air batteries.143
Lithium-sulphur: Lithium-sulphur batteries utilise a lithium anode and a sulphur-carbon

cathode and offer more than five-times the energy density of lithium-ion batteries.
During discharge (when the battery is being used to fuel the vehicle), lithium is lost from
the anode to the sulphur cathode. Oxfordshire-based company, OXIS energy, has
established a lithium-sulphur battery system testing centre in Abingdon.144 The
75
Government has provided funding to OXIS Energy through Innovate UK allowing them
to conduct cutting-edge research aimed at advancing lithium-sulphur battery uptake.
Sodium-ion: A sodium-based battery may not may not match the performance of
lithium‑ion batteries yet, but would have a number of advantages as sodium is more
readily available and cheaper than lithium. It will also be able to fully discharge without
undergoing the same level of strain as lithium-ion batteries. As part of a project
co‑funded with Innovate UK, Faradion and Williams Advanced Engineering, produced
the world’s first sodium-powered vehicle, designed and developed in the UK.145
●● Battery recycling – At present options for Building the UK business supply

battery recycling are limited, and we need chain: domestically and overseas
to establish protocols. The full lifecycle of
vehicle batteries must be considered now In order to continue attracting international
to save costs and limit environmental investments and anchor high value
impacts in the long term. We need to manufacturing to the UK, we must increase
ensure that all parts of the recycling the productivity and competitiveness of the
industry understand both the UK ultra low emission supply chain. There
opportunities and the broader health and are still significant gaps in the UK supply
safety challenges that come with these chain forcing many car manufacturers to
technologies. import components that they would prefer
to buy in the UK.147 Better data is key – we
●● Vehicle-to-grid technologies – We are need to understand our strengths and where
currently supporting innovation in vehicle- we could compete globally.
to-grid technologies, where electric
vehicles are used to supply electricity to The Automotive Sector Deal announced a
the grid at times of high energy demand, commitment for industry to increase the
and expect companies in the UK to be percentage of UK content in the supply
major global leaders. There are chain to 50% by 2022.148 Our ambition is to
opportunities to licence and export this work with industry to set a target that is at
technology around the world. We have least as ambitious for UK content in the ultra
awarded £30 million to fund innovative low emission vehicle supply chain as we
projects for new business models, look to secure battery manufacturing
consumer awareness and technologies investment in the UK.
that support interaction between electric
vehicles and the grid.146
We will also drive a new focus on UK

technological and industrial capability in the
development and manufacture of electric
motors and power electronics. Part 3 sets
out our innovation support for infrastructure.
76
McLaren Automotive carbon fibre innovation and

manufacturing centre
McLaren Automotive, the pioneering British creator of luxury sportscars and supercars,
is investing in developing the UK’s ability to lead and deliver technology and innovation,
which, in turn, will contribute to increasing the capacity of the UK supply chain.
In close collaboration with the University of Sheffield’s Advanced Manufacturing

Research Centre (AMRC), McLaren Automotive is building the McLaren Composites
Technology Centre (MCTC) which will be a centre of excellence in lightweight materials.
It will be responsible for the development and production of the carbon fibre chassis
for future McLaren cars and be fully operational from 2020. The MCTC will deliver
£100 million of GVA benefit to the local economy and increase the British content of
McLaren’s cars to up to 58%.149
Source: McLaren Automotive
To support this: ●● we will support the work of the APC in

collaboration with the British Software
●● we have committed £16m, subject to
Company, Value chain, and Cloud2, to
business case, to an industry-led supplier
develop an Electric Vehicle Supply Chain
competitiveness and productivity
Portal. The Portal will promote effective
improvement programme. This will
collaboration between automotive
support a sustainable and internationally
manufacturers to develop new products,
competitive UK supply chain for future
technologies and manufacturing
volume vehicle production. This
processes.
programme will be match funded by at
least £16m from supply chain companies.
77
Toyota UK manufacturing
Toyota have built more than four million vehicles and around five million engines and
engine sets in the UK since production began in 1992. Altogether, Toyota have
invested more than £2.75 billion in their two UK plants and currently employ more
than 3,000 people.
Toyota’s UK manufacturing plants were the first in Europe to build their full hybrid electric
vehicles and engines, and in total they have produced over 650,000 hybrid electric
engines and over 465,000 hybrid electric vehicles in the UK. Toyota is to produce its
third generation Auris hybrid electric vehicle in the UK at its Burnaston plant.
To support production of the Auris, Toyota have invested £240 million to upgrade the
factory with new equipment, technologies and systems. Defra is replacing more than
400 vehicles from its car fleet with these British-built hybrid vehicles. This changeover
is already under way and will continue throughout 2018.
The new Toyota Auris which will be built in Burnaston

Source: Toyota
●● we will launch a new supply chain ●● work with the ONS to extend their data
competitiveness and productivity collection to focus on jobs and exports
improvement programme targeting areas attributable to both low and ultra low
where key businesses need to improve to emission vehicle technologies.
match the best in Europe. The
programme will provide bespoke training
and streamlined business processes to
help build the integrated supply chain we
need in the UK to manufacture the future
generation of vehicles at volume.
78
Export potential
The focus on the developments of traction motor and power electronics technologies
and capabilities could deliver significant export potential. Through the Advanced
Propulsion centre as of February 2018, we are investing £79 million into circa
£161 million of consortia projects led by businesses including Jaguar Land Rover, Ford,
Mclaren, GKN, hofer powertrain and Ashwoods Electric Motors, to establish supply
chains for the manufacture of electric machines and systems, with the aim of
establishing both high and niche volume production facilities for electric vehicles in
the UK.
Ensuring we have the right skills The industry led Automotive Industrial
Partnership (AIP) has identified strategic
Many of the skills utilised in internal skills priorities for the automotive sector,
combustion engine manufacturing such informing new Apprenticeship Trailblazer
as stamping, machining and casting are standards and new industry wide
required in the manufacture of electric qualifications. However, many of these
motors. Investing in these workers qualifications will not provide the specific
represents a good opportunity to quickly skills required for ultra low emission
deliver some of the skills required for technology. There must be more focus on
manufacturing ultra low emission vehicles. the skills required to establish the UK as a
However, our automotive industry will require world-leader in the manufacture and
new technical skills to meet the specific engineering of ultra low emission vehicles.
challenges of new technologies. Our Employers must embrace the opportunity
Industrial Strategy sets out plans to tackle that new technology will bring and play an
our shortage of Science, Technology, active role in producing the highly skilled
Engineering and Maths (STEM) skills, and workforce required.
the growing need for digital skills, through a We are reviewing whether current
major programme of reform. This will help regulations are sufficient to protect
ensure that our technical education system mechanics working on electric and hybrid
can stand alongside our world-class higher vehicles. We are working with the Institute of
education system, and rival the best in the the Motor Industry (IMI) to ensure the UK’s
world, with new T levels backed by over workforce of mechanics are well trained and
£500 million annually by the time the have the skills they need to repair these
programme is rolled out fully. vehicles safely.
Ultimately, though, a coordinated, industry-
led approach at both national and local
levels is required to provide employees
with the appropriate skills to develop and
manufacture the next generation of vehicles.
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UK Business Environment Supporting new industries

Our flexible labour market, competitive There are a number of new entrants to the
environment, and growing domestic automotive market. Dyson, for instance,
demand for ULEVs – with stable and has recently entered the global market by
supportive policy, fiscal and legal announcing a new electric vehicle by
frameworks – make us a great place to do 2020.151 We want to build on the example
business. However, our Industrial Strategy of Dyson and other companies in
recognises there are areas where we need complementary, adjacent sectors, such as
to improve to make Britain the best place to the aerospace industry, to adapt their
start and grow a business, and a global technology and help the UK drive the
draw for the most innovative companies: transition to ultra low emission vehicles
globally. The increasing domestic demand
●● Green finance – The Government
for ultra low emission vehicles also provides
established a Green Finance Taskforce
potential for new industries in charging
in September 2017 to help deliver the
technologies, for instance.
investment needed meet the
commitments within the UK’s Industrial
Strategy and Clean Growth Strategy.
●● Equity fund for green technology –

The Industrial Strategy announced the
Government will strengthen support for
the commercialisation of new clean
technologies through investments in
patient capital, starting with a new equity
fund of £20 million.150
●● Support UK-based digital design and

manufacturing – The Automotive Sector
Deal sets out opportunities for the UK in
the digital design and testing of new
vehicles.
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Part 3
Infrastructure
Part 3: Infrastructure
We remain technology neutral, but recognise Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles are at
that the vast majority of vehicle manufacturer an earlier stage of market development.
plans include plug-in battery electric This section also covers government’s role
powertrains. This section sets out in supporting development of its hydrogen-
government’s role in the build-up of the refuelling network.
supporting these electric vehicles’ (EV)
We will monitor the market for new ultra low
charging infrastructure for passenger cars
emission technologies and consider whether
and small vans and how we will manage the
there are steps we can take to support the
wider impacts to our power system.
deployment of any associated infrastructure.
Part 3a: Developing one of the best electric vehicle

infrastructure networks in the world
Our vision is to have one of the best EV public chargepoints is important, we
infrastructure networks in the world. This anticipate that the vast majority of drivers
means current and prospective EV drivers will choose to charge at home where this
being able to easily locate and access EV is possible. EVs offer consumers a more
charging infrastructure that is affordable, convenient and cost-effective way to refuel,
efficient and reliable. The development of with domestic charging playing a crucial role
this infrastructure opens up a new market for (some studies indicate this accounts for the
chargepoint infrastructure providers in the vast majority of EV charging).152 We expect
UK and across the world. that as EVs go mainstream, charging at
home overnight, or at workplaces, will
Government funding and leadership,
continue to be the most attractive options.
alongside private sector investment and
local authority engagement has supported Clean electricity will power EVs just as it is
the installation of around 14,000 public now powering our economy. There are
chargepoints all across the UK. As we look already many more distributed and localised
out to 2040, it is clear that: resources on our power system and new
smart technologies are emerging. There is
●● many more public chargepoints will be
huge opportunity for EVs to play a dynamic
needed; and
and complementary role in the move to
●● the consumer experience of public EV smarter and more flexible electricity system
charging needs to be improved. by effectively adding millions of mobile
storage batteries to our network by 2050.
This will be a key part of supporting
progress in meeting our vehicle uptake The move to EVs will increase demand for
ambitions. Whilst a world-class network of electricity. Additional generation capacity will
82
be needed to meet overall and peak for consumers and will ensure EVs are able
demand. Local network infrastructure will in to play their full part in our future smart and
some areas need to be reinforced to flexible energy system. Access to overnight
transmit power to where it is needed. But charging also encourages both plug-in
these changes will occur over a long period hybrids and battery electric vehicles to be
alongside wider changes to our electricity used to their full potential.
system and, with the appropriate electricity
To support and encourage this, we will:
system planning and investment already
underway, our electricity system can readily ●● ensure the houses we are building over
meet the additional demand and benefit the coming years are EV ready. It is our
from the uptake of EVs. intention that all new homes should have
a chargepoint available. We plan to
Enabling EV charging at home consult as soon as possible on
introducing a requirement for chargepoint
Recharging an EV is fundamentally different infrastructure for new dwellings in
to refuelling a petrol or diesel car. A key England where appropriate and will look
attraction of an EV is that they can be at how to achieve this in the most cost
charged wherever they are parked if there is effective way, mindful of the
an electrical outlet. Charging cars at home Government’s Housing supply objectives.
overnight using a dedicated chargepoint is
generally safer, faster and more convenient
83
●● continue the Electric Vehicle Homecharge electric vehicle and are not disadvantaged
Scheme (EVHS) to provide grant support merely on the basis of having communal
for EV drivers installing a dedicated parking facilities or not owning their own
domestic EV chargepoint; home. We will review the provision of
chargepoint infrastructure as part of the
●● maintain the EVHS grant at £500 (capped
Law Commission’s work to review and
at 75% of costs) until March 2019, or until
reinvigorate the commonhold tenure in
30,000 installations in 2018/19 have been
England and Wales.
supported, whichever is sooner;
●● review grant levels on at least an annual Enabling EV charging on

basis, with a view to removing grant residential streets
support as uptake increases and the
market becomes self-sustaining; We want to ensure that everyone can easily
realise the benefits of charging an EV at
●● work with industry to set requirements for home. More than a third of households in
smart chargepoints, so the impact of EV England do not have access to off-street
charging on the electricity system can be parking, and this proportion increases in
managed; and urban areas where air quality concerns are
●● consider how to best ensure all types of most acute.153 Not everyone without off-
residential property owners, including street parking has a vehicle, but there are
leaseholders or legal occupants with indications that around 25% of all cars are
private off-street car parking are able to parked on streets overnight.154 There remain
access a chargepoint for their plug-in barriers for owners living in households
without access to off-street parking.
Trialing new approaches to on-street charging in Oxford

Oxford City Council are testing six different charging technologies at 30 different
locations to find the best options for residents parking on Oxford’s narrow streets.155
Funded through OLEV’s Go Ultra Low City Scheme, they include:
●● domestic chargers using pavement cable channel to enable residents to use their
own electricity for charging without running cables across pavements;
●● fitting three lamppost chargers per vehicle to avoid the need for dedicated
parking bays;
●● discreet, slim-line standing chargepoints which can provide a higher rate of charge
and better manage residents’ concerns over street clutter.
Data on reliability, usage and cost effectiveness of each solution, as well as on user
experience and learning will be analysed by the University of Oxford Transport Studies
Unit to understand how each technology has worked and report on users experiences.
This will inform future decisions on roll-out across Oxford and the UK.
84
The on‑street charging challenge is faced by management and maintenance of their

towns and cities worldwide. assets – to include a section on the
benefits of introducing EV lamppost
To encourage development and deployment
charge points. We will also work with
of on-street infrastructure, we will:
local authorities and the local government
●● make £4.5 million grant funding available Association to raise awareness of the
to 2020 for the On-street Residential updated codes and encourage best
Chargepoint Scheme (ORCS) for local practice;
authorities who remain best placed to
●● fund the Energy Saving Trust to assist
support infrastructure roll-out on
more local authorities, share more
publically owned residential streets;
knowledge and expertise and directly
●● future-proof our streets: we want all new support the development of more EV
street lighting columns to include charging infrastructure delivery plans and
points, where appropriately located, in applications to the on-street scheme;
residential areas without off-street parking
●● launch the process for a R&D programme
provision. To help local authorities deliver
of up to £40 million by summer 2018 to
this, we will update the Well Managed
develop and trial innovative, low cost
Highway Infrastructure Code of Practice
wireless charging and public on-street
and the Network Management of Traffic
charging solutions that can be deployed
Equipment Code of Practice – that
across entire residential streets; and
highway authorities refer to as part of the
85
●● make available a minimum of £6m of through the Workplace Charging Scheme,

funding to support more local areas to a grant scheme to support charging
install dedicated on-street infrastructure infrastructure at workplaces, as well as
to support ultra low emission taxis. publishing supporting guidance for
businesses who are considering installing
Enabling electric vehicle charging chargepoints, through the EST. Hundreds of
companies across the UK have used the
at workplaces
scheme to install EV chargepoints for their
As well as cleaning up their own vehicle employees and fleets.
fleets, employers have an important role in
To support and encourage workplace
enabling their employees and visitors to
charging, we will:
charge up while at workplaces. Workplace
charging can be the sole alternative for ●● increase the levels of the Workplace
drivers without off-street parking at home, Charging Scheme (WCS) to provide up to
and can enable plug-in hybrid and range £500 off the installation costs of charging
extender drivers to ensure they can benefit sockets deployed at workplaces for
from the full zero emission capability of their consumers and fleets. A further £4.2m
vehicles. commitment could see over 8000
Government has made available funding for sockets installed before the end of
private businesses and public bodies March 2019.
86
Leeds leads the way in electric fleets and infrastructure

for their employees
Leeds City council has been at the forefront of switching to an EV fleet for their
employees. The Workplace Charging Scheme has helped them deploy 16 chargepoints
across four of their depots and sites to facilitate their transition towards an EV future.
They currently have 44 EVs in their fleet, with an order for another 51 in progress and
completed a home charge pilot for staff with EV vans.
●● legislate so that no benefit in kind liability System: A Smart Systems & Flexibility Plan,
arises for employees who charge their setting out 29 actions that government and
own electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles at Ofgem are taking, alongside industry, to
work. Although the legislation will not be deliver a smarter, more flexible energy
introduced until Finance Bill 2018-19, the system.158 These actions are focused on:
policy has been in effect since 6 April
●● removing barriers to smart technologies
2018, to provide certainty for employees
including storage
and remove a barrier for employers who
are currently considering the installation of ●● enabling smart homes and businesses;
chargepoints.156 and
●● making energy markets work for flexibility

