Human

Resource
Development
Dr. Stephen Gibb

HD-A1-engb 1/2013 (1035)

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 Human Resource Development
Dr. Stephen Gibb PhD
Stephen Gibb is a visiting fellow at Edinburgh Business School. He has degrees in Human Communication
and Human Resource Management from Sheffield Hallam University, and obtained his PhD at Strathclyde
Business School. He has lectured in HRM and Learning and Development since moving from the UK civil
service some 15 years ago. He is the author of a popular UK textbook on Learning and Development and
has published many articles in the field, with special interests in the development of coaching and
mentoring systems. He is a Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.
First Published in Great Britain in 2006.
© Stephen Gibb 2006
The rights of Dr. Stephen Gibb to be identified as Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance
with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise
without the prior written permission of the Publishers. This book may not be lent, resold, hired out or
otherwise disposed of by way of trade in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is
published, without the prior consent of the Publishers.
Contents

Course x
Rationale
Module 1 Introduction to Human Resource Development 1/1

1.1  Introduction: Definitions and Concepts 1/1

1.2 HRD and the HRD Process 1/2
1.3 Cognitive Capacities 1/4
1.4 Capabilities 1/7
1.5 The Third Dimension 1/8
1.6 Performance Management 1/9
1.7 Human Resource Management 1/10
1.8 HRD in Context 1/10
1.9 Practical Matters 1/12
1.10 Conclusion 1/16
Review Questions 1/18

Module 2 Observing and Assessing HRD Needs 2/1

2.1  Introduction: The Performance Management Process and Context 2/2

2.2 A Theoretical Context 2/5
2.3 Back to Practice: Objective and Subjective Needs Analysis 2/6
2.4 Organisational Needs 2/9
2.5 Work and Occupation Analysis 2/11
2.6 Job Analysis 2/12
2.7 Personal-Level HRD Needs 2/17
2.8 Observing HRD: Skills and Issues 2/18
2.9 Further Reflections in Theory 2/20
2.10 Conclusion 2/21
Review Questions 2/23

Module 3 Planning: Designing HRD Activities 3/1

3.1  Introduction 3/2

3.2 Crafting Aims, Goals and Objectives 3/3
3.3 Cognition, Capabilities and Behaviour 3/9
3.4 A Constructivist Critique 3/21
3.5 Conclusion 3/24
Review Questions 3/25

Human Resource Development Edinburgh Business School v

Contents

Module 4 Action: Bringing Learning To Life 4/1 

4.1  Introduction 4/2

4.2 Instruction 4/4
4.3 Facilitation 4/7
4.4 The Theory of Experiential Learning 4/9
4.5 Deliverables 4/15
4.6 Other Options: Designing and Developing Performance Support 4/17
4.7 Conclusion 4/20
Review Questions 4/24

Module 5 Quality: Reviewing and Evaluating HRD 5/1 

5.1  Introduction 5/3

5.2 Evaluation in the HRD Context 5/5
5.3 Evaluation in General 5/9
5.4 Evaluating the Evaluation of HRD 5/12
5.5 Conclusion 5/18
Review Questions 5/19

Module 6 Process Section: Integrative Case 6/1 

6.1  Introduction 6/1

6.2 Driver Training in a Train Company 6/1
6.3 Case Study Points 6/9
Review Questions 6/11

Module 7 Organisational HRD Strategies 7/1 

7.1  Introduction 7/3

7.2 HRD Strategies 7/7
7.3 Systematic Training 7/8
7.4 Business Orientation 7/10
7.5 Continuous Development 7/12
7.6 Human Resource Development (HRD) 7/13
7.7 Competence 1: Behaviours 7/14
7.8 Competence 2: Functional Analysis and Vocational Qualifications 7/15
7.9 Self-Development 7/16
7.10 Conclusions 7/17
Review Questions 7/20

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 Contents

Module 8 HRD Providers and Partners 8/1

8.1  Introduction 8/2

8.2 The Market for HRD: Why Providers Exist 8/3
8.3 What Do They Provide? 8/5
8.4 Partners in Training 8/6
8.5 In The HRD Market 8/9
8.6 Conclusion 8/11
Review Questions 8/12

Module 9 E-Learning 9/1

9.1  Introduction 9/2

9.2 A Brief History of HRD Technologies 9/3
9.3 Defining E-Learning 9/7
9.4 Performance Support Uses of E-learning 9/13
9.5 A Conceptual Framework 9/14
9.6 The Organisational Context 9/15
9.7 Evolving Delivery Technologies 9/18
9.8 Conclusion 9/19
Review Questions 9/22

Module 10 Mentoring 10/1

10.1  Mentoring: An Introductory Overview 10/2

10.2 Mentoring in Practice: Historical Contexts 10/4
10.3 Mentoring and Classical Mythology 10/5
10.4 Mentoring and Guilds 10/7
10.5 Mentoring and the Humanistic Mentor 10/9
10.6 Conclusion 10/12
Review Questions 10/13

Module 11 HRD and Theory 11/1

11.1  Introduction 11/3

11.2 Conclusions 11/18
Review Questions 11/22

Module 12 Policy-Making and HRD 12/1

12.1 Introduction 12/3

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Contents

12.2 HRD Policy and Programmes 12/5

12.3 The Background 12/8
12.4 Recent Concerns: Change and Unemployment 12/11
12.5 The Contemporary Agenda: Lifelong Learning 12/13
12.6 Conclusion 12/16
12.7 Human Capital Development Issues: Learning Points 12/17
Review Questions 12/19

