1:1-0CDRERT RES011

ID Pk 1017 EA 013 967

40THOO' '01:3,,Ckaaii, darl, D.
'TITI.E. beialopiental. SUperviiion: Alternative Practices , m
04ing"Teadhers Iapioie InStruction.
IRSTIVITION' ASSodiatiOn-Ior EuperiiiiOn and Curriculum
'''N.- . DevelOpsent, Alexandria, Va.
40pit it? ,
1-SE4N-0=87120-106-2
'40:DiTs- 81:
46ti -. 72p. k
. , . .
AUtiEE, PUCE tY01 Plus Pkstage. PC Riot' Available from zpRs.
,DESCRIPTORS Administrator Attitudes; Cognitive Style; Elementary
SecondarY 'Education: *Supervisory lhethOde; Teacher
. le Behavio=r Teadher .Characteristics: *Teadher
SuperVision
,\
R139TRAdek
. Instructional supervision ,Intentwin with the
,',debate_ hOW hunans- learn end, on whit knowledge is of eatest
iipbrt-. That, who ,beilieie t*at knowledge is acquired as an ind idual
chooses to ,follow his or her Omy.inalinatiOns -tend to ,favOr
-ncinditectilia Si:iPerii-sign. ThOie, who believe that learning is the
result. of -redifproCity and 0, xPerinentat fOn. advodate dollaboratiWe
anperiiiiiioni ',those Who belieWe that learning"it acquired through
.Coatpliande With a. set of Stan:kards:idwocate- directive superWision.
=liefaiiSea.11--siethods can be ancdesis.01 whin applied in the lataper
---:-ltpaaiiitanOeS, it is **Pont:int. fora supervisor -_torbe. aware, -of his or
:ber:-Ovin -beliefs'auperyiSiCa. To help,,dreate- such an awareness, the
includes a -self-aitigetinent gUestionnaire for sUperifiSors to
Aiiiein- determining. their beliefs. The gueitiOnnaire is fOIioWed by a
'4i.tcait3.-aii, on ,Which ten behaviors on the supervisory Lehaiic,r
Contiiinga aistOing, '-encOUtaging-,,,'Presenting4
problea solving, negotiating", -deionstratingc: diteCting f
standardizing, and reinOral:Of ere, associated With 'the orientation.
A'. 'paradigm,' of four 'teacher categories (dropouts, workers,
ina140,41. Oiktviens, and. ,profeesiiOnals)- based on teacher CoMmitment
and level of ,abatract 'thinking4*-deieloPed to helg supervi-SorS
detereine which .SUPerviSory orientation is appropriate -for a specific
teacher's developmental stage. (Author/IRT)

. 0
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TO THE EOUCKIIONALIAESO1.4TM
INPOF!k1111010 OENTER it-111W ,

Alternative,PracticeS for Helping Teachers Improve InstructiA.

Carl D. *6 lickman

CAM
Association for Supervision and OurriCultim Development
225 North Washington Street
( Alexandria, Virginie,22314
 4.
I

Editing:
Ronald S. Brandt, ASCD Executive Editor
,Nancy Carter Modell:, Assistant Editor

Cover Design: great incorporated

-Copyright 1931-by the Association fut Supervision, and Curriculum Development

ill rights resaved. No part of this. puldication may be seproduced or transmitted
in any florm:or, by any means, electronic or mechanical,_ including photocopy, re.
cording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without -permission in
writing fromilit publisher:-"
The materials printed herein are the expressions of the Writer and not necessarily
a stakernent of policg of the 'Association.
Stuck Number: 611-81234
Libi2ary of COngress Catalog.Cara rt-iljyner: 81.0681
ISBN: 0.87120.106.2

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Acknowtotisonortts
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About (Ike Mt One

9!"). 011(killStrk 4 4n Astc(403-1ofo4or In rim DC1Nitonvn of Colli011tim 111141
'100.t.vls11)11 14.1.1111vollty of 00011114, pi-04090y he was oloof,,
facolly Of-)14rly anti /%11(1410,C1111411toni1-1141noolon
of 'rho Ohio Stine UnIticfs4y.
'110 lies Im'4,$(11001 loclkot. fonlibis InInclool.:uNtvloty
pflodlul at pleura,
1111biiC Woolf, and 30 cifocolon onalym, flu 5,1110 Author of
on11111tAl in olkication And py(holORY 1011,1)1111, =110 noioetoociiniclo
4 okra the cotinolior of two
lopt 14.,1orshlt aiild0 70 filoe6100 Srbool'Imptomic
(1979) Pail ,s`ohlog
moult!! Noiden)r (19110), both m11441104 by Allyn and lima

V
 Contents
i'oreword / ix.
Preface / xi
J. TI Debate t
2. DetermininOupervisory Beliefs /-9
3. Orientations 'to-Supervision',
4, .DvelopMental Criteria for Choosing Appropriate
$tspersitsory Orientations / 39
Maftelitils Stages of "feather Development with
AoptolitiateSurpvisory Orientations /
6. 'reacher Development:17,u rther Considerations
for the upervisor / 59
References / 63