Smart charging and the role of
EVs in a smart energy system EVs offer new opportunities for consumers
and the power system as part of a smarter
Historically, the GB electricity system has and more flexible system. Smart charging,
been powered by a small number of large during off-peak periods and when demand
fossil fuel power stations, with the power and network congestion is otherwise low,
then being transmitted to people’s homes means consumers can potentially benefit
and business. This is changing. There are from cheaper pricing when charging, avoid
now increasing levels of low carbon and triggering future network reinforcement,
renewable generation, often connected at use their EVs to power their homes or
the local distribution network and behind businesses, or sell back to the grid.
the meter. To enable these changes in
generation and minimise the need for To encourage this, by 2019 all government
conventional network reinforcement, the supported chargepoint installations will have
system is adapting to become more flexible to have smart functionality. The Automated
and smarter in order to better manage the and Electric Vehicles Bill, currently in
new flows in power. It is estimated that there Parliament, will give government the powers
are benefits of up to £40bn to 2050 in the to ensure that all chargepoints sold or
move to a smart power system.157 installed in the UK will have smart
functionality, that is requiring all new
The Government is already acting and in chargepoints to be able to receive, interpret
July 2017 published Upgrading Our Energy and respond to signals from a third party,
87
extending the benefits of smart to all new continuing, with over 7 million units already
chargepoint installations. We will consult rolled out, and every GB household will be
before using these powers to help determine offered a smart meter by the end of 2020.
the best approach to ensuring cyber Smart meters will have a key role to play in
security, interoperability, and data privacy. providing a clear price signal to the end
consumer providing an incentive for them on
This will help balance the electricity system
charging at times of lower demand, when
by allowing EVs to charge at times when
the price is likely to be cheaper.
demand is lower. Smart meters rollout is
Smart Charging
A key feature of a smarter energy system is the ability to minimise peak demand and
network congestion, allowing the use of cheaper, low carbon generation to be
maximised. The current electricity system has been designed to meet a peak in demand
between 17:00 and 20:30. For the rest of the day there can be large amounts of
underused generation and network capacity. Generation during these off-peak periods
is usually cleaner and cheaper. EVs can support the transition to a smarter energy
system by, for example, charging overnight (during the off-peak) reducing the need for
investment in infrastructure, but also provide power back to the grid. This makes it
cheaper for people to charge and integrates EVs into the electricity system in an
affordable way.
Figure 3.1: How EV charging load could be shifted to the off-peak
160
140
120
100
Demand (GW)
80
60
40
20
0
0:00
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
6:30
7:00
7:30
8:00
8:30
9:00
9:30
10:00
10:30
11:00
11:30
12:00
12:30
13:00
13:30
14:00
14:30
15:00
15:30
16:00
16:30
17:00
17:30
18:00
18:30
19:00
19:30
20:00
20:30
21:00
21:30
22:00
22:30
23:00
23:30
Other Demand EV Demand Shifted Demand

Source: BEIS Modelling
88
Vehicle-to-Grid
Vehicle-to-grid technologies support interaction between EVs and the grid. OLEV and
BEIS are funding an Innovate UK competition for collaborative R&D in vehicle‑to-grid
technologies to explore how the UK can become a world leader in these technologies
and open up new opportunities for consumers.
We recently announced the winners of this competition. We look forward to working with
the winners to develop the consumer case for vehicle-to-grid. From feasibility studies to
real-world demonstrators for transport hubs, commercial and personal vehicles, there
were 21 winners, collectively receiving nearly £30 million. As well as trialling around 2700
vehicle-to-grid chargepoints, the projects will demonstrate the power of collaboration.
The consortiums brought together key partners from across the energy, automotive and
other sectors to find solutions that work for everyone. Partners included National Grid,
distribution network operators, leading energy companies, vehicle manufacturers,
universities, local authorities and many others.
A smart home chargepoint

Source: OVO and Nissan
OVO Energy is working with Nissan to deliver what could be the UK’s first large scale
domestic vehicle-to-grid demonstrator. The 2-year project involves 1000 households
using OVO’s grid balancing platform ‘vNet’ to optimise charging/ discharging according
to the status of supply and demand on the national grid.
Successful demonstration will quantify the potential for intelligent software platforms
such as ‘vNet’ to optimise charging of the UK’s EV fleet to unlock valuable flexibility at
times of peak consumption without unnecessary costs on consumers.
89
Keeping energy bills down

Currently businesses seeking new or upgraded connections to the electricity distribution
networks face an upfront charge if there is a need to upgrade the network to
accommodate them. For existing domestic premises installing an EV chargepoint, if the
total demand of the house is less than the house’s fuse cut out, then any additional
network reinforcement costs are borne by consumers more generally. The way that
charges are distributed in the energy system is principally a matter for Ofgem, but
government is keen to see that the needs of EV owners is fairly balanced with those of
electricity bill payers as a whole, and that bills are kept as low as possible.
Ofgem are due to launch a consultation on network access and forward-looking

charging arrangements shortly.
Supporting growth of the UK’s We want to encourage and leverage private

public chargepoint network sector investment to build and operate a
thriving, self-sustaining public network.
A widespread public chargepoint network is We will use our experiences and lessons
important for drivers who do high mileage, learned as an early facilitator in infrastructure
travel long distances and/or have no access to put in place the right framework of
to chargepoints at home or work. support. With the right policy framework for
The UK is home to around 14,000 public investors and consumers, as EV uptake
chargepoints and has one of the largest, increases and utilisation rates improve, we
and most comprehensive rapid networks in expect the market to be able to deliver the
Europe.159 But more will be needed to deliver public infrastructure needed in the long term.
one of the best EV charging networks in the It is essential that viable commercial models
world to meet the demands and realise the are in place to ensure continued
benefits of the increasing numbers of electric maintenance and improvements to the
vehicles. We want to address range anxiety, network.
ensure that battery electric vehicles can be To ensure sufficient coverage, we will
used on longer journeys and that plug-in continue to monitor whether any significant
hybrid vehicles can be used to their full gaps – in uptake or infrastructure provision
potential. – emerge in the medium term. In the future,
we will consider whether there is a case for
direct central government support in areas
where there is a market failure which may
include rural areas.
90
Figure 3.2: There is a wide network of public chargepoints across the UK160
Figure 3.3: The number of public chargepoint connectors and locations in the UK is increasing161
15,000
12,000
9,000
6,000
3,000
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Rapid chargepoints Fast chargepoints Slow chargepoints Total Locations
Source: Zap Map
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Key facts on existing EV chargepoint types

Public chargepoints are primarily one of three main types, based on the power output:
●● Slow: up to 3kW AC – between 6-12 hours to charge a battery electric vehicle

throughout, less for a plug-in hybrid
●● Fast: 7 to 22kW AC power outputs, and typically charge a battery electric vehicle
throughout in 3-4 hours
●● Rapid: Typically, rapid AC chargers are rated at 43kW, while rapid DC are typically
50kW. Will typically charge a BEV to 80% in around 30 minutes.
Superchargers and high-powered charging are becoming increasingly relevant for

battery electric vehicle throughout drivers, though current EVs are limited in the
charging power they can accept.
Technological change ●● to meet long distance en route rapid

charging requirements, and maximise
As technology develops at pace, we must carbon emission reductions, the number
be able to adjust to evolving user needs over of rapid chargers located near the major
time. Our considerations include: how longer roads network needs to expand to 1,170
vehicle range will influence the infrastructure by 2030 (from 460 in 2016). The number
needed and its use, changing driver needed may not need to increase in line
behaviours as we move to mass market, with the rate of EV uptake given longer
and the different infrastructure needs for battery ranges, new charging
plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicle technologies and a greater proportion
drivers, as well as recognition that drivers’ of EVs able to use faster rapid charging
needs may differ by locations. technologies; and
The Committee on Climate Change recently ●● the number of public chargers required to
published analysis on the potential future meet the 2016 level of demand for ‘top-
demands of the UK infrastructure network, up’ charging while parking around towns
under their central scenario, which and local areas is estimated to rise from
anticipates that 60% of new car and van 2,700 in 2016 to over 27,000 by 2030.162
sales will be plug-in hybrid or battery electric
by 2030. Their key findings for the public
network include that:
92
Emerging charging technologies

The predominant method of charging electric vehicles has been through plug-in
(conductive charging) technology. As the number of EVs increases, more dynamic,
convenient and faster charging technologies will enter the market. We welcome the
development of new charging technologies. But it is essential to continue support for the
installation of the existing technologies now to grow the early market. Over the next
decade, we expect to see co-habitation of different charging methods, with different
technologies meeting the different and evolving needs of vehicles and drivers.
High power charging

Higher powered charging (up to 350kW) has been developed in response to increased
sizes of batteries, with cars featuring these bigger batteries expected to be available
from 2018. This could have an important role to play for longer journeys and in densely
populated urban areas. Alongside other potential investors, Ionity, set up by BMW group,
Daimler, Ford and Volkswagen Group with Audi and Porsche, has partnered with
organisations such as Shell and announced plans to bring high power chargepoints to
UK forecourts.163 This will allow for convenient and quick charging when travelling long
distances for compatible vehicles. Supported by government Go Ultra Low funding, City
of York council are building five ‘Hyper Hubs’ which will include 150kw DC chargers and
accommodate up to 200 vehicles charging per day.
Wireless power transfer

The wireless charging of EVs is becoming a commercial reality, with some premium
manufacturers offering static wireless charging products at home this year. The
development of wireless charging is an exciting prospect and one the Government is
planning to support through our new R&D programme. Dynamic wireless charging –
enabling vehicles to be charged whilst on the move – is being actively explored by a
number of companies in the UK. Specially designed wireless transmitters could be
embedded into the road network and be used to power vehicles and top up the battery
as they drive. Upgrading motorways with this technology could allow vehicles to be
driven long distances without affecting battery life and pave the way for commercial
vehicles, buses and taxis to charge in use.
93
Infrastructure in Scotland
Drivers of EVs in Scotland can benefit from a comprehensive network of chargepoints
through ChargePlace Scotland. Initially created as a result of combined UK government
and Scottish government funding through the Plugged in Places project, ChargePlace
Scotland is a network of electric vehicle charge points developed in partnership with all
32 Scottish local authorities, and through the Energy Saving Trust, with local businesses.
There are currently more than 800 publicly available charge points on the network,
including over 175 rapid charge points. With just one access card needed for all journeys
across Scotland, in August 2017, Electric Vehicle drivers using the ChargePlace Scotland
network broke a network record by taking enough charge to travel over 1 million EV
miles, which is the equivalent of travelling around Scotland’s trunk roads 459 times
without releasing any CO2 emissions into the atmosphere.
Destination EV charging ●● Taxation: In November 2016 the

Government announced it would offer
Fast charging at “destination” locations first year allowances (FYA) to businesses
which cars drive to and tend to stay for an installing EV infrastructure, until the end of
hour or more is a convenient way for people March 2019. This allows businesses to
to charge their vehicles. Surveys show that set 100% of the cost of the assets against
the presence of EV charging facilities can be taxable profits in a single tax year,
a key factor for EV drivers looking for a meaning a company will be able to write
parking location.164 There is already a lot of off the cost of the chargepoint against the
activity as destinations such as car parks, business’s taxable profits in the financial
supermarkets and hotels begin to meet year the purchase was made;
growing demand for chargepoints. These
locations can also play an important role in ●● Planning: The Government’s National
meeting the needs of people who do not Planning Policy Framework provides
have off-street parking, by offering overnight direction to ensure local authorities fully
services to meet local residential demand. consider the inclusion of chargepoint
infrastructure in new developments;
As private investment increases, we do not
see a need for direct government grant ●● Permitted Development Rights: We
support in this area, but recognise the commit to consult during the summer on
important role that fiscal levers, policy and a proposal to increase the height limit for
planning can play as an enabler to support the Permitted Development Right in
provision to maximise uptake: England for the installation of electric
vehicle chargepoints in designated
off‑street parking spaces. This will reflect
the advances in technology; and
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Supporting chargepoint installation through building regulations

improvements
In addition to new domestic buildings, we are also planning to support charging facilities
in new non-residential buildings and we will consult on amending Building Regulations to
introduce relevant requirements for new non-residential buildings with appropriate
associated car parking, to future proof them for chargepoint provision.
●● Transport hubs are cornerstones of the Connecting chargepoints to the

UK’s transport system. In particular, train network
station carparks are places where large
numbers of vehicles are left for several Smaller capacity (e.g. home chargers) grid
hours and so hold an opportunity for connections will usually be able to be
more destination chargepoints. We have accommodated within an existing network
committed to providing a greater emphasis connection. Installers can fit chargepoints
on the delivery of chargepoints as part of and then notify the distribution network
the rail franchising process in England to operator. Where larger capacity or multiple
incentivise more ambitious chargepoint chargepoints are being installed, a new
roll-out by Train Operating Companies. connection to the network will be needed or
an existing connection will need to be
expanded.
Source: BEIS
95
Since 2010, 1.4 million new customers were using the network at different times and
linked to the distribution network, including locations and, as a result, support more
around 16GW of new distributed generation efficient use of the network. Ofgem is
(e.g. wind turbines, solar photovoltaic).165,166 working with industry on options and will
The UK’s process of connecting up new consult on their Initial Proposals for Reform
customers to the electricity network has in summer 2018.169
been recognised as one of the best of the
In recent years, industry and the regulator,
world; the 2018 World Bank Ease of Doing
Ofgem, has been working together to
Business Survey ranked the UK in the top
strengthen the regime further with the
10 countries worldwide for obtaining a
introduction of a range of new incentives
connection.167
and customer engagement mechanisms.
In November 2017, Ofgem launched its Building on the learning from a range of
Electricity Network Access project to review innovation trials, industry has begun
how parties get access to the electricity introducing ‘smart’ connection offers where
network, the nature of access arrangements the higher cost of investing in conventional
and what users pay.168 New access infrastructure is avoided by incorporating
arrangements could offer more choice for other technologies such as storage or
how consumers gain access to the system, through actively managed connections.
leading to more efficient use of the network. Government has also legislated to help
More defined flexible access arrangements ensure a fairer sharing of costs, help ensure
could incentivise EV users to allow network independent connection provides can
operators to constrain access to the compete on a level playing-field and
network, subject to certain considerations, streamline the connection quotes service
in return for a reduced connection charge. through revisions to the ‘Second Comer’
Changes to network charges could give regime and the introduction of Assessment
better signals to users about the cost of and Design Fees.170,171
Second life uses of batteries

