Total Quallity Management

Total Quality Management
CHAPTER NO. 1 : INTRODUCTION
Total quality management
Total quality management (TQM) consists of organization-wide efforts to

install and make permanent a climate in which an organization continuously
improves its ability to deliver high-quality products and services to
customers. While there is no widely agreed-upon approach, TQM efforts
typically draw heavily on the previously developed tools and techniques
of quality control. TQM enjoyed widespread attention during the late 1980s
and early 1990s before being overshadowed by ISO 9000, Lean
manufacturing, and Six Sigma.
n the late 1970s and early 1980s, the developed countries of North America
and Western Europe suffered economically in the face of stiff competition
from Japan's ability to produce high-quality goods at competitive cost. For
the first time since the start of the Industrial Revolution, the United
Kingdom became a net importer of finished goods. The United States
undertook its own soul-searching, expressed most pointedly in the television
broadcast of If Japan Can... Why Can't We? Firms began reexamining the
techniques of quality control invented over the past 50 years and how those
techniques had been so successfully employed by the Japanese. It was in the
midst of this economic turmoil that TQM took root.
The exact origin of the term "total quality management" is uncertain.[1] It is

almost certainly inspired by Armand V. Feigenbaum's multi-edition
1
book Total Quality Control(OCLC 299383303) and Kaoru Ishikawa's What

Is Total Quality Control? The Japanese Way (OCLC 11467749). It may
have been first coined in the United Kingdom by theDepartment of Trade
and Industry during its 1983 "National Quality Campaign". Or it may have
been first coined in the United States by the Naval Air Systems Command to
describe its quality-improvement efforts in 1985. ]
2
CHAPTER NO. 2 : FEATURES
There is no widespread agreement as to what TQM is and what actions it

requires of organizations, however a review of the original United States
Navy effort gives a rough understanding of what is involved in TQM.
The key concepts in the TQM effort undertaken by the Navy in the 1980s
include:
 "Quality is defined by customers' requirements."

 "Top management has direct responsibility for quality improvement."
 "Increased quality comes from systematic analysis and improvement of
work processes."
 "Quality improvement is a continuous effort and conducted throughout
the organization."
The Navy used the following tools and techniques:
 The PDCA cycle to drive issues to resolution

 Ad hoc cross-functional teams (similar to quality circles) responsible for
addressing immediate process issues
 Standing cross-functional teams responsible for the improvement of
processes over the long term
 Active management participation through steering committees
 Use of the Seven Basic Tools of Quality to analyze quality-related issues
3
Total Quality Management (TQM) in the Department of Defense is a

strategy for continuously improving performance at every level, and in all
areas of responsibility. It combines fundamental management techniques,
existing improvement efforts, and specialized technical tools under a
disciplined structure focused on continuously improving all processes.
Improved performance is directed at satisfying such broad goals as cost,
quality, schedule, and mission need and suitability. Increasing user
satisfaction is the overriding objective. The TQM effort builds on the
pioneering work of Dr. W. E. Deming, Dr. J. H. Juran, and others, and
benefits from both private and public sector experience with continuous
process improvement."
"A management philosophy and company practices that aim to harness the
human and material resources of an organization in the most effective way
to achieve the objectives of the organization."
"TQM is a philosophy for managing an organisation in a way which enables

it to meet stakeholder needs and expectations efficiently and effectively,
without compromising ethical values."
In the United States, the Baldridge Award, created by Public Law 100-107,
annually recognizes American businesses, educational institutions, and
healthcare organizations that run high-quality operations. Organizations are
judged on criteria from seven categories:
1. Leadership
2. Strategic planning
4
3. Customer focus
4. Measurement, analysis, and knowledge management
5. Workforce focus
6. Operations focus
7. Results
5
6
CHAPTER NO. 3 : STANDARDS
During the 1990s, standards bodies in Belgium, France, Germany, Turkey,

and the United Kingdom attempted to standardize TQM. While many of
these standards have since been explicitly withdrawn, they all are effectively
superseded by ISO 9000:
 Total Quality Management: Guide to Management Principles, London,

England: British Standards Institution,
1992, ISBN 9780580211560, OCLC 655881602, BS 7850
 Electronic Components Committee (1994), Guide to Total Quality
Management (TQM) for CECC-Approved Organizations, Brussels,
Belgium: European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization,
CECC 00 806 Issue 1
 System zur Zukunftssicherung: Total Quality Management
(TQM), Düsseldorf, Germany: Verein Deutscher Ingenieure,
1996, OCLC 632959402, VDI 5500
 Total Quality and Marketing/Management Tools, Paris, France: AFNOR,
1998, FD X50-680
 Total Quality Management: Guide to Management Principles, Turkish
Standards Institution (TSE), 2006, TS 1313
7
Legacy
Interest in TQM as an academic subject peaked around 1993.[1]
The Federal Quality Institute was shuttered in September 1995 as part of

the Clinton administration's efforts to streamline government.[18] The
European Centre for Total Quality Management closed in August 2009, a
casualty of the Great Recession.[19]
TQM as a vaguely defined quality management approach was largely

supplanted by the ISO 9000 collection of standards and their formal
certification processes in the 1990s. Business interest in quality
improvement under the TQM name also faded as Jack Welch's success
attracted attention to Six Sigma and Toyota's success attracted attention
toLean manufacturing, though the three share many of the same tools,
techniques, and significant portions of the same philosophy.
TQM lives on in various national quality awards around the globe.[20]
8
9
CHAPTER NO. 4 : QUALITY MANAGEMENT.
This article is about the general topic of quality management. For the
specific approach to quality management from the 1980s, see Total quality
management.
Quality management ensures that an organization, product or service is

consistent. It has four main components: quality planning, quality
control, quality assurance and quality improvement. Quality management is
focused not only on product and service quality, but also the means to
achieve it. Quality management therefore uses quality assurance and control
of processes as well as products to achieve more consistent quality.
Evolution
Quality management is a recent phenomenon. Advanced civilizations that

supported the arts and crafts allowed clients to choose goods meeting higher
quality standards than normal goods. In societies where arts and crafts are
the responsibility of a master craftsman or artist, they would lead their studio
and train and supervise others. The importance of craftsmen diminished as
mass production and repetitive work practices were instituted. The aim was
to produce large numbers of the same goods. The first proponent in the US
for this approach was Eli Whitney who proposed (interchangeable) parts
manufacture for muskets, hence producing the identical components and
creating a musket assembly line. The next step forward was promoted by
several people including Frederick Winslow Taylor a mechanical engineer
who sought to improve industrial efficiency. He is sometimes called "the
10
father of scientific management." He was one of the intellectual leaders of

the Efficiency Movement and part of his approach laid a further foundation
for quality management, including aspects like standardization and adopting
improved practices. Henry Ford was also important in bringing process and
quality management practices into operation in his assembly lines. In
Germany, Karl Friedrich Benz, often called the inventor of the motor car,
was pursuing similar assembly and production practices, although real mass
production was properly initiated in Volkswagen after World War II. From
this period onwards, North American companies focused predominantly
upon production against lower cost with increased efficiency.
Walter A. Shewhart made a major step in the evolution towards quality

management by creating a method for quality control for production, using
statistical methods, first proposed in 1924. This became the foundation for
his ongoing work on statistical quality control. W. Edwards Deming later
applied statistical process control methods in the United States during World
War II, thereby successfully improving quality in the manufacture of
munitions and other strategically important products.
Quality leadership from a national perspective has changed over the past five
to six decades. After the second world war, Japan decided to make quality
improvement a national imperative as part of rebuilding their economy, and
sought the help of Shewhart, Deming and Juran, amongst others. W.
Edwards Deming championed Shewhart's ideas in Japan from 1950
onwards. He is probably best known for his management philosophy
establishing quality, productivity, and competitive position. He has
formulated 14 points of attention for managers, which are a high level
abstraction of many of his deep insights. They should be interpreted by
11
learning and understanding the deeper insights. These 14 points include key
concepts such as:
 Break down barriers between departments

 Management should learn their responsibilities, and take on leadership
 Supervision should be to help people and machines and gadgets to do a
better job
 Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service
 Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement
In the 1950s and 1960s, Japanese goods were synonymous with cheapness
and low quality, but over time their quality initiatives began to be successful,
with Japan achieving very high levels of quality in products from the 1970s
onward. For example, Japanese cars regularly top the J.D. Power customer
satisfaction ratings. In the 1980s Deming was asked by Ford Motor
Company to start a quality initiative after they realized that they were falling
behind Japanese manufacturers. A number of highly successful quality
initiatives have been invented by the Japanese (see for example on this
page: Genichi Taguchi, QFD, Toyota Production System. Many of the
methods not only provide techniques but also have associated quality culture
(i.e. people factors). These methods are now adopted by the same western
countries that decades earlier derided Japanese methods.
Customers recognize that quality is an important attribute in products and

services. Suppliers recognize that quality can be an important differentiator
between their own offerings and those of competitors (quality differentiation
is also called the quality gap). In the past two decades this quality gap has
been greatly reduced between competitive products and services. This is
12
partly due to the contracting (also called outsourcing) of manufacture to

countries like India and China, as well internationalization of trade and
competition. These countries amongst many others have raised their own
standards of quality in order to meet International standards and customer
demands. The ISO 9000 series of standards are probably the best known
International standards for quality management.
There are a huge number of books available on quality management. In

recent times some themes have become more significant including quality
culture, the importance of knowledge management, and the role of
leadership in promoting and achieving high quality. Disciplines like systems
thinking are bringing more holistic approaches to quality so that people,
process and products are considered together rather than independent factors
in quality management.
The influence of quality thinking has spread to non-traditional applications

outside of walls of manufacturing, extending into service sectors and into
areas such as sales,marketing and customer service.
13
CHAPTER NO. 5 PRINCIPLES
The International Standard for Quality management (ISO 9001:2008) adopts

a number of management principles that can be used by top management to
guide their organizations towards improved performance.
Customer focus
Since the organizations depend on their customers, they should understand

current and future customer needs, should meet customer requirements and
should try to exceed the expectations of customers. An organization attains
customer focus when all people in the organization know both the internal
and external customers and also what customer requirements must be met to
ensure that both the internal and external customers are satisfied.
Leadership
Leaders of an organization establish unity of purpose and direction of it.