7
 Foreword
Evert educators tend to overlook the drivelnprnentat nature of Joining when
;he/ work with colleagues and other adtiltsSince, supervisors serve in 'Many
ways as trachetrOtreachers," it islmpottant that they-view their tole as that
of a 'faCilitatto of ;leaping. Thus, realizing .titat'..tilchers' vary in,' their- learning
styles,Just,as students, dorft.isrriecesury .fat sup/ref/Isom tobsVest tepertoire of
supetvisorylsehavitart to.-thaw on in Jrelating effectively', to teachers needs,
The Pultptiseofporreiopiirermil kr/Jou/don-is to assist leadeishiP persons
eduction to identify their own beliefs about :the superviloryprocess, and to
determinetheapPippriate,amount and sequence of the processes of listeotri&
clarifying, encouraging, presenting, ptoblent solviog, negotiating, derniansoating,
tilrecting,-and -reinforcing as they work to improve learning, Theauthor right.
fully takes the position, that desired- results ate best obtained when both the
,sopeivisor and those being supervised' feel` comfortable with the choice of
vstilatrviiory.hehavidts, }le uses. specific incidents, definite-procedures, and .sug.
geited f.ollow.up-rneasures to engineer theories telated to supervisory 'behavior
dayin, to tlie--ce'tia.firma of _realistic ptactice,,The Accessaty -diagnosis and the
generation-of creative prescriptions torithinethe sante science and an come
portena necessary in any meaningful instruction, The Importance ofthe decision.
Making tole of both teachers and SupervisOts_h dealt with as the structural. link
between destrpi goals and learning otitcomei
It is 1401 that the premise for developmental supervision advanced ituthis
boolclet will Come to lull fruition In the-pp-Cares of-its readers, leading to better
learning experiences for teachers who then, in turn, will teach as they are taught,

LUCILLE G. jogoAtil
Prolident, 1981412
4h1Olidikll lot Supervision and
Carriattini Devetoirent

8
 r

Pk

Preface
;

f
ititc:arCh into,burnan development, patticadatly how diddle and a ults vow
ea-pithily, o4iJIy, physically, and aesthetiolly, has- been prolific.
mil, now
Judy:444440ns been applied mainly to-caily.'p ma:y.eduaon 4uh
Span"- coon:ding. Xducational sopervimas on, profit lnrensely by
I. applying, developmental principles to their work with teathsts on -improving
initruction. The rejection of the "either:or" advocacy-of,bchaviorali,cognitive,
and hurnanfstic supervisory approaches now can substrmtiatcl y what. ;5
-krtown about the-variation in ts-acker growth. In taking into,accoupt teachers'
&petal catimilpitrnt and their let cUof,abitriirj,rhinkiiig. the supervrpot can use
a criteria fat selecting the_ most appropriate super,. iy.ity olientationjhe theme
of -this book -is. that no one-approach %lurks for all when const,izring Ind'.
Mini reicher development, the super/hut-on choose an approach that will be
more effeetive thin others.
thus, the purpose of potelopmental Supeabion is to help the school
leader think 'about supervision in a developmental manner and Subsequently
interact with his or he staff in:new and mule effective ways. itesearch and
theOry are oserils-the pivotal framework, yet they are specifically, cited-only as
,
'they reiate,to,practice U believe that the school_ leader, whether in early Juld
hood, elementary. m4ddle, seContlary, or post sti.ondary, eduuiuun, vill find the
use of alternative strategies of supervision with teachets-ac varying levels of
deveropmenthelijfid in improving class and school, Instruction:

xi

/9
 t
The PObte
Aide, item/back it an English "weber in her twelfth 'fat at New C4144146
Pivot She is married, Jest no thildrer6nd lira in se, high sototeconomie "with,
haihool tirenty miler front At tow teonotok neighborkod of her trhOol. A
P1.40i* reason that Mt. fleirrbackwatheit at New-Cattle-is her desire-"ep:help.stie-

neuter Ever own ikon' troth% _

denwfrom rtmeis importrithetteirroiendingeracgmirerate spirretiation for literatiere
She-it ins4reid middy of-both eonlemporary.andlassh litetaterre and oicenionally
.
Alt. ilierrbaek_Aerstrally it-regeriled as a' tompetent lei cher. She hard rather
bombastic 17141Ntir of oe.e4ing4rediefth her large, toting. an rangy physical statute
treater an ini'Poling trietteitee4feny of her simients .rd afraid of her and'ihe. word
it 'patted 4ssiekly eosin, 110, new stedente that "'on don't met: with 011 lady
liertebeit" 41ostgaielenti grudgingly believe that her glasses ore worthwhile. When
-the lcir4leioik eidif,iihrt Prettlife ii OM, JitiMIJ secm-to-tniergt from her scree
at bet* readertandwri tett.
Me Horthatk, except for one Owe friend, it not liked -1 other teachers seti
Nei' eaullit T.fiei tothilLiin of him arloter4..elitist att;tatie. She ernreys,the int-
potion that poor new Cattle High is pritilexed to here such alliterate person
arhertell on itt gaff. She let; It be knout that the was oncleseciplet at a
PhD ;Willi in Eighth at- 41preitigiom mitirersio bps tarierdit d will teach at
New Gotta At fatally meeting:, Mt. liorrifigki lino of istileg y so evident;
the. hat ari mower to every problem. She is. insightful, the ail : and propotet
lhoromth,soteitionr; and she-tan-ea:fly isigiestwhat ashen should d to-inaht-New
Cattle a. better ;school list tries -it comet to nation, -rho bathe off. Mr. fiorvihrek
it the but leather to arrive at taco' inf.the rnornak. the Po to leas he
the ieforriok , ,
What hid of piperrhtos tan -help liftiloreback improre not only her. elate.
room iniiiketion,:hat also the learnbrrdimatirof its school?
?r,tt litirvack is one of se-veral-vtiyieal teachers discussed in this hoo
*hiding 63year.ofd kr Sangui who is near tetitdnener after 35 years of, teach.
ing, neophyte tifs.,Tilton., and fifth-year teacher-Bill'bonner. Well study each-of
them as they undergo-ptedirtatie patterns of experiences and concerns.- None- of
that'; tetchers is imaginary although their :tunes have been changed, they -vete
all taider my supervision as a school principal.
 DVELIP"MeNTAL-SUPERVISiON