Electric vehicle batteries have performance guarantees of around 8 years of service or
100,000 miles, depending on manufacturer.
There are various second life opportunities for batteries – including in-home storage.
One second life application being developed is for batteries to act as home energy
storage systems. Nissan are collaborating on a scheme called xStorage with power
management company Eaton. The objective of this partnership is to develop energy
storage solutions for houses, buildings and commercial facilities that have the capacity
to store energy, saving money to the customer and supporting the entire energy system.
Users can contribute to the de-carbonisation of the energy supply by storing, consuming
or feeding renewable energy back to the grid. The systems also support sustainability by
providing a second life for Nissan’s electric vehicle batteries.
96
As part of the forthcoming call for evidence approaches to installation: i) providing grants
on last mile deliveries, we will gather further to local authorities installing chargepoints at
evidence of any potential key network between 15 and 20 locations; and ii) running
connection infrastructure barriers, which a competitive procurement exercise that will
may prevent further uptake of ultra low install chargepoints at the remaining
emission vehicles, specifically for fleet locations required to meet the target.
operators.
It is vital that our motorways and strategic
roads are appropriately equipped for mass
Rapid EV charging – enabling EV uptake. Our road network must meet the
longer journeys needs of drivers for use when they are
undertaking longer journeys, and to ensure
Despite only making up 2% of roads in
drivers do not become stranded. We expect
England, the Strategic Road Network (SRN)
the market will deliver a large proportion of
takes a third of all traffic.172 Highways
this, as EV uptake increases, but if
England (HE) has a key role supporting the
regulatory intervention is deemed necessary,
Government’s air quality and
the Automated and Electric Vehicles Bill,
decarbonisation commitments, working with
currently in Parliament, will play an important
its partners to support a future zero
role in ensuring provision of chargepoints in
emission road network. As part of the first
key locations. This would provide
Road Investment Strategy (2015-2020), HE
government the powers to ensure sufficient,
committed £15 million to ensure that its
accessible and appropriate types of
users are always within 20 miles of a rapid
chargepoints are available in MSAs and at
chargepoint along 95% of the SRN in
large fuel retailers.
England and are delivering a programme
that will install at least 65 chargepoints in By their nature MSA tend to be in rural areas
2018/19 to meet the commitment. As a with a requirement for rapid charging which
result, drivers can be confident that they will means that it can be expensive to provide
have access to rapid charging capability on the additional electrical capacity required to
long journeys undertaken on the SRN. meet future demand. To continue the work
of future proofing the Strategic Road
HE intend to fund the installation of rapid
Network, we will run a pilot working closely
chargepoints that are no more than 2.5
with Highways England to increase electrical
miles or 5 minutes’ drive from the SRN and
capacity at a MSA in the RIS 1 period.
are undertaking two parallel procurement
Highways England – progress to date

Highways England (HE) have completed a gap analysis to identify locations required to
fulfil their target. Under the grants process, HE have already issued grants to two local
authorities, Mid Suffolk and Shropshire (A49) with a further four applications received:
South Somerset (A303); Ryedale District Council (A64 York – Scarborough);
Herefordshire (A49); Chichester (A27). Chargepoints will be installed this year.
97
Market delivery in action

There have been hundreds of millions of pounds of investment into the UK charging
infrastructure sector in the last year alone.
Some examples include the recent high profile acquisitions of charging networks by
Shell and BP, with commitments made to further deployment of public infrastructure as
a result. A partnership agreement between ChargePoint Services and Motor Fuel group
(MFG) is seeing an extensive roll-out of forecourt electric vehicle rapid charging across
the UK. This partnership will host the 50kW plus rapid chargers at their sites nationwide
which operate under the BP, Shell, Texaco, JET and Murco fuel brands.
The pilot will determine what combination of Charging Infrastructure

increased network connection, technologies Investment Fund: Public Private
and storage could be pursued for the
increased number of rapid chargepoints,
Financing to support roll-out
including the higher-powered rapid Considerable private sector investment will
chargepoints that will be needed to meet be required over the coming years to
demand in the future. achieve the build-out of UK EV charging
infrastructure. To catalyse the private
Rapid charging in urban areas investment required, we have announced a
new £400 million EV Charging Infrastructure
Rapid hubs or chargepoint “filling stations” in Investment Fund (CIIF). Government will set
key strategic, community, or urban locations, up the CIIF that will be managed and
also have an important role to play in the invested in on a commercial basis by a
future. In particular, for commercial fleets private sector fund manager, and plans to
and individuals without off-street parking, invest £200 million into the fund, to be
they could enable a more “internal matched by private investors. This model –
combustion engine-like refuelling of government setting up a fund for private
experience” and greater confidence to investment and acting as a cornerstone
users that there is potential for multiple investor – has also been successfully
chargepoints to be available for use. adopted to support the roll out of full fibre
The Go Ultra Low Cities scheme will result broadband through the Digital Infrastructure
in the provision of hundreds of additional Investment Fund.
chargepoints in participating cities including This investment in charging infrastructure
17 rapid charging hubs sited at high-profile reflects government’s confidence in the
locations in city centres and outer ring growth potential of the sector. It will
roads. Some hubs will host up to 20 rapid accelerate the roll-out of charging
chargers coupled with solar canopies and infrastructure by providing access to finance
energy storage facilities. We will support to companies that deliver chargepoints and
sharing the lessons learned from these encouraging growth of a more diverse range
initiatives across the UK.
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of actors supporting the private market – considered, including the physical

growing competition and delivering the best chargepoints, the software required to run
outcome for the consumer. them and to make them smart,
communicative and interoperable,
The work to establish the CIIF is being led by
connections to the national and local
the Infrastructure and Projects Authority
electricity distribution networks and related
(IPA), part of HM Treasury and Cabinet
grid reinforcement, costs associated with
Office, who have engaged with a wide range
site leasing and development, as well as
of investors, representatives from the
battery storage solutions that may be related
chargepoint and related industries, and
to the chargepoints. Equally, existing or
other stakeholders on how to focus,
novel business models may be considered.
structure and run the fund. This work will
inform a tender process in the form of a Initial market feedback suggests
Request For Proposal (RFP) to appoint a opportunities for commercial investment are
fund manager, who will make independent, likely to require scale/high utilisation or some
commercial decisions on how to invest, form of underwritten revenues. Opportunities
within parameters set by Government. appear greatest in the rapid charger and
Government will be a Limited Partner in the destination charging market. Potential
fund and the fund manager will be tasked solutions could include petrol station or
with raising at least another £200 million of hub-type sites in busy urban and suburban
commitments from the private sector to locations, charging “depots” coupled with
match the Government’s investment. some form of “minimum usage guarantee”
from vehicle fleets, or, in the destination
To date, the IPA have carried out detailed
market, contractual arrangements where
market engagement to work out the best
there are, for example, underwritten
way and timetable for establishing and
secondary revenue streams.
structuring the fund. This has included over
75 stakeholder meetings with the industry
and finance community. The market Local levers for incentivising EV
engagement process is important to ensure charging infrastructure provision
the fund is set up correctly. The IPA will
We recognise that cities, regions and
launch the RFP to procure the private sector
counties have a key role in facilitating the
fund manager in the summer. Once a
growth of EV charging networks. Legislation
preferred fund manager is nominated and
in the Automated Electric Vehicles Bill would
the legal documents agreed, the fund will be
give them a lever to help them deliver this
formally launched and start investing.
locally. The Bill will enable elected mayors
At this stage the investment parameters that (the Mayor of London and Mayors of
IPA has in mind are wide, including equity, Combined Authorities) to designate locations
mezzanine and possibly senior debt – at large fuel retailers – to identify and
investments. Investments may be corporate require the installation of charging
in nature or directly into project-focused infrastructure within their areas by the
Special Purpose Vehicles. All elements of Secretary of State for Transport, taking into
charging infrastructure are currently
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consideration their local knowledge. Mayors installation of infrastructure when roadworks

will be required to consult on these plans. are taking place, working with utility
companies and chargepoint operators.
Local authorities have an intimate knowledge
Encouraging this will in the long run make the
of local needs and responsibility for local
installation of chargepoints on streets easier
planning policies. Planning policy is an
and reduce the disruption to road users.
important tool in leveraging residential and
non-residential chargepoint infrastructure. We recognise that local authorities may
Local planning policies in England are need support in getting the right solutions
guided by the National Planning Policy for their local area. We are therefore
Framework which plays an important role in committing to produce guidance for local
future proofing new developments. Whilst authorities to inform them about EV
government is considering its response to infrastructure and encourage best practice
the consultation on revising National on levers that they have at their disposal to
Planning Policy Framework the draft incentivise infrastructure, including planning,
revisions make clear that that developments parking and streetworks.
should be designed to enable charging of
plug-in vehicles, and encourages residential The consumer experience of EV
and non-residential developments to ensure
charging infrastructure
adequate provision of spaces for charging
plug-in vehicles through setting local parking At the centre of our vision for infrastructure is
standards. Building on this framework, we the consumer experience of charging.
will create accompanying guidance on Charging must be straightforward and
infrastructure provision, so that local hassle free. The public charging network
planning authorities can best ensure the must therefore reliable, widespread,
delivery of charging networks. accessible, convenient and affordable.
Local authorities also have an important role The Alternative Fuels Infrastructure
in future proofing roads for on-street Regulations 2017 will improve the experience
charging when streetworks are underway. of using chargepoints. They ensure that
Government is committing to provide users have ad-hoc access to every publicly
guidance to local Highway Authorities in available chargepoint, allowing recharging
England on how they can consider the without a pre-existing contract; compel
infrastructure operators to make the
The London Plan

The National Planning Policy Framework has encouraged some local authorities to take
an ambitious approach to their local planning policies. For example, in ‘The London
Plan’, the Greater London Authority mandate that “developments in all parts of London
must: ensure that 1 in 5 spaces (both active and passive) provide an electrical charging
point to encourage the uptake of electric vehicles”. This is currently under public
consultation.
100
geographic location of their chargepoints become a barrier to the greater take up of

publicly available; and mandate minimum electric vehicles, and we will continue to
technical specifications for chargepoint monitor market developments closely and
connectors, ensuring greater interoperability. work with industry to ensure pricing for EV
charging is proportionate at this early stage
The Automated and Electric Vehicles Bill will
in the market, and meets the needs of
provide powers to greatly improve the
drivers.
charging experience for current and future
EV drivers by ensuring improved Additionally, following consultation, we have
accessibility and interoperability for users of proposed to use existing legislation to
the chargepoints. The Bill will enable standardise pricing information for electric
government to mandate a common vehicle recharging and refuelling under
minimum method of accessing public existing regulatory powers. This could make
charge points, enabling interoperability public charging easier for electric vehicle
between different types of EVs and charge drivers and encourage a more competitive
points. It will also enable government to set market.
reliability and maintenance standards to
Chargepoints are new entrants to the
ensure chargepoints are accessible.
streetscape and we want these to be
In addition, EV drivers need to know where aesthetically pleasing. We will therefore be
chargepoints are located, whether they are launching a chargepoint design competition.
available for use and whether they are in
working order. The powers in the Bill will Delivering EVs and upgrading our
enable us to ensure this data is made freely
energy infrastructure
available in an open source format, building
on the Government’s National Chargepoint The electricity market is already set up to
Registry. In addition, these powers could bring forward investment in generation
require chargepoint operators to make capacity to meet demand. The Contracts for
reliability information available, which could Difference scheme supports investment in
be used to improve the consumer low carbon generation and importantly, the
experience. Capacity Market, which is specifically
designed to ensure there is generation
We believe that pricing models are ultimately
capacity to meet peak demand.173,174
commercial matters for chargepoint network
Capacity Market auctions procure the
operators or host sites and appreciate that
capacity that is needed four years ahead,
charging to access chargepoints is
and one year ahead, meaning the regime is
important for the creation of a commercially
designed to bring forward generation in a
sustainable network in the longer term.
timely way even if EV take-up is faster than
Neither the Alternative Fuels Regulations nor
anticipated.
the Automated and Electric Vehicle Bill will
prevent operators from continuing to offer We will bring together government and the
attractive membership deals. However we energy and automotive industries in an EV
are clear that we do not want to see Energy Taskforce. It will focus on smart
prohibitive pricing of public chargepoints charging and how to plan for future EV
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uptake and ensure the energy system can In line with the joint Ofgem and BEIS Smart
meet future demand in an efficient and Systems and Flexibility Plan, Distribution
sustainable way. It will launch in the summer Network Operators are transitioning to a
and report back to government with distribution system operator role. The
proposals for government and industry over transition is being coordinated by the Energy
the following year. Networks Association through the Open
Networks Project.176 This involves actively
In terms of transporting the power, Ofgem’s
managing networks to enable more
RIIO price control process helps ensure
competition for network services, including
timely investment in network infrastructure.175
considering smart solutions (potentially using
National Grid, as the System Operator, and
flexibility services provided by EVs) rather
the network companies are responsible for
than solely network build.
forecasting and monitoring new demand on
the network, in order to shape their As EVs are rolled out, they may be taken up
investment plans for reinforcing the local in some areas more quickly than others, an
network, deploying smart grid technologies effect known as ‘clustering’. Smart solutions
or procuring smart, flexible services from will help and industry is consulting on the
third parties. This ensures the network best way to manage any effects from
infrastructure can transport the power to clustering.177 The government looks forward
where it is needed. to understanding stakeholder views and the
best way of managing this issue in the best
interest of consumers.
Electric Nation – smart charging to support mass roll-out of

electric vehicles
Electric Nation has recruited 700 electric vehicle (EV) drivers, across 40 different EV
makes and models, to test the latest smart charging technology and is developing their
understanding of customer acceptance of domestic managed charging. Electric Nation
is a Western Power Distribution (WPD) and Network Innovation Allowance funded
project. WPD’s collaboration partners in the project are EA Technology, DriveElectric,
Lucy Electric, GridKey and TRL.
Early findings show that charging behaviour does create flexibility for smart charging at
the key time of day for distribution networks, which has the potential to delay or reduce
the need for costly and disruptive reinforcement work. The trial is due to complete in
December 2018.
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Part 3b: Hydrogen

The development and deployment of to directly support public and private sector
hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) is fleets to become early adopters of FCEVs.
at an earlier stage than for plug-in hybrid or There are limited volumes and models of
battery electric vehicles. Our approach in FCEV’s currently being produced globally.
considering the appropriate government Despite this, the UK has been successful in
support to the development of hydrogen as a securing allocations of these first and
transport fuel in the UK has been based on second generation models, facing strong
moving in step with international progress on competition from other lead markets. Major
standards and technology, ensuring that the vehicle manufacturers are publicising their
UK retains its position in the forefront of the plans to increase production and bring new
adoption of zero emission vehicle models to market over the next few years.
technologies whilst retaining flexibility and
The funding will deliver a fourfold increase in
managing risk in order to secure the
the number of FCEVs on UK roads firmly
opportunities at this early stage of the market.
placing the UK at the forefront of early
A lack of refuelling infrastructure remains a adoption, alongside California, Japan, and
key barrier to the future roll out of FCEVs. Germany. This is important because fuel cell
Since 2014, government has sought to help technology could offer a longer-term solution
address this market barrier by providing in the freight and bus sectors. In the long
£4.8m and a co-ordinating function turning term, hydrogen may be more suited for use
the refuelling facilities from various in HGVs and by fleets where range and fast
demonstrator projects into an initial network fuelling are key concerns.
of 15 hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) –
The UK is well placed to be a global leader
these are operational and publically
in hydrogen and fuel cell powered
accessible.178
transportation. We have high quality and
The early nature of the market means vehicle growing engineering and manufacturing
costs are still high. £2m has been provided capability in relevant supply chains.
Hydrogen for Transport Programme

In March 2017, the Government announced £23m of additional funding to increase the
uptake of FCEVs and grow the number of HRS. The Hydrogen for Transport Programme
(HTP) is providing support out until 2020. The funding competition for the first phase of
the programme offered £9m capital budget to provide match funding for eligible
projects. The successful bidders were announced on 26 March 2018. The project is
being delivered by a consortium which includes Shell, ITM Power, Toyota, Hyundai and
Honda as well as fleets users such as the Metropolitan Police and Green Tomato taxis.
It will see four new HRS being built, upgrades to five existing stations and the
deployment of 193 FCEVs.
103
Our approach has been to align deployment Globally, a number of countries are taking
of FCEVs with the appropriate infrastructure steps to reap the benefits of integrating
investments to ensure significant levels of hydrogen vehicles into the wider energy
station utilisation. ‘Healthy’ station utilisation system. Japan, for example, is seeking to
should create levels of revenue for refuelling build a ‘hydrogen society’, with hydrogen
station operators that will encourage further delivering energy across the economy, as
private sector investment in expanding the well as in transportation.
network and support the case for investing
There is more to do to understand how far
in regular maintenance. Maintenance is
the UK hydrogen economy could expand,
important as it ensures high levels of
decarbonise and apply to other sectors.
availability, which in turn creates a positive
Government is supporting a range of
consumer experience. Our ambition is that
innovation activity looking at the potential
with these strategic interventions the market
role of hydrogen in heat and industry as well
for hydrogen refuelling and vehicles moves
as transport.
to a genuinely sustainable footing as quickly
as possible with growing industry
involvement and investment.
An increasing number of studies and reports

are presenting a range of visions for both
global and UK hydrogen economies.
Source: ITM Power
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Part 4
Leadership at all levels
Part 4: Leadership at all levels