They should go for creation and maintenance of such an internal
environment, in which people can become fully involved in achieving the
organization's quality objective.
Involvement of people
People at all levels of an organization are the essence of it. Their complete
involvement enables their abilities to be used for the benefit of the
organization, however the ultimate key decisions are made by the project
manager.
Process approach
The desired result can be achieved when activities and related resources are
managed in an organization as a process.
14
System approach to management
An organization's effectiveness and efficiency in achieving its quality

objectives are contributed by identifying, understanding and managing all
interrelated processes as a system. Quality Control involves checking
transformed and transforming resources in all stages of production process.[4]
Continual improvement
One of the permanent quality objectives of an organization should be the

continual improvement of its overall performance, leveraging clear and
concise PPMs (Process Performance Measures).
Factual approach to decision making
Effective decisions are always based on the data analysis and information.
Mutually beneficial supplier relationships
Since an organization and its suppliers are interdependent, therefore a

mutually beneficial relationship between them increases the ability of both
to add value.
These eight principles form the basis for the quality management system
standard ISO 9001:2008.
15
CHAPTER NO. 6 : QUALITY IMPROVEMENT.
There are many methods for quality improvement. These cover product
improvement, process improvement and people based improvement. In the
following list are methods of quality management and techniques that
incorporate and drive quality improvement:
1. ISO 9004:2008 — guidelines for performance improvement.

2. ISO 15504-4: 2005 — information technology — process assessment
— Part 4: Guidance on use for process improvement and process
capability determination.
3. QFD — quality function deployment, also known as the house of
quality approach.
4. Kaizen — Japanese for change for the better; the common English
term is continuous improvement.
5. Zero Defect Program — created by NEC Corporation of Japan, based
upon statistical process control and one of the inputs for the inventors
of Six Sigma.
6. Six Sigma — 6σ, Six Sigma combines established methods such as
statistical process control, design of experiments and failure mode
and effects analysis (FMEA) in an overall framework.
7. PDCA — plan, do, check, act cycle for quality control purposes. (Six
Sigma's DMAIC method (define, measure, analyze, improve, control)
may be viewed as a particular implementation of this.)
8. Quality circle — a group (people oriented) approach to improvement.
9. Taguchi methods — statistical oriented methods including quality
robustness, quality loss function, and target specifications.
16
10.The Toyota Production System — reworked in the west into lean

manufacturing.
11.Kansei Engineering — an approach that focuses on capturing
customer emotional feedback about products to drive improvement.
12.TQM — total quality management is a management strategy aimed at
embedding awareness of quality in all organizational processes. First
promoted in Japan with the Deming prize which was adopted and
adapted in USA as the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award and
in Europe as the European Foundation for Quality Managementaward
(each with their own variations).
13.TRIZ — meaning "theory of inventive problem solving"
14.BPR — business process reengineering, a management approach
aiming at optimizing the workflows and processes within an
organisation.
15.OQRM — Object-oriented Quality and Risk Management, a model
for quality and risk management.
Proponents of each approach have sought to improve them as well as apply

them for small, medium and large gains. Simple one is Process Approach,
which forms the basis ofISO 9001:2008 Quality Management System
standard, duly driven from the 'Eight principles of Quality management',
process approach being one of them. Thareja writes about the mechanism
and benefits: "The process (proficiency) may be limited in words, but not in
its applicability. While it fulfills the criteria of all-round gains: in terms of
the competencies augmented by the participants; the organisation seeks
newer directions to the business success, the individual brand image of both
the people and the organisation, in turn, goes up. The competencies which
17
were hitherto rated as being smaller, are better recognized and now
acclaimed to be more potent and fruitful". The more complex Quality
improvement tools are tailored for enterprise types not originally targeted.
For example, Six Sigma was designed for manufacturing but has spread to
service enterprises. Each of these approaches and methods has met with
success but also with failures.
Some of the common differentiators between success and failure include

commitment, knowledge and expertise to guide improvement, scope of
change/improvement desired (Big Bang type changes tend to fail more often
compared to smaller changes) and adaption to enterprise cultures. For
example, quality circles do not work well in every enterprise (and are even
discouraged by some managers), and relatively few TQM-participating
enterprises have won the national quality awards.
There have been well publicized failures of BPR, as well as Six Sigma.
Enterprises therefore need to consider carefully which quality improvement
methods to adopt, and certainly should not adopt all those listed here.
It is important not to underestimate the people factors, such as culture, in

selecting a quality improvement approach. Any improvement (change) takes
time to implement, gain acceptance and stabilize as accepted practice.
Improvement must allow pauses between implementing new changes so that
the change is stabilized and assessed as a real improvement, before the next
improvement is made (hence continual improvement, not continuous
improvement).
Improvements that change the culture take longer as they have to overcome
greater resistance to change. It is easier and often more effective to work
within the existing cultural boundaries and make small improvements (that
18
is Kaizen) than to make major transformational changes. Use of Kaizen in

Japan was a major reason for the creation of Japanese industrial and
economic strength.
On the other hand, transformational change works best when an enterprise

faces a crisis and needs to make major changes in order to survive. In Japan,
the land of Kaizen,Carlos Ghosn led a transformational change at Nissan
Motor Company which was in a financial and operational crisis. Well
organized quality improvement programs take all these factors into account
when selecting the quality improvement methods.
19
20
Quality standards
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) created the Quality

Management System (QMS) standards in 1987. They were the ISO
9000:1987 series of standards comprising ISO 9001:1987, ISO 9002:1987
and ISO 9003:1987; which were applicable in different types of industries,
based on the type of activity or process: designing, production or service
delivery.
The standards are reviewed every few years by the International

Organization for Standardization. The version in 1994 was called the ISO
9000:1994 series; consisting of the ISO 9001:1994, 9002:1994 and
9003:1994 versions.
The last major revision was in the year 2008 and the series was called ISO
9000:2000 series. The ISO 9002 and 9003 standards were integrated into
one single certifiable standard: ISO 9001:2000. After December 2003,
organizations holding ISO 9002 or 9003 standards had to complete a
transition to the new standard.
ISO released a minor revision, ISO 9001:2008 on 14 October 2008. It

contains no new requirements. Many of the changes were to improve
consistency in grammar, facilitating translation of the standard into other
languages for use by over 950,000 certified organization in the 175 countries
(as at Dec 2007) that use the standard.
The ISO 9004:2009 document gives guidelines for performance

improvement over and above the basic standard (ISO 9001:2000). This
standard provides a measurement framework for improved quality
21
management, similar to and based upon the measurement framework for

process assessment.
The Quality Management System standards created by ISO are meant to

certify the processes and the system of an organization, not the product or
service itself. ISO 9000 standards do not certify the quality of the product or
service.
In 2005 the International Organization for Standardization released a

standard, ISO 22000, meant for the food industry. This standard covers the
values and principles of ISO 9000 and the HACCP standards. It gives one
single integrated standard for the food industry and is expected to become
more popular in the coming years in such industry.
ISO has also released standards for other industries. For example Technical
Standard TS 16949 defines requirements in addition to those in ISO
9001:2008 specifically for the automotive industry.
ISO has a number of standards that support quality management. One group
describes processes (including ISO/IEC 12207 & ISO/IEC 15288) and
another describes process assessment and improvement ISO 15504.
The Software Engineering Institute has its own process assessment and
improvement methods, called CMMI (Capability Maturity Model
Integration) and IDEAL respectively.
Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI) is a process improvement

training and appraisal program and service administered and marketed by
Carnegie Mellon University and required by many DOD and U.S.
Government contracts, especially in software development. Carnegie Mellon
University claims CMMI can be used to guide process improvement across a
22
project, division, or an entire organization. Under the CMMI methodology,

processes are rated according to their maturity levels, which are defined as:
Initial, Managed, Defined, Quantitatively Managed, Optimizing. Currently
supported is CMMI Version 1.3. CMMI is registered in the U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office by Carnegie Mellon University.
Three constellations of CMMI are:
Product and service development (CMMI for Development) Service

establishment, management, and delivery (CMMI for Services) Product and
service acquisition (CMMI for Acquisition)
CMMI Version 1.3 was released on November 1, 2010. This release is

noteworthy because it updates all three CMMI models (CMMI for
Development, CMMI for Services, and CMMI for Acquisition) to make
them consistent and to improve their high maturity practices. The CMMI
Product Team has reviewed more than 1,150 change requests for the models
and 850 for the appraisal method.
As part of its mission to transition mature technology to the software

community, the SEI has transferred CMMI-related products and activities to
the CMMI Institute, a 100%-controlled subsidiary of Carnegie Innovations,
Carnegie Mellon University’s technology commercialization enterprise.
Other prominent quality models
VDA: quality management model developed for the German automobile

industry VDA
23
AVSQ: quality management model developed for the Italian automobile

industry AVSQ
EAQF: quality management model developed for the French automobile

industry EAQF
QS-9000: quality management model developed for the US automobile

industry QS9000
TS 16949: special requirements for the application of ISO 9000 for suppliers
of the automobile industry TS 16949
European Quality-Award: European award for Total Quality Management

which has been presented since 1991 by the European Federation of Quality
Management EFQM.www.efqm.org
Deming-Award: Japanese award for Quality management since

1951. www.deming.org
Malcom Baldrige-Award: US-American Award for Total Quality

Management created in 1987 www.quality.nist.org
24
CHAPTER NO. 7 : QUALITY MANAGEMENT

SOFTWARE.
Quality Management Software is a category of technologies used by

organizations to manage the delivery of high quality products. Solutions
range in functionality, however, with the use of automation capabilities they
typically have components for managing internal and external risk,
compliance, and the quality of processes and products. Pre-configured and
industry-specific solutions are available and generally require integration
with existing IT architecture applications such as ERP, SCM, CRM,
and PLM.
Quality Management Software Functionalities
 Non-Conformances/Corrective and Preventive Action

 Compliance/Audit Management
 Supplier Quality Management
 Risk Management
 Statistical Process Control
 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis
 Complaint Handling
 Advanced Product Quality Planning
 Environment, Health, and Safety
 Hazard Analysis & Critical Control Points
 Production Part Approval Process
25
Enterprise Quality Management Software
The intersection of technology and quality management software prompted

the emergence of a new software category: Enterprise Quality Management
Software (EQMS). EQMS is a platform for cross-functional communication
and collaboration that centralizes, standardizes, and streamlines quality
management data from across the value chain. The software breaks down
functional silos created by traditionally implemented standalone and targeted
solutions. Supporting the proliferation and accessibility of information
across supply chain activities, design, production, distribution, and service, it
provides a holistic viewpoint for managing the quality of products and
processes.
Quality terms
 Quality Improvement can be distinguished from Quality Control in that

