A Field Method For Measurement of Infiltration PDF
A Field Method For Measurement of Infiltration PDF
A Field Method For Measurement of Infiltration PDF
Measurement of
Infiltration
By A.I. JOHNSON
For sale by the Books and Open-File Reports Section, U.S. GeoloTical Survey,
Federal Center, Box 25425, Denver, CO 80225
CONTENTS
Page
Abstract______________._______...____________ F-I
Introduction ______________________________________________________ 1
Terminology and definitions__-_____--_-_-____--____-_--_-__-_--_-__ 3
Methods and equipment__________________-______--______-______-__. 3
Factors affecting infiltration rate..._-_--_______-_---_-___---______-_ 4
Suggested method for determining infiltration rate___--_--____--_______ 9
Apparatus and supplies.___-______--_______-__-_--_-________-_ 9
Procedure---_-____--___---_________-_____-----_-_-_-_--______ 10
Calculations and data report__-____-__--___-_--__-________-_____ 14
Summary.. __ _____________________________________________________ 15
Selected references____--__--______-_--___--__-_-______--__-___--- 17
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
FIGURE 1. Hydrologic cycle__--.__--__________-__-_________-____- F-2
2. Ring-infiltrometer construction.___________________________ 10
3. Ring installation and Mariott6 tube details. ____-_--___--_-_ 12
4. Ring infiltrometer with float-valve control__________________ 13
5. Report form for infiltration test. ___--___-__-__----_------- 16
TABLES
Page
TABLE 1. Infiltration rates for different types of soils, as measured by
infiltrometer rings in third hour of a wet run.._--___-____-_ F-7
2. Data for single-ring infiltrometers______-_____--_-______--_ 15
3. Data for double-ring infiltrometers___-_--____---____--_-__ 15
in
GENERAL GROUND-WATER TECHNIQUES
By A. I. JOHNSON
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
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FIELD METHOD FOR MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION F-3
rate of flow or subsidence for the period during which the wetting
front is moving downward through the enclosed part of the soil column
is taken as the infiltration rate.
No single method is satisfactory for all field conditions. The prob-
lem to be solved, the funds available, and the availability of the ap-
propriate supplies and equipment dictate the method to be used.
Judgment based largely on experience is an important requirement in
evaluating infiltration-rate data especially where conditions are
nonuniform.
Robinson and Rohwer (1957) studied infiltration in relation to canal
seepage and used a variety of equipment installed under field condi-
tions. They concluded that large-diameter rings as much as 6 feet
for the inner ring and 18 feet for the outer ring provided more accu-
rate measurements than the more commonly used rings 1 to 2 feet in
diameter.
Ring infiltrometers of large diameter, such as those used h^ Robinson
and Rohwer, or infiltration pits or ponds, such as those discussed by
Mitchelson and Muckel (1937), probably are the most accurate field
methods for obtaining data on infiltration rates. Rates determined by
ponding in large areas probably are the most reliable, but problems of
cost usually require the use of smaller and cheaper equipment. There-
fore, the use of the ring infiltrometer, especially if 2 feet or larger in
diameter, probably provides the best alternate method for obtaining
data economically. Large rings determine the average rate of infil-
tration for a larger area and are especially necessary in area s of gravel-
sized materials, where all particles are large in comparison to the size
of the ring or basin.
In 1956, after working with a uniform soil profile havirg no layers
restricting the movement of water, Burgy and Luthin (1956) con-
cluded that 6 infiltrometers gave an average rate that was within 30
percent of the true mean when compared with infiltration rates ob-
tained by flooding large areas or basins. To be truly rep resentative,
the general location of the infiltration tests should be based on the
geology or soils pattern of an area.
FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION RATE
tion is the study by Robinson and Rohwer (1957), under field condi-
tions, and by Aronovici (1955), under laboratory conditions.
Many factors affect the infiltration rate. Infiltration depends upon
the chemical-physical condition of the sediments and the chenciical-
hydraulic characteristics of the water in those sediments, both of which
may change with time. The infiltration rate is affected by the sedi-
ment (soil) texture and structure, the condition of the sedimert sur-
face, the distribution of soil moisture or soil-moisture tension, the
chemical and physical nature of the water, the head of the applied
water, the depth to ground water, the length of time of application of
water, biological activity, the temperature of the water and the sedi-
ments, the percentage of entrapped air in the sediments, the atmos-
pheric pressure, and the type of equipment or method used.