The UK’s devolved administrations in Each of the devolved administrations already
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland has its own programme of measures in place.
possess, through their devolved powers,
The ambitions we have set out in this
levers not available to central government to
strategy are for the whole UK, and it is vital
encourage motorists to make the switch to
that no area is left behind. Central
ultra low emission vehicles. This includes
government will continue to work closely
local incentives and/or regulations, and
with the devolved administrations to reduce
leading by example by making bold changes
emissions from road transport. The grants
to public sector fleets, buses and taxis.
for plug-in cars, taxis, vans and motorcycles
We recognise and welcome the progress are available UK-wide, as well as the grants
made in Scotland, Wales and Northern for domestic, workplace and on-street
Ireland have already made to reduce chargepoints.
emissions from road transport, and promote
the uptake of ultra low emission vehicles.
Support for ultra low emission vehicles in the devolved

administrations
Scotland
●● The Scottish government has said it will phase out the need for petrol and diesel
vehicles by 2032.179
●● In June 2017, Transport Scotland published ‘Switched on Scotland Phase Two: An

Action Plan For Growth’. This document establishes a 10-point plan to define the
actions that Transport Scotland and its partners will take between 2017 and 2020 to
accelerate the uptake of electric vehicles and overcome barriers to adoption.180
●● Scotland has announced that it will accelerate the procurement of ultra low emission
vehicles in the public and private sector car and van fleets by the mid-2020s and into
the commercial bus fleet by the early 2030s.
●● The plan includes an expansion of electric charging infrastructure, including charging

hubs. The Scottish government has announced a plan to create an ‘electric highway’
on the A9, including charging points along the route.
●● Through the Energy Saving Trust Scotland, Transport Scotland funds an interest-free
loan for electric vehicles of up to £35,000 to cover the cost of purchasing a new ultra
low emission vehicle, or up to £10,000 to cover the cost of a new electric motorcycle
or scooter.181
106
Wales
●● The Welsh government wants Wales to have a leading role in the development of the
ultra low emission vehicle industry and has set out its aims in the Wales Economic Action
Plan.182 The Wales Transport Strategy, in development, will set out how the transport
sector can be decarbonised and maximise its contribution towards these aims.
●● Welsh government has the ambition for the public sector in Wales to be carbon
neutral by 2030, and expects ultra low emission vehicles to have a key role in
achieving this.183 EV charging points have been installed at Welsh government offices,
and are being planned for the wider Welsh government estate, education
establishments and hospitals.
●● An Automotive Technology Park will be developed at Blaenau Gwent with a wider

remit for the Valleys area to become a leading location for the development of
emerging technologies by 2027.184 Projects will include research into battery and
powertrain technology, 5G testing, and the infrastructure needed for automated and
ultra low emission vehicles. A Welsh National Battery Development Centre is also
planned, based around the University of South Wales’ industry-renowned Centre for
Automotive Power Systems Engineering (CAPSE).185
●● The Welsh government will be investing £2m in electric vehicle charging points over
the next two years to improve publicly accessible provision throughout Wales.186
●● A Clean Air Zone framework is being developed for Wales which will encourage the
uptake of ultra low emission vehicles.187
Northern Ireland
●● The Northern Ireland Department for Infrastructure led a consortium which installed a
network of over 336 fast and rapid chargepoints at 176 locations in Northern
Ireland.188 These chargepoints are fully interoperable with the network in the Republic
of Ireland providing a cross-border, all-island solution for users. These are owned and
operated commercially by the Electricity Supply Board.189
●● The Department for Infrastructure’s Ecar team provides support to consumers and
the private and public sectors to promote ultra low emission vehicle growth.190 They
have facilitated the installation of a further 54 chargepoints in the Public Sector Estate.
Local areas emission vehicles to date.191 We welcome this

leadership. It is these numerous, diverse
Local areas can play a key role in centres of innovation that will underpin the
encouraging the transition to zero emission transition to zero emission vehicles. We want
vehicles. For instance, London alone has all areas of the UK to consider the role they
accounted for 1% of global sales of ultra low can play in tackling local air quality problems.
107
In July 2017, we required 29 local areas to £24.5 million from the Implementation Fund
bring forward plans for Clean Air Zones, to was made available to local authorities in
reduce levels of roadside NO2 as soon as March 2018 to support a range of measures
possible.192 We encourage those local to take immediate action locally. This included
authorities developing plans to deliver support for installing electric charge point
compliance with legal NO2 limits to consider hubs in car parks, bus priority measures,
how their plans can support and enable the building cycle routes, and incentivising ultra
transition to zero emission vehicles in the low emission taxis through licensing schemes
long term. Local authorities identified in the and leasing electric vehicles.195
NO2 Plan to take action are able to submit
We will continue to work across the UK to
proposals to support such measures from
champion best practice and ensure that the
the £255 million Implementation Fund and
benefits of the transition to zero emission
the £220 million Clean Air Fund, provided
vehicles are felt across the country.
these deliver the objectives of these funds
and can demonstrate they are in addition
and complementary to existing government
funding to support the associated
infrastructure and uptake.193,194
Clean Air Zones

A Clean Air Zone (CAZ) defines a geographical area where targeted action is taken to
improve air quality, shaping the urban environment in a way that delivers improved health
benefits and supports economic growth.
CAZs aim to address all sources of air pollution, including NOX and PM, and reduce
public exposure to them using a range of specially tailored local measures. These
measures can include charges for vehicles which do not meet defined minimum
emission standards (‘Euro VI/6’ for diesel and ‘Euro IV/4’ for petrol).
The Government is currently working with 62 cities and local authorities where air
pollution is above legal limits to develop local Air Quality Plans, which should consider a
wide range of innovative options to improve air quality. Where these measures are not
sufficient, a local authority may choose to implement a CAZ – although this is unlikely to
be appropriate in all cases.
To help people understand what this means for them, the Government has taken steps
to improve the information available to consumers and businesses.
Since April 2018, point of sale data for new cars has included the Euro standard (all new
cars are Euro 6), a brief explanation of when the Vehicle Excise Duty supplement for
diesel cars applies and confirmation that Euro 6 cars meet current minimum standards
for CAZs. As some used cars will not meet the standard for CAZs, the used car label,
voluntarily adopted by most dealers, will be amended in 2018.
108
This section sets out some of the levers Post-purchase incentives for ultra
available to devolved administrations and low emission vehicles
local authorities across the UK to drive
progress and the steps we are taking to A number of studies indicate that post-
support them to do so. Support for local purchase indirect incentives are effective at
authorities considering the provision of driving people to make the switch to ultra
infrastructure is outlined in Part 3 above. low emission vehicles, with higher numbers
of supportive policies correlated with higher
Electric Vehicle Experience Centre: Milton Keynes

To encourage the uptake of EVs, Milton Keynes Council has provided an innovative
approach through its launch of the Electric Vehicle Experience Centre in July 2017.
Supported by OLEV’s Go Ultra Low City Scheme, this is the UK’s first brand-neutral
Centre for EVs. Its aim is to attract would-be owners of EVs and provide them with
sufficient information, experience and support to inform their decision to purchase or lease.
The Centre gives people the opportunity to talk to highly trained EV experts (‘EV Gurus’),
and is open 7 days a week. The Gurus talk through the benefits of electric vehicle
ownership, the available vehicle choices on the market, how to charge an EV, the
savings in running costs and then offer a brief test drive from one of the ten car brands
in the EV Experience Fleet, which are parked a few steps away from the Centre. It also
has a loan fleet of over 50 vehicles enabling a short-term or longer-term “try before you
buy” experience.
Milton Keynes Council has been collecting data to establish the number of short-term
and long-term test drives, number of leads generated and total footfall. In its first 6
months it had a total footfall of over 7,000 people per month, with almost 1,860 sales
leads generated. It is clear that it is already having an impact in improving understanding
of electric vehicles.
Source: EV Experience Centre
109
uptake.196 Globally, the cities with the highest ●● Disseminate best practice and learning
uptake of EVs each employ various direct points from the eight GUL cities to enable
and indirect incentives to encourage sales.197 other authorities to promote ultra low
emission vehicles and support the
In 2016, we funded eight exemplar cities to
installation of chargepoint infrastructure.
accelerate the roll-out of ultra low emission
We will run a series of regional events
vehicles through a £40 million Go Ultra Low
across the UK during 2018.
Cities scheme.198
●● Launch a new service on the Go Ultra
In addition to providing valuable learning Low website that captures in one place all
points and examples of best practice for all the local incentives that exist across the
local authorities, the GUL City Scheme will UK to help promote them to motorists.
deliver around 1600 new chargepoints
In order to promote ultra low emission
including up to 1000 on-street chargepoints.
vehicles, local areas may need to define
These projects also support the uptake of which vehicles are ultra low or zero
ultra low emission vehicles in adjacent rural emission. There is a case for a national
areas. For example, infrastructure planned standard to give clarity and consistency to
under the Bristol and West of England consumers and businesses. But local areas
project includes installations in surrounding will also need flexibility to reflect local
district council areas. Dundee and York are circumstances. We will aim to set out
installing chargepoint hubs to link up wider guideline definitions in early 2019 which local
local areas, enabling commuters and others areas may wish to adopt in setting their own
to benefit. definitions.
Other local measures include:

Taxis
●● Free or subsidised parking for ultra low
emission vehicles – as in Milton Keynes The move to zero emission taxis will deliver
and Dundee; significant local benefits because taxis are
typically used more intensively than private
●● Support for local businesses transitioning cars and often in urban centres where
their fleets to ultra low emission vehicles congestion and poor air quality are issues.199
– as in Nottingham and Bristol; and There are around 250,000 taxis operating
●● Incentives through preferable access to across the UK: 75,000 hackney carriages
low emission and clean air zones (London and 175,000 private hire vehicles. The
provides free access for ultra low transition of this fleet to ultra low emission
emission vehicles to its Congestion vehicles is a priority to help prevent the most
Charge Zone). polluting vehicles from entering areas with air
quality issues.
These are already proving to be successful.
To continue to support local authorities to There is now a new market in purpose built
introduce post-purchase incentives for ultra zero emission black cabs. The Coventry
low emission vehicles, we will: based London Electric Vehicle Company’s
new zero emission taxi is on the road in a
110
A zero emission black cab

Source: LEVC
number of cities around the country and we To support this funding, these authorities are
expect ADV Dynamo to launch its new taxi using their taxi licensing regime and other
in the near future. We have supported this local levers to drive the uptake of these new
early market through a new plug-in taxi grant taxis. For example, London introduced new
of up to £7,500 to help reduce the upfront requirements so that from January 2018 all
price premium for a purpose built taxi.200 newly licensed taxis must be capable of zero
The plug-in car grant supports other ultra emission journeys.
low emission vehicles that are used as taxis.
The combination of national and local
To support this new taxi market it is measures means we expect taxi fleets will
important that suitable chargepoint be capable of zero emission journeys faster
infrastructure is in place. We are therefore than the wider private fleet. We recognise
providing ten local authorities across the that there may need to be interim steps for
country with £14m up to 2020 (which also some operators, particularly where air quality
will enable match funding) to install is an immediate issue. For example, in the
chargepoint infrastructure. Several of these short term this may mean choosing a Euro
ten local authorities service wider rural VI petrol vehicle or considering alternatives
areas.201 such as converting existing vehicles to run
on LPG.
111
There is still much more to do across the Overall, buses emit less air pollution than the
country to complete the taxi fleet’s transition equivalent number of car journeys they
to zero emission vehicles. That’s why: replace. However, on urban routes – where
the majority of buses operate – the slower
●● we have established a £50 million plug-in
speeds, stop-start conditions and presence
taxi grant, providing up to £7,500 off the
of multiple bus routes mean that older diesel
price of a purpose-built taxi.
buses can be responsible for significant
●● we have established and will continue to local emissions. We are therefore taking
support a best practice network for the urgent action to clean up the bus fleet.
10 local authorities where we have
As things stand the majority of buses on the
invested £14 million for taxi chargepoint
road in the UK use diesel engines – but
infrastructure.
ultimately, as for all vehicle types, we want a
●● we will provide a minimum of £6m further transition to zero emission vehicles. The bus
funding to help more local areas install industry has seen a significant increase in
infrastructure. the number and range of market-ready zero
emission technologies in recent years, as
●● we are working to revise best practice
well as widespread action to retrofit
guidance to local taxi and private hire
emission-reduction technology to the
vehicle licensing authorities in England.
existing bus fleet.
As part of this work we are exploring
whether to mandate that all taxi fleets in Zero emission buses have significantly lower
urban areas should be capable of zero greenhouse gas and air quality pollutant
emission journeys by 2032. emissions compared to those powered by
other liquid or gaseous fuels. Battery electric
●● the Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership is
buses provide greenhouse gas savings of
developing guidance on ultra low
around 80%, whilst hybrid electric buses
emission taxis for local authorities to
provide greenhouse gas savings of about
be published in early summer 2018.
40%, compared to a standard diesel bus.203
Electric operation can be particularly
Buses beneficial in low speed, stop-start conditions
Buses are a vital part of the public transport where traditional combustion engines
system and critical to the government’s powered by diesel or gas are least efficient.
objectives to encourage modal shift to more There are already more than 2,500 low
sustainable modes of travel. One full double emission buses on UK roads, out of the
decker bus can take up to 75 cars off the 40,300 across Great Britain. However, we
road.202 That means that buses take millions want to see these more across the country
of car journeys off UK roads every year, as soon as possible, especially in the areas
reducing greenhouse gases and congestion. with the most pressing air quality issues.
Buses also play an important role in We have already invested £130 million to
providing more accessible transport for support the purchase of over 1,700 low
those who cannot drive. emission buses and supporting
112
Liverpool City Buses

With nearly £5 million support from the Low Emission Bus Scheme in late 2017, Liverpool
City Region in partnership with Arriva Merseyside delivered 72 low emission buses,
including 12 single decker electric buses on routes from the city centre to Everton Valley,
Anfield and Kensington. The buses can operate for 130 miles on a single charge. The
Liverpool City Region Alliance has launched the ‘Better by Bus’ campaign communicating
the advantages of travelling by bus and the experience passengers can expect on the new
fleets. Passengers can enjoy exclusive ticket offers, smarter mobile ticketing apps and
on-board technology solutions such as free Wi-Fi and USB charging points.
Source: Arriva Bus
infrastructure through the Green Bus Fund To provide further support for the transition
and the Low Emission Bus Scheme. to zero emission buses, we have launched
a new ultra low emission buses scheme.
Since 2013, we have also awarded £67m to
£48m will be provided to accelerate the
retrofit 5,700 buses through the Clean Bus
uptake of ultra low emission buses and
Technology Fund with technology to reduce
related infrastructure in England and
tailpipe NO2 emissions, as set out in Part 2a.
Wales.205
There will be a further opportunity for local
authorities developing local air quality plans The Bus Services Act 2017 includes a range
to bid for funding for bus retrofit through the of measures to improve bus services
Clean Air Fund. All of this is supported by through franchising and better partnership
the Clean Vehicle Retrofit Accreditation working. Local authorities and bus operators
Scheme.204 will be encouraged to agree a package of
improvements to introduce bus priority
113
measures to reduce idling and journey times,

or to introduce ultra low emission options
along key routes.
Leading by example: public

sector procurement and fleets
25% of the central government fleet will be
ultra low emission by 2022 and we want
100% of the central government car fleet to
be ultra low emission by 2030. We want to
see similar ambition from local government
and other public sector fleets. We will
provide fleet transition advice through the
local roadshows we are planning to run
across the country.
114
Annex A
Summary of the
environmental
performance of fuels
and powertrains
Annex A: Transport Energy Model –