Quality Improvement is the purposeful change of a process to improve
the reliability of achieving outcome.
 Quality Control is the ongoing effort to maintain the integrity of a
process to maintain the reliability of achieving an outcome.
 Quality Assurance is the planned or systematic actions necessary to
provide enough confidence that a product or service will satisfy the given
requirements.
26
CHAPTER NO. 8 QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
A quality management system (QMS) is a collection of business

processes focused on achieving quality policy and quality objectives to meet
customer requirements.[1] It is expressed as the organizational structure,
policies, procedures, processes and resources needed to implement quality
management. Early systems emphasized predictable outcomes of an
industrial product production line, using simple statistics and random
sampling. By the 20th century, labour inputs were typically the most costly
inputs in most industrialized societies, so focus shifted to team cooperation
and dynamics, especially the early signalling of problems via a continuous
improvement cycle. In the 21st century, QMS has tended to converge
with sustainability and transparency initiatives, as both investor and
customer satisfaction and perceived quality is increasingly tied to these
factors. Of all QMS regimes, the ISO 9000 family of standards is probably
the most widely implemented worldwide - the ISO 19011 audit regime
applies to both, and deals with quality and sustainability and their
integration.
Other QMS, e.g. Natural Step, focus on sustainability issues and assume that
other quality problems will be reduced as result of the systematic thinking,
transparency, documentation and diagnostic discipline.
27
Elements of a Quality Management System
1. Quality policy
2. Quality objectives
3. Quality manual
4. Organizational structure and responsibilities
5. Data Management
6. Processes - including purchasing
7. Resources - including natural resources and human capital
8. Product quality leading to Customer satisfaction
9. Continuous Improvement including Corrective and preventive action
10.Maintenance
11.Sustainability - including efficient resource use and responsible
environmental operations
12.Transparency and independence audit
Quality system for medical devices
ISO 13485 is considered state of the art for medical device manufacturers
QMS and related services. The standard is harmonised in the EU to
the medical devices directive(93/42/EEC) as well as the IVD and AIMD
directives; the standard is also used in other jurisdictions such as Japan
(JPAL) and Canada (via the CMDCAS scheme).
Quality System requirements for medical devices have been internationally

recognized as a way to assure product safety and efficacy and customer
satisfaction since at least 1983, and were instituted as requirements in a final
28
rule published on October 7, 1996. The U.S. Food and Drug

Administration (FDA) had documented design defects in medical devices
that contributed to recalls from 1983 to 1989 that would have been
prevented if Quality Systems had been in place. The rule is promulgated
at 21 CFR 820.
According to current Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), medical

device manufacturers have the responsibility to use good judgment when
developing their quality system and apply those sections of the FDA Quality
System (QS) Regulation that are applicable to their specific products and
operations, in Part 820 of the QS regulation. As with GMP, operating within
this flexibility, it is the responsibility of each manufacturer to establish
requirements for each type or family of devices that will result in devices
that are safe and effective, and to establish methods and procedures to
design, produce, and distribute devices that meet the quality system
requirements.
The FDA has identified in the QS regulation the essential elements that a
quality system shall embody for design, production and distribution, without
prescribing specific ways to establish these elements. These elements
include:
Quality System
 personnel training and qualification

 controlling the product design
 controlling documentation
 controlling purchasing
 product identification and traceability at all stages of production
29
 controlling and defining production and process

 defining and controlling inspection, measuring and test equipment
 validating processes
 product acceptance
 controlling nonconforming product
 instituting corrective and preventive action when errors occur
 labeling and packaging controls
 handling, storage, distribution and installation
 records
 servicing
 statistical techniques
All overseen by management and quality audits.
Because the QS regulation covers a broad spectrum of devices and

production processes, it allows some leeway in the details of quality system
elements. It is left to manufacturers to determine the necessity for, or extent
of, some quality elements and to develop and implement procedures tailored
to their particular processes and devices. For example, if it is impossible to
mix up labels at a manufacturer because there is only one label to each
product, then there is no necessity for the manufacturer to comply with all of
the GMP requirements under device labeling.
Drug manufactures are regulated under a different section of the Code of

Federal Regulations:
30
Quality Management System process
A QMS process is an element of an organizational QMS.

The ISO9001:2000 standard requires organizations
seeking compliance or certification to define the processes which form the
QMS and the sequence and interaction of these processes. Butterworth-
Heinemann and other publishers have offered several books which provide
step-by-step guides to whom seeking the quality certifications of their
products.
Examples of such processes include:
 Order Processing
 Production Planning
 Measurement of product/ service/ process compliant with specified
requirements including statistical techniques such as Statistical Process
Control and Measurement Systems Analysis
 Calibration
 Internal Audit
 Corrective Action
 Preventive Action
 Identification, labeling and control of non conforming product to
preclude its inadvertent use, delivery or processing.
 Purchasing and related processes such as supplier selection
and monitoring
31
ISO9001 requires that the performance of these processes be measured,

analysed and continually improved, and the results of this form an input into
the management review process.
Quality control
Quality control, or QC for short, is a process by which entities review the

quality of all factors involved in production. ISO 9000 defines quality
control as "A part of quality management focused on fulfilling quality
requirements".
This approach places an emphasis on three aspects:
1. Elements such as controls, job management, defined and well

managed processes, performance and integrity criteria, and
identification of records
2. Competence, such as knowledge, skills, experience, and qualifications
3. Soft elements, such as personnel, integrity, confidence, organizational
culture, motivation, team spirit, and quality relationships.
Controls include product inspection, where every product is examined

visually, and often using a stereo microscope for fine detail before the
product is sold into the external market. Inspectors will be provided with
lists and descriptions of unacceptable product defects such ascracks or
surface blemishes for example. The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of
these three aspects is deficient in any way.
Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects and

reporting to management who make the decision to allow or deny product
release, whereas quality assurance attempts to improve and stabilize
32
production (and associated processes) to avoid, or at least minimize, issues

which led to the defect(s) in the first place. For contract work, particularly
work awarded by government agencies, quality control issues are among the
top reasons for not renewing a contract.
Eight dimensions of quality
Eight dimensions of product quality management can be used at a strategic

level to analyze quality characteristics. The concept was defined by David
Garvin. Some of the dimensions are mutually reinforcing, whereas others are
not—improvement in one may be at the expense of others. Understanding
the trade-offs desired by customers among these dimensions can help build a
competitive advantage. Garvin's eight dimensions can be summarized as
follows:
1. Performance: Performance refers to a product's primary operating

characteristics. This dimension of quality involves measurable
attributes; brands can usually be ranked objectively on individual
aspects of performance.
2. Features: Features are additional characteristics that enhance the
appeal of the product or service to the user.
3. Reliability: Reliability is the likelihood that a product will not fail
within a specific time period. This is a key element for users who
need the product to work without fail.
4. Conformance: Conformance is the precision with which the product
or service meets the specified standards.
5. Durability: Durability measures the length of a product’s life. When
the product can be repaired, estimating durability is more
33
complicated. The item will be used until it is no longer economical to

operate it. This happens when the repair rate and the associated costs
increase significantly.
6. Serviceability: Serviceability is the speed with which the product can
be put into service when it breaks down, as well as the competence
and the behavior of the serviceperson.
7. Aesthetics: Aesthetics is the subjective dimension indicating the kind
of response a user has to a product. It represents the individual’s
personal preference.
8. Perceived Quality: Perceived Quality is the quality attributed to a
good or service based on indirect measures.
The outcome of two example processes to show the meaning of the two
approaches to conformance
The dimension of conformance depicts to what extent a product’s design and

operating characteristics meet established standards. This dimension owes
the most to the traditional approaches to quality pioneered by experts like
Juran.
All products and services involve specifications of some sort. When

products are developed, these specifications are set and a target is set, for
instance the materials used or the dimension of the product. Not only the
target but also the tolerance (the range of permitted deviation from the
target) is defined. One problem with this approach is that there is little
interest in whether the specifications have been met exactly as long as the
tolerance limits are met.
34
On the one hand, this can lead to the so-called “tolerance stack-up”. When
two or more parts are to be fit together, the size of their tolerances often
determine how well they will match. Should one part fall at a lower limit of
its specification and a matching part at its upper limit, a tight fit is unlikely.
The link is likely to wear more quickly than one made from parts whose
dimensions have been centered more exactly.
This problem can be addressed by taking a different approach to measuring

quality. Instead of measuring a simple conformance to specifications, the
degree to which parts or products diverge from the ideal target is measured.
Using this approach, process 1 (see picture) is better even though some items
fall beyond specification limits. The traditional approach would have
favoured process 2 because it produces more items within the specification
limit. It was demonstrated that the problem of “tolerance stack-up” is worse
when the dimensions of parts are more distant from the target than when
they cluster around it, even if some parts fall outside the tolerance. This
approach requires a fresh look at the common process quality factor of
'defect rate', to take into account the fact that two parts may each pass the
'tolerance test' separately but be unusable when the attempt is made to join
them together.
In service businesses, measures of conformance normally focus on accuracy

and timeliness and include counts of processing errors, unanticipated delays
and other frequent mistakes.
35
Performance
Performance refers to a product's primary operating characteristics. This

dimension of quality involves measurable attributes, so brands can usually
be ranked objectively on individual aspects of performance. Overall
performance rankings,however, are more difficult to develop, especially
when they involve benefits that not every consumer needs. Performance is
often a source of contention between customers and suppliers, particularly
when deliverables are not adequately defined within specifications. The
performance of a product often influences the profitability or reputation of
the end-user. As such, many contracts or specifications include damages
related to inadequate performance. The question of whether performance
differences are quality differences may depend on circumstantial
preferences-but preferences based on functional requirements, not taste.
Some performance standards are based on subjective preferences, but the
preferences are so universal that they have the force of an objective standard.
Reliability
Reliability is the likelihood that a product will not fail within a specific time
period. This is a key element for users who need the product to work without
fail.
This dimension reflects the probability of a product malfunctioning or