But please rrote --tn most-cases I did not peacoat, rrs my town supervisot7
roles, the appropriate Stlatesica fin working with developing leachers_dut 1
captain .In this funk. Suet rsisuts today have a combirtation of tools, :cum. clt,
and diem-that were either piecemeal or nonexistent in the past_ I found M.
tiorvback,lft. Sangui,_Ift Dorinekanif Ms. Tilton difficult to work with-In a
cOrtittoCtiie manner. But in this difficulty my interest in effeciive supervilsron
grew .In-effect the nagging question that &wiled my further Study and tesearch
has been, `'Why %gent-these trailers 44.44.caully helped. Thisdiook. anerripta
n atatsitt, that question so that those of us who continue-to work with faculty to
improve instruction might would att afis of the past and kapttalat utt tilt
gat sin, forlhe_futur

The _igect fa r Lea d ership

The times tall fur-sating leaders Those who superiise-teachers--principals,
cutriculum directors. heat: teuilas, department chairpersons, of sopcluaterklents
need ti., avoid .acquiesung, to nunedulawrial ptessores. Students ate. derriand-
mg sights. Tcadicts_thlough thc:t riong ptufessoiria1 associations
arc attempting_ to set the conditions under which they will work Parents arc
Jernantlin.g cultural it:mance.. Taxpayers arc demuiding pis:oval school
budgets, School-Wards ate waiting for ..bakk to basic., no frills education" State
legislatotea art mandating pet romanced based tea,lic competencies fur tern
fkatiutt. State and felted tuutis arc dagmtning uthn I polic,ses in such are
as student disttibution. spetod all/tnnin. Cutto...1- content, and student--
discipline
Such ptesstite4 [turn i.lt44ita (ALMA pumps arc nut 110.C.Waily land and, in
many cases, have contiluted to progress and tclurm in education. However.
what-is glitto,Of wrong a that too oftcts eclucatuts arc rrnS)inff, hum Alle Cflut4-
:04111 detxraiin making ploccas Thine who WC must intimately, involved with
tbc-.4Y:taz a the .nsttuitiunal program in Abut& fitxr./ tu stand up and malce
ihtit rlii,o.,hts known. They nccI "u stand,up, lot what they kn ow about ell'etti!;e
se.p.1;;N:, .t.fri!cain.n6 r.trhamtitc, they must willing to substantiate what
the) mean by dig. live teaching and lotratts and help work with pressute
new Jimiiiitu, for imptosing ingrouion. Fur those of us
,ipercix,ry pte.11;,/to o wait lot the-next ditettive to be issued from
ihnent% Saud btruIJI5 al uttS. cat nupayas, and then shriii cart At/WM.0 to
the "ctlut.toun.a; that Charles Silbetran (1971) referred
fr. in Crstir in ,rite Caiimoot, To fad lead is to allow rmneducators -to make
educatwail decisions ;Twit-vet, the ,upervaat must rust be willing to under-
stand and Audi what the established research says about effig- .ve learning
befoic attempting, to lead others lariat,' a corn.non vision. We might be by
looking at the entangled conuovervy about education and supervision
 l'130 $uin.nrvispixeorttrOversy 1*
flbwapcin wocks with another to,IMProve his-ca her_pettormance has.
been studied largely in business, indusgy, and the military: Much of, whark.
appeats to be iffectivc i Mete:ask% prodoction of.autumobilcs. u t opturiets
hill-4iiber 124, or in doubling the sales of e cream, etc-at/illy beginitr;
lranslatid into iniplititionljor bow 4ual upen ot ibuula wu. wo teach-
erS to- inereaw student framing) MS- book will riot deo hum suite Outside,
teseitch Resta:eh on improving perks:mance i sents4el.tie tu od)et, Acuings
only where-ilmilar goals tatistiSeudies about auto:production, at the Fora plant, ........
can-he generalized and-used b,4 General Motors -and (most liopsfullyl'Orrysler.
The sessile ies, however, are more difLolt to generalize lot us,hy instinu !
dons- that produce -cc atom canes or bennuda. shorts. Production of human-
learning is a far diffetent !putt in fact, 4huul4 we even be 'looking at
human leastlingas toduction-commodity?
To Uzi:twit]; thqs, the study ollitimzn /earning' (by studentoracher, or
supervisor) needs to apart horn studies of Material comditiesoates, or
conquesc Therefore. the :march and findings- cited on the Jollogyiing pages
atedtawn from-the fields f htiman development and cogniticr and within the N
=tea of an educational environment (the school) fathcl it,ban twin-non-
educational entetprises,
"
The scope for untiersoib ding instructional lope:v.4.14mA thereforetedued
to the theory and finding t human ;earning The goal of instructional
supervision is to help to s learn how to increase heir own capacity Co
acbjete professed irartitn4 s for their stud,ents, Such an undertaking, ,even
eliminating the-reszach outsid of schools, remains uemendousk, complex-
Instructional supervision is ntertsined with the debate an human learning.
fjow does one learn) Hiati.tots psy,bolognis premise that teaming 35 tIF
result of an individuals cutiosit to find rationality and order in the world,
Learning is seen as an innate. folding process, The reacher pports -the
natural curiosity of the indivi and laming results from Self-dm-may.
Coznihre Mein:tow argat the learning is the result of an interchange
between.the individual acting on t -.met environment and, in tut, the miter
environmento( animate and alarms objects acting on tilt individual Learning
is viewed as -the process of recipt I actions of student with teacher, other
students. and manipulative -+Nects Fin 1Iy, beliatiotal plyt.holograi view learn-
ing as the imprinting 1, Gt candititining) uf the individual by the outer environ-
ment Learning results as ant imitates aJ practices actictriv that arc rewarded
or:punished,
Such an explanation of the three ptctPmrraamn views of learning shows the
marked differences in what is regarded aknuukJe. Humanistic educators
view knowledge as information students disc vet lot themselves for the toga-
 4 .DEVEDSPMerillitSUPERVISIOisr