summary of the environmental
performance of fuel and powertrains
This Annex appraises the relative Uncertainty over real-world environmental
environmental performance (in terms of air performance is having an impact on
pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions) of individual purchasing decisions and industry
different fuel and powertrain options investment. Consumer groups and
available to consumers based on the stakeholders from across the automotive,
outputs of the Transport Energy Model. fuels and environmental sectors have called
The diesel emissions scandal and the for a transparent assessment of the
ongoing gap between laboratory and real environmental impact of different road
world emissions performance of new cars vehicle fuels and technologies, and for clear
has undermined public confidence and has signalling from government to help focus
made it difficult for consumers to determine investment and purchasing decisions.
the environmental impact of their vehicle
To respond to these calls, the Department
choices. Vehicle manufacturers must do
for Transport has developed the Transport
better to deliver the environmental
Energy Model (the TEM; see figure A1).
performance the UK public expect.
The model allows us to estimate the tailpipe
Figure A1: Transport Energy Model methodology
Inputs Processing Outputs
Vehicle energy
consumption
(MJ/km) Energy
production/use
Energy GHG factors
production/use (gCO2e/MJ)
GHG factors
(gCO2e/MJ)
Total driving
Non-combustion GHG calculations GHG emissions
GHG emission (gCO2e/km) (gCO2e/MJ)
(gCO2e/km)
‘Tailpipe’ ‘tailpipe’
NOx/PM NOx/PM
emissions emissions
factors (g/km) (g/km)
Key: MJ = mega joules, GHG = greenhouse gas, gCO2e = grams of CO2 equivalent, NOx = nitrous oxide, PM = particulate matter
116
Annex A: Transport Energy Model – summary of the environmental performance of fuel and powertrains
emissions of air pollutants, the greenhouse Real world emissions of NOX from diesel
gas emissions and the energy consumption cars and vans that do not meet the new
of a range of fuel and powertrain options for Real Driving Emissions (RDE) standards are
cars, vans, buses and heavy goods vehicles typically much higher than petrol
(HGVs) over the period to 2050. equivalents. Particulate matter emissions
have reduced substantially with the use of
The Government has worked extensively
diesel particulate filters, and NOX emissions
with vehicle, fuel and other stakeholders to
from these vehicles are expected to
develop the model and it has been subject
decrease considerably with the introduction
to an external quality assurance review.
of more stringent real-world emissions
The detailed methodology and outputs of
testing in coming years. However, current
the Transport Energy Model are set out in
best estimates suggest that future NOX
the Transport Energy Model Report,
emissions from diesel cars and vans will
published alongside this strategy.
remain higher on average than petrol
The outputs of our modelling have been equivalents.
used to consider the current and likely future
For heavier vehicles, particularly HGVs,
environmental impact of the range of energy
the fuel efficiency and high torque (pulling
sources and technologies that are currently
power) of diesel engines make diesel a
used in road transport.
popular and practical option, especially for
Figures A2–A7 (see pages 118–123) illustrate those doing high mileage. In addition, real
the greenhouse gas emissions and tailpipe world NOX emissions from heavy diesel
emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOX) from a vehicles (buses and HGVs) have reduced
medium car, a panel van, a bus and an HGV significantly as a result of tougher regulatory
running on a range of energy sources. For standards from Europe – by an estimated
fossil fuels the greenhouse gas impact 97% for a 44 tonne HGV (long haul duty
includes current average biofuel blend levels. cycle) going from Euro IV to Euro VI. The UK
For electricity the greenhouse gas impact is played an active role in supporting and
based on UK marginal grid electricity. Charts developing these standards.
illustrating emissions of particulate matter
It is important to note that our modelling
can be found in the Transport Energy Model
work takes into account the potential impact
Report.206
of selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
technology on greenhouse gas emissions.
Diesel
This technology is increasingly being
The use of diesel is widespread in cars and installed to help remove NOX from diesel
dominates in vans and heavier vehicles tailpipe emissions. It emits small amounts
(buses and HGVs) in the UK. For diesel cars of nitrous oxide (N2O) which is a powerful
and vans the relatively better efficiency of greenhouse gas.207
diesel engines compared with petrol engines
results in improved fuel economy and lower
greenhouse gas emissions per kilometre
than from petrol equivalents.
117
Figure A2: Estimated greenhouse gas (GHG) and nitrogen oxides (NOX ) emissions for a typical medium car on a mixed urban/extra-urban duty cycle
(average speed 34km/h)
0.7
Diesel Euro 5
0.6
Diesel Euro 6 (pre 2017)

0.5
Tailpipe Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Emissions (gNOx/km)
0.4 Progressive regulation

will reduce NOx
emissions from diesel
cars but uncertainty
remains about future
real-world performance.
0.3
Electricity offers low Hydrogen has low

greenhouse gas and emission potential
Petrol hybrid emissions
air pollutant emissions but greenhouse gas
are dependent on COPERT
0.2 with major emissions vary
distance travelled in (2020+) Cleaner
decarbonisation significantly
zero emission mode. Euro 6
expected over the depending on the
RDE 1 Limit[1] diesel
period to 2050. production pathway.
cars
RDE 2 Limit[1]
0.1
[2]
Electric 2050[2] Hydrogen 2050 (Electrolysis)
LPG Petrol Petrol cars produce
Plug In Hybrid (Petrol) fewer NOx emissions
Hydrogen 2050 (SMR+CCS)[2] Electric Hydrogen
Full Hybrid (Petrol) than diesel, but more
(Electrolysis) GHG emissions.
0
0 50 100 Hydrogen (SMR) 150 200 250
Well-to-wheel Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions (gCO2e/km)
[1] RDE Limits included a factor accounting for measurement error.
[2] Future projections (vehicle energy consumption held at 2017 levels).
118
Figure A3: Estimated greenhouse gas (GHG) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions for a typical panel van on a mixed urban/extra-urban duty cycle
(average speed 34km/h)
1.4
Diesel Euro 5
Pre 2018 diesel vans
1.2
emit significantly
more NOx than other
powertrains.
Diesel Euro 6 (pre 2018)

1.0
0.8
Progressive regulation
will reduce NOx
emissions from diesel
0.6
vans but uncertainty
remains about future
Electricity offers low Hydrogen has low real-world performance.
greenhouse gas and emission potential
Petrol hybrid emissions
air pollutant emissions but greenhouse gas
are dependent on
0.4 with major emissions vary
distance travelled in
decarbonisation significantly
zero emission mode.
expected over the depending on the
period to 2050. production pathway.
COPERT
(2021+) Cleaner
Euro 6
0.2 RDE 1 Limit[1] diesel
Electric 2050[2]
Hydrogen 2050 (Electrolysis)[2] vans
RDE 2 Limit[1]
Plug In Hybrid (Petrol) Hydrogen (Electrolysis)
Hydrogen 2050 Petrol
(SMR+CCS)[2] Electric CNG LPG
Hydrogen (SMR) Full Hybrid
(Petrol)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
[1] RDE Limits included a factor accounting for measurement error.
119
Figure A4: Estimated greenhouse gas (GHG) and nitrogen oxides (NOX ) emissions for an 18 tonne HGV on a ‘regional delivery’ duty cycle (average
speed 53 km/h)
3.5
Diesel Euro V
Regulations have already

substantially reduced NOx
emissions from new diesel
heavy goods vehicles.
2.5
Tailpipe Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Emissions (gNOx/km)
1.5
Electric and hydrogen

trucks are not yet market
ready, but would offer the
most significant Latest government-funded
1 test data shows
greenhouse gas and
pollutant emission that 18 tonne gas HGVs
reductions. emit less carbon than a
diesel equivalent.
0.5
Electric 2050[1] Diesel Euro VI
CNG
Hydrogen 2050 (Electrolysis)[1]
Hydrogen 2050 (SMR + CCS)[1] Hydrogen (SMR) Hydrogen (Electrolysis)
Electric
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
120
Figure A5: Estimated greenhouse gas (GHG) and nitrogen oxides (NOX ) emissions for a 44 tonne HGV on a ‘long haul’ duty cycle (average speed
79 km/h)
2.5
Diesel Euro V
2.0
1.5
Latest government-funded
Electric and hydrogen test data shows poor
substantially reduced
trucks are not yet market efficiency of gas trucks.
NOX emissions from
ready, but would offer However industry report
new diesel heavy goods
the most significant GHG significant efficiency
vehicles.
and pollutant emission improvements in the latest
reductions. generation of these vehicles.
1.0
Electric 2050[1]
Hydrogen (SMR)
Hydrogen 2050 (Electrolysis)[1]
CNG (Industry Data) Diesel Euro VI
Hydrogen 2050 (SMR + CCS)[1] Electric CNG Hydrogen (Electrolysis)
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Well-to-Wheel Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissons (gCO2e/km)

121
Figure A6: Estimated (GHG) and nitrogen oxides (NOX ) emissions for a double deck bus on the LowCVP Urban Bus test cycle (average
speed 22.4 km/h)
8
Diesel Euro V
Regulations have
already substantially
6 reduced NOx emissions
from new diesel buses.
Zero emission (and

hybrid) buses are
available now and offer
4 significant greenhouse
gas and pollutant
emission reductions.
3
Gas buses have high
energy consumption,
resulting in higher
greenhouse gas
2 emissions when running
on fossil gas than
currently available
efficient diesel buses.
Electric 2050[1]
1 Hybrid Diesel (serial) Diesel Euro VI
Efficient Diesel
Hydrogen
Hydrogen 2050 CNG
2050 (SMR
(Electrolysis)[1]
+ CCS)[1] Electric Hydrogen (SMR)
Hydrogen (Electrolysis)
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Well-to-Wheel Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions (gCO2e/km)

122
Figure A7: Estimated greenhouse gas (GHG) and nitrogen oxides (NOX ) emissions for a double deck bus on the Milbrook London Transport
Bus test cycle (average speed 14.9 km/h)
12
Diesel Euro V
10

substantially reduced
8 NOx emissions from new
diesel buses.
6 Zero emission (and

hybrid) buses are
available now and
offer significant GHG
and pollutant emission
reductions.
4 Gas buses have high

energy consumption,
resulting in higher
GHG emissions when
running on fossil gas
than currently available
efficient diesels.
2
Electric 2050[1] Hybrid Diesel (serial) Efficient Diesel

Diesel Euro VI
Hydrogen 2050 Hydrogen Hydrogen CNG

(Electrolysis)[1] 2050 (SMR Electric Hydrogen (SMR) (Electrolysis)
+ CCS)[1]
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Well-to-Wheel Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions (gCO2e/km)

123
Figure A8: The gap between estimated real world NOX emissions for diesel cars and their
regulated limits has increased, but new RDE limits should help close this
0.8
0.7
Diesel Car NOX emissions (gNOx/km)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5 No RDE COPERT COPERT Euro 6 Euro 6
2017-19 2020+ RDE 1 RDE 2
Pre-Euro 6 Diesel Cars Euro 6 Diesel Cars
RDE limit Tested vehicle estimate (COPERT factors) Regulated limit Forecast estimate (COPERT)
Source: DfT (2018), Transport Energy Model
Note: COPERT emission factors for Euro 6 diesel cars sold in current or future years
(2017-19 and 2020 onwards) are not based on testing, but are forecasts of potential real
world emissions which take into account that RDE compliant vehicles will make up an
increasing proportion of Euro 6 diesel car sales over this time period, as well as that real-
world usage conditions may not be fully captured by RDE requirements. In order to meet
all RDE test requirements, which cover around 95% of all driving conditions, RDE
compliant vehicles are expected to emit NOX levels much lower than the test limit in
standard driving conditions. Early evidence suggests this is the case.
RDE changes to the Euro standards
For NOX emissions the new Euro standards require that new vehicles meet both
laboratory and real world limits. The limits for the Real Driving Emissions (RDE) test are
fixed in relation to the laboratory test by a ratio known as a conformity factor. This is the
maximum permitted ratio by which the emissions recorded in the RDE test can exceed
the laboratory emissions test limit.
RDE test limit = Conformity factor x laboratory limit
The changes will be implemented in two steps.208
124
●● Step 1 – From September 2017 new model type approvals had to comply with a
NOX conformity factor of 2.1.209
From September 2019 all new cars being registered (i.e. all new cars for sale, not
just new models) must comply with a NOX conformity factor of 2.1.210
●● Step 2 – From January 2020 new model type approvals must comply with a NOX
conformity factor of 1.0 (i.e. parity with the laboratory test), plus an additional factor of
0.43 to account for measurement uncertainty.211
From January 2021 all new cars being registered must comply with a NOX
conformity factor of 1.0 (i.e. parity with the laboratory test), plus an additional factor of
0.43 to account for measurement uncertainty.
RDE Step 1 vehicles are starting to be available in showrooms. These cleaner diesel
vehicles are expected to have dramatically lower real world NOX emissions than many
current Euro 6 “pre-RDE” diesel cars and vans.
Petrol use in diesel vehicles of particulate filters,

which are very effective at controlling tailpipe
In the UK, petrol use is widespread in cars
particulate emissions. As a result, even
but is only available as an option for a limited
though they have similar limits, in the real
number of vans, and is not used in heavy
world the number of particulates emitted
vehicles (buses and trucks). Petrol engines
from the tailpipe of some petrol cars and
are generally less efficient than diesel engines
vans (particularly those with direct injection
and therefore have higher overall greenhouse
engines) can be higher than from diesel
gas emissions per kilometre than a diesel
equivalents. The introduction of Real Driving
equivalent. However, petrol engine efficiency
Emissions standards will address this as, in
in cars and vans is improving due to the use
order for direct injection petrol engines to
of engine downsizing, turbo-charging and
meet particulate standards in real world use,
direct injection technology. This is in
it is expected that particulate filters will also
response to European new car and van
be fitted to petrol engines.
CO2 regulation and consumer demand for
improved fuel efficiency, and will reduce the
Liquid Petroleum Gas
greenhouse gas emissions penalty
associated with petrol cars. Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a fossil fuel
which is currently used in a relatively small
In contrast, real-world emissions of NOX
number of vehicles in the UK, primarily cars,
from petrol cars and vans are typically
taxis and vans, which are served by an
substantially lower than from diesel
existing network of refuelling sites.
equivalents. Petrol engines also produce
much lower levels of particulate matter than Air pollutant emissions from LPG vehicles
diesel engines. As such, legislation has been are generally lower than for diesel vehicles.
introduced since 2007 that has driven the NOX and particulate matter emissions are
125
estimated to be similar to petrol vehicles, Our analysis of 44 tonne gas HGVs (which is
although some industry stakeholders based on the latest available independent
suggest particulate emissions can be test data) shows a potential increase in
substantially lower. greenhouse gas emissions of between 4%
(CNG) and 20% (LNG) from heavy duty
LPG typically has lower greenhouse gas
trucks running on natural gas when
emissions per unit of energy than petrol or
compared with an equivalent diesel truck.212
diesel, but LPG vehicles tend to have
However, industry representatives claim
relatively inefficient engines (when compared
that gas truck efficiency has improved
to diesel) which affects the overall
significantly and that the latest generation of
greenhouse gas impact of the vehicle.
gas trucks are now delivering greenhouse
LPG greenhouse gas emissions per
gas emissions savings of 15% (CNG)
kilometre are therefore similar to diesel.
compared to equivalent diesel vehicles.
Although the UK LPG market is small, and is As we set out in Part 2c, government is
likely to remain a niche market, LPG’s working with industry to undertake further
environmental performance relative to diesel testing of the latest gas trucks; the test
makes it a good current alternative to diesel, results will be used to inform decisions on
particularly for vehicles being used in urban future government policy and support for
driving conditions. the use of natural gas in road transport.
If significant greenhouse gas emissions
Natural Gas savings are clear, then natural gas could be
a good lower emission option for a sector
Natural gas (methane) is a fossil gas which
where market-ready zero emission
is currently used in a relatively small but
technologies are still in development.
growing number of road vehicles in the UK,
in particular in heavy goods vehicles and For buses, the use of natural gas is
buses. It can be used in vehicles either as estimated to reduce greenhouse gas
compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied emissions by 8% compared to a standard
natural gas (LNG). diesel bus over a mixed urban and extra-
urban drive cycle. However, when compared
Air pollutant emissions from natural gas
to the latest ‘efficient diesel’ models, which
vehicles are generally lower than for diesel
are increasingly becoming the default choice
vehicles. NOX and particulate matter
for operators, gas bus greenhouse gas
emissions are estimated to be similar to
emissions were found to be 24% higher.
petrol vehicles, although some industry
As gas bus energy consumption is very
stakeholders suggest particulate emissions
sensitive to driving speed (i.e. energy
can be substantially lower.
consumption is high at low average speeds),
Natural gas typically has lower greenhouse gas buses are therefore more suited to use
gas emissions per unit of energy than petrol in higher speed inter-urban use, rather than
or diesel. However, gas vehicles tend to the slow speed stop-start conditions we see
have relatively inefficient engines (when in urban areas.
compared to diesel) which affects the overall
greenhouse gas impact of a gas vehicle.
126
Low Carbon fuels This cross-sectoral use of energy means the