failing within a specified time period. Among the most common measures of
36
reliability are the mean time to first failure, the mean time between failures,
and the failure rate per unit time. Because these measures require a product
to be in use for a specified period, they are more relevant to durable goods
than to products and services that are consumed instantly.
Reliability normally becomes more important to consumers as downtime and

maintenance become more expensive. Farmers, for example, are especially
sensitive to downtime during the short harvest season. Reliable equipment
can mean the difference between a good year and spoiled crops. But
consumers on other markets are more attuned than ever to product reliability
too. Computers and copying machines certainly compare on this basis.
Reliability may be closely related to performance. For instance, a product

specification may define parameters for up-time, or acceptable failure rates.
Reliability is a major contributor to brand or company image, and is
considered a fundamental dimension of quality by most end-users. I.E.,
recent market research shows that, especially for women, reliability has
become an automobile's most desired attribute.
Durability
Durability measures the length of a product’s life. When the product can be
repaired, estimating durability is more complicated. The item will be used
until it is no longer economical to operate it. This happens when the repair
rate and the associated costs increase significantly. Technically, durability
can be defined as the amount of use one gets from a product before it
deteriorates. After so many hours of use, the filament of a light bulb burns
37
up and the bulb must be replaced. Repair is impossible. Economists call such
products "one-hoss shays" (Oliver Wendel Holmes poem).
In other cases, consumers must weigh the expected cost, in both dollars and
personal inconvenience, of future repairs against the investment and
operating expenses of a newer, more reliable model. Durability, then, may
be defined as the amount of use one gets from a product before it breaks
down and replacement is preferable to continued repair.
This approach to durability has two important implications. First, it suggests

that durability and reliability are closely linked. A product that often fails is
likely to be scrapped earlier than one that is more reliable; repair costs will
be correspondingly higher and the purchase of a competitive brand will look
that much more desirable. Second, this approach implies that durability
figures should be interpreted with care. An increase in product life may not
be the result of technical improvements or the use of longer-lived materials.
Rather, the underlying economic environment simply may have changed.
Serviceability
Serviceability involves the consumer's ease of obtaining repair service

(example: access to service centers and/or ease of self-service), the
responsiveness of service personnel(example: ease of getting an
appointment, willingness of repair personnel to listen to the customer), and
the reliability of service (example: whether the service is performed right the
first time). Competence and ease of repair is the speed with which the
38
product can be put into service when it breaks down, as well as the
competence and the behavior of the service personnel.
Consumers are concerned not only about a product breaking down but also
about the time before service is restored, the timeliness with which service
appointment are kept, the nature of dealings with service personnel, and the
frequency with which service calls or repairs fail to correct outstanding
problems. In those cases where problems are not immediately resolved and
complaints are filed, a company's complaint handling procedures are also
likely to affect customer's ultimate evaluation of product and service quality.
Some of these variables reflect differing personal standards of acceptable

service. others can be measured quite objectively. Customers may remain
dissatisfied even after completion of repairs. How these complaints are
handled is important to a company's reputation for quality and service.
Eventually, profitability is likely to be affected as well. Companies differ
widely in their approaches to complaint handling and in the importance they
attach to this element of serviceability. Some do their best to resolve
complaints; others use legal gimmicks, the silent treatment and similar ploys
to rebuff dissatisfied customers.
For example recently, General Electric, Procter & Gamble and other
companies have sought to preempt consumer dissatisfaction by installing
toll-free telephone hot lines to their customer relations departments.
Important attributes for serviceability dimension are: service warranty, parts

warranty, parts availability, number of reasonable distance to dealer service
centers, distance to service parts center-dealer, distance to service parts
center individual, length of wait for service appointment, schedule of
preventive maintenance, employees listen to customers, information
39
regarding repairs, courteous service centers, repaired correctly first time,

service time relative to other dealers, warranty claims handled without
argument, average repair cost/year, extended warranty, underestimation of
service cost and provision of loan car.
Aesthetics
The aesthetic properties of a product contribute to a company's or brand's

identity. Faults or defects in a product that diminish its aesthetic properties,
even those that do not reduce or alter other dimensions of quality, are often
cause for rejection. Aeshetics refers to how the product
looks,feels,sounds,tastes or smells.It is clearly a matter of personal
judgement and a reflection of individual preference.Nevertheless,there
appear to be some patterns in consumers' rankings of products on the basis
of taste. A recent study of quality in 33 food categories,for example,found
that high quality was most often associated with "rich and full flavour,tastes
natural,tastes fresh,good aroma,and looks apetizing". Aesthetics also refers
to the "outside" feel of the product. The aesthetics dimension differs from
subjective criteria pertaining to "performance" in that aeshetic choices are
not nearly universal.Not all people prefer "rich and full" flavor or even agree
on what that means.Companies therefore have to search for a niche.On this
dimension of quality,it is impossible to please everyone. See also Japanese
quality
Perceived Quality
40
Perception is not always reality.
Consumers do not always have complete information about a product's or

service's attributes; indirect measures may be their only basis for comparing
brands.
A product's durability for example,can seldom be observed directly; it

usually must be inferred from various tangible and intangible aspects of the
product.In such circumstances,images,advertising and brand names-
inferences about quality rather than the reality itself-can be critical.For this
reason,both Honda-which makes cars in Marysville,Ohio-and Sony-which
builds color televisions in San Diego-have been reluctant to publicize that
their products are "made in America".
Reputation is the primary stuff of perceived quality.Its power comes from an

unstated analogy:that the quality of products today is similar to the quality of
products of yesterday,or the quality of goods in a new product line is similar
to the quality of a company's established products.
41
Quality assurance
"Quality engineering" redirects here. For the journal, see Quality

Engineering (journal).
Quality Assurance (QA) is a way of preventing mistakes or defects in

manufactured products and avoiding problems when delivering solutions or
services to customers. ISO 9000 defines quality assurance as "A part of
quality management focused on providing confidence that quality
requirements will be fulfilled’’. It thus differs subtly from quality control.
QA is applied to physical products in pre-production to verify what will be

made meets specifications and requirements, and during manufacturing
production runs by validating lot samples meet specified quality controls.
QA is also applied to software to verify that features and functionality meet
business objectives, and that code is relatively bug free prior to shipping or
releasing new software products and versions.
Quality Assurance refers to administrative and procedural activities

implemented in a quality system so that requirements and goals for a
product, service or activity will be fulfilled. It is the systematic
measurement, comparison with a standard, monitoring of processes and an
associated feedback loop that confers error prevention. This can be
contrasted with quality control, which is focused on process output.
Two principles included in Quality Assurance are: "Fit for purpose", the
product should be suitable for the intended purpose; and "Right first time",
mistakes should be eliminated. QA includes management of the quality of
raw materials, assemblies, products and components, services related to
production, and management, production and inspection processes.
42
Suitable quality is determined by product users, clients or customers, not

by society in general. It is not related to cost, and adjectives or descriptors
such as "high" and "poor" are not applicable. For example, a low priced
product may be viewed as having high quality because it is disposable,
where another may be viewed as having poor quality because it is not
disposable.
Failure testing
A valuable process to perform on a whole consumer product is failure

testing or stress testing. In mechanical terms this is the operation of a
product until it fails, often under stresses such as
increasing vibration, temperature, and humidity. This exposes many
unanticipated weaknesses in a product, and the data is used to drive
engineering and manufacturing process improvements. Often quite simple
changes can dramatically improve product service, such as changing
to mold-resistant paint or adding lock-washerplacement to the training for
new assembly personnel.
Statistical control
Statistical control is based on analyses of objective and subjective

data. Many organizations use statistical process control as a tool in any
quality improvement effort to track quality data. Any product can be
statistically charted as long as they have a common cause variance or special
cause variance to track.
43
Walter Shewart of Bell Telephone Laboratories recognized that when a

product is made, data can be taken from scrutinized areas of a sample lot of
the part and statistical variances are then analyzed and charted. Control can
then be implemented on the part in the form of rework or scrap, or control
can be implemented on the process that made the part, ideally eliminating
the defect before more parts can be made like it
44
CHAPTER NO. 9 COMPANY QUALITY.
During the 1980s, the concept of "company quality" with the focus
on management and people came to the fore. It was realized that, if
all departments approached quality with an open mind, success was possible
if the management led the quality improvement process.
The company-wide quality approach places an emphasis on four aspects:-
1. Elements such as controls, job management, adequate processes,

performance and integrity criteria and identification of records
2. Competence such as knowledge, skills, experiences, qualifications
3. Soft elements, such as personnel integrity, confidence, organizational
culture, motivation, team spirit and quality relationships.
4. Infrastructure (as it enhances or limits functionality)
The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these aspects is deficient.
QA is not limited to the manufacturing, and can be applied to any business

or non-business activity:
 Design
 Consulting
 Banking
 Insurance
 Computer software development
 Retailing
 Investment
 Transportation
 Education
45
 Translation
It comprises a quality improvement process, which is generic in the sense

that it can be applied to any of these activities and it establishes a behavior
pattern, which supports the achievement of quality.
This in turn is supported by quality management practices which can include

a number of business systems and which are usually specific to the activities
of the business unitconcerned.
In manufacturing and construction activities, these business practices can be

equated to the models for quality assurance defined by the International
Standards contained in theISO 9000 series and the
specified Specifications for quality systems.
In the system of Company Quality, the work being carried out was shop
floor inspection which did not reveal the major quality problems. This led to
quality assurance or total quality control, which has come into being
recently.
46
CHAPTER NO. 10 : QUALITY INFRASTRUCTURE.
Quality infrastructure must ensure:
- elaboration and implementation of technical regulations for products and

passage from compulsory standards to voluntary ones;
- application of good practice code regarding standardization;
- elimination of all measures that pose trade barriers - not only customs taxes
and quantitative restrictions, but all the measures with equivalent
(protectionist) effects.
ISO 9000
The ISO 9000 family of quality management systems standards is designed

to help organizations ensure that they meet the needs of customers and other
stakeholders while meeting statutory and regulatory requirements related to
a product. ISO 9000 deals with the fundamentals of quality management
systems, including the eight management principles upon which the family
of standards is based. ISO 9001 deals with the requirements that
organizations wishing to meet the standard must fulfill.
Third-party certification bodies provide independent confirmation that

organizations meet the requirements of ISO 9001. Over one million
organizations worldwide are independently certified, making ISO 9001 one
of the most widely used management tools in the world today. Despite
widespread use, the ISO certification process has been criticized as being
wasteful and not being useful for all organizations
47
Reasons for use
The global adoption of ISO 9001 may be attributable to a number of factors.