Module 13 Communities of Practice: The Knowledge Management Perspective 13/1 

13.1  Introduction 13/2

13.2 The Information Systems (IS) Perspective 13/6
13.3 Organisational Learning (OL) 13/8
13.4 Intellectual Capital and Strategic Management 13/16
13.5 The Evolution of HRD in the CoP and KM Context 13/19
13.6 Conclusion 13/20
13.7 Concluding Case Studies 13/21
Review Questions 13/27

Module 14 Strategic HRD 14/1 

Introductory Case Study: PowerCo Learning 14/1

14.1 Introduction 14/2
14.2 An Analytical Framework: The Certainties of HRD 14/4
14.3 The Structural Certainties of SHRD: The Experience of Employment 14/5
14.4 The Affective Certainties of HRD 14/7
14.5 The Cognitive HRD Certainties: SHRD Models and Frameworks 14/7
14.6 Critiques of SHRD 14/9
14.7 The Status of HRD 14/10
14.8 The Roles and Activities of Management and HRD Specialists 14/10
14.9 Conclusion: Scenarios for SHRD 14/12
Review Questions 14/14

Module 15 Perspectives Integrative Case: The Investors in People Standard 15/1 

15.1  Introduction 15/2

15.2 The Actual IiP Standard 15/2
Review Questions 15/9

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 Contents

Module 16 Looking Ahead: The Future of HRD 16/1

16.1  Introduction 16/1

16.2 The Future 16/3

Appendix 1 Practice Final Examinations A1/1

Practice Final Examination 1 1/2
Practice Final Examination 2 1/5

Appendix 2 Answers to Review Questions A2/1

Module 1 2/1
Module 2 2/6
Module 3 2/8
Module 4 2/9
Module 5 2/15
Module 6 2/19
Module 7 2/20
Module 8 2/21
Module 9 2/23
Module 10 2/25
Module 11 2/30
Module 12 2/32
Module 13 2/34
Module 14 2/35
Module 15 2/38

Index I/1

Human Resource Development Edinburgh Business School ix

Course Rationale
Human Resource Development (HRD) at work is now a prominent and central part
of Human Resource Management (HRM). This course is designed to provide a
complete, integrated introduction to the process, practices and perspectives of this
important area of people management. The process of HRD at work is an integral
part of the overall performance management of organisations. Selected, representa-
tive and prominent practices in HRD at work are explored, using case studies to
illustrate what this process involves in practice. Finally contemporary perspectives
that should illuminate concerns, concepts, arguments and evidence are explored.
The course is thus an ‘all in one’ view of processes, practices and perspectives.
The common concerns about HRM are found amplified in the context of HRD,
and performance in work and organisations. The promised ends are tantalising:
win–win outcomes for individuals, organisations and nations in the global economy
– HRD for individuals to gain entry to work and occupations with career success,
HRD for organisations to improve and enhance standards of performance and
success, and HRD for nations to compete and prosper. These are the promised
ends of HRD, and although achieving them can bring the greatest gratification, it
also involves some of the greatest work that many individuals, organisations and
nations will encounter.
A frustration that faces any author in this field is that the current nature of the
subject exhibits a lack of ‘content stability’. Texts are out of date almost as soon as
they are written, even before they are published, as new institutions, practices and
initiatives bloom and old ones fade. Organisational practices evolve and change with
bewildering frequency, government policy is subject to constant review, and even
the apparently established content of learning theory is merely a thin crust. It can be
difficult to even define a basic vocabulary and language for HRD that remains stable
from one year to the next. This is a general problem with HRM, but it is acute in the
field of HRD.
The constructivist view of learning offers a way around this problem. Construc-
tivism recognises that human development requires more than just forcing people to
attend training courses. It involves evoking a readiness to learn by animating people,
connecting with their prior learning to allow new learning to be built up, and then
providing new ideas and information. Concentrating on providing new information
and ideas in themselves is not enough. Individuals who are not animated, and who
cannot make connections with existing ideas, are as likely to ignore or misconstrue
new ideas and information as they are to absorb them.
In this respect the subject of HRD presents a real challenge. Learners come with
a rich array of different backgrounds and ways of thinking about human develop-
ment. It is a subject where many preconceived ideas will be present. Myths, taboos,
things people learn from their families, friends, and past teachers will have all
shaped their prior understanding, providing insecure foundations upon which to try
to build anew. This is why learning must be based on the learners’ active participa-
tion in problem-solving and critical thinking, through activities that they find

Human Resource Development Edinburgh Business School x

 Course Rationale

relevant and engaging. Only by testing ideas and approaches that challenge their
prior knowledge and experience, and applying these to a new situation, can learners
‘construct’ sound new knowledge.
Hands-on activities and observations of a real organisational world provide the
best source of experiences to facilitate such constructions. In lieu of that, this course
is styled to combine coverage of processes, practices and perspectives that draw on
both the practicalities and the more academic analysis of HRD at work. Models,
concepts, text references and illustrations are available as resources, but learners
should always treat these as the results of others’ observations and speculations, not
as authoritative conclusions. Such references are actually the ‘constructions’ by
others of the current understanding of the world around us, and are open to
challenge and change.
The aim of adopting such an approach is to avoid the pitfalls of providing an
introduction to managing HRD at work that is either too practically oriented and
prescriptive, or insufficiently set in the wider context of performance and organisa-
tional management. The result is a course for students that both introduces the core
elements of the HRD processes at work and analyses these in the context of
contemporary practices and perspectives. My goal was to bring together these
aspects of HRD at work. In the spirit of constructivism, I have not tried to provide
the last word on HRD at work; instead I have tried to provide a course that will
energise you and provide you with some practical ideas and frameworks to help
address the kinds of HRD problems found in most organisations.