Studies of saturated and unsaturated flow of water througl soils
have been made by Colman and Bodman (1944), Kirkham and Feng
(1949), Marshall and Stirk (1949), and Miller and Richard (1952),
but very little information is available concerning water flow from
infiltrometers under conditions of low initial moisture content. Mar-
shall and Stirk (1949) utilized tensiometers to observe the movement
of the water below infiltrometers, and Haise (1949) studiec1 flow
patterns in coarse-textured soils. Possibly the most complete study
of water-flow patterns below infiltrometers was that of Aronovici
(1955), who illustrated the significance of surface and subsurface
conditions on observed infiltration rates. His study suggested also
that pressure head is the dominant factor involved in infiltration rates
in initially dry or damp soils, and emphasized the influence of the
differential hydraulic head in causing a decrease of infiltration rate
with time.
The rate of infiltration is affected greatly by the permeability of the
sediments. Usually the sediments are unsaturated when an infiltra-
tion test is started, and the infiltration rate would not correspond,
even under ideal field conditions, with the permeability as normally
determined in the laboratory. That is, the standard laboratory
permeability equals the infiltration rate only when the sediments are
saturated. On the first application of water in the infiltration tests,
the rate is generally great. As water application continues and the
uppermost sediments become saturated, the infiltration rate gradually
decreases and reaches a nearly constant rate, generally within a few
hours. If all the sediments are uniform or the deeper ones are more
permeable than those near the surface, and the water table is 8 con-
siderable distance below the surface, the infiltration rate is controlled
by the sediments near the surface. However, when the deeper sedi-
660451 O 63 2
F-6 GENERAL GROUND-WATER TECHNIQUES
ments are less permeable than the shallow ones, the shallow sedi-
ments soon become saturated and the resultant infiltration h controlled
by the less permeable sediments at greater depth. Thus, the critical
zone controlling the rate of infiltration is the least permeable zone,
and, as Musgrave (1935a) pointed out, infiltration rings set only a
few inches into the sediments may not indicate the permeability of
the underlying materials. This fact indicates that the bottom of the
infiltrometer basin or ring should be installed at the top of the least
permeable zone.
The definition of infiltration requires that the downward flow into
and through the sediments be nondivergent. The U.S. Srlinity Lab-
oratory Staff (1954) pointed out that the effect of divergent flow
increases as infiltration area decreases and becomes pronounced where
the permeability decreases with depth. The proportion of lateral
flow to vertical flow becomes higher as the permeability of the sedi-
ments beneath an infiltrometer decreases. Flow may move laterally
as well as vertically beneath small infiltrometers, especially if the rings
are set only a short distance into the soil, and the rate determined will
apply to large areas only if the sediments are very uniform and the
underdrainage is not limiting. Divergence may be mirimized for
cylinders or small plots by the ponding of water in a guard ring or
border area surrounding the cylinder or plot. Lewis (1937) found
that, at least for uniform soils, the use of cylinders set 6 inches into the
soil gave reliable results and that buffer rings were not needed if the
infiltrometer was at least 18 inches in diameter. Burgy and Luthin
(1956) also found that the difference between rates obtained with the
single-ring and double-ring infiltrometers for uniform soils that had
been previously wetted above field capacity was not significant. How-
ever, Schiff (1953) obtained the opposite effect in the use of the two
types of rings where soils were not uniform and contained subsurface
zones of low permeability. He suggested that piezometers would be
helpful in determining lateral flow in the vicinity of an infiltrometer.
Free, Browning, and Musgrave (1940) found that the infiltration
rate decreases with increasing clay content and increases with increas-
ing noncapillary porosity (approximately equivalent to specific yield).
These investigators made infiltrometer tests on many different soil
types at 68 field sites throughout the United States. Their data have
been used to prepare table 1.
The infiltration rate can be considerably decreased by disturbance
of the softened surface of the sediments as the water is poured into the
infiltrometer ring. Thus, care must be taken in the first filling of the
apparatus. The effect of rainfall on bare soil also may exe^t consider-
able influence on infiltration rate. Wisler and Brater (1949) pointed
FIELD METHOD FOR MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION F-7
TABLE 1. Infiltration rates for different type soils as measured by infiltrometer rings
in third hour of a wet run
[After Free, Browning, and Musgrave, (1040)]
out that the rain beats down on the unprotected soil, compr.cts it,
washes fine debris into the pores of the surface strata, and thereby
reduces the permeability.
Lewis (1937) and Musgrave and Free (1937) concluded that an
increase in initial moisture content in the tested sediments correlated
with a decrease in infiltration rate. They stated that this is probably
due to the unavailability of the smallest interstitial spaces for the
percolation of water after the initial supply is received. In fine-
textured materials part of the rate reduction is due to the swelling of
clay and the resultant choking of the small pores.