A number of major purchasers require their suppliers to hold ISO 9001
certification. In addition to several stakeholders' benefits, a number of
studies have identified significant financial benefits for organizations
certified to ISO 9001, with a 2011 survey from the British Assessment
Bureau showing 44% of their certified clients had won new
business. Corbett et al. showed that certified organizations achieved
superior return on assets compared to otherwise similar organizations
without certification. Heras et al. found similarly superior performance and
demonstrated that this was statistically significant and not a function of
organization size. Naveha and Marcus claimed that implementing ISO 9001
led to superior operational performance in the U.S. automotive industry.
Sharma identified similar improvements in operating performance and
linked this to superior financial performance. Chow-Chua et al. showed
better overall financial performance was achieved for companies
in Denmark. Rajan and Tamimi (2003) showed that ISO 9001 certification
resulted in superior stock market performance and suggested that
shareholders were richly rewarded for the investment in an ISO 9001
system.
While the connection between superior financial performance and ISO 9001
may be seen from the examples cited, there remains no proof of direct
causation, though longitudinal studies, such as those of Corbett et al. (2005)
may suggest it. Other writers, such as Heras et al. (2002), have suggested
that while there is some evidence of this, the improvement is partly driven
48
by the fact that there is a tendency for better performing companies to seek
ISO 9001 certification.
The mechanism for improving results has also been the subject of much
research. Lo et al. (2007) identified operational improvements (e.g., cycle
time reduction, inventory reductions) as following from
certification. Internal process improvements in organizations lead to
externally observable improvements. The benefit of increased international
trade and domestic market share, in addition to the internal benefits such as
customer satisfaction, interdepartmental communications, work processes,
and customer/supplier partnerships derived, far exceeds any and all initial
investment.
ISO 9001:2008 Quality management systems — Requirements is a

document of approximately 30 pages which is available from the national
standards organization in each country. It is supplemented by two other
standards: ISO 9000:2005 Quality management systems—Fundamentals and
vocabulary and ISO 9004:2009 Managing for the sustained success of an
organization—A quality management approach. Only ISO 9001 is directly
audited against for third party assessment purposes. The other two standards
are supplementary and contain deeper information on how to sustain and
improve quality management systems; they are therefore not used directly
during third party assessment. Outline contents for ISO 9001 are as follows:
Before the certification body can issue or renew a certificate, the auditor
must be satisfied that the company being assessed has implemented the
requirements of sections 4 to 8. Sections 1 to 3 are not directly audited
against, but because they provide context and definitions for the rest of the
standard, their contents must be taken into account.
49
The standard specifies that the organization shall issue and maintain the
following six documented procedures:
 Control of Documents.
 Control of Records Internal Audits.
 Control of Nonconforming Product / Service.
 Corrective Action.
 Preventive Action.
In addition to these procedures, ISO 9001:2008 requires the organization to

document any other procedures required for its effective operation. The
standard also requires the organization to issue and communicate a
documented quality policy, a Quality Manual (which may or may not
include the documented procedures) and numerous records, as specified
throughout the standard.
50
Auditing
Two types of auditing are required to become registered to the standard:

auditing by an external certification body (external audit) and audits by
internal staff trained for this process (internal audits). The aim is a continual
process of review and assessment to verify that the system is working as it is
supposed to; to find out where it can improve; and to correct or prevent
problems identified. It is considered healthier for internal auditors to audit
outside their usual management line, so as to bring a degree of independence
to their judgments.
Under the 1994 standard, the auditing process could be adequately addressed
by performing "compliance auditing":
 Tell me what you do (describe the business process)

 Show me where it says that (reference the procedure manuals)
 Prove that this is what happened (exhibit evidence in documented
records)
The 2000 standard uses a different approach. Auditors are expected to go

beyond mere auditing for rote compliance by focusing on risk, status, and
importance. This means they are expected to make more judgments on what
is effective, rather than merely adhering to what is formally prescribed. The
difference from the previous standard can be explained thus:
Under the 1994 version, the question was broad: "Are you doing what the
manual says you should be doing?", whereas under the 2000 version, the
questions are more specific: "Will this process help you achieve your stated
objectives? Is it a good process or is there a way to do it better?"
51
Effectiveness
The debate on the effectiveness of ISO 9000 commonly centers on the

following questions:
1. Are the quality principles in ISO 9001:2000 of value? (Note that the
version date is important; in the 2000 version ISO attempted to
address many concerns and criticisms of ISO 9000:1994).
2. Does it help to implement an ISO 9001:2000-compliant quality
management system?
3. Does it help to obtain ISO 9001:2000 certification?
Effectiveness of the ISO system being implemented depends on a number of

factors, the most significant of which are:
1. Commitment of senior management to monitor, control, and improve

quality. Organizations that implement an ISO system without this
desire and commitment often take the cheapest road to get a
certificate on the wall and ignore problem areas uncovered in the
audits.
2. How well the ISO system integrates into current business practices.
Many organizations that implement ISO try to make their system fit
into a cookie-cutter quality manual instead of creating a manual that
documents existing practices and only adds new processes to meet the
ISO standard when necessary.
3. How well the ISO system focuses on improving the customer
experience. The broadest definition of quality is "Whatever the
customer perceives good quality to be." This means that a company
52
doesn't necessarily have to make a product that never fails; some

customers will have a higher tolerance for product failures if they
always receive shipments on-time or have a positive experience in
some other dimension of customer service. An ISO system should
take into account all areas of the customer experience and the
industry expectations, and seek to improve them on a continual basis.
This means taking into account all processes that deal with the three
stakeholders (customers, suppliers, and organization); only then will a
company be able to sustain improvements in the customer's
experience.
4. How well the auditor finds and communicates areas of improvement.
While ISO auditors may not provide consulting to the clients they
audit, there is the potential for auditors to point out areas of
improvement. Many auditors simply rely on submitting reports that
indicate compliance or non-compliance with the appropriate section
of the standard; however, to most executives, this is like speaking a
foreign language. Auditors that can clearly identify and communicate
areas of improvement in language and terms executive management
understands facilitate action on improvement initiatives by the
companies they audit. When management doesn't understand why
they were non-compliant and the business implications associated
with non-compliance, they simply ignore the reports and focus on
what they do understand.
53
Advantages
It is widely acknowledged that proper quality management improves

business, often having a positive effect on investment, market share, sales
growth, sales margins, competitive advantage, and avoidance of
litigation. The quality principles in ISO 9000:2000 are also sound, according
to Wade and Barnes, who says that "ISO 9000 guidelines provide a
comprehensive model for quality management systems that can make any
company competitive". Sroufe and Curkovic, (2008) found benefits ranging
from registration required to remain part of a supply base, better
documentation, to cost benefits, and improved involvement and
communication with management. Implementing ISO often gives the
following advantages:
1. Creates a more efficient, effective operation

2. Increases customer satisfaction and retention
3. Reduces audits
4. Enhances marketing
5. Improves employee motivation, awareness, and morale
6. Promotes international trade
7. Increases profit
8. Reduces waste and increases productivity
9. Common tool for standardization
Criticisms of ISO 9000
A common criticism of ISO 9000 and 9001 is the amount of money, time,
and paperwork required for registration. Dalgleish cites the "inordinate and
54
often unnecessary paperwork burden" of ISO, and says that "quality

managers feel that ISO's overhead and paperwork are excessive and
extremely inefficient".
According to Barnes, "Opponents claim that it is only for documentation.

Proponents believe that if a company has documented its quality systems,
then most of the paperwork has already been completed".Wilson suggests
that ISO standards "elevate inspection of the correct procedures over broader
aspects of quality", and therefore, "the workplace becomes oppressive and
quality is not improved".One study showing reasons for not adopting this
standard include the risks and uncertainty of not knowing if there are direct
relationships to improved quality, and what kind and how many resources
will be needed. Additional risks include how much certification will cost,
increased bureaucratic processes and risk of poor company image if the
certification process fails. According to John Seddon, ISO 9001 promotes
specification, control, and procedures rather than understanding and
improvement. Wade argues that ISO 9000 is effective as a guideline, but that
promoting it as a standard "helps to mislead companies into thinking that
certification means better quality, ... [undermining] the need for an
organization to set its own quality standards". In short, Wade argues that
reliance on the specifications of ISO 9001 does not guarantee a successful
quality system.
The standard is seen as especially prone to failure when a company is

interested in certification before quality. Certifications are in fact often based
on customer contractual requirements rather than a desire to actually
improve quality. "If you just want the certificate on the wall, chances are
you will create a paper system that doesn't have much to do with the way
55
you actually run your business", said ISO's Roger Frost. Certification by an
independent auditor is often seen as the problem area, and according to
Barnes, "has become a vehicle to increase consulting services".
Dalgleish argues that while "quality has a positive effect on return on

investment, market share, sales growth, better sales margins and competitive
advantage", that "taking a quality approach is unrelated to ISO 9000
registration". In fact, ISO itself advises that ISO 9001 can be implemented
without certification, simply for the quality benefits that can be achieved.
Abrahamson argues that fashionable management discourse such as Quality