Human Resource Development Edinburgh Business School xi

Module 1

Introduction to Human Resource

Development
Contents
1.1  Introduction: Definitions and Concepts ...............................................1/1 
1.2  HRD and the HRD Process ....................................................................1/2 
1.3  Cognitive Capacities ...............................................................................1/4 
1.4  Capabilities ..............................................................................................1/7 
1.5  The Third Dimension .............................................................................1/8 
1.6  Performance Management ....................................................................1/9 
1.7  Human Resource Management .......................................................... 1/10 
1.8  HRD in Context ................................................................................... 1/10 
1.9  Practical Matters.................................................................................. 1/12 
1.10  Conclusion ............................................................................................ 1/16 
Multiple-Choice Questions ............................................................................ 1/18 

Learning Objectives
By the end of this module you will be able to:
 define the key concepts associated with HRD in work organisations;
 describe a model of the core process of HRD;
 identify and analyse five major practices associated with HRD in modern work
and organisations;
 evaluate the connections between the HRD process and the contemporary
performance management concerns of organisations.

1.1 Introduction: Definitions and Concepts

For many people HRD is synonymous with organising training courses in the
workplace. That is part of HRD, but there are also broader and deeper concerns.
This introductory module will describe the key concepts and core processes
associated with HRD in work organisations. The central terms that need to be
defined here are:
 HRD and the HRD process;
 the three dimensions of HRD: cognitive capacity, capability and behaviour;
 performance management;
 human resource management.

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1.2 HRD and the HRD Process

In the past the concepts of education, training and development represented a
division of work-related learning (see Figure 1.1). They have since come to be seen as
artificial boundaries around the facilitation, guiding and coordination of learning.

Work-related learning

Management and
Vocational On-job and
professional
education off-job training
development

Figure 1.1 Work-related learning in separate boxes

In the past, education was differentiated from training. It was defined as aca-
demic learning undertaken in educational institutions in the pursuit of qualifications
in advance of employment. Even if this learning was associated with employment,
the participants in education were treated as consumers of bodies of knowledge,
being taught subjects by professional teachers in institutions. The role and evolution
of educational institutions and opportunities in a time of economic and social
change is a critical concern for all. Some academic education is related to learning
for work, but not all of it. Education, and academic learning, still seeks to promote
learning for life and in aspects of life not connected with work and employment.
Training meant learning undertaken for the development of skills for work and
in work, on-job or off-job, to enable effective performance in a job or role. This was
separate from education and development. The connotations of training were of
specific kinds of formal learning provided in the workplace.
Finally, development was distinguished from education and training but also
seen as an process and outcome associated with both. Development was about the
change of the whole person, not just the academic or vocational pieces of
knowledge or skill needed for work. Development occurred during a person’s
experience and growth throughout a career and lifespan. In the context of work and
organisations, development was usually used to describe training for managers and
professionals. Employees had to be trained; managers and professionals had to be
developed. Development therefore signified superior and more elaborate learning.
However, now that personal development is becoming an integral part of life for all
employees, the concept of development is being applied more broadly to learning.
HRD as a process is about more than the provision of training courses in work-
places. The definition adopted here is that HRD involves a process (see Figure 1.2)
of observation, planning, action and review to manage the cognitive capacities,
capabilities and behaviours needed to enable and improve individual, team and
organisational performance in work organisations.

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Observe

Review Plan

Act

Figure 1.2 The HRD process

HRD involves observation during the assessment of HRD needs at work at
various levels and in various ways. It involves planning, through setting objectives
for HRD at work interventions to achieve specific kinds of outcome. It involves
action, in professionally delivering HRD at work using a range of techniques. And it
involves review, through evaluating HRD experiences and outcomes, from testing
what learners have learned to assessing costs and benefits. It is this basic cycle of
activities that forms the HRD process.

Exercise 1.1

What might cause problems with the smooth management of this HRD process?
Think of a few issues.
HRD is the part of people management that deals with the process of facilitating,
guiding and coordinating work-related learning and development to ensure that
individuals, teams and organisations can perform as desired. A young new recruit to
a manufacturing company and an older, senior manager assuming a new leadership
role in a large multinational bank have different learning needs, which present
distinctive challenges. Nevertheless the HRD process involved will have some
common, core features. Coming to know core parts of the HRD process, and being
able to deal with them effectively, is a significant part of HRM in work organisa-
tions. And the nature of organisational learning needs will be distinctive, varying
with the strategy, structure and culture of the organisation. The ability to analyse
these is also a significant part of general HRM.