Musgrave and Free (1937) found that even slight water turbidity
caused a considerable decrease in infiltration rate. According to the
U.S. Salinity Laboratory (1954), water having the same quality as
that to be used later in actual infiltration should be used for the
infiltration test.
Schiff (1953) found that infiltration rates increase as driving head
increases. The depth of water to be applied during a test defends
on the information desired. For example, in determination of rates
of infiltration from waste-disposal pits, it may be desirable to apply
the full head. According to Lewis (1937), the duration of testing
also depends upon the information desired. Most infiltratior tests
are of short duration to simulate the effects of rainfall or the applica-
tion of irrigation water. Even then, the rate usually decreases with
time of application.
1-8 GENERAL GROUND-WATER TECHNIQUES
atmospheric pressure also may affect the infiltration rate because of its
effect on the expansion and contraction of the entrapped air.
The investigations discussed above show that to interpret infiltration
data properly the investigator must know the hydrology of the deep
sediments as well as that of the shallow ones. Adequate subsurface
exploration always should accompany infiltration tests.
SUGGESTED METHOD FOR DETERMINING
INFILTRATION RATE
Butt joint,
riveted
1 00(00 1
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1 o| o 1
1 0 jo 1
20"
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the center ring and in the middle of the annular space between tH two
rings. The water is at the proper depth when the point of the wire
or hook barely makes a small pimple on the surface of the water. A
minimum water level of 1 inch and a maximum of 6 inches is usually
maintained.
A Mariotte tube can be utilized for maintaining the water level and
for measuring the quantity of water. (See fig. 3.) The small quanti-
ties of water required for low infiltration rates may require measure-
ment by small-diameter Mariotte tubes, or merely graduated cylinders.
For higher rates or longer test runs, the water level may be held con-
stant by means of a float valve connected to the ring and supplied from
a large water-storage tank or trailer. (See fig. 4.) A recording level
gage may be installed on the supply tank to record the amount of water
used for the test.
To dissipate the force of the applied water and to prevent disturb-
ance of the soil, the soil surface within the infiltrometer rings should
be covered with a splash guard (pieces of burlap or rubber sheet).
The initial amount of water poured into the rings need not be meas-
ured, but any water added to maintain the desired depth of water,
after the start of the timing interval, should be recorded. This proc-
ess is followed for both rings f in a double-ring infiltrometer. For
comparison, infiltration rate is usually calculated for the outer as well
as inner ring.
F-14 GENERAL GROUND-WATER TECHNIQUES
All test data, as well as the infiltration rates calculated during the
progress of the test, are recorded in a record book or on a report form.
(See fig. 5.) The data are plotted also on the cross-sectioned part of
the report form.
SUMMARY
Most of the investigation of infiltrometer rings or basins has been
made by scientists interested in their use for evaluation of agricultural
soils. Because of this, the infiltration rates were usually determined
for the upper foot of surface soils, the heads applied were low to
simulate rainfall or the application of irrigation water, the time of
application was approximately 3 to 6 hours, and the maximurr rates
were usually the ones used and reported. These items must b^. con-
sidered in evaluating infiltration data or in considering the use of the
infiltrometer for other applications. For example, in the design of
infiltration pits for waste disposal, all the above items would be
different; the infiltration rates must be representative of the deeper
sediments, the head applied may be several feet, the time of applica-
tion would be long, and the minimum rather than the maximum rate
of infiltration probably would be the one used.
Considering all factors, Musgrave and Free (1937) concluded that
a specific infiltration rate for a particular type of sediment is virtually
nonexistent and that measured rates are primarily of comparative
value. The rates do have sufficient value, however, to warrant presen-
tation of the discussion and test method in this report.
F-16 GENERAL GROUND-WATER TECHNIQUES
INFILTRATION RATE
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FIELD METHOD FOR MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION F-17
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F-20 GENERAL GROUND-WATER TECHNIQUES
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erosion control: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 15, p. 515-521.
1935a, A device for measuring precipitation waters lost from the soil
as surface runoff, percolation, evaporation, and transpiration: Soil Sci.,
v. 40, p. 391-401.
1935b, The infiltration capacity of soils in relation to the control of sur-
face runoff and erosion: Agronomy Jour., v. 27, p. 336-345.
1940a, Committee on Infiltration, 1939-40: Am. Geophys. Union Trans.,
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F-24 GENERAL GROUND-WATER TECHNIQUES
Musgrove, G. W., 1940b, Notes on recent developments in the inflltrr tion problem :
U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Soil Conserv., v. 5, p. 232-235.