Circles tends to follow a lifecycle in the form of a bell curve, possibly
indicating a management fad.
Pickrell argues that ISO systems merely gauge whether the processes are
being followed. It does not gauge how good the processes are or whether the
correct parameters are being measured and controlled to ensure quality.
Furthermore, when unique technical solutions are involved in the creation of
a new part, ISO does not validate the robustness of the technical solution
which is a key part of advanced quality planning. It is not unheard of for an
ISO-certified plant to display poor quality performance due to poor process
selection and/or poor technical solutions
Software quality assurance
Software quality assurance (SQA) consists of a means of monitoring

the software engineering processes and methods used to ensure quality.] The
methods by which this is accomplished are many and varied, and may
56
include ensuring conformance to one or more standards, such as ISO 9000 or

a model such as CMMI.
SQA encompasses the entire software development process, which includes

processes such as requirements definition, software design, coding, source
code control, code reviews, software configuration
management, testing, release management, and product integration. SQA is
organized into goals, commitments, abilities, activities, measurements, and
verifications.
Software quality management
Definitions
 The aim of Software Quality Management (SQM) is to manage

the quality of software and of its development process.
 A quality product is one which meets its requirements and satisfies the
user
 A quality culture is an organizational environment where quality is
viewed as everyone's responsibility.
Description
The computer scientist Ian Sommerville uses SQM as an umbrella-term that

includes the following quality layers:
Software Quality Assurance (SQA) layer
An Organizational quality guide of
57
 Standards, regulations, and procedures to produce, verify, evaluate and

confirm work products during the software development lifecycle
 Incorporated knowledge base of best practices
 Off-the-shelf software tools selected to apply the above
Software Quality Plan (SQP) layer
A project level quality plan written by each project for declaring project
commitment to follow an applicable set of standards, regulations, procedures
and tools during the development lifecycle. In addition, SQP should contain
quality goals to be achieved, expected risks and risk management. SQP
sources are derived from
 SQA components that are adopted as is or customized to the project's

needs
 New procedures, standards and tools complementing missing or not-
applicable SQA components that have been written in particular for the
project, or imported from outside the organization.
Any deviation of an SQP from SQA should be justified by the project

manager and be confirmed by the company management.
Software Quality Control (SQC) layer
Ensures in-process that both SQA and SQP are being followed by the
development teams.
SQC activities include
 Mentoring how to produce artifacts, such as well-defined engineering

documents using standard templates
 Mentoring how to conduct standard processes, such as quality reviews
58
 Perform in-process quality reviews to verify, evaluate and confirm

artifacts
 Verify and evaluate to improve the use of methods, procedures and
adopted software tools
SQM Roles
 to ensure that the required level of quality is achieved in a software

product
 to encourage a company-wide "Quality Culture" where quality is viewed
as everyone's responsibility
 to reduce the learning curve and help with continuity in case team
members change positions within the organization
 to enable in-process fault avoidance and fault prevention through proper
development
Many people use the terms SQM and SQA (Software quality assurance)
interchangeably.
Software quality management and software lifecycle[edit]
Software quality management can be realized in various ways depending on

organization and type of realized project, but it should support
whole software development lifecycle, meaning:
 Collecting requirements and defining scope of IT project, focused on

verification if defined requirements will be testable. One of the products
can be test strategy.
 Designing the solution, focused on planning test process e.g. what type
of tests will be performed, how they will be performed in context of test
59
environments and test data. One of the products can be test plan
including test schedule.
 Solution implementation supported by creating test cases and scenarios,
executing them and registering defects including coordination of fixing
them. Products can be test cases and scenarios, reports from test iteration
realization.
 Change management, supported by verification how planned changes can
influence the quality of created solution and eventual change of test plan.
One of the products can be changes in test plan, test cases and scenarios.
 Closing project, supported by realization number of tests focused on
complex verification of overall quality of created solution. It can include
System Integration Tests, User Acceptance Tests and Operational
Acceptance Tests. One of the products can be recommendation about
production start of the system.
60
Mission assurance
Mission Assurance is a full life-cycle engineering process to identify and

mitigate design, production, test, and field support deficiencies of mission
success.
Aspects of Mission Assurance
Mission Assurance includes the disciplined application of system

engineering, risk management, quality, and management principles to
achieve success of a design, development, testing, deployment, and
operations process. Mission Assurance's ideal is achieving 100% customer
success every time. Mission Assurance reaches across the enterprise, supply
base, business partners, and customer base to enable customer success.
The ultimate goal of Mission Assurance is to create a state of resilience that

supports the continuation of an agency's critical business processes and
protects its employees, assets, services, and functions. Mission Assurance
addresses risks in a uniform and systematic manner across the entire
enterprise.
Mission Assurance is an emerging cross-functional discipline that demands

its contributors (project management, governance, system architecture,
design, development, integration, testing, and operations) provide and
guarantee their combined performance in use.
The United States Department of Defense 8500-series of policies has three

defined mission assurance categories that form the basis
for availability and integrity requirements. A Mission Assurance Category
(MAC) is assigned to all DoD systems . It reflects the importance of an
61
information system for the successful completion of a DoD mission. It also

determines the requirements for availability and integrity.
 MAC I systems handle information vital to the operational readiness or

effectiveness of deployed or contingency forces. Because the loss of
MAC I data would cause severe damage to the successful completion of
a DoD mission, MAC I systems must maintain the highest levels of both
integrity and availability and use the most rigorous measure of
protection.
 MAC II systems handle information important to the support of deployed
and contingency forces. The loss of MAC II systems could have a
significant negative impact on the success of the mission or operational
readiness. The loss of integrity of MAC II data is unacceptable; therefore
MAC II systems must maintain the highest level of integrity. The loss of
availability of MAC II data can be tolerated only for a short period of
time, so MAC II systems must maintain a medium level of availability.
MAC II systems require protective measures above industry best
practices to ensure adequate integrity and availability of data.
 MAC III systems handle information that is necessary for day-to-day
operations, but not directly related to the support of deployed or
contingency forces. The loss of MAC III data would not have an
immediate impact on the effectiveness of a mission or operational
readiness. Since the loss of MAC III data would not have a significant
impact on mission effectiveness or operational readiness in the short
term, MAC III systems are required to maintain basic levels of integrity
and availability. MAC III systems must be protected by measures
considered as industry best practices.
62
NASA's Process Based Mission Assurance Knowledge Based System is an

implementation of Mission Assurance that provides "quick and easy access
to critical Safety & Mission Assurance data... across all NASA programs
and projects."
Successful Implementation of TQM.
Implementation of Total Quality Management (TQM)
Total Quality Management is a management approach that originated in the

1950s and has steadily become more popular since the early 1980s. Total
Quality is a description of the culture, attitude and organization of a
company that strives to provide customers with products and services that
satisfy their needs. The culture requires quality in all aspects of the
company’s operations, with processes being done right the first time and
defects and waste eradicated from operations.
Total Quality Management, TQM, is a method by which management and

employees can become involved in the continuous improvement of the
production of goods and services. It is a combination of quality and
management tools aimed at increasing business and reducing losses due to
wasteful practices.
Some of the companies who have implemented TQM include Ford Motor
Company, Phillips Semiconductor, SGL Carbon, Motorola and Toyota
Motor Company.
63
TQM Defined
TQM is a management philosophy that seeks to integrate all organizational

functions (marketing, finance, design, engineering, and production, customer
service, etc.) to focus on meeting customer needs and organizational
objectives.
TQM views an organization as a collection of processes. It maintains that

organizations must strive to continuously improve these processes by
incorporating the knowledge and experiences of workers. The simple
objective of TQM is “Do the right things, right the first time, every time.”
TQM is infinitely variable and adaptable. Although originally applied to
manufacturing operations, and for a number of years only used in that area,
TQM is now becoming recognized as a generic management tool, just as
applicable in service and public sector organizations. There are a number of
evolutionary strands, with different sectors creating their own versions from
the common ancestor. TQM is the foundation for activities, which include:
 Commitment by senior management and all employees

 Meeting customer requirements
 Reducing development cycle times
 Just in time/demand flow manufacturing
 Improvement teams
 Reducing product and service costs
 Systems to facilitate improvement
 Line management ownership
 Employee involvement and empowerment
 Recognition and celebration
64
 Challenging quantified goals and benchmarking

 Focus on processes / improvement plans
 Specific incorporation in strategic planning
This shows that TQM must be practiced in all activities, by all personnel, in
manufacturing, marketing, engineering, R&D, sales, purchasing, HR, etc.2
Principles of TQM
The key principles of TQM are as following:

Management Commitment
 Plan (drive, direct)
 Do (deploy, support, participate)
 Check (review)
 Act (recognize, communicate, revise)
Employee Empowerment
 Training
 Suggestion scheme
 Measurement and recognition
 Excellence teams
Fact Based Decision Making
 SPC (statistical process control)
 DOE, FMEA
 The 7 statistical tools
 TOPS (Ford 8D – team-oriented problem solving)
Continuous Improvement
 Systematic measurement and focus on CONQ
65
 Excellence teams
 Cross-functional process management
 Attain, maintain, improve standards
Customer Focus
 Supplier partnership
 Service relationship with internal customers
 Never compromise quality
 Customer driven standards
The Concept of Continuous Improvement by TQM
TQM is mainly concerned with continuous improvement in all work, from

high level strategic planning and decision-making, to detailed execution of
work elements on the shop floor. It stems from the belief that mistakes can
be avoided and defects can be prevented. It leads to continuously improving
results, in all aspects of work, as a result of continuously improving
capabilities, people, processes, technology and machine capabilities.
Continuous improvement must deal not only with improving results, but
more importantly with improving capabilities to produce better results in the
future. The five major areas of focus for capability improvement are demand
generation, supply generation, technology, operations and people capability.
A central principle of TQM is that mistakes may be made by people, but

most of them are caused, or at least permitted, by faulty systems and
66
processes. This means that the root cause of such mistakes can be identified
and eliminated, and repetition can be prevented by changing the process.1
There are three major mechanisms of prevention:
1. Preventing mistakes (defects) from occurring (mistake-proofing or poka-

yoke).
2. Where mistakes can’t be absolutely prevented, detecting them early to
prevent them being passed down the value-added chain (inspection at
source or by the next operation).
3. Where mistakes recur, stopping production until the process can be
corrected, to prevent the production of more defects. (stop in time).
Implementation Principles and Processes
A preliminary step in TQM implementation is to assess the organization’s
current reality. Relevant preconditions have to do with the organization’s
history, its current needs, precipitating events leading to TQM, and the
existing employee quality of working life. If the current reality does not
include important preconditions, TQM implementation should be delayed
until the organization is in a state in which TQM is likely to succeed.
If an organization has a track record of effective responsiveness to the

environment, and if it has been able to successfully change the way it
operates when needed, TQM will be easier to implement. If an organization
has been historically reactive and has no skill at improving its operating
systems, there will be both employee skepticism and a lack of skilled change
agents. If this condition prevails, a comprehensive program of management
and leadership development may be instituted. A management audit is a
good assessment tool to identify current levels of organizational functioning
and areas in need of change. An organization should be basically healthy
67
before beginning TQM. If it has significant problems such as a very unstable