rive educator,, it is those procedures that "Wok in ;pr'txtucinitangible

--,,,
with others. For the behavioral educator, knowledge is a predete5nineiriet of
hehaViio / 'content
-,... , and skills established by experts-as net. 3sary,. for- .eoPll'iii -
survive In soeicty. ...-
, .
In Figtire',1,.irt this debate, the basic onus of responsibility:lot- attic:441
knowledge shifts from-the student (in ,,the view of, the Iturnahi:.st),:to 'als-hared, , ,
responsibility betweep snck/it-and tea:het ,(in the view,:of -the fognitkist)- to
the teacher .(inthe view-of the behaviorist). Likewise We Ond:the -%arne-educa- -
tional,debate,cOncerning the nature of curriculum, the purposes schools- should
-hive , the.disCiplimand management procedures that should lie empioed-with- ,
4. v-,-
students, and the-techniques we should use in superVising tea chers.

110

Figure 1, of Learning
iStudent Responsibility: .High Moderate. Low
TracherfceSponsiliiility: Low Moderate High
PsycholOgioal View,
at Learning: !Inman' Behaviorist
Methcid of Learning. SelfDisco ery Experimentation Conditioning'

Th nuliof this treatise is that Those who write, research, and theorize in
etlucat' rt are ecUatt,:s first and supervisors second. In other 'words, there are
ennflittingyiews. as to huw students learn and what knowledge is of greatest
impori. The debate amung supervisors over the best approaches to working
with icaChers is comparable turtle debate.about the best approaches to working
with children. Figure 2 shows how, responsibility fur teacher .improvement
moves from teacher to supervisor. Those who believe that knowledge is relative
acquired:only as the inditidual chooses to. follow his or her own inclinations
advocate supervisory approaches that allow the reacher to Make his of her
own-determination of what improvement is. needed. The emphasis is on self-
assessment, Those who believe that learning is the result of reciprocity and
experimentathpadvocate approaches_to supervision that result in a shared
determination:of whin needs to be done.,Mutual contracting providei a vehicle
for suth reciprocity. Thoso who believe chat learning is-acquired Or
pliarice with Astandard advocate approaches whereby the supervise determines
the need:and plan for, teacher improvement. The emphasis is on establishing
delineated standards of performance. These three tem ns to supervision,
for purpo,ses of this book, arc latleled'tionfirreaire, Coliaboram Directive.
In realityentation rarely exists. in such neat, precise categoric however,
-a supervisor can be judged according to h:s or her usual emphasis. directive

/ 13
/r0
 THE DEBATE 5
.
-stiperAsor Who leads tOWard behavioral management might .0e methods that
appear Ytorti other orientations. However; such methods are used only
as-they- colitrkilta to the -superviiir's final of having teachers meet pie-
deteirilitieil'Stafidardsof petfOrmarke. The same can be said far the other "types"
ltilAiperiisory*o\rk-entations.Supervisors x,..night employ elements -of other orienta-
tions as.;Ctintlibutiona.tp,their final_ view oflearninaand.knoWledge.
-and.
IIow do wezemilicate in practical terms a ,succes ful way of dealing with
teacherS;,Which nor only breaks froM.tlie "eithei/or" dilenitnas.of education and

'
Figure 2. Vieivs of Supervision
Teacher ,
Responsibpy: High Moderate Low
Supervisor -
Responsibilily. Low. Moderate- .High
Orientation tO
Nondirective Collaborative //' Directive
Primary Method: Self- assessment Mutual Coritrabt Delineated
Standards

-supervip
/
bu,talso moves the profession/ into new and purposeful grounds?
Itescarcherattn.the last twenty year', have found -evidence to support each
orientation. Htitan.ljearn through 71f-exploration, collaboration, and condi-
tioning.liesearch nas ntrttnor. will it -likely ever) unequivocally establish One
orientation towards'learrung as -the. proven, way." The recent brain research of
thcleft and right hemispheres (apiaikand others, 1980) supports the premise
that diffeient physical properties of ea lortm,kossess functions for various-kinds
onearning, In effect, research suggests-thoesthereT learning within
each individual. We each have he capacity tolear&in a multitude of ways.
SuCh,stippoit for all manners of learning does not.,,val&date a compromise
'between humanist, behaviorist, and cognitivist. -Insteadggests that there
are methods end orientations io learning that are more Oipproli4e than others
when determined by purpose, situation, and needs of :individuals*: a
matter :of "since we can't establish a winner let's shake hands, be friends,_...on
use.a little bit of each orientation." Instead, the need is for a planned eclecticism.
of varying, forms of learning in_pure.form to help students. For example, to use
behavioral apiotoaches to acquire short-term, observable rudimentary knowledge,
to use cognitive approaches to acquire logical, abstract reasoning; and to use
humanistic approaches to express emotions in creative forms are all appropriatik
When the method fits the goal, the goal is more likely to be-reached. 116'.
,