baseline environmental case for the use of
Low carbon fuels can be made from wastes
alternatives to petrol and diesel vehicles (for
or crops and can replace fossil petrol, diesel
example gas vehicles) should be justified on
and natural gas (methane). There are a range
the basis of the marginal UK renewable/
of different types, including biodiesel,
fossil fuel mix to ensure additional
bioethanol, biomethane and bio-LPG.
greenhouse gas savings are being gained.
Since 2008, with the introduction of the For example in the case of biomethane
Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation where production is insufficient, and unable
(RTFO), fuel suppliers in the UK must be to be sustainably scaled up, to meet overall
able to show that a percentage of their fuel UK energy demand, any increase in total UK
comes from sustainable renewable energy gas demand due to new gas vehicles will
sources. Biofuels are currently blended with often largely be met by an increase in the
conventional petrol, diesel and natural gas use of fossil gas.
in the UK: these shares amounted to 5%
Decisions on further increases in the use of
bioethanol in petrol in 2017, 3% biodiesel in
bioenergy across sectors are taken in the
diesel in 2017 and 0.2% biomethane in
context of the Government’s carbon
natural gas in 2016.
budgets and advice from the Committee on
On average, low carbon fuels supplied in Climate Change; the Committee is currently
the UK provide greenhouse gas savings of conducting a bioenergy review which is due
around 70% compared to standard fossil to be published in autumn 2018.
fuels.213 In 2016/17, they delivered over
Research on the air quality impacts of low
2.5 million tonnes of CO2 savings, equivalent
carbon fuels indicates emissions for low
to taking over 1m cars off the road.
carbon fuels are not significantly different
It is possible to use (or claim the use of) from those of their fossil equivalent,
biodiesel, bioethanol and biomethane in particularly where they are supplied in
higher blends than are currently used in low‑level blends of fossil fuels as is typically
conventional petrol, diesel and gas. In the case in the UK.214
particular, the operators of many of the UK’s
In Part 2a we set out how recent changes
gas trucks and buses using gas from the
to the RTFO and supporting policies will
grid claim significant greenhouse gas
support increased blends of biofuel and
emissions savings from the use of 100%
realisation of the greenhouse gas benefits,
biomethane.
including taking into account indirect land
However, low carbon fuels can also be used use change.
to decarbonise other sectors, such as the
heat sector. Limited production capacity Other fuels
and, in the case of biofuels, availability of
Other fuels that are covered in our analysis
sustainable feedstock materials mean that
include aqua-methanol; a liquid fuel (a blend
there are limitations on the extent to which
of methanol and water) that can be used in
low carbon fuels can meet energy demand
petrol vehicles. Our analysis shows that the
across sectors.
127
greenhouse gas emissions from the battery production. The results of adding
production and use of methanol vary battery production to our assessment of the
significantly depending on the production environmental performance of battery
pathway. Assuming production from remote electric vehicles are set out in the Transport
natural gas (a typical production pathway), Energy Model Report. As battery production
methanol used in cars and vans has currently requires a lot of electricity, these
greenhouse gas emissions 6% higher than greenhouse gas emissions are also
equivalent petrol vehicles. Air pollutant expected to fall over the period to 2050.
emissions are similar to those from petrol
The results are clear: battery electric
cars and vans.
vehicles have substantially lower greenhouse
gas emissions than conventional vehicles,
Zero emission options even when taking into account the electricity
source and electricity used for battery
Battery Electric Vehicles production.
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are driven
solely by an electric motor, powered by a Hydrogen
battery that can be plugged in to be Like battery electric vehicles, fuel cell electric
recharged. No combustion takes place vehicles (FCEVs) use electric motors to drive
within the vehicle so there are no tailpipe the wheels. However, they store energy
emissions of air pollutants. BEVs use less on-board as compressed hydrogen, rather
energy per mile than conventional vehicles. than just in a battery. Hydrogen reacts with
A typical electric vehicle uses 19kWh of oxygen from the air in an on-board fuel cell
energy to travel 100 km, while the average to produce electricity. Water is the only
petrol vehicle uses 67kWh.215 Therefore, by-product. No greenhouse gas or air
electric motors are highly energy efficient. pollutant emissions are produced meaning
In addition, our modelling makes clear that, FCEVs are zero emission vehicles.
even with current UK electricity grid Fuel cells are typically 40-60% efficient
emissions, BEVs produce the lowest (comparing energy input to energy output)
emissions of greenhouse gases irrespective and since hydrogen occurs rarely in its pure
of vehicle type and operation.216 For example, form, energy is required to create it. Overall
a battery electric car is estimated to have greenhouse gas emissions from hydrogen
greenhouse gas emissions 66% lower than a as a transport fuel are therefore highly
petrol car and 60% lower than a diesel car. dependent on its production method.
Between now and 2050, we project electricity
grid emissions will fall by around 90%, with Hydrogen is primarily produced for chemical
total greenhouse gas emissions from electric feedstock applications. Used in a fuel cell,
vehicles falling in parallel.217 hydrogen produced via steam methane
reformation (SMR) – currently the typical
As well as considering the greenhouse gas hydrogen production pathway – delivers
emissions from electricity production, we greenhouse gas savings of between 10%
have also considered the emissions from (compared with a diesel HGV) and 43%
128
(compared with a petrol car). The addition of pollutant emissions compared with
carbon capture and storage (CCS) conventional vehicles. The overall emissions
technology to the SMR production pathway performance of a hybrid vehicle is very
could significantly increase greenhouse gas dependent on how much the electric motor
savings, but has yet to be demonstrated at a contributes to propulsion, the effectiveness
commercial scale in the UK. of the vehicle exhaust after-treatment during
hybrid operation, and the amount of time
Hydrogen can also be produced by
when the conventional combustion engine is
electrolysis: using electricity to split water
switched off.
into hydrogen and oxygen. Assessed using
current electricity grid emissions, this There is a range of hybrid electric vehicle
pathway does not deliver significant types, ranging from mild and full hybrids to
greenhouse gas savings compared to plug-in and even range extended electric
conventional fuels. Using electricity to vehicles. The ways in which these work are
produce hydrogen creates an efficiency loss explained below and, where they have been
compared to the direct use of electricity in a included in our analysis, details of their
battery electric vehicle. However, as the environmental performance are provided.
electricity grid decarbonises, this pathway
has the potential to deliver larger greenhouse Mild and full hybrids
gas savings.
Mild and full hybrids both have an internal
A range of technological improvements in combustion engine and an electric
hydrogen production are under propulsion motor. In these vehicles, energy
development, and there are significant is typically captured by regenerative braking
potential energy system benefits to be and stored within a small battery. They
derived from the high volumes of energy cannot be plugged in to be recharged.
storage and flexibility hydrogen can provide.
In mild hybrids the electric motor is used to
As well as being used in FCEVs, hydrogen support the main engine rather than to
can be used as a fuel in an internal power the vehicle independently.
combustion engine. Its combustion has not Manufacturers are producing 48V mild
been assessed here, but the poor energy hybrids which they claim reduce energy
efficiency of combustion engines compared consumption by around 15% to 20%.218
to fuel cells suggests that the greenhouse
In full (non-plug-in) hybrids, the electric
gas emissions would be considerably higher
motor is capable of propelling the vehicle in
than from FCEVs.
zero emission mode, but the zero emission
range of these vehicles is currently very
Hybrids limited (typically 1-2 miles).
Hybrid electric vehicles are powered partly Full petrol hybrid electric cars and vans are
by electricity and partly by a conventional included in the Transport Energy Model. The
engine (most commonly a petrol engine). model estimates greenhouse gas emissions
Hybrids can offer some of the same benefits for a full petrol hybrid car to be 20% lower
as BEVs: lower greenhouse gas and air than a conventional petrol car and 5% lower
129
than a conventional diesel car. For a full from a conventional pre-RDE Euro 6 diesel
petrol hybrid van the model estimates car (by 98%) or van (by 99%). These figures
greenhouse gas emissions to be 17% lower assume efficient use of the vehicle, i.e. 73%
than a conventional petrol van and 1% of driving in electric mode.
higher than a conventional diesel van.
These differences are due to the relative Range extended electric vehicles
efficiency of petrol and diesel engines (REEVs or Rex)
outlined previously. The model also
Range extenders are battery electric
estimates considerable air quality benefits
vehicles which use an on-board internal
from full petrol hybrids compared to diesel
combustion engine to recharge the battery.
equivalents, with NOX emissions over 95%
The internal combustion engine is not used
lower than a Euro 6 conventional diesel car
directly to power the vehicle. Range
or van sold before 2017 (before RDE came
extenders typically have relatively large
into force).
batteries compared to other hybrids and
longer electric-only ranges (e.g. the BMW i3
Plug-in hybrids
REx’s zero emission range is 100+ miles).
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) have As with plug-in hybrids, though to a far
an internal combustion engine and an lesser extent, the environmental benefits of
electric motor which is charged from an range extenders depend on their zero
external power source (i.e. the vehicle needs emission range (i.e. battery capacity) and
to be plugged in). Both the engine and the how they are used.
electric motor are capable of solely
propelling the vehicle. Plug-in hybrids are
therefore able to complete zero emission
journeys. The environmental benefits of plug-
in hybrids are heavily reliant on (i) their zero
emission range (i.e. the battery capacity);
and (ii) how they are used.
The Transport Energy Model includes plug-