1.2.1 The Three Dimensions of HRD

As HRD practitioners and managers seek to facilitate and guide learning and
development they can draw upon many concepts and ideas. Psychology, economics,
systems thinking and ethics all provide ways of thinking about individual, team and
organisational learning. It is widely agreed that effective performance in work roles
requires the development and combination of three elements: cognitive capacities,

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capabilities and desired behaviours. Definitions of these are given in Box 1.1
below.
Box 1.1: Basic definitions ____________________________________
Conceptualising the various elements involved in performing work roles that
can be learned and developed.
Cognitive capacities: the foundations of intelligence, conceptualised as the
processing and possession of information in the brain and higher-order neuro-
logical abilities
Capabilities: the practical abilities involved in work roles, either inherent in
the person or developed through practice
Desired behaviours: from motivation to ‘social skills’, enabling social interac-
tion, mediated by the affective; can be conceptualised variously as attitudes,
values or ‘emotional intelligence’ (EI)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

These three elements of performance are needed in every work role, from the
simplest of roles to the most complex and demanding: from cleaning operatives to
brain surgeons. They are required in every organisation, from the most basic, small
organisation to the most complex and technologically sophisticated multinational
firm. We shall explore these three aspects of HRD more fully in subsequent
modules on the HRD process, as they feature in understanding how to identify
HRD needs, plan HRD experiences, and deliver and evaluate HRD. At this stage
some preliminary discussion to elaborate upon these elements and their role in
HRD is appropriate.

1.3 Cognitive Capacities

Effective performance requires the presence, development and use of cognitive
capacities, or the functions of the brain. The way cognitive capacities are conceived
reflects the way the brain is modelled. Each person has a brain with the same basic
parts. These include the cortex, which enables thinking, speech, motor control and
spatial abilities. It is also common to conceptualise the brain as having a division
between areas specialised in processing logic, words and numbers, and areas special-
ised in processing rhythm, picture and music. One study identified 35 different
frameworks for generic thinking skills, concerned with information-gathering, building
understanding and productive thinking. An example is given below in Box 1.2.
Box 1.2: A modular and a unidimensional view of cognitive
capacity ____________________________________________________

Modular Unidimensional
Halpern’s cognitive capacities (2002): Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)
degrees of complexity

Memory skills Remember

Language skills Understand

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 Module 1 / Introduction to Human Resource Development

Modular Unidimensional
Deductive reasoning and argument Apply
Analysis Analyse
Thinking as hypothesis testing Evaluate
Likelihood and uncertainty Create
Decision-making
Problem-solving
Creative thinking

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Alternatively the brain can be modelled as a holistic system, governed by a master

cognitive capacity. This may be the archetypal intelligence quotient (IQ), or some
other construct that indicates a continuum, from simple to complex, along a single
dimension (see Box 1.2 for an example). Some work roles may require high levels of
IQ or complex thinking skill. This is because the work is complex and requires the
independent use of thinking and judgement in a context of substantial responsibility,
where there may be little prior knowledge available, and where the person doing the
work has to act autonomously. Other work roles may require very little IQ or
thinking skill; all that is needed to perform these roles is an awareness and memori-
sation of only the most basic of instructions. Such work roles may be fully scripted,
with no requirement to do anything other than repeat a series of set behaviours or
acts of communication.
Cognitive capacities are most commonly associated in the context of HRD with
the concepts of developing knowledge and understanding. These are what people
gain by studying for a work role before they engage in it, and what they get from
experience over time while in the role. Knowledge and understanding both precede
performance, and evolve alongside it.

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Exercise 1.2

Consider the matrix below, with jobs listed alongside increasing levels of
thinking skills complexity. For each job indicate the extent to which the different
kinds of thinking skill are either ‘not required’, ‘present’ or ‘critical’.

Thinking skill complexity

Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create

Personal
secretary

Work team
leader

Astronaut

Nurse

Finance
director

Fast food
server

But the concepts of both knowledge and understanding are themselves complex
and multifaceted, and the way they are obtained is also complex. Knowledge and
understanding may be ‘know what’ or ‘know how’. Knowledge and understanding
may be manifested in simple forms, such as making sense of a message, or they may
require the use of analytical and higher-order neurological abilities, demonstrated in
activities such as problem-solving, decision-making and creativity. Developing and
enhancing knowledge and understanding cannot always precede individual and
organisational performance. Knowledge and understanding may be gained from
experience. It is a cliché that any new entrant to a work role is told ‘Forget what
they told you in college/training; we’ll show you how the work actually gets done.’
But it is a cliché because it happens. We shall revisit this split between formal learning
and the nature of actual performance in later modules, as it represents a real
challenge for the HRD professional.
Effective performance can also involve having and using tacit knowledge and
understanding. These represent ‘knowing how’ without being able to articulate that
for yourself or others. You can do something very well, but you do not know
consciously how you go about achieving that level of performance; you just do it.
From neurological study of the brain to continuing analysis of the nature of the
mind and knowledge, the nature and modelling of cognitive capacities, and how to
enhance them, continue to exercise and animate HRD both in theory and in
practice.