14
 DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION

Additionally, such research lends itself to differing thouglIts,,about the

development-of redchers and the. kinds of learning that are appropriate at vary-
ing'stages of. teacher growth. Certilin orientations to supervi'sion are more appro-
priate to achieve certain goals with teachers. Supervisors pf teachers need, to be
mindful' of-the `developmpial stages of teachers, they, should select their actions
for their congruence with the particular purpose for improving instruction. In
doing this,,stiRervisory eclecticism becomes powerful and effective.
D_ evelopmental Supert issiganized-to explain -the use of such eclecti-
cism. Chapter Tw6 is a study of the continuum of supervisory behaviors. Chapter
Three &plains each supervisory orientation.-Chapter Four reviews-the rvearch
.1
on teacher development arid offers a new criteria for assessing stages of teacher-
development. Chapter -Five matches these..,tages With appropriate supervisory
orientations through case studies. Chapter Six Considers other factors of deve16p-
Mental 'supervision. T'
ti

What This Book Is Not.

Educational supervision" is, generally viewed as the task .and functions that
improve instruction. For example, Ben.- Harris (1975) lists ten majol tasks of
superVision. developing curriculum, organizing for instruction, providing staff,
prOviding facilities, providing materials, arranging for in'service education,
orienting. staff members, relating special pupil services, developing public rela-
tions, and evaluating instruction. Esposito and others (.1975) have reduced these
tasks into four categories. (1) indirect service to teachers, (2) direct service to
teachers,. (3)- administrator, and (4) evaluator. Our focus here is limited to the
task of direct service to teachers as defined by Esposito and others-Lwhat the
supervisor can do with teachers to improve their classrot3m performance through
assessment and-evaluation of instrultion. Instructional supervision is a subset of
educational supervision, a process for improving classroom and school practices
by working directly" with teachers. Those persons who hard or share this respon-
sibility in a schdol usually include principals, lead teachers, department heads
curriculum specialists, and central office staff.
We will address only one of the tasks of educational supervision. *lie
direct practice with teachers obviously is extremely important, I do:not wish to
1
imply that the other tasks (developing curriculum, special pupil service, and
so on) do not also merit attention. It may be possible to integrate the develop-
mental orientations of working directly with,teachers to other tasks, but that is
beyond the scope of this book. For a more comprehensive treatment of the tasks
of supervision, the following texts would be worth pursuing.
Jo+
Alfonso, R. J.; Firth, G. R.; and Neville, R. F. Instructional Supervision: A Be-
;
havior System. Boston: Allyh and Bacon, 1975.

15
 THE DEBATE 7
.

'HartisB.,M.,SuperVisory Behavior in Education. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.:

tice-11'11,..Inc., 1975.
Ludo; d McNeil, J.-D. Supervision in Thohght and Actson. 3rd ed. NeCv
'York : .M raRill, Inc., 1979.
Nedglek, R. ., iid1ians, N. D. Handbook for Elfective-Supervision of Instruction:
3id ed.IngleVood Cliffi; N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1980.
F: Today's Schools. New York: Harper and Row-Publish-.
Sergiovanni, T. J., and Scalia, R. J. -Superiiition: Human Perspectives. 2nd ed.
New,.-YOrk:-Mcgraw:ilillOnt;`19791
Wiles, 1,,and Bondi, J. SuperViiion: A -Guide to Practice. Columbus, Ohio: Charles,
E, Mezrill Publishing C6.,,1980,
Wiles, K., and Lovell, J: T. Supervision lor Better 'Schools. 4th _ed.
.,,Englewoocl
'Cliffs',44. J.: Prentice -Hall, Inc., _1975.

ft

t
 2.
Determining Supervisory Beliefs
:Ms. ,Eleanor`Troinbwell, immediately ,alter disinissiAg- her class, rushes down the
hall and walks-in on her supervisor, Ai!. Edgeiwood. Ms.'4dgerwood looks up
IrOM-hei-desk as Ms. Trombwell says, "I can'tjake it any longer. I have tried ,and
tried to et those kids to le,grn`leut, they don't know their facts,and-they don't care.
1 idOsiiit know what else to do!" -Ms.'Edget:W oodkiii,w-there were problems, in that
class. She,had- been thinkini-abant What 'ike might do to hilp, but now, this
abiupt,moment Ms: Trot's' bwill i.( expectan tly waiting for an answer.
/ If you Were Ms. 'Edgerwood What. *mild you do? One supervisor might
1
Al miss,the,in-cidelit: "Well, Ms. Trombwell WS-really-not that bad. Why don't
I you Collect) your wits and ,O back to your room." .Another supetVistir .might

rePly,, "I'll tell-you-what you need _MS. Trombwell. Go back in there_ and tell
,I cif.* students that if ibey.don't.shape- up there's going to be hell to pay."
.ileither.,Of those-stipeivisors- would have given Ms. Trornbwell":"any'litlp,,
-Basically, she-Wouldlleturn to the classrooin with the same.problemS and' no
, ..:
plans for alleviating them.
"Stipeivision,tp effect change in a teacher's instruction, must be directed at
developing. a .specific plakfor action, A .condescending pat on the hand ot a,
go in and-try'hirdei",e3thortatidn'cloes tiot coniribute_tosuch,a plan.-PutPoseful
-behaviors that supervisori, use to help teachers arrive at speCifieaction's tire
illustrated in Figure -3, the Supervisory, Behavior Continnum Ms._EclgerWood
inigiiehitersponcledziii, a "Plan fur manner bif-
Liitenifig,. saying-naching,perhaps
. nodding her -head -to indicate men-
tion, and'waiting"fot the teacher to continue talking.
Clarifying,,replyini with questions Intended to give _fuller understanding
of the'problem: "What do you mean that they don't know their facts? What.
--fa&s;and:what-students?"
----
' _Encouraging,
I , having the teacher-talk at greater length about other factors
thi-emay be Oita, the problem You seem to be'quite,ingry at the students.
$it. doWn and'teBnie-ivIarelse.haS been going:on."

9
 Figure 3. The Semen/leery Behavior Continuum
5
1 -2 3 4 Problem -7-
s Listening Cleiifying 8 9' . 10
Encouraging Presenting Solving Negotiating Demonstrating Directing Standardizing Reinforcing t

Supervision: 'Nondirective Collabolatixe Directive

'Kei:i =Maximum teacher responsibility S = Mexinium supervisor- respoasinility

t,= Minimum teacher responsibility s = Minimum'aupervisor responsibility

n-

18

0
 DETERMINING SUPERVISORY RELIEFS 11

i
`` Presenting, offering her own-perceptions and thoughts about-the diffi-
culties: "Ms. Trombwell, let me offer some of my ideas. I think thee are two
students, Felix and Henrietta, who in particular have beenwearing you- doWn:
I've.been getting complaints froth other teachers as well about_these kids. Could
they be,yoUr. major difficulty?" ,-
\ ,

Problem solving, initiating the discussion->avith statements aimed at ex-

piorhssolutions: "What lia:Ve ytatiztried-previously with those students-to get
them to Work? What can you try in the future? Maybe we could; try an incentive
system, chang0e..,seating wttern Of the classroom, or vary the level of assign-
inents more.' ,....i ,/ '
I
Negotatiir ,attempting to quiCkIdet to the m matter at hand. "That.are
we soins to-do ab ut this situation? What should' I do as your supervise)', and
what shouldyou,c1 the teacher. to improve this situation? Let's be specifiC."
Dernowtrat1 ng, physically showing the teacher how she might act. The
supervisor might a tually take over the class for lesson and haVe, the teacher
observe or spend-ti e in the classroom of another; eacher who.is more 'effective
in teaching and niqtivating students. Ms. Edgerwod might have said, "Listen,
tomorrow I'il teach, and yon take the notes.",
Direiting, simply detailing to the teacherl what she must do: "Ms.
Trombwell, this istwhat I want you to start doi g tomorrow. Review their
asSignMents the fir ' en minutes, then test each student individually on the
facts. Don't allow y strident who -fails the test to have independent activity
-time that day. Inst d, have them correct their rests and drill each other. Try
this and rePOrt bac I to me in a week."
Reinjorcin delineating the conditions and consequences for teacher
improvement: "Msiffrombwell, I want you ttri$eep records on all student scores
onlactual tests thisikveek. If thetLis 20 percent improvement in scores by next
l....
'Tuesday, I'll note that effort On your next evacuation."
.
Irt Figure 3 the supervisory behaviors are placed on a continuum of shifting.
responsibilities. Each lehavior, frorri listening so- reinforcing, signals a gradual
shift Of control from to cher to supervisor. The supervisory behaviors of listen-
ing,- clarifying, and enco fasig indicate the-teacher's responsibility for analyzing
and determining the planvolactions. Presenting, problem of 1., d neg9tiat-
ing indicate ,a shared r spOnsibility Adr the Oran. yi Ily, de onstrating,
directing, and teinforcing (Nate the supervisor's maximum responsibility for
4ie plan. Every authority in he field ofeducational pupervision, as well as every
practitioner, has a.predornin nt orientation to su vision rtha is character.ized
bra Specific set of behaviors tHal4,
,... 109) Thes
.... .
characteristic
. sets of,behaviors
are orientationuf nondirecti ,e, co(lahbiative, and directive supervision. .

At this point, stop and ask yoi,irs'elt about your own orientation to super-
vision'. Following.is a prediction sheet for`'you to guess how you would place

tt
 phvilLominNTAL suPER !SION
.
yourself, and a forccdchoice instrument which, if answered honestly, will give
you a. reality index of how you ct. Remember, one orientation is not neces-
sarily better than the others. Associated with each orientation are behaviors with
which some individuals feel more comfortable than others in striving to reach
their goals.

ihe,Supervisoryteliefs Inventory
This inventory is designed for supervisors w assess their own beliefs about
teachei supervision and staff development 'The inventory assumes that super-
visors believe and act according to three of the orientations of supervision,
yet one usually dominates. The inventory is designed to be self-administered and
self - scored: The second part lists items for which supervisors must choose one of
two options. A scoring key follows, which can be' used to compare. the predic-
tions of Part I with the actual` beliefs indicated by the `forced-choice items of
Part II.

Part I. Predi ions (Check one antwerlar each quettion.)

1

Percent Of Time
uestions Neatly 100% About 75% About 50% About 20% About 0%
1. How often do you use
a directiee'approach
(rather than either of
the other" two approaches)
superVising teachers?
2...Hoeir often do you use
a Collaborative approach
(rather ,than either of
the other two appRachcs)
in supervising teachers?,j
3. How often do'you use a
nondirective, approach
(rather -than the-other two
approadles) in supervising
teache?

This instrument has been fieldtested six times with 90 supervisors and super -
`visor trainees. Responses between the options indicated "good" item disCriminition. The
items were also critiqued by teachers, curriculum specialists, and college professors in
education for theoretical consistency. Dr. Roy T. Timashiro of the Ohio State University
developed t is inventory with me.

20
 DETERMINING SUPERVISORY BELIEFS 13

Pa0,11.7.Forcedl Choices

Instriations: Circle either A or B for each itc . ou may not completely agree
with either choice, but choose t le one that is closest to how you .
feel;

--"\ 1. .it.'' Supervisors should give teachers a large degree of autonomy and initiative
,,Within broadly defined limits.
1- Ill*Supervisors should .give teachers directions akout methods thatIvill help
them improve their teaching, '
2. A-. 'It-is-important.fof teachCis- to set their own goals and objectives fOr pro-
,ilfessional grOth.
B: 'It is iMiircirtant for supervisors to help teachers reconcile their personalities
*
Land teiching,stylcs with the philosophy and direction of)he school:
3. A. iTeachers are likely to feel uncomfortable and anxious if the objectives on
'.Which they will be evaluated are not clearly defined by the supervisor. .
B. -Evaluations of- teachers are meaningless if teacher's are not able to define
With-their supervisors the objectives for evaluation. i
4. A. An
, open, trusting, warm, and personal relationship with teachers is the
most-irdpoitant ingredient in supervising teachers. t
i
B. A 'supervisor who is too intimate with teachers risks being less effective
and-less
t respected than a supervisor who keeps a certain degree of profes-,
!
,. distance from teachers. / /
sionat
,
.1 5. A. My role during supervisory conferences is tomake the interaction positive,
4 to share realistic information, and to help-teachers plan their own solutions
4
to problems.
B. The methods and strategies /. I-use with /
teachers in a /conference arc aimed
at-our reaching agreement over the needs , . for- future
6. In the initial phase of working with a teacher: i improvement.
,
A. I develop objectives with each teacher that willihelp accomplish school
goals.
.
B. I fry to identify. the talents and goals of individual
/dual teachers so they ca n
.Work on- their own Improvement.
7; When several teachers have a similar classroom p,roblem, I prefer to:
A. Have'theleachers
.
form an ad hoc group an/ help them work together to
'solve, the problem.
B., Help teachers on an individual basis find -their strengths, abilities; and
resouices,so_thar each one finds his or he own solution to the problem.
ft The most Important clue that an inservice 74rkshop is needed is when:
A. The -Supervisor perceives that several teachers lack ,knowledge or skill in
a specific area which is-resulting inflow morale, undue stress, and 'less
.effectiveeaching. / ,
13`. Several.teathers perceiVe the need
to strengthen their abilities in the same,
--institiaional%area.
, 9. A. The supervi: sory staff should decide-the / .
jeaives of an inservice workshop
since they have a broad perspective of the teachers' abilities ;and the
..
School's needs. ,
.
/ .
B. Teachers and the superyisoryistaff should reach,consensus about the ob-
jeCtives of an inservice workshop before the workshop is held.
.
/ .

-21
 14 "DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION

10. A. Teachers who feel they are,growing personally will herniate effective in the
classroom, than teachers who are 'not experiencing ,Personal growth.
B. Theicnowledge and ability, of teaching strategies and rfiethods-that have
been .proven over the years should be taught and practice.1 by all teachers
to be.effective in their classrooms.
11. When I_ perceive that a teacher might be scolding a student unnecessarily.
A. I explain, during a- conferee nce with the teacher, why the scolding was
A
/excessive.
B. 1 ask.the teacher about the incident, but ,do not interject my judgments.
12. A. One effective way .to, improve teacher performance is to formulate clear
behavioral objectives and create meaningful incentives for achieving diem.
B; Behavioral objectives are rewarding and helpful to some teachers but
stifling to others, also, some teachers benefit front behavioral objectives
in some situations but not in others. --
13. During a preobservation conference:
A. I suggest to the toad what I could observe, but I let the teacher make
the final decision about the objectives and methods of observation.
B. The teacher and I mutually decide the objectives and methods of ob-
servation.
14. A., Improvement occurs very slowly if teachers- arc left on their own, but
when a group of teachers works together on a_specifie;problem, they learn
rapidly and tlicir morale rernains high.
B. ,Group activities may be enjoyable, but I find that individual, open dis-
cussion with a teacner about a problem and its possible solutirns leads
to more sustained results.
15. When an inservice or staff development workshop is scheduled:
A. All teachers who participated in the decision to hold the workshop should
be expected to attend it.
B. Teachers, regardless of the role in forming a workshop, should be able
to decide if the workshop is relevant to their personal or professional
growth and, if nor, should not be expected to attend.

Scoring Key

Step 1. Circle your answer from Part H of the inventory in the columns below.

Column I Column-II Column III

IB IA
2B 2A
3A 3B
4B. 4A
5B. 5A
6A 6B
7B
8A 8B
9A 9B

22
 DETERMliglIsIG BELIEFS 15

10B 10A
41A . 11B-
. 12A 12B
13B 13A
1413 14A
15A.. 15B

Step 2. Tally the number of circled hems in each column and multiply by 63.

2.1, Total response,in Column 1 X 67

Total resPonse iti COIUMn II X 67
2.3 Total response in Coluinn 111 X67

'Po- 3, -Interpretation

TheprodUctyou obtained in step-2.1 is-an approximate percentage of how

often-yoti cake a,directive approach to, supervision, rather than eithei of the
'Other ,twoiapProaches. The product you obtained in-Step ;2.2 is an approximate
percentage-of how often you take a,collabOrative approach, and step 2.3 -is -an
approkimate percentage- of'how often you. take, a nondireaive approach; The
-approach on which-you:Spend the greatest percentage of rime is -the supervisory
*del that' dominateS.your the percentage values are equal or dose to
you take an eclectic approach. *-7
You can also compare these results with your predictions in Part 1.