1942, Report of Committee on Infiltration, 1941-42: Am. G^ophys. Union
Trans., v. 23, p. 464-466.
1943, Report of Committee on Infiltration, 1942-43: Am. G*>ophys. Union
Trans., v. 24, p. 404-406.
1944, Report of Committee on Infiltration, 1943-44: Am. Geophys. Union
Trans., v. 25, p. 693-699.
1946, Report of Committee on Infiltration: Am. Geophys. Union Trans.,
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Musgrave, G. W., 1948, Commission on Underground Waters Irfiltration: In-
ternat. Assoc. Sci. Hydrology Gen. Assembly, Oslo 1948, Proc., v. 3, p. 25-30.
Musgrave, G. W., and Free, G. R., 1936, Some factors which modify the rate and
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1937, Preliminary report on a determination of comparative infiltration
rates on some major soil-types: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 18, p. 345-349.
Nelson, L. B., and Muckenhirn, R. J., 1941, Field percolation rate? of four Wis-
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Palmquist, W. N., Jr., and Johnson, A. L, 1960, Model study of infiltration into
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Parker, E. R., and Jenny, Hans, 1945, Water infiltration and related soil proper-
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Pearse, C. K., 1937, A simple device for measuring the absorption rates of soils:
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Pearse, C. K., and Wooley, S. B., 1936, The influence of range plant cover on the
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Philip, J. R., 1953, Infiltration as a physically determinate phenomenon: Aus-
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1957a, The physical principles of soil water movement during the irriga-
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1957b, The infiltration equation and its solution, pt. 1 of The theory of
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1957c, Moisture profiles and relation to experiment, pt. 3 of. The theory
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1957d, Sorptivity and algebraic infiltration equations, pt. 4 of The theory
of infiltration : Soil Sci., v. 84, no. 3, p. 257-264.
1957e, The influence of the initial moisture content, pt. 5 of The theory
of infiltration: Soil Sci., v. 84, no. 4, p. 329-339.
1957f, Effect of water depth over soil, pt. 6 of The theory o* infiltration :
Soil Sci., v. 85, no. 5, p. 278-286.
1958, The theory of infiltration, pt. 7: Soil Sci., v. 85, no. 6, p. 333-337.
Pillsibury, A. F., and Richards, S. J., 1954, Some factors affecting rates of irri-
gation water entry into Ramona sandy loam soil: Soil Sci., v. 78, p. 211-217
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FIELD METHOD FOR MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION F-25
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1949b, Movement of water within the soil and surface runoff with
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1949c, Preliminary studies oil soil permeability and its application: Am.
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1942, Extension of graphic methods of analysis of sprinkle4-plot hydro-
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40 p.
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1944, Infiltration and the physics of soil moisture: Am. Geophys. Union
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engineering practice: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 22, p. 666-677.
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on the infiltration capacity of Clarion loam: Agronomy Jour., v. 29,
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Smith, H. L., and Leopold, L. B., 1942, Infiltration studies in the Pecos River
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relations for several soils in the range of the "field capacity" : Soil Sci. Soc.
America Proc., v. 12, p. 17-21.
Smith, W. O., 1949, Pedological relations of infiltration phenomena : Am. Geophys.
Union Trans., v. 30, p. 555-562.
Soil Science Society of America, 1956, Report of definitions approved by the
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meability of forest soils: Soil Sci. Soc. America Proc., v. 15, p. 379-381.
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movement in soil: Geol. Foren. Forh., Stockholm, v. 79, p. 581-587.
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p. 202-203.
FIELD METHOD FOR MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION F-27
Taylor, W. P., 1935, Some animal relations to soils: Ecology, v. 16, p. 127-136.
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1937-38 The validity of the assumption that it is possible to produce differ-
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v. 32, p. 395-404, 3 figs.
Wilm, H. G., 1941, Methods for the measurement of infiltration: Am. Geophys.
Union Trans., v. 22, p. 678-686.
1943, The application and measurement of artificial rainfall on types FA
and F infiltrometers: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 24, p. 480-487.
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Woodward, Lowell, 1943, Infiltration-capacities of some plant-soil complexes on
Utah range watershed-lands: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 24, p. 468-473.
Zingg, A. W., 1943, The determination of infiltration-rates on small agricultural
watersheds: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 24, p. 475-479.
Zwerman, P. J., 1938, The relation of sheet erosion to the structure of DufHeld silt
loam: Soil Sci. Soc. America Proc., v. 3, p. 304-311.
1947, The value of improved land use as measured by preliminary data on
relative infiltration rates: Am. Soc. Agronomy Jour., v. 39, p. 135-140.