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1.4 Capabilities
To perform to the standards expected in employment, individuals and organisations
require more than certain levels of knowledge and understanding; they require
capabilities. A person may have a high IQ, and a fully functioning brain, but still
not be able to do what the work entails. Capabilities are the practical skills or
competence that people and organisations need to achieve the required perfor-
mance.
In the past, governments have conducted skills surveys, and have produced in-
formation on skills shortages and skill gaps. But the terminology is evolving, with
workforce development, lifelong learning and other terms replacing the notion of
skills.
Capabilities are the practical abilities involved in a work role. They are either
inherent in the person or developed through practice. They may be considered at
three levels, outlined in more detail in a later module: underpinning capabilities,
intermediate capabilities, and overarching capabilities. Examples of underpinning
capabilities would be literacy and honesty. Examples of intermediate capabilities
would be communication and motivation. Examples of overarching capabilities
would be teamworking and customer orientation.
Here we prefer to use the concept of capability rather than the concepts of non-
cognitive skill or competence. The main reason for this is that these other concepts
have unhelpful associations. With non cognitive-skill, or simply skill, one associa-
tion is that to be skilled is to be able to do something basic, to an adequate or good
standard. A skill is then a discrete and simple building block of performance, which
exists or is absent. But to be skilled can also mean to be an expert. Skill is then a
complex of many things, associated with expertise and a comprehensive and
authoritative level of ability. This dual sense of ‘skill’ can be misleading (is a skills
shortage a shortage of simple building blocks, or a shortage of expertise?), when the
real issue is often a lower level of concern.
Also, skill was often referred to as expertise in tangible, physical and observable
actions: being highly skilled was associated with being an expert in complex physical
activities. A craftsman who wielded tools was skilled; a dancer who could complete
complex steps was skilled. Nowadays, in economies dominated by knowledge- and
service-based industries, much performance at work depends on less tangible skills
such as information-handling and interpersonal relations. To classify these as being
skills is legitimate for some uses but questionable for others.
This is why the concept of competence has become widely used as an alterna-
tive to skills, and many organisations have created sets of competence descriptions
for their workforces. Competence in this sense was defined as comprising the key
attributes desired and expected of superior performers. It involved setting out a list
of core qualities and standards by which all staff in an organisation might be
evaluated or appraised, equally and consistently. Many questions have been raised
about the validity of the concept of competence. We consider competence as a
foundation for an HRD strategy in a later module. Rather than enter that controver-
sy here, we prefer to use the term ‘capability’.

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Module 1 / Introduction to Human Resource Development

Exercise 1.3

Think again of the occupations in the matrix below. Where do they sit on the
capabilities continuum – that is, from needing only the possession of underpin-
ning capabilities to requiring advanced and overarching practical abilities
acquired through extensive practice?

Capabilities continuum

Basic underpinnings only Advanced capabilities

acquired through
extensive practice

Personal
secretary

Work team
leader

Astronaut

Nurse

Finance
director

Fast food
server

1.5 The Third Dimension

Finally, as well as identifying and developing the cognitive capacities and capabilities
required for performance, it has long been emphasised that there is an important
third determinant of performance, often defined in terms of forming attitudes,
developing social skills, or, increasingly, developing emotional intelligence (EI).
Attitudes are the settled ways of thinking and feeling about someone or something –
positive and negative orientations about the world. Social skills are the ‘soft’ skills
associated with effective interpersonal behaviour. EI refers to the understanding and
controlling of emotions in order to act effectively in social situations.
What these different constructs have in common is a shared concern with ac-
knowledging and making transparent the affective influences on behaviour in social
situations – in our context, workplace behaviour. To get the desired forms of
behaviour in the context of work performance we must develop the right kinds of
attitudes, soft skills, or EI. The ways people perform in work roles are determined
not only by what they know, explicitly or tacitly, or what they can do, basically or
expertly, but also by how they feel. So the way people actually perform can vary
significantly, even if they have similar levels and types of cognitive capacity and
capability.

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Exercise 1.4

Refer again to the work roles you identified above as being at the opposite ends
of the cognitive and capabilities continua. How might the performance of people
in these roles be influenced by the affective side, and how would that affect
performance in a social context?

The 3rd dimension: the affective factor

Requires little EI Requires considerable EI

Personal
secretary

Work team
leader

Astronaut

Nurse

Finance
director

Fast food
server

1.6 Performance Management

These three dimensions of HRD will interact in any personal and organisational
performance. Facilitating, guiding and coordinating HRD is then a process that
requires each of these interrelated aspects of performance to be understood and
dealt with: what does someone need to know and be able to do, and what challenges
will be encountered in the real social context where performance is enacted?
Box 1.3: A stark example ___________________________________
A stark, always topical, and controversial example is the HRD required to make
soldiers able to fight wars and shoot to kill. For this appears to transgress the
values that people are socialised with in early life. And evidence has shown that
in previous major wars many soldiers never fired their weapons with any
intention of trying to hit a target, but now they will. What has changed? The
training has changed.
Rather than just being given drill on the firing range, soldiers are put through
simulations that make the decision to shoot automatic.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The concept of performance has been used several times in this module already.
HRD has to be set in the wider context of performance management, which,
according to one view, refers to the means of getting better results from the
organisation, teams and individuals by understanding and managing performance

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within an agreed framework of planned goals, objectives and standards. Note,

however, that HRD is only one – albeit important – means of achieving these
organisational goals, objectives and standards.