funding base, weak administrative systems, lack of managerial skill, or poor
employee morale, TQM would not be appropriate.
However, a certain level of stress is probably desirable to initiate TQM.
People need to feel a need for a change. Kanter (1983) addresses this
phenomenon be describing building blocks which are present in effective
organizational change. These forces include departures from tradition, a
crisis or galvanizing event, strategic decisions, individual “prime movers,”
and action vehicles. Departures from tradition are activities, usually at lower
levels of the organization, which occur when entrepreneurs move outside the
normal ways of operating to solve a problem. A crisis, if it is not too
disabling, can also help create a sense of urgency which can mobilize people
to act. In the case of TQM, this may be a funding cut or threat, or demands
from consumers or other stakeholders for improved quality of service. After
a crisis, a leader may intervene strategically by articulating a new vision of
the future to help the organization deal with it. A plan to implement TQM
may be such a strategic decision. Such a leader may then become a prime
mover, who takes charge in championing the new idea and showing others
how it will help them get where they want to go. Finally, action vehicles are
needed and mechanisms or structures to enable the change to occur and
become institutionalized.
Steps in Managing the Transition
Beckhard and Pritchard (1992) have outlined the basic steps in managing a
transition to a new system such as TQM: identifying tasks to be done,
creating necessary management structures, developing strategies for building
commitment, designing mechanisms to communicate the change, and
assigning resources.
68
Task identification would include a study of present conditions (assessing

current reality, as described above); assessing readiness, such as through a
force field analysis; creating a model of the desired state, in this case,
implementation of TQM; announcing the change goals to the organization;
and assigning responsibilities and resources. This final step would include
securing outside consultation and training and assigning someone within the
organization to oversee the effort. This should be a responsibility of top
management. In fact, the next step, designing transition management
structures, is also a responsibility of top management. In fact, Cohen and
Brand (1993) and Hyde (1992) assert that management must be heavily
involved as leaders rather than relying on a separate staff person or function
to shepherd the effort. An organization wide steering committee to oversee
the effort may be appropriate. Developing commitment strategies was
discussed above in the sections on resistance and on visionary leadership.6
To communicate the change, mechanisms beyond existing processes will
need to be developed. Special all-staff meetings attended by executives,
sometimes designed as input or dialog sessions, may be used to kick off the
process, and TQM newsletters may be an effective ongoing communication
tool to keep employees aware of activities and accomplishments.
Management of resources for the change effort is important with TQM

because outside consultants will almost always be required. Choose
consultants based on their prior relevant experience and their commitment to
adapting the process to fit unique organizational needs. While consultants
will be invaluable with initial training of staff and TQM system design,
employees (management and others) should be actively involved in TQM
implementation, perhaps after receiving training in change management
69
which they can then pass on to other employees. A collaborative relationship

with consultants and clear role definitions and specification of activities
must be established.
In summary, first assess preconditions and the current state of the

organization to make sure the need for change is clear and that TQM is an
appropriate strategy. Leadership styles and organizational culture must be
congruent with TQM. If they are not, this should be worked on or TQM
implementation should be avoided or delayed until favorable conditions
exist.
Remember that this will be a difficult, comprehensive, and long-term

process. Leaders will need to maintain their commitment, keep the process
visible, provide necessary support, and hold people accountable for results.
Use input from stakeholder (clients, referring agencies, funding sources,
etc.) as possible; and, of course, maximize employee involvement in design
of the system.
Always keep in mind that TQM should be purpose driven. Be clear on the
organization’s vision for the future and stay focused on it. TQM can be a
powerful technique for unleashing employee creativity and potential,
reducing bureaucracy and costs, and improving service to clients and the
community.
70
The Purpose of a Quality Management System
Small businesses typically face a struggle to succeed in a competitive

marketplace. For this reason, companies that offer top-notch services or
products are better positioned to survive and prosper. However, simply
offering better goods than your competitors is not enough to succeed. You
also must consider cost along with quality, and quality management systems
can help you evaluate your performance in these areas.
Definition
A quality management system relies on the principle that every operation

needed to produce the final output should be of superior value. It, therefore,
is a concept used throughout a business that also extends to customers and
suppliers. It aims to improve product quality and might alter business
processes, structures and personnel responsibilities to achieve this. When
you incorporate a quality management system at your organization, all
business activities focus on quality. So whether you purchase raw material,
process it, store it or distribute it, every step is programmed to meet
benchmark quality levels.
Function
To incorporate a quality management system, think of operations as

processes that you must improve. Quality is not a one-off result, so, to
achieve it, you must focus on continuous improvement in all processes. The
71
steps you take to improve quality must be evidence-based. You also must
hold suppliers to high standards when it comes to satisfying requirements.
Most importantly, focus on your customers -- their requirements,
perceptions, and needs.
Purpose
The primary goal of a quality management system is to beat the competition.

It does this by adding value at each stage of production. It defines long term
plans for your company while at the same time providing a framework for it.
Quality management systems make every employee the owner of customer
satisfaction. Internally, it generates a sense of collaboration and motivation.
You might set yearly objectives for sales growth or product innovation, but
every objective will be methodically driven on the basis of quality product,
care and service. Initiation of a quality management system in your business
can identify waste, straighten out processes and hence reduce costs by
decreasing inefficiencies. It, therefore, improves customer satisfaction,
increases sales and furthers the goodwill of your business.
A TQM framework to Information Quality Improvement
Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management approach aimed at

satisfying all customer requirements, needs and expectations using a
Continuous Improvement approach .The TQM principles can be grouped
into the following practical and common sense concepts (Hari, 1995):
1. Customer Focus (internal and external customers)
72
2. Leadership (management role changes to active leadership)

3. Teamwork (multi-disciplinary teams, including involvement of
customers and suppliers)
4. Continuous Improvement of processes
5. Measurement (the improvement process is based on quantitative and
qualitative metrics)
6. Benchmarking as a driver to improvement in a competitive
environment
7. The need to improve the quality of a certain portion of the company
information is identified, and an improvement process
is INITIATED (1). This is activated by any of the following
information stakeholders: customers (users), providers, solutions'
suppliers, MIS organization, or company management.
8. A TEAM (2) is formed. It includes representatives of the information
customers (users), information providers, information suppliers,
information organization and other stakeholders.
9. The team uses the CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT cycle of PDCA
(Plan Do Check Act) as the backbone of the improvement process.
10.In the PLAN phase (3), the customer needs are examined and
translated into IQ dimensions and then into
IQ METRICS specifications (4) , which become a critical part of the
information solution specification.
11.The team BENCHMARKS (5) IQ performance in external
organizations/ functions/ information domains. This allows the team
to set world-class and at the same time realistic and achievable targets
and has a motivational effect on the team.
73
12.In the DO (6) phase, information specifications are translated into a

solution. IQ targets, expressed as quantitative METRICS, are
designed into the solution.
13.In the CHECK (7) phase, the team uses the METRICS to compare
solution performance with a pre-defined target. Gaps between
customer needs/expectations and actual IQ are identified.
14.In the ACT (8) phase, activities to close these gaps are agreed and
implemented.
15.A new PDCA cycle begins (9), in order to further improve the same
information or handle a different portion of the information used by
the company.
16.The process contributes to the organization IQ metrics and
dimensions KNOWLEDGE BASE (10). IQ dimensions, metrics' and
performance specifications are documented in order to be used in
future PDCA cycles.
17.The process is CUSTOMER FOCUSED (11), meaning that
satisfaction of the customer needs serves as the overall objective of
the framework. The customer plays an active role throughout the
process.
18.The LEADERSHIP (12) role is to deploy an IQ culture in which the
improvement process can flourish. Its responsibility includes: resource
provision, improvement process initiation, example setting in
demanding, using and providing high quality information.
TQM concepts in context of IQ improvement
74
Leadership
Concept: management should demonstrate leadership by:
(a) recognizing IQ as a strategic issue,
(b) allocating the appropriate resources to IQ improvement- capital,

management attention, vision and priorities.
(c) Setting an example as the first to require, use or provide better quality
information. This role is the responsibility of all management levels, from
the company president down to team leaders.
1. Customer focus:
Concept: The modern quality paradigms emphasize the importance of

customer satisfaction as a driver to the improvement process. IQ
improvement efforts should focus on the identification of users, specification
of their true IQ needs, and fulfillment of these requirements. The "voice of
the customer" should lead the entire improvement process.
Teamwork
Concept: Specification of IQ needs and metrics, as well as fulfillment

control are based on teamwork operation. All stakeholders are included in
the team. A typical team hosts representatives from the information users'
group, information providers, information solutions' suppliers, information
75
organization and other relevant parties. A certain level of management

participation is required as well. All the above functions are responsible for
higher quality of information.
1. Measurement
Concept: IQ metrics are used to translate the information user needs into
measurable specifications. These specifications should be designed into the
information solution. Once the solution is provided, IQ metrics are used to
asses the solution's actual performance against the requirements, and
effectively against user needs.
Due to the special importance of this concept to the InfoQual methodology,

a more detailed discussion is provided in section 3.
1. Benchmarking
Concept: In order to achieve "world class" IQ, it is necessary to explore

what IQ levels are achieved in the "external world". We refer here to other
functions in your organization, other organizations in your industry or even
other industries and professional domains. Benchmarking supports the IQ
improvement team in setting high but realistic targets that energize the
process. Benchmarking is also a useful tool to discover new and practicable
metrics and methods to measure IQ.
1. Continuous Improvement
Concept: In the field of IQ, quality improvement efforts are not a one time
effort. There are two aspects to this concept: cultural and methodological.
76
(a) The cultural aspect: In a culture that promotes IQ continuous

improvement, each member deals with the following questions: What is the
meaning of high quality information? How is it defined and measured? Do I
require, obtain and use high quality information? Do I provide such
information? What must I do in order to get or provide better information?
(b) The methodology aspect: The cultural aspects of IQ are beyond this
paper's scope. However, it should be noted that IQ culture cannot be
achieved by having the company president stating "Information is critical,
lets improve it continuously." Rather, it should be deployed via a series of
practicable improvement activities. Implementing a methodology such as
InfoQual can help create the common language and behavioral habits of an
IQ culture. The InfoQual methodology is based on the PDCA (Plan Do
Check Act) cycle, a popular model to organize the improvement process
(Hari, 1995). The cycle is based on 4 phases:
 PLAN: Improvement objectives are identified, scope is agreed,