in hybrid cars and vans. The model
estimates greenhouse gas emissions for a
petrol plug-in hybrid car to be lower than
from a conventional petrol (by 43%) or diesel
(by 33%) car. The model also estimates
greenhouse gas emissions to be lower for a
petrol plug-in hybrid van compared to a
conventional petrol (by 58%) or diesel (by
48%) van. The model also estimates air
quality benefits from plug-in hybrids
compared to diesel equivalents, with car
NOX emissions significantly lower than those
130
Endnotes
Endnotes
1. Both commitments exclude specialist vehicles. 12. ONS (2018), Low carbon and renewable energy
2. Bloomberg (2017). Electric vehicles (online). economy final estimates – UK employees.
Available at: www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/ Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/
electric-vehicles. environmentalaccounts/datasets/lowcarbonand
renewableenergyeconomyfirstestimatesdataset.
3. Bloomberg New Energy Finance (2018). Electric
Vehicle Outlook 2018 (online). Available at: 13. DfT (2017). National Travel Survey: 2016 report
https://about.bnef.com/electric-vehicle-outlook/. (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
4. OICA (2006). The World’s Automotive Industry:
file/633077/national-travel-survey-2016.pdf.
Some Key Figures (online). Available at:
http://oica.net/wp-content/uploads/2007/06/ 14. DfT (2016). Freight (TSGB0403) (online).
oica-depliant-final.pdf. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/uploads/
system/uploads/attachment_data/file/692347/
5. CCC (2018). Reducing UK emissions – 2018
tsgb0403.ods.
Progress Report to Parliament (online). Available
at: https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/ 15. Where measures do not apply to the whole UK,
reducing-uk-emissions-2018-progress-report- this is highlighted. In addition, Scotland, Wales
to-parliament/. and Northern Ireland each have their own
measures in place to support the transition.
6. BEIS (2018) Final UK greenhouse gas emissions
A summary of these measures is provided in
national statistics: 1990 – 2016 (online).
Part 4.
Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/
statistics/final-uk-greenhouse-gas-emissions- 16. Defra & DfT (2017). UK plan for tackling
national-statistics-1990-2016. roadside nitrogen dioxide concentrations
(online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/
7. BEIS (2018) Final UK greenhouse gas emissions
publications/air-quality-plan-for-nitrogen-
national statistics: 1990 – 2016 (online).
dioxide-no2-in-uk-2017.
statistics/final-uk-greenhouse-gas-emissions- 17. BEIS (2017). Clean Growth Strategy (online).
national-statistics-1990-2016. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/
publications/clean-growth-strategy; HM
8. Defra & DfT (2017). UK plan for tackling
Government (2017). Industrial Strategy: building
roadside nitrogen dioxide concentrations
a Britain fit for the future (online). Available at:
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/
industrial-strategy-building-a-britain-fit-for-the-
file/633270/air-quality-plan-detail.pdf.
future; BEIS (2018). Automotive Sector Deal.
9. HM Government (2017). Clean Growth Strategy Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.
(online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/ gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/
publications/clean-growth-strategy. 41% as per attachment_data/file/673045/automotive-
updated Final 2016 figures. sector-deal-single-pages.pdf.
10. SMMT (2018). June – EV registrations (online). 18. This excludes specialist vehicles.
Available at: https://www.smmt.co.uk/2018/07/
19. Go Ultra Low (2017). Go Ultra Low survey
june-ev-registrations/.
carried out among ABC1, 30-60 year olds
11. EAFO (2018). Vehicle statistics – Top 5 selling considering a new car purchase.
BEVs (online). Available at:
www.eafo.eu/vehicle-statistics/m1.
131
20. SMMT (2018). June – EV registrations (online). 31. HGV Road User Levy – applying to HGVs at or
Available at: https://www.smmt.co.uk/2018/07/ above 12 tonnes gross weight using UK roads.
june-ev-registrations/. See: www.gov.uk/government/speeches/
21. For example; Kantar Public (2017), ‘Consumer new-measures-to-ensure-lower-emission-
attitudes to electric vehicles research – Oct lorries-will-pay-less-to-use-uk-roads.
2017’. 32. DfT (2015) Roads Investment Strategy Available
22. Electricity emissions factors have been sourced at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/
from the Government’s Green Book government/uploads/system/uploads/
supplementary guidance: valuation of energy attachment_data/file/408514/ris-for-2015-16-
use and greenhouse gas emissions for road-period-web-version.pdf.
appraisal. 33. HM Government (2017). £23 million boost for
23. BEIS (2017). Electricity emissions factors hydrogen-powered vehicles and infrastructure
(online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/ (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ news/23-million-boost-for-hydrogen-powered-
file/666406/Data_tables_1-19_supporting_the_ vehicles-and-infrastructure.
toolkit_and_the_guidance_2017.xlsx. 34. Ricardo Energy & Environment for the
24. SMMT (2018). Average vehicle age (online). Committee on Climate Change (2016). UK
Available at: https://www.smmt.co.uk/industry- business opportunities of moving to a low
topics/sustainability/average-vehicle-age/. carbon economy (online). Available at: www.
theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/
25. DfT (2017). Renewable transport fuel obligations
ED10039-CCC-UK-Bus-Opportunities-Draft-
order: government response (online). Available
Final-Report-V7.pdf.
at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/
renewable-transport-fuel-obligations-order- 35. Nissan (2018). Nissan aims to sell 1 million
government-response. electrified vehicles a year by FY2022 (online).
Available at: https://newsroom.nissan-europe.
26. DfT (2018). Table VEH0253: Cars registered for
com/uk/en-gb/media/
the first time by propulsion and fuel type: Great
pressreleases/426224345/nissan-aims-to-sell-
Britain and United Kingdom. Available at:
1-million-electrified-vehicles-a-year-by-fy2022.
https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-
data-sets/veh02-licensed-cars. 36. Innovate UK (2015). The Low Carbon Vehicle
Innovation Platform Impact Review 2015
27. DfT (2017). National Travel Survey: 2016 (online).
(online). Available at: https://assets.publishing.
service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
statistics/national-travel-survey-2016.
uploads/attachment_data/file/458740/CO089__
28. Office for Low Emission Vehicles (2013). Driving LCV_IP_SEP15_Brochure_FINAL.pdf.
the future today: a strategy for ultra low
37. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland each
emission vehicles in the UK (online). Available
have their own measures in place to support
at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/
the transition. A summary of these measures is
driving-the-future-today-a-strategy-for-ultra-low-
provided in Part 4. See for example: Scottish
emission-vehicles-in-the-uk.
Government (2015). Infrastructure Investment
29. For a list of plug-in car grant eligible vehicles, Plan 2015 (online). Available at: http://www.gov.
see: https://www.gov.uk/plug-in-car-van-grants. scot/Resource/0049/00491180.pdf.
30. Except in exceptional circumstances. This is 38. DfT (2017). National Travel Survey: 2016 report
also best practice for the wider public sector. (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/
file/633077/national-travel-survey-2016.pdf.
132
Endnotes
39. See for example: Rethink X (2017): Rethinking 48. SMMT (2018). UK used car market stays strong
Transportation (online). Available at: in 2017, as 8.1 million vehicles change hands
https://static1.squarespace.com/ (online). Available at: www.smmt.co.uk/2018/02/
static/585c3439be65942f022bbf9b/t/59f279b3 uk-used-car-market-stays-strong-2017-8-1-
652deaab9520fba6/1509063126843/ million-vehicles-change-hands/.
RethinkX+Report_102517.pdf. 49. DfT (2018). Vehicle Licensing Statistics: Annual
40. DfT (2017). National Travel Survey: 2016 report 2017 Statistical Release (online). Available at:
(online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ government/uploads/system/uploads/
file/633077/national-travel-survey-2016.pdf. attachment_data/file/716075/vehicle-licensing-
41. DfT (2017). Cycling and walking investment statistics-2017-revised.pdf.
strategy (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/ 50. Ricardo Energy & Environment for the
government/publications/cycling-and-walking- Committee on Climate Change (2016). UK
investment-strategy. business opportunities of moving to a low
42. DfT (2016). Rail freight transport strategy carbon economy (online). Available at: www.
(online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/ theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/
publications/rail-freight-transport. ED10039-CCC-UK-Bus-Opportunities-Draft-
Final-Report-V7.pdf.
43. DfT (2018). Transforming Cities Fund – Call for
Proposals (online). Available at: https://assets. 51. This is a DfT total gross value estimate based
publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/ on anticipated biodiesel production for 2016/17,
system/uploads/attachment_data/file/689407/ sourced from UK biodiesel producers, and
transforming-cities-fund-call-for-proposals.pdf. recent biodiesel prices.
44. These emissions will generally be higher for 52. Medium scenario estimation of global advanced
heavier vehicles, although regenerative braking biofuel industry turnover over in 2030, based on
in electric vehicles will reduce brake particulate estimated deployment figures and technology
emissions. costs. E4Tech/Ricardo-AEA (2014). Advanced
Biofuel Demonstration Competition Feasibility
45. Full vehicle definitions available here: https://
Study (online). Available at: https://assets.
assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/
publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/
system/uploads/attachment_data/file/383577/
file/716057/vehicle-licensing-statistics-notes-
Advanced_Biofuel_Demonstration_
definitions.pdf.
Competition_-_Feasibility_Study_FINAL_v3.pdf.
46. DfT (2018). Vehicle Licensing Statistics: Annual
53. Defra National Statistics Release: Emissions of
2017 Statistical Release (online). Available at:
air pollutants in the UK, 1970 to 2016: https://
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/
www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
government/uploads/system/uploads/
uploads/attachment_data/file/681445/
attachment_data/file/716075/vehicle-licensing-
Emissions_of_air_pollutants_statistical_release_
statistics-2017-revised.pdf.
FINALv4.pdf.
47. DfT (2018). Vehicle Licensing Statistics: Annual
54. Calculated using: NAEI, UK Emissions Air
2017 Statistical Release (online). Available at:
Quality Data. Available at: http://naei.beis.gov.
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/
uk/data.
government/uploads/system/uploads/
attachment_data/file/716075/vehicle-licensing- 55. Defra (2016). Air Pollution in the UK 2016
statistics-2017-revised.pdf. (online). Available at: https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/
assets/documents/annualreport/air_pollution_
uk_2016_issue_1.pdf.
133
56. WHO International Agency for Research on 65. BEIS (2018) Final UK greenhouse gas emissions
Cancer (2013). Press release: Outdoor air national statistics: 1990 – 2016 (online).
pollution a leading environmental cause of Available at: www.gov.uk/government/statistics/
cancer deaths (online). Available at: http://www. final-uk-greenhouse-gas-emissions-national-
iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/pdf/pr221_E. statistics-1990-2016.
pdf. 66. Data on approximately 1.1 million vehicles from
57. HM Government (2018). Air pollution: a tool to 14 data sources and eight countries indicate
estimate healthcare costs (online). Available at: that the divergence, or gap, between official
www.gov.uk/government/publications/air- and real-world CO2 emission values of new
pollution-a-tool-to-estimate-healthcare-costs. European passenger cars increased from
58. Greater London Authority (2017). Updated approximately 9% in 2001 to 42% in 2016 –
Analysis of Air Pollution Exposure in London ICCT (2017). White Paper – From Laboratory to
(online). Available at: www.london.gov.uk/sites/ Road (online). Available at: https://www.theicct.
default/files/aether_updated_london_air_ org/sites/default/files/publications/Lab-to-
pollution_exposure_final.pdf. road-2017_ICCT-white%20paper_06112017_
vF.pdf.
59. RAC (2017). RAC Report on Motoring 2017
(online). Pg.9. Available at: www.rac.co.uk/pdfs/ 67. BEIS (2018). UK energy statistics: statistical
report-on-motoring/rac_rom_2017.pdf. press release – March 2018 (online). Available
at: www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-energy-
60. UK emissions inventory submitted under the
statistics-statistical-press-release-march-2018.
National Emissions Ceiling Directive (NECD):
Available at: http://cdr.eionet.europa.eu/gb/eu/ 68. For more information please go to: https://www.
nec_revised/inventories/envwnwqzg/Annex_I_ goultralow.com/choosing/electric-car-service-
Emissions_reporting_template2018_GB_ and-maintenance/.
v1.0.xls; Roadside concentrations from the UK 69. HM Government (2017). Clean Growth Strategy
plan for tackling roadside NO2 concentrations. (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/
Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications/clean-growth-strategy.
publications/air-quality-plan-for-nitrogen- 70. Energy Saving Trust (2017). Fuel efficient driving
dioxide-no2-in-uk-2017. training (online). Available at: www.
61. In line with the requirements of the National energysavingtrust.org.uk/business/transport/
Emissions Ceiling Directive – pollutants are subsidised-ecodriving-training.
ammonia, nitrogen oxides, non-methane 71. BEIS (2018). Energy Trends, Table 3.4 Supply
volatile organic compounds, fine particulate and use of petroleum products. Available at:
matter and sulphur dioxide. www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
62. Climate Change Act 2008, c.1. Available at: uploads/attachment_data/file/669262/
www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/27/ ET_3.4.xls.
introduction. 72. Derived from the BEIS energy trends and
63. BEIS (2018). Final UK greenhouse gas Department for Business, Energy and Industrial
emissions national statistics: 1990-2016 (online). Strategy (2017). Digest of UK Energy Statistics
Available at: www.gov.uk/government/statistics/ (DUKES), Chapter 1: Energy (online). Available
final-uk-greenhouse-gas-emissions-national- at: www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
statistics-1990-2016. uploads/attachment_data/file/642716/
64. Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders Chapter_1.pdf.
(2017). Average new car CO2 1997-2016 (online).
Available at: www.smmt.co.uk/wp-content/
uploads/sites/2/SMMT-UK-avergae-new-car-
CO2-emissions-annual-history-2016.xlsx.
134
Endnotes
73. The International Energy Agency defines energy 80. Verheijen, E & Jabben, J (2010). Effect of
security as the uninterrupted availability of electric cars on traffic noise and safety (online).
energy sources at an affordable price. Energy Available at: http://rivm.openrepository.com/
security has many aspects: long-term energy rivm/bitstream/10029/261949/3/680300009.
security mainly deals with timely investments to pdf.
supply energy in line with economic 81. Regulation (EU) No 540/2014 of the European
developments and environmental needs. Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014
Reducing energy demand and reliance on on the sound level of motor vehicles and of
imports are generally seen as improving energy replacement silencing systems, and amending
security. Directive 2007/46/EC and repealing Directive
74. The UK’s oil supply chain continues to deliver 70/157/EEC. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.
security of supply and in the short-medium eu/eli/reg/2014/540/oj.
term is expected to continue to function well, 82. DfT (2017). Renewable Transport Fuel
with sufficient capacity to meet demand, as Obligations Order: Government Response
well as respond to supply shocks. Taken from (online). Available at: https://www.gov.uk/
Department for Business, Energy and Industrial government/publications/renewable-transport-
Strategy’s Statutory Security of Supply Report fuel-obligations-order-government-response.
2017. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/
83. HM Government (2018). The Renewable
Transport Fuels and Greenhouse Gas
file/663894/hc536-statutory-security-of-supply-
Emissions Regulations 2018. Available at:
report-2017.pdf.
https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2018/374/
75. WHO (2011). New evidence from WHO on contents/made. The new targets came into
health effects of traffic-related noise in Europe force in 15 April 2018.
(online). Available at: www.euro.who.int/en/
84. DfT (2017). Renewable Transport Fuel
media-centre/sections/press-releases/2011/03/
Obligations Order: Government Response
new-evidence-from-who-on-health-effects-of-
(online). Available at: https://www.gov.uk/
traffic-related-noise-in-europe.
government/publications/renewable-transport-
76. Defra (2014). Noise pollution: economic analysis fuel-obligations-order-government-response.
(online). Available at: www.gov.uk/guidance/ Tables 13 & 28.
noise-pollution-economic-analysis.
85. To qualify the fuels will have to be made from
77. Vejdirektoratet (2013). Noise from electric wastes using advanced processes. Qualifying
vehicles (online). Available at: www. fuels are those for aviation, substitute natural
vejdirektoratet.dk/DA/viden_og_data/ gas (a form of biomethane derived from wastes
publikationer/Lists/Publikationer/ using gasification or pyrolysis technologies),
Attachments/853/niose-from-electric-vehicles. hydrogen, and fuels that can be blended at
pdf. rates of at least 25% with diesel or petrol whilst
78. Verheijen, E & Jabben, J (2010). Effect of meeting the relevant fuel standards (EN590 or
electric cars on traffic noise and safety (online). EN228).
Available at: http://rivm.openrepository.com/ 86. Where additional demand for agricultural land
rivm/bitstream/10029/261949/3/680300009. to grow biofuels can result in additional demand
pdf. for agricultural land elsewhere, leading to land
79. Transport for London (2018). TLRN conversion for agriculture including
performance report, quarter 2 2017-18 (online). deforestation and destruction of important
Available at: http://content.tfl.gov.uk/street- habitats.
performance-report-quarter2-2017-2018.pdf.
135
87. DfT (2018). Renewable Transport Fuel 96. DVSA (2018). More than 100 lorry operators
Obligation Annual Report 2016-17 (online). caught deliberately damaging air quality (online).
Available at: https://assets.publishing.service. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/news/
gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ more-than-100-lorry-operators-caught-
attachment_data/file/695185/rtfo-annual- deliberately-damaging-air-quality.
report-2016-2017-web.pdf. 97. Results of the 2017 Vehicle Surveillance Unit
88. Energy Saving Trust (2018). Clean Vehicle testing programme can be found at – DVSA
Retrofit Accreditation Scheme (CVRAS) (online). (2018). Vehicle Market Surveillance Unit
Available at: www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/ programme results, 2017 (online) https://www.
transport-travel/transport/clean-vehicle-retrofit- gov.uk/government/publications/vehicle-
accreditation-scheme-cvras. market-surveillance-unit-programme-
89. DfT & Defra (2018). Government funding boost results-2017.
for bus industry in drive to improve air quality 98. Calculated using: NAEI, UK Emissions Air
(online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/ Quality Data. Available at: http://naei.beis.gov.
news/government-funding-boost-for-bus- uk/data.
industry-in-drive-to-improve-air-quality. 99. United Nations Economic Commission for
90. Defra (2018). Additional measures to support Europe (2018). Vehicle regulations (online).
individuals and businesses affected by local Available at: www.unece.org/trans/main/
NO2 plans (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/ welcwp29.html.
government/uploads/system/uploads/ 100. Heavy-duty vehicles include buses, coaches
attachment_data/file/693230/air-quality- and trucks – i.e. heavy goods vehicles.
additional-measures-consultation-summary-
101. ICCT (2018). Overview of Global Fuel Economy
responses.pdf.
Policies (online). Available at: www.theicct.org/
91. EST estimates. sites/default/files/Global-Fuel-Economy-
92. European Automobile Manufacturers Policies-Overview_ICCT_ZYang_20032018.pdf.
Association (2018). New Passenger Cars by 102. More information on these changes can be
Fuel Type in the European Union – Quarter 1 found at: http://www.dft.gov.uk/vca/fcb/wltp.
2018. Available at: https://www.acea.be/ asp.
uploads/press_releases_files/20180503_Fuel_
103. An explanation of the taxes and benefits
type_Q1_2018_FINAL.pdf.
applicable to ultra low emission vehicles
93. Electricity emissions factors have been sourced (ULEVs) is available at: www.gov.uk/
from the Government’s Green Book government/publications/ultra-low-emission-
supplementary guidance: valuation of energy vehicles-tax-implications.
use and greenhouse gas emissions for
104. A tax savings calculator is available at the Go
appraisal.
Ultra Low website: www.goultralow.com.
94. BEIS (2017). Electricity emissions factors
105. In London, all new taxis are required to be zero
emission capable. See: https://tfl.gov.uk/
modes/driving/ultra-low-emission-zone/cleaner-
file/666406/Data_tables_1-19_supporting_the_
greener-taxis.
toolkit_and_the_guidance_2017.xlsx.
106. However, this cannot be used in conjunction
95. DfT (2016). Vehicle emissions testing
with the plug-in van grant.
programme: data and conclusions (online).
Available at: www.gov.uk/government/ 107. In London, air quality funding was explicitly
publications/vehicle-emissions-testing- addressed through the £5.7 billion Transport for
programme-conclusions. London funding agreement.
136
Endnotes
108. Bloomberg New Energy Finance (2017). The 115. Calculated using: NAEI, UK Emissions Air
Latest Bull Case for Electric Cars: the Cheapest Quality Data. Available at: http://naei.beis.gov.
Batteries Ever (online). Available at: www. uk/data.
bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-05/ 116. SMMT (2018). May – EV registrations (online).
latest-bull-case-for-electric-cars-the-cheapest- Available at: https://www.smmt.co.uk/2018/06/
batteries-ever. may-ev-registrations/.
109. BEIS (2018). 2016 UK Greenhouse Gas 117. DfT (2018). Licensed vehicles by body type at
Emissions, Final Figures (online). Available at: the end of quarter: Great Britain and United
www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ Kingdom (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/
uploads/attachment_data/file/680473/2016_ government/uploads/system/uploads/
Final_Emissions_statistics.pdf. attachment_data/file/699010/veh0101.ods.
110. RAC Foundation (2017). The implications of 118. This represents around 0.1% of all new
internet shopping growth on the van fleet and motorcycles purchased in the year.
traffic activity (online). Available at: www.
119. This refers to the move from the New European
racfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/
Drive Cycle to the Worldwide harmonised
The_Implications_of_Internet_Shopping_
Light-vehicle Test Protocol.
Growth_on_the_Van_Fleet_and_Traffic_
Activity_Braithwaite_May_17.pdf; CCC (2018). 120. HGVs are defined as vehicles that weigh more
Reducing UK emissions 2018 Progress Report than 3.5 tonnes. See: www.gov.uk/government/
to Parliament (online). Available at: https://www. uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/ file/211948/simplified-guide-to-lorry-types-and-
CCC-2018-Progress-Report-to-Parliament.pdf. weights.pdf.
111. DfT (2017). Vehicle Licensing Statistics: Annual 121. BEIS (2018), Final UK greenhouse gas
2016 (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/ emissions national statistics 1990-2016 (online).
government/uploads/system/uploads/ Available at: www.gov.uk/government/statistics/
attachment_data/file/608374/vehicle-licensing- final-uk-greenhouse-gas-emissions-national-
statistics-2016.pdf. statistics-1990-2016.
112. Calculated using: NAEI, UK Emissions Air 122. Calculated using: NAEI, UK Emissions Air
Quality Data. Available at: http://naei.beis.gov. Quality Data. Available at: http://naei.beis.gov.
uk/data. uk/data.
113. Total numbers at the end of 2017 there were 123. Dynamic charging technologies for HGVs
38.9 million vehicles licensed for use on the include: over-head catenary cables with
roads, of this 4 million were vans or Light pantographs, in-road conductive rail and
Goods Vehicles (LGV) up to 3.5t and 523,300 under-road inductive charging or Dynamic
Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGV) over 3.5t. DfT Wireless Power Transfer (DWPT).
(2018). Statistical Data Set: All vehicles (VEH01). 124. Bridgestone (2017). Logistics Carbon Review
Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/ (online). Available at: http://lers.org.uk/wp-
statistical-data-sets/all-vehicles-veh01. For 2017 content/uploads/2018/06/17069-logistics-
vehicle registration figures, see; SMMT, on cars: carbon-review.pdf.
https://www.smmt.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/
125. DfT HGV technology survey, 2015 – see
sites/2/SMMT-Motor-Industry-Facts-June-2018.
Department for Transport (2017), Appendix B,
pdf; on vans; https://www.smmt.co.uk/2018/01/
p. 93, Freight Carbon Review. Available at:
new-lcv-market-falls-2017-overall-demand-
www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
remains-high-level/.
uploads/attachment_data/file/590922/freight-
114. SMMT data. carbon-review-2017.pdf.
137
126. HGV Road User Levy – applying to HGVs at or 134. DfT (2016). Micro-turbine charger boosts
above 12 tonnes gross weight using UK roads. market appeal of electric vehicles (online).
www.gov.uk/government/speeches/new- Available at: www.gov.uk/government/case-
measures-to-ensure-lower-emission-lorries-will- studies/micro-turbine-charger-boosts-market-
pay-less-to-use-uk-roads. appeal-of-electric-vehicles.
127. DfT (2017). Reforming the heavy goods vehicle 135. Innovate UK (2017). Business Secretary to
road user levy (online). Available at: www.gov. establish UK as world leader in battery
uk/government/consultations/reforming-the- technology as part of modern Industrial
heavy-goods-vehicle-road-user-levy. Strategy. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/
128. HM Treasury (2017). Red diesel call for evidence news/business-secretary-to-establish-uk-as-
(online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/ world-leader-in-battery-technology-as-part-of-
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142. Wired. Vanderell, A (2017). What is a solid state
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in 2015, see: Innovate UK (2015). The Low toyota-dyson.
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143. University of Cambridge (2015). New design
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points a path to the ‘ultimate’ battery. Available
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file/458740/CO089__LCV_IP_SEP15_Brochure_
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138
Endnotes
144. University of Cambridge (2015). New design 153. Estimated from data on provision of off-street
points a path to the ‘ultimate’ battery. Available parking at domestic dwellings provided in
at: www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/new- MHCLG’s English Housing Survey 2015.
design-points-a-path-to-the-ultimate-battery. Figures do not exist for the whole of the UK.
145. Oxis Energy (2018). Next Generation Battery 154. DfT (2015). National Travel Survey Table
Technology (online). Available at: NTS0908 (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/
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146. The Engineer (2015). Sodium-ion batteries ‘set attachment_data/file/550507/nts0908.xls
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may-2015-digi-issue/sodium-ion-batteries-set- Oxford set to install 100 electric vehicle
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147. HM Government (2018). Automotive Sector at: www.oxford.gov.uk/news/article/126/
Deal (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/ electric_avenues_oxford_set_to_install_100_
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deal. residential_streets.
148. University of Sheffield (2017). McLaren to build 156. Further information can be found at: www.gov.
supercar chassis in Sheffield City Region – uk/government/consultations/draft-guidance-
bringing £100m boost to UK economy (online). reform-to-workplace-charging-tax-exemptions.
Available at: www.sheffield.ac.uk/news/nr/ 157. Carbon Trust & Imperial College London (2016).
mclaren-sheffield-facility-amrc-innovation- An analysis of electricity system flexibility for
district-100m-uk-economy-1.679675. Great Britain (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/
149. University of Sheffield (2017). McLaren to build government/uploads/system/uploads/
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150. HM Government (2017). Industrial Strategy publications/upgrading-our-energy-system-
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151. BBC News (2017). Dyson to make electric cars 160. Zap Map (2018). Charging point statistics 2018
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152. Scott Hardman, et.al, ‘A review of consumer 161. Zap Map (2018). Charging point statistics 2018
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162. Committee on Climate Change (2018). Plugging 170. BEIS (2017). Electricity (Connection Charges)
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uk/publication/plugging-gap-assessment- regulations-2002.
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172. DfT (2016). Road Use Statistics (online).
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173. DfT (2016). Contracts for difference (online).
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174. The capacity market is designed to be able to
165. Ofgem (2018). Network price controls and you meet fluctuating and increasing electricity
(online). Available at: www.ofgem.gov.uk/ demand. This is a competitive auction system
system/files/docs/2018/03/ofg1050_riio_fast_ that government uses to make sure we always
facts_publish.pdf. have enough electricity to meet demand. Target
166. Ofgem (2018). DPCR5 2010-2015, RIIO-ED1 levels of electricity capacity are set before the
2015-16 & 2016-17 performance reports auction opens, and then technologies have the
(online). Available at: www.ofgem.gov.uk/ opportunity to bid to provide that capacity. See:
network-regulation-riio-model/current-network- www.ofgem.gov.uk/electricity/wholesale-
price-controls-riio-1/network-performance- market/market-efficiency-review-and-reform/
under-riio. electricity-market-reform/capacity-market-cm-
167. World Bank Group (2018). Doing Business 2018 rules.
(online). Available at: www.doingbusiness.org/~/ 175. Ofgem (2018). What is the RIIO-2 price control?
media/WBG/DoingBusiness/Documents/ (online). Available at: www.ofgem.gov.uk/
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pdf. controls-2021-riio-2/what-riio-2-price-control.
168. Ofgem (2017). Reform of electricity network 176. Energy Networks Association (2018).
access and forward-looking charges: a working Background (online). Available at: www.
paper (online). Available at: www.ofgem.gov.uk/ energynetworks.org/electricity/futures/open-
system/files/docs/2017/11/reform_of_electricity_ networks-project/open-networks-project-
network_access_and_forward-looking_ background.html.
charges_-_a_working_paper.pdf. 177. EA Technology (2018). Smart EV (online).
169. Charging Futures (2018). Task Forces (online). Available at: www.eatechnology.com/projects/
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whats-happening/task-forces-tcr/task-force- Standards Consultation (online). Available at:
home-page/. https://www.energy-uk.org.uk/press-
releases/412-2018/6577-energy-uk-drives-
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140
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178. The hydrogen refuelling stations are located in 187. Welsh Government (2018). A Clean Air Zone
Sheffield, Teddington, Rainham, Cobham, Framework for Wales (online). Available at:
Heathrow, Hendon, Swindon, Port Talbot, https://beta.gov.wales/sites/default/files/
Gatwick and Beaconsfield with two additional consultations/2018-04/180425-a-clean-air-
mobile refuelling stations in south England. zone-framework-for-wales-consultation-en_1.
179. Scottish Government (2017). A Nation With pdf.
Ambition: The Government’s Programme for 188. EcarNI (2018). Chargepoint map (online).
Scotland 2017-18 (online). Available at: www. Available at: www.ecarni.com/charge-point-
gov.scot/Publications/2017/09/8468/8. map.
180. Scottish Government (2018). Switched On 189. ESB (2018). About ecars (online). Available at:
Scotland Phase Two: An Action Plan For www.esb.ie/our-businesses/ecars/about-esb-
Growth (online). Available at: www.transport. ecars.
gov.scot/publication/switched-on-scotland- 190. EcarNI (2018). Origins of the Project (online).
phase-two-an-action-plan-for-growth/. Available at: www.ecarni.com/meet-the-team-
181. Energy Saving Trust (2018). Electric Vehicle consortium.
Loan (online). Available at: www. 191. ICCT (2017). Electric vehicle capitals of the
energysavingtrust.org.uk/scotland/grants-loans/ world: What markets are leading the transition
electric-vehicle-loan. to electric? (online). Available at: www.theicct.
182. Welsh Government (2018). Prosperity for All: org/publications/EV-capitals-of-the-world-2017.
economic action plan (online). Available at: 192. Defra & DfT (2017). UK plan for tackling
https://gov.wales/topics/businessandeconomy/ roadside nitrogen dioxide concentrations
economic-action-plan/?lang=en. (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/
183. Welsh Government (2018). Welsh public sector uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
to be carbon neutral by 2030 (online). Available file/633270/air-quality-plan-detail.pdf.
at: https://gov.wales/newsroom/environmentan 193. Defra (2018). Additional measures to support
dcountryside/2017/170705-welsh-public-sector- individuals and businesses affected by local
to-be-carbon-neutral-by-2030/?lang=en. NO2 plans (online). Available at: https://assets.
184. Welsh Government (2017). Funding for 50,000 publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/
sq ft industrial building to kick start Automotive system/uploads/attachment_data/file/693230/
Technology Park (online). Available at: air-quality-additional-measures-consultation-
https://gov.wales/newsroom/businessan summary-responses.pdf.
deconomy/2017/59297937/?lang=en. 194. In London air quality funding was explicitly
185. University of South Wales (2018). Major funding addressed through the 2015 £5.7 billion
awarded for USW battery research (online). Transport for London funding agreement.
Available at: www.southwales.ac.uk/alumni/ 195. Defra (2018). Press release: £260 million of
your-community/news/2018-news/major- clean air funding launched by government.
funding-awarded-usw-battery-research/. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/
186. Welsh Government (2017). Draft Budget news/260-million-of-clean-air-funding-
2018-19 Detailed proposals (online). Available launched-by-government.
at: https://gov.wales/docs/caecd/ 196. S. Hardman, et al. (2017), UC Davis – Driving
publications/171024-detailed-narrative-en.pdf. the Market for Plug-in Vehicles – Understanding
Reoccurring Incentives (online). Available at:
https://phev.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/
uploads/2017/10/Reocurring-Incentives-Policy-
Guide-No-CW-Logo.pdf.
141
197. ICCT (2017). Electric vehicle capitals of the 206. DfT (2018) Transport Energy Model Report.
world: what markets are leading the transition 207. N2O emissions factors are sourced from the
to electric? (online). Available at: www.theicct. national atmospheric emissions inventory.
org/sites/default/files/publications/World-EV-
208. For vans these dates are one year later.
capitals_ICCT-Briefing_08112017_vF.pdf.
209. Step 1 of the RDE changes is also known as
198. The eight Go Ultra Low Cities are Bristol and
Euro 6d-TEMP.
the West of England, London, Milton Keynes,
Nottingham City Council, Dundee, The North 210. For particle number (PN) the ‘all new cars
east Combined Authority, Oxford City Council registered’ date is 1 September 2018.
and York City Council. 211. Step 2 of the RDE changes is also known as
199. DfT (2017). Taxi and Private Hire Vehicle Euro 6d. The additional 0.43 factor is subject to
Statistics: England 2017 (online). Available at: annual review by the European Commission.
www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ 212. TEM modelling based on energy consumption
uploads/attachment_data/file/642759/taxi- data from Emissions testing of gas-powered
private-hire-vehicles-2017.pdf. commercial vehicles (online). Available at: www.
200. Office for Low Emission Vehicles (2018). Plug-in gov.uk/government/publications/emissions-
Taxi Grant: vehicle application form and testing-of-gas-powered-commercial-vehicles.
guidance notes (online). Available at: https:// 213. Taking into account reductions due to indirect
assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/ land use change.
214. DEFRA (2011). Road transport biofuels: impact
file/682046/plugin-taxi-grant-vehicle-
on UK air quality (online). Available at:
application-guidance.pdf.
https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/
201. Birmingham, Cambridge, Coventry, Dundee, documents/110322_AQEG_Biofuels_advice_
London, Nottingham, Oxford, Slough, West note.pdf.
Yorkshire Combined Authority and
215. European Commission Joint Research Centre
Wolverhampton.
(2014). Report EUR 26236 EN, Well-to-wheels
202. Greener Journeys (2017). Improving air quality Analysis of future Automotive Fuels and
in towns and cities. Why buses are an integral Powertrains in the European Context – WTW
part of the solution (online). Available at: Appendix 1 – Version 4.a (online). Available at:
https://greenerjourneys.com/wp-content/ https://iet.jrc.ec.europa.eu/about-jec/sites/iet.
uploads/2017/04/Improving-Air-Quality-in- jrc.ec.europa.eu.about-jec/files/documents/
Towns-and-Cities-PROF-DAVID-BEGG-Final. wtw_app_1_v4a_march_2014_final.pdf.
pdf.
216. Electricity emissions factors have been sourced
203. Battery electric buses produce no tailpipe from the Government’s Green Book
emissions. Greenhouse gas emission savings supplementary guidance: valuation of energy
are based on current electricity grid mix. use and greenhouse gas emissions for
204. DfT (2016). Government awards £30 million appraisal.
funding for cleaner, greener bus journeys 217. BEIS (2017). Electricity emissions factors
(online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/ (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/
news/government-awards-30-million-funding- uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
for-cleaner-greener-bus-journeys. file/666406/Data_tables_1-19_supporting_the_
205. DfT (2018). Government announces £48 million toolkit_and_the_guidance_2017.xlsx.
for cleaner, greener buses (online). Available at:
www.gov.uk/government/news/government-
announces-48-million-for-cleaner-greener-
buses.
142
Endnotes
218. Advanced Lead Acid Battery Consortium

(2016). 48V Mild-Hybrids Can Meet Emissions
Targets with CO2 Reductions of 15-20% (online).
Available at: www.alabc.org/press-
releases/48v-mild-hybrids-can-meet-emission-
reductions-targets-with-co2-reductions-
of-15-20 NB: Government has not verified these
claims.
143

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The Road to Zero

Next steps towards cleaner road

Department for Transport

Telephone 0300 330 3000

Copyright in the typographical arrangement rests with the Crown.

Part 1: Drivers of change 21

Part 2: Vehicle Supply and Demand 33

Part 2a: Reducing emissions from vehicles already on our roads 34

Part 2b: Driving uptake of the cleanest new cars and vans 42

Part 3b: Hydrogen 103

Part 4: Leadership at all levels 105

Annex A: Transport Energy Model – summary of the environmental

As part of that, our UK Plan for Tackling

Now we want to go further still, through new

The UK’s low emission vehicle industry is a

2. Taking action against garages offering the removal of emissions reduction

4. Taking steps to accelerate the adoption of fuel-efficient motoring by company car

We will drive uptake of the cleanest new vehicles by:

5. Pursuing a future approach as we leave the European Union that is at least as

14. Continuing to take a technology neutral approach to meeting our ambitions.

15. Introducing a new voluntary industry-supported commitment to reduce HGV

22. Launching a new supply chain competitiveness and productivity improvement

●● that chargepoints are smart ready by giving government powers to set

36. Consulting on amending Building Regulations to require relevant charging provision

41. Launching an electric vehicle chargepoint design competition.

42. Monitoring market developments to determine whether any significant gaps in

We will support local action by:

46. Running a series of roadshows across the UK on best practice approaches to

●● a fit for purpose infrastructure

70% Progress review 70%

Understanding the challenge: Between now and 2050, we project

Zero Emission Vehicle

introducing a requirement for chargepoint Regulations to require relevant charging

hydrogen in applications beyond transport. electric vehicles on the electricity system.

●● New business models: fewer young

●● Changing travel demand: people

We launched the Future of Mobility Grand

Part 1: Drivers of change

Action to support modal shift

Source: Transport for Greater Manchester

Strategy scope and vehicle terminology

Motorcycles: 2-wheel vehicles powered by an engine. Includes scooters and mopeds.

Vans/Light goods vehicles: 4-wheel vehicles constructed for transporting goods.

Buses/coaches: Vehicles designed to carry more than 8 passengers, in addition to

Recognising advancements in technology, from 2021 we expect to define an ultra low

Part 2c commits to the development, in partnership with industry, of a definition of an

The current UK road vehicle market

●● 2.5 million cars

●● 362,000 light goods vehicles

●● 52,000 heavy goods vehicles

Petrol Total size of Diesel Light

Delivering our Industrial Strategy low emission vehicle manufacturers,

Source: National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory

Key air pollutants from road transport

Energy Other Road

Residential Other Passenger Cars

“Other Road Transport” includes Bus,

Source: BEIS final UK greenhouse gas emissions 1990-2016

Reducing greenhouse gas three years greenhouse gas emissions from