1.7 Human Resource Management

You will often see the term HRD used in conjunction with HRM, and sometimes
synonymously. However, the term HRM itself has various connotations and
meanings. Usually it is used to define a particular approach to the management of
people at work, and is contrasted with other approaches to this, such as the more
conventional terms personnel management or industrial relations. From this
perspective HRM is seen as a more managerialist and restricted set of activities,
focusing on employees as individuals and playing down the traditional employee
relations role, conflict and the legitimacy of trade unions.
In this course I use HRM in a more general and neutral sense, to mean the whole
of people management – the combination of employee resourcing, employee
relations, employee reward and HRD concerns in business and management. HRD
is thus only one key function of the broader HRM of an organisation; it is not an
isolated and stand-alone activity. Organisations’ strategies and policies for attracting
and retaining staff, and the ways in which stakeholders define their different and
common interests at work, can have a great impact on HRD policies and practices.
The scope of this text is to consider the HRD process, the practices associated with
it, and perspectives relevant to exploring the nature of HRD at work in more detail.

1.8 HRD in Context

There has been increasing interest in effective HRD at work over recent years. This
has been the outcome of more positive analyses about the connections between
HRD and effective organisations. Individuals and organisations were entering an era
where adaptations to the onset of a learning society and a knowledge economy
were argued to mark the way ahead for many organisations. We can think of
learning societies as communities dependent on the lifelong learning of all their
members. This contrasts with industrial societies, which required most of their
community to participate only in basic education. We can think of knowledge
economies as those in which wealth creation depends on the creation and use of
know-how rather than on the manufacture of goods and provision of services. In
this context HRD at work becomes more than a mere minor function of HRM, and
is treated as one of the essential and critical tasks confronting individuals and
organisations (see the course on Managing People in Changing Contexts).
But this is no overnight success for HRD. It has been a slow rise to prominence.
The belief that HRD was a ‘good thing’ was manifested throughout the last century
in frequent exhortations for employers to invest in their people, for government to
invest in new schemes and initiatives to improve workforce development, and for all
individuals to embrace lifelong learning in one form or another. These exhorta-
tions grew louder from the 1960s onwards. Yet HRD has often been overshadowed

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by other HRM concerns. Sometimes industrial relations problems have dominated

social and economic thinking, and consequently people management problem-
solving. At other times people management was dominated by employee-resourcing
concerns arising from changes in organisational and employment structures, such as
the rise of flexible firms, and the establishment of ‘new deal’ employment practices
and policies. It is often only when these industrial relations and employee-resourcing
concerns slip off the organisational ‘radar’ that HRD gains the prominence many
HR practitioners feel it merits. For many the 1990s saw employers embracing HRD,
and a host of government schemes and initiatives launched whose goal was to
improve workforce development for those in work and those preparing for work.
The quantity and quality of HRD at work are currently acknowledged as key
factors in adapting to change – economic change, social change, organisational
change and technological change. As the traditional industries with their old forms
of knowledge and skill base declined, new knowledge and skill bases had to be
established to enable job creation and growth. In a context of dealing with unem-
ployment, and aspirations to eliminating historical discrimination and inequalities,
the foundations for the social inclusion agenda were established. And as work
organisations changed from standard bureaucracies with classic divisions of labour
to flatter structures for lean, world-class manufacturing or service delivery, so a new
agenda for HRD at work was needed, both as a means of effecting such change and
as a consequence of it. And finally, as new technologies, particularly information
technologies, were invented and adopted, so a whole range of other changes to
organisations and jobs required new HRD at work.
This convergence of various forces leading to a critical role for HRD at work
shows no signs of abating. Indeed there are signs that the importance of HRD at
work is still increasing; from being overshadowed it has now come centre stage.
This prominence may be unstable: it might be threatened if the industrial relations
or work and employment situation were to worsen. But at present the proponents
of the learning society, of knowledge economies, of flexible organisations and
careers, and the developers of new technologies all agree that the future will see
greater demands upon employers, governments and individuals to participate in and
improve HRD. It is in this context that HRD can claim to be a significant and
challenging part of the future of HRM – much more than a passing concern except
only for those aspiring to be specialist trainers, who had to learn ‘how to train’
people.
HRD at work seems to offer the ultimate win–win outcomes for everyone. In an
era characterised by the volatility of the change to a learning society and a
knowledge economy there is logic to this. Effective HRD at work promises to
provide the levers that can be manipulated to control the future of work and
organisation to ensure individual career and success and competitiveness for those
currently prosperous, and a route to prosperity for those currently ‘struggling to get
by’ or ‘going nowhere’.
For those who are sceptical about HRM and management, this may all sound too
good to be true. Certainly it is not enough to repeat the mantra that learning is good
for individuals and good for companies. This is to be blind to questions both about

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the actual state of HRD, and about its potential to realise the hopes and aspirations
of individuals and organisations. To convince individuals and organisations to
commit themselves to HRD, we need advocates who can give a balanced and
professional view – who can reflect critically on HRD, using what the human
sciences have to offer; on the problems of HRD strategies in organisations; on how
National Vocational Education and Training (NVET) policy is made; on the
potential of e-learning; and on how to connect HRD with the theory and practice of
knowledge management.

1.9 Practical Matters

Table 1.1 lists the areas of business and management practice where HRD themes
and concerns are encountered in work and organisations. According to this survey,
individual and organisational performance issues involve the management of
cognition, capabilities and behaviour in a wide range of areas, including health and
safety, customer care, and technical training in new processes or services.
These are the practical areas in which the rhetoric of HRD is being explored. Here
HRD interventions are typically designed and delivered using a range of methods.
Some of these dominate; others are less frequently used. Table 1.2 gives an overview
of the options. On-the-job training is defined here as training given at the desk or
place where the person usually works. Both surveys show this is an important method
of HRD at work. Off-the-job training is defined as training away from the immedi-
ate work position, at the employers’ premises or elsewhere. It includes all forms of
courses, as long as they are funded or arranged by the employer. The design of HRD
seems to include some or all of these methods.
Table 1.1 Survey on HRD provision by subject in UK organisations (%)
Health and safety 68
Communication skills 61
Customer care 53
Teamworking 53
Computer/IT 47
Quality 44
Product knowledge 38
Equal opportunities 34
Legal/regulatory 15
Technical 17
Management of people 13
Business/finance 14
Leadership 6

Table 1.2 HRD techniques in organisations

Survey (of regularly used methods)
On-job-training (OJT) 87.3%
Face to face (training facility) 84.3%

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Coaching/mentoring 59.4%
Formal education 49.6%
Conferences 43.4%
Non-electronic open 34.7%
learning
CD-ROM 28.9%
Video 26.1%
Intranet 23.7%
Other computer 22.7%
Action learning 14.7%
Internet 16.5%
Audio-based 8.4%
Extranets 7.4%

If we look at HRD service delivery in the shape of the techniques used in organ-
isations (see Table 1.2), the typical approach is to use internal and external off-the-
job training. For example, Table 1.3 shows that HRD at work is dominated by the
delivery of short courses, typically of 1–3 days’ duration. When organisations use
external, off-the-job HRD interventions, these are also usually 1–3 day courses (see
Table 1.4). These are the basic and most frequently used means of delivery.
This overview of survey data shows that HRD at work in organisations typically
involves five major kinds of practice for facilitating, guiding and coordinating
learning. Their management is the key to developing effective performers in work
and organisations. They are:
1. on-the-job learning experiences at the workplace;
2. organisation-based short training courses;
3. external short courses or learning events;
4. e-learning – either computer-based or in a ‘learning centre’;
5. ‘learning partnerships’, such as coaching or mentoring.

Table 1.3 Length of training courses received by employees in em-

ployment
1 day 21%
2–3 days 15%
4 days to 2 weeks 8%
2 weeks to 6 moths 9%
6 months to 3 years 19%
3 years or more 11%
Ongoing 17%
Total 100%
N = 1529

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Table 1.4 Training approaches used regularly for external training (%)
Up to 3-day courses 82
Up to 1-day courses 79
Day release 69
Residential training 63
Evening classes 55
Distance/open learning 42
Computer-based learning 24
Outdoor training 24
Coaching/mentoring 12
Video-based learning 9
Learning resource centres 6
Action learning sets 7

Exercise 1.5: Typical practices

Read the cameos of good and bad experiences in Boxes 1.4 and 1.5. Think
about the kinds of issues raised, and then list examples from your own experi-
ence of each method, and what makes the good effective and the bad ineffective,
in the table below.

Example Effective Ineffective

On-the-job learning experiences at
the workplace
Organisation-based short training
courses
External short courses or learning
events
Using e-learning; computer-based
or learning in a ‘learning centre’
‘Learning partnerships’, such as
coaching or mentoring

Box 1.4: Some good learning experiences ____________________

John cited a total customer satisfaction (TCS) course as being effective. This was
a company-wide course that used well-trained facilitators. A lot of thought was
put into the course environment and room layout. There was good use of
different media, and a blend of thinking and doing. There were many group
exercises involving teamworking. There was even an after-course reception
dinner, and follow-up involving developing and swapping action plans.

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Paul experienced an induction process when he moved from one retailer to

another. One of his new key objectives was to understand the store financial
report. He arranged a one-to-one meeting with his line manager, who explained
it step by step, line by line. He could relate this to what he knew from his
previous experience, and understand the new (to him) method of reporting
financial information. He could get immediate clarification of any questions from
an experienced person.
Chris described learning how to do the ‘store walk’ as a manager in a super-
market. This was an experience with his store manager, who did this every day.
He explained the benefits of doing this store walk daily – for Chris’s own
awareness, for staff awareness, and ultimately to benefit the customers. The
walk was structured at a good pace, and he summarised each stage and referred
to relevant issues. The manager got Chris’s input by asking ‘what if?’ questions.
Chris was encouraged to take notes; afterwards he was asked to communicate
these to the manager, and the manager clarified issues Chris had misunderstood.
On the next occasion Chris had to lead the store walk, with the manager asking
him questions.
Jill talked about the importance of relationships. As someone aspiring to
promotion she had the opportunity to shadow on the job for 2 days a senior
manager, who was also female. The manager was prepared to discuss general
issues, almost like ‘mentoring’, rather than just go through the tasks. She was
very self-aware, and was able to highlight ‘good’ and ‘bad’ characteristics of her
own management style, which Jill found very useful and informative. It also
dispelled some of the fear that Jill had about aspiring to promotion.
Simon had the near-universal experience as a student: learning to serve food in
a restaurant and work behind a bar for the first time. He had no experience of
either, and was thrown in at the deep end, getting coaching from other mem-
bers of staff. The best way to learn was actually to do the tasks in the real
environment. It was stressful, but he felt that he could learn at a faster pace this
way.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Box 1.5: Some bad learning experiences ______________________

An ineffective experience Paul had was of being given a one-page handout on
changes to the disciplinary process and authority levels. He did not understand
the terminology, although he knew the outline of the process. He had to
request clarification on the detail/terminology. He had to wait for more infor-
mation, delaying his ability to understand and follow the new procedures.
For Fiona an ineffective learning experience was an evening course she enrolled
on to learn typing. She was at university at the time, and did not have either the
motivation or the time to complete the course. She was not really interested in
the subject, although she could see benefit in knowing how to type. She paid for
the whole 12-week course, but lasted only 3 weeks.

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For John an in-organisation course was poor. The materials used were out of
date, and there was only one facilitator delivering the course with a limited
style. The pre-course objectives were unclear, and there was not a mix of
thinking and doing on the course. There was no time for delegates on the
course to mix, and the facilities were cramped and uncomfortable. There was
limited connection to his work role, and no follow-up after the workshops.
For Jim an ineffective course was one with a senior manager delivering a course
on a specific topic relevant to his job as a senior civil servant: ‘drafting for
ministers’. The course had been promised for a number of years, but was
delayed time and again. This constant delay meant that training on the topic
became a source of ridicule, which was vented against the senior manager, who
eventually did come to deliver the course. His behaviour further annoyed the
trainees: he was late for the course at the start, was ill prepared, allowed
himself to be interrupted by phone calls during the course, and delivered
confusing information. He constantly ‘lost the thread’, resulting in attendees
feeling they had learned nothing. The delayed course had been worse than no
course at all.
For Lorraine an ineffective learning experience was attending a one-day course
(in house) on basic employment law, delivered by an employment lawyer. The
course content was devised in house, but was aimed at managers with no HR
background, so as an experienced HR person she found the course to be of
little use.
For Mike an ineffective experience was when his company got a new computer
system. A course was given on using this. A lot of information was rushed or
missed, as the trainer felt the trainees ought to know it anyway. The trainer was
unfamiliar with the materials, and jumped about from subject to subject. The
trainees felt they could not ask questions as there was no time, and because
they were afraid of looking stupid. It left them with no confidence at all about
using the system, and having no faith in the trainer.
For Simon ineffective learning was in the use of the front-of-house computer
system. This was learned on the job, with reference to a training manual. He
learned how to do each task, but often not until he had made a mistake, and he
then had to phone a very expensive help-line to fix it. A few hours with some-
one trained in the system would have helped him to learn the basics.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.10 Conclusion
Few taking this course are likely to question the conclusion that HRD is an integral
part of effective business and management. The good news is that most practition-
ers – though not all – equate investment in HRD with effective and improved
individual and organisational performance. Like HRM generally, HRD is always
being called upon to demonstrate its relevance to the business drivers and to
financial criteria, especially among strategists and the guardians of organisational

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finances. The evidence on these issues is still being debated. Underlying these
concerns is the belief that, although HRD is a necessary condition for success, it is
not a sufficient condition for effective performance or success. Let’s look at an
example of this problem.
Box 1.6: A company with good HRD can fail __________________
Motorola, the USA-based major multinational manufacturer of, among other
things, mobile phones, established a large plant in a town in a European country.
This town was in an area recovering from the decline of traditional manufactur-
ing industries. The plant was employing around 3000 people manufacturing
mobile phones. Local people thought this was an industry of the future, part of a
new high-technology knowledge economy. Consistent with its reputation as a
leading innovator and employer of excellence, Motorola invested heavily in
training and development, with some of the best systems, facilities and training
professionals in the country. The plant was very successful, and consistently
more productive than other European plants. Yet when economic troubles hit
the electronics and telecom sectors in 2001 the company had to review its
operations. It accepted that the plant in this town was efficient, with a loyal and
skilled workforce. But it elected to close it in favour of retaining European
production at another plant in a different country. Although the plant had a
model skilled workforce, other factors entered the equation, and the net result
was total closure. This large, single job loss was just like those the town had
experienced with the loss of the old manufacturing industries.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The argument that is encountered time and again is that HRD at work has to be
embedded in the performance management systems of an organisation, and where
this is the case, it seems to pay off. HRD is an integral part of dealing with strategic
threats and opportunities by building on internal strengths and overcoming weak-
nesses. Linking HRD to the key strategic drivers of organisation can deliver the
promised returns of HRD at work, and those who can manage HRD are to be
valued and play a major role in success.

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Exercise 1.6

Consider again the effective and ineffective profiles of methods you completed.
What do these examples suggest about the management of the HRD process:
that is, about assessing needs, planning events, professional delivery, and
effective evaluation?

Review Questions

Multiple-Choice Questions

1.1 Which of the following statements are true?

A. Effective performance in work roles always requires the development of three
elements: cognitive capacity, capability and desired behaviour.
B. Knowledge and understanding can be mapped using either a modular or a
unidimensional view of cognitive capacity.
C. Literacy, communication and customer orientation are all examples of practical
capabilities that may be involved in work roles.
D. Emotional intelligence (EI) is one way of describing the affective, third dimen-
sion of HRD.

1.2 Which of the following statements are true?

A. HRD has been a concern at the forefront of HRM since the 1960s.
B. It is agreed that the improvement of HRD depends mainly on creating more
and better specialist trainers inside companies.
C. The subjects that feature highest in the provision of organisations are Health
and Safety training and communication skills.
D. Methods of delivery such as Action Learning and Intranets are as highly used as
techniques such as on-job-training (OJT)

References
Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R. (eds) (2001) A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing:
A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman.
Halpern, D.F. (2002) Thinking Critically about Thinking Critically, 4th edn. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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