metrics are specified and targets are set.
 DO: Here the actual improvement activities are conducted (e.g.,
introduction of a new information solution)
 CHECK: The performance of the new solution (i.e., the quality of
information) is checked against the pre-defined metrics.
 ACT: The actions required to close the gaps between the required and
actual IQ performance are designed and conducted.
Once completed, the cycle is reiterated in order to achieve further

improvements.
77
Information Quality Dimensions and Metrics
The hierarchical organization of IQ dimensions
There is a growing body of research literature concerning the measurement

of information quality. The Dutch company Cap Gemini Pandata (Delen &
Rijsenbrij,1992). decomposes the entire information quality notion into four
dimensions, 21 aspects and 40 attributes. They include this structure in the
company procedure covering SW packages auditing.
Zmud suggests a set of 4 dimensions (information quality, relevancy, format

quality, meaning quality) divided into 25 factors (Zmud, 1978).
In his research on value adding processes in information systems, Taylor

lists six "user criteria" (ease of use, noise reduction, quality, adaptability,
time saving, cost saving). Each criterion is then translated into several
system attributes (Taylor, 1986).
AT&T is conducting comprehensive research on Data Quality, which is

closely related to IQ. They identify four categories, namely accuracy,
currentness, completeness and consistency (Fox, Levitin and Redman,
1994).
The TDQM Institute (Wang, Storey and Firth, 1995) has evaluated the
research literature on dimensions of data quality. They conclude that there is
a lack of consensus on what constitutes a "good" data quality dimensions set.
Furthermore, there is no agreement on the definition of seemingly simple
dimensions such as "Accuracy." Three research avenues are suggested:
78
(1) to use a scientifically grounded approach in order to rigorously define

information quality dimensions.
(2) to create a universal standard set of operational quality dimensions.
(3) to let information quality dimensions be defined by the information

customer(user).
The approach taken by this paper is similar to the third avenue. It suggests
that the definition of IQ dimensions and their measurement should be done
as a teamwork effort by information users, information providers,
information solution suppliers and other relevant stakeholders.
The InfoQual methodology
Methodology's Users and Use Scenarios
In order to design a practicable methodology, it is essential to define its

potential users. Then, the special needs and concerns of each group must be
identified.
Appropriate implementation of the methodology involves a teamwork

operation, with representatives from several groups. Each can initiate the
process, facilitate and lead it, or play an active team role. In the following
section, the potential users are defined:
 Information users: the ultimate customers of the improvement

process. When facing an IQ problem, they should initiate an
improvement project in order to resolve it.
79
 Information providers: can initiate an improvement process in order to

improve the quality of the product they provide to external or internal
customers.
 Information solution suppliers: Can use the methodology in order to
identify the critical IQ factors and performance required for a winning
information product.
 MIS function: can use the methodology to aid the rational selection of
solutions to their internal customers.
 Management: can initiate an IQ mapping process in order to identify
and prioritize information improvement projects.
 IQ researchers: can use the methodology to investigate global or
domain-specific IQ dimensions and metrics.
80
Reaserch methodology
Total quality management (TQM) can be best defined as one of the key
approaches towards realizing the goal of meeting customer satisfaction.
According to Besterfield in 1995, “TQM defined as both a philosophy and a
set of guiding principles that represents the foundation a continuously
improving organization.” Moreover, he added that “management has to
outline the quality goals, quality policies and quality plans so that employees
are constantly reminded that the customers, not the product, is the top
priority.”
TQM has been adopted as management paradigm by many organizations. As

everyone clearly aware of the whole process of TQM whereby formerly it
was only applied in manufacturing sectors most likely into supply chain,
automobile, machinery, factory, and transportation. Many people only
accept and realize that TQM can be just effective in services from
manufacturing and industrial sectors. However, nowadays the process of
TQM that being practiced by the business worlds for many years has also
been adapted and applied in education sector. This is due to the existence of
TQM in the education sectors to help education institutions change from
traditional to modern management and be more effective. Education
institutions such as schools and universities should apply TQM as a
management process to ensure more productive and achieve the current
requirements. In order to overcome the economic, social and cultural needs
of a flexible management structure and implementation of more modern
management as the trend now known as flexibility, portability and the ability
to take advantage of modern culture.
81
So therefore, the objective of this research is essentially; to identify the

general principles requirements for the implementation of TQM in SMK
Taman Sri Andalas, Klang. As TQM is a philosophy of organizations,
improves organizational performance and administrative. Based on the
philosophy of W. Edwards Deming in year 2000, TQM is a systematic
approach to education reform. Deming's work is not merely about
productivity and quality control; it is a broad vision on the nature of
organizations and how organizations should be changed. When educators
look at TQM principles, they assume that the model applies only to profit-
making organizations. Actually, TQM applies as well to corporations,
service organizations, universities, and elementary and secondary schools.
Thus, this research supports educators in institutions to be aware of rapidly

evolves and changes on schools’ tasks that day to day became difficult than
before; so that it requires new development and methods for schools’
management system. So if that the case, this research is to pull in modern
management approach for schools to adopt it. The concept of TQM is
considered as one of modern management approach. Since before until now,
there are still many schools carry out administrative traditional patterns on
educational system.
82
Research Purpose and Objectives
Purpose of research
Generally, the purpose of this research is to identify the requirements for the
implementation of TQM in SMK Taman Sri Andalas, Klang and to analysis
each of these requirements and how those fit reality in the school.
Objectives of research
There are three objectives of the study as follows:
1. To identify the leadership’s responsibilities of TQM in the following

aspects:
-school performance
-educational quality
2. To identify the strategic planning undertaken by the school in

implementing TQM
3. To examine relationship between the beneficiary satisfaction and quality

service provided by school
83
Research Questions
1. What is the leadership’s responsibilities of TQM in the following

aspects:
-school performance
-educational quality
2. What is strategic planning undertaken by schools in implementing TQM?
3. Is there any significant relationship between the beneficiary satisfaction and

quality service provided by school?
This research will evaluate the implementation of TQM that being executed
or no implementation at all by SMK Taman Sri Andalas, Klang. In order to
achieve the research objectives, this research also will focus on variables
that cover on other requirements of TQM implementation. So therefore, this
research will provide empirical data for other researches by other researchers
with the same field and aspects in future.
Findings of the research will also give school’s principal, teachers and staff
in SMK Taman Sri Andalas, Klang ideas and understanding of methods or
techniques and suitable models and philosophy of TQM.
84
Conclusions
The marketing of products to multiple foreign markets has resulted in an

increased demand for products that meet high standards and quality. The
increase demand for high quality products is a result of not only local but
foreign competition. This competition has produced a normalization effect
that if is not meet will result in the failure of a companies efforts. The high
pressure to stay competitive has forced most companies to reevaluate their
management styles, systems, and process. A lot of companies have
embraced and implement some if not all of the TQM principles and
processes to help them produce high quality products.
In conclusion, TQM is a management style that requires a strong

commitment from upper management that results in a high quality product
that consumers desire and appreciate. In addition to attracting new and
retaining existing customers TQM allows an organization to streamline and
document its efforts to ensure their processes and systems are operating as
efficiently as possible. Some of these aspects are present in my organization
but I see areas where TQM can benefit our product and our customer groups,
the state employee and the citizen.
85
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 The Times of India

 Magzines
 Wikipedia
 Google
86

Total Quallity Management

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Total Quallity Management

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Total Quallity Management

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Total Quality Management

CHAPTER NO. 1 : INTRODUCTION

Total quality management

Total quality management (TQM) consists of organization-wide efforts to

The exact origin of the term "total quality management" is uncertain.[1] It is

book Total Quality Control(OCLC 299383303) and Kaoru Ishikawa's What

CHAPTER NO. 2 : FEATURES

There is no widespread agreement as to what TQM is and what actions it

 "Quality is defined by customers' requirements."

The Navy used the following tools and techniques:

 The PDCA cycle to drive issues to resolution

Total Quality Management (TQM) in the Department of Defense is a

"TQM is a philosophy for managing an organisation in a way which enables

CHAPTER NO. 3 : STANDARDS

During the 1990s, standards bodies in Belgium, France, Germany, Turkey,

 Total Quality Management: Guide to Management Principles, London,

Interest in TQM as an academic subject peaked around 1993.[1]

The Federal Quality Institute was shuttered in September 1995 as part of

TQM as a vaguely defined quality management approach was largely

TQM lives on in various national quality awards around the globe.[20]

CHAPTER NO. 4 : QUALITY MANAGEMENT.

Quality management ensures that an organization, product or service is

Quality management is a recent phenomenon. Advanced civilizations that

father of scientific management." He was one of the intellectual leaders of

Walter A. Shewhart made a major step in the evolution towards quality

 Break down barriers between departments

Customers recognize that quality is an important attribute in products and

partly due to the contracting (also called outsourcing) of manufacture to

There are a huge number of books available on quality management. In

The influence of quality thinking has spread to non-traditional applications

CHAPTER NO. 5 PRINCIPLES

The International Standard for Quality management (ISO 9001:2008) adopts

Since the organizations depend on their customers, they should understand

Leaders of an organization establish unity of purpose and direction of it.

System approach to management

An organization's effectiveness and efficiency in achieving its quality

One of the permanent quality objectives of an organization should be the

Factual approach to decision making

Mutually beneficial supplier relationships

Since an organization and its suppliers are interdependent, therefore a

CHAPTER NO. 6 : QUALITY IMPROVEMENT.

1. ISO 9004:2008 — guidelines for performance improvement.

10.The Toyota Production System — reworked in the west into lean

Proponents of each approach have sought to improve them as well as apply

Some of the common differentiators between success and failure include

It is important not to underestimate the people factors, such as culture, in

is Kaizen) than to make major transformational changes. Use of Kaizen in

On the other hand, transformational change works best when an enterprise

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) created the Quality

The standards are reviewed every few years by the International

ISO released a minor revision, ISO 9001:2008 on 14 October 2008. It

The ISO 9004:2009 document gives guidelines for performance

management, similar to and based upon the measurement framework for

The Quality Management System standards created by ISO are meant to

In 2005 the International Organization for Standardization released a

Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI) is a process improvement

project, division, or an entire organization. Under the CMMI methodology,

Three constellations of CMMI are: