Lab Diagnosis
Lab Diagnosis
Lab Diagnosis
An Overview
Diagnostic Methods in Virology
• 1. Direct Examination
• 2. Indirect Examination (Virus Isolation)
• 3. Serology
Direct Examination
• 1. Primary cells ‐ Monkey Kidney
• 2. Semi‐continuous cells ‐ Human embryonic kidney and skin
fibroblasts
• 3. Continuous cells ‐ HeLa, Vero, Hep2, LLC‐MK2, MDCK
• Primary cell culture are widely acknowledged as the
best cell culture systems available since they support
the widest range of viruses. However, they are very
expensive and it is often difficult to obtain a reliable
supply. Continuous cells are the most easy to handle
but the range of viruses supported is often limited.
Cell Cultures
• Growing virus may produce
• 1. Cytopathic Effect (CPE) ‐ such as the ballooning of cells or
syncytia formation, may be specific or non‐specific.
• 2. Haemadsorption ‐ cells acquire the ability to stick to
mammalian red blood cells.
• Confirmation of the identity of the virus may be
carried out using neutralization, haemadsorption‐
inhibition or immunofluorescence tests.
Cytopathic Effect (1)
Cytopathic effect of enterovirus 71 and HSV in cell culture: note the ballooning of cells.
(Virology Laboratory, Yale-New Haven Hospital, Linda Stannard, University of Cape Town)
Cytopathic Effect (2)
• The cell sheet is grown on individual cover slips in a plastic
bottle.
• Following inoculation, the bottle then is spun at a low speed
for one hour (to speed up the adsorption of the virus) and
then incubated for 2 to 4 days.
• The cover slip is then taken out and examined for the
presence of CMV early antigens by immunofluorescence.
DEAFF test for CMV
Adenovirus Rotavirus
(courtesy of Linda Stannard, University of Cape Town, S.A.)
Immune Electron Microscopy
• The sensitivity and specificity of EM may be enhanced by
immune electron microscopy. There are two variants:‐
• Classical Immune electron microscopy (IEM) ‐ the sample is
treated with specific anti‐sera before being put up for EM.
Viral particles present will be agglutinated and thus
congregate together by the antibody.
• Solid phase immune electron microscopy (SPIEM) ‐ the grid
is coated with specific anti‐sera. Virus particles present in
the sample will be absorbed onto the grid by the antibody.
Problems with Electron
Microscopy
• Expensive equipment
• Expensive maintenance
• Require experienced observer
• Sensitivity often low
Serology
• Criteria for diagnosing Primary Infection
• 4 fold or more increase in titre of IgG or total antibody
between acute and convalescent sera
• Presence of IgM
• Seroconversion
• A single high titre of IgG (or total antibody) ‐ very unreliable
• Criteria for diagnosing Reinfection
• fold or more increase in titre of IgG or total antibody between
acute and convalescent sera
• Absence or slight increase in IgM
Typical Serological Profile After Acute Infection
Note that during reinfection, IgM may be absent or present at a low level transiently
Complement Fixation Test
Faeces Rotaviruses
Adenoviruses
Astrovirus
Skin HSV
VZV
• Potential Problems
• Often very much reduced sensitivity compared to cell
culture, can be as low as 20%. Specificity often poor as
well.
• Requires good specimens.
• The procedures involved are often tedious and time‐
consuming and thus expensive in terms of laboratory
time.
Specimens for Routine Tests
C linical C ategory B lood Throat Faeces CSF O ther
swab
1. M eningitis + + + +
2. Encephalitis + + + + Brain biopsy
3. Paralytic disease + + + +
4. Respiratory illness + + Nasopharyngeal aspirate
5. H epatitis +
6. G astroenteritis +
7. Congenital diseases + Urine, saliva
8. Skin lesions + + Lesion sam ple e.g. vesicle
fluid, skin scrapping
9. Eye lesions Eye sw ab
10. M yocarditis + Pericardial fluid
11. M yositis + +
12. G landular fever +
13. Post M ortem + Autopsy
After use, swabs should be broken into a sm all bottle containing 2 m l of virus transport m edium .
Swabs should be sent to the laboratory as soon as possible without freezing. Faeces, CSF, biopsy or
autopsy specim ens should be put into a dry sterile container.
Molecular Methods
• Methods based on the detection of viral genome
• Future direction of viral diagnosis
• Role played in a routine diagnostic virus laboratory
is still small compared to conventional methods
Classical Molecular Techniques
• Dot‐blot, Southern blot, in‐situ hydridization
• Depend on the use of specific DNA/RNA probes for
hybridization
• Specificity of the reaction depends on the
conditions used for hybridization
• Sensitivity is not better than conventional viral
diagnostic methods
• More tedious & expensive than conventional
techniques, they never found widespread
acceptance
Polymerase Chain Reaction (1)
• In vitro amplification of specific target DNA sequences
by a factor of 106 thus an extremely sensitive
technique
• Based on an enzymatic rxn involving use of synthetic
oligonucleotides flanking target nucleic sequence of
interest
• Oligonucleotides act as primers for the thermostable
Taq polymerase
• Repeated cycles (usually 25 to 40) of denaturation of
the template DNA (at 94oC), annealing of primers to
their complementary sequences (50oC), and primer
extension (72oC) result in the exponential production
of the specific target fragment
Polymerase Chain Reaction (2)
• Further sensitivity and specificity may be obtained
by the nested PCR
• Detection & ID of the PCR product is usually carried
out by:
• Agarose gel electrophoresis
• Hybridization with a specific oligonucleotide probe
• Restriction enzyme analysis, or
• DNA sequencing
Polymerase Chain Reaction (3)
• Advantages of PCR:
• Extremely high sensitivity, may detect down to one viral
genome per sample volume
• Easy to set up
• Fast turnaround time
• Disadvantages of PCR
• Extremely liable to contamination
• High degree of operator skill required
• Not easy to set up a quantitative assay.
• A positive result may be difficult to interpret, especially w/
latent viruses such as CMV, where any seropositive person
will have virus present in their blood irrespective whether
they have disease or not
Polymerase Chain Reaction (4)
• Problems addressed by arrival of commercial
closed systems (Roche Cobas Amplicor) which
requires minimum handling
• Use of synthetic internal competitive targets in
these commercial assays has facilitated accurate
quantification of results. However, these assays are
very expensive
Schematic of PCR