What To Do With Your Score

You now have abase tollook at the orientation with which you are,niost
comfortable. If your scores inetwo_or three-orientations were about equal (30
percent nendirectiVe, 40 percent collaborative,,and- 30 percent directive); you
are either_ confused oi'more'positively eclectic. If you-are eclectic, you.probably.
consider varying, your supervisory orientations according to each situation.
Practitioners-of one orientation might :beCome more effective by learning-,,the
very, 'precise supervisory behaviors that are needed to make that orientation
-work, To,think:that-superVision is colliberative is incomplete until One knows
hoW to employ techniques that result in collaboration. Many supervisors profess
-to-'be of, a certain orientation- but ,unkridWingly, use-behaviors that result in
different outcomes. Therefore, the, first aim-brihis book is to help supervisors
betontepioficient,in practicing their beliefs about supervision. thi second aim
,is,p "elasticize' supervisors' -praCtice-so they can- move knowingly across the
-16 DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION

ipectitim of behariori to accommodate difference, in hacker,. After becoming

'proficient in one orientation, supervisors rniglic becorne proficient in all orients
dons arid ultimately able to use the same variations of approaches in meeting
the developmental needs of teachers that teachers use-in meeting the individual
needs of students.
To clarify the,distinctions betv.een these three orientations, a standard -set
of procedures *Ube explained in the next chapter. -Five steps-of-clinical super
vision --(1) preConfcrence, (2, observation, (3) analysis and interpretation;
(4) postccinference, and (5) posranalysiswill be used to compare'how each
step differs in each of the.orientations. The-three supervisory approaches might
be explained according to steps used in Making staff decisions, curriculum
development, or inservice activities, but the steps of clinical supervision were
luisen.betause they are familiar to-most readers. Clinical lupervisionlias-been
appearing in the literature on supervision for the pasttdec.ade..For our purposes,
readers need-be acquainted only with a brief description of clinical supervision.
As Goldhammer (1969, p. 54) wrote:

If the reader will conceptualize "clinical" in the following manner, then we

will be thinking, of'it in the same way. First of all, I mean to convey an image
of -face-co-/ace relationships between superVisors and teachers. History pro.
vides the print:rat reason for this emphasis, namely that in many situations
presently and during various periods in us developthent, supervision has-been
conducted- as supervision from a, distance, as, for example, supervision by
committees of teachers. "Clinical" supervision is meant to imply supervision
up.crose.

The type of behaviors used during each step of the model (preconference,
observations, arid-so on depends on the supervisor's orientation and his or her
-purpose in working with a particiilii teacher. Tki; it not a book about clinical
supervision: Rather, clinical supervision is out framework fur - understanding the
variations of supervisffy orientationst For reading on clinical supervision, the
reader might find theTollowing materials helpful.

Boyan, N. J., and Copeland, W. D. I itructional Supervision Training Program,

Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merr ll Publishing Company, 1978.
Cogan, U. L. Clinkal Supervision. Bost n: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1973.
Goldhammcr, R. ClInical Supervhion. Special Afethodt for the Supervision of
Teacheri. New York: Holt, Rineha 4, and Winston, Inc., 1969.
Sullivan, C. G. Clinical Supervision. A State of the Art Review. Alexandria, Va..
Association for Supervision and Cuiriculum Development, 1980.
The Supervisory PeoceiiHelping Teacher, to Improve Instruction. (Videotape)
Alexandria, Va.. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
1977.
 Orientations to Supervision
The Supervisor is defined as a-person With responsibility for improving -a
teschet's ifistrtiction. The supervisor,might_be a.principal, subject area specialist,
assistaiir-principal,tdepartrnein chairperson, head teacher, or ,central-office con-

Irile.Pireetfire;Orientation. to Supervision
kdiretitive-orientation to supervision would include the major behaviors
of clarifying, presenting, demOnstrating. directing, standardizing, and reinforc-
ing. The final-outcorne Would be an assignment for theleacher to carry out over,
specified period: of time.

Finer, rrienli teacher, ir- enroknfering a great deal of trorilde- with

three ;laver ire hit-dam these students are -unistanily.talki4,out, of turn, rtaiiing
fiiktr, arrd,,Poilng olbei rlauniates,. Mr. Finer Ads Jbeir bibovior-dhlierbirit-and
tees that other nalinaltY wellbibis:Vourdents are begl*,:ing tell.ilsbi4ave. Science
:last h rapidly dinipailog treitedclinke.

A directive supervisor- would 'believe that Mr. Finer needs definite,

immediate, and concrete help to gethe_clais "turned around." Time is being
wasted'and Mr. Finer need: to be:, tnid -what to do, Standards -of performance
need to.he determined and a tine lulls.of spear teacher actions Mutt be
assigned, A directi.supervisor might engage in the steps of- clinical- supervision
'with Mi. Finer In the Whining inan#er.
The supervisor- has -made , a (eiv random visits to Mr. Fines _classroom to
deliver messages- and-materials. Based on those Observations Oct- from often
.hearing _mettles angry voice and seeing a steady procession.of fitudents sent
to the 'school office, the_supervisor has determined that Mr. Finer is experiencing
discipliii;:arid'inaiSgeinear problems. With this in Mind, she arirgeisyneeting
with the teacher..

17
 18 DV/LOAM-En& SUPERVISION

trectififerenee

The supervisor is seated behind het desk as Mr. Ft= walks in. She asks
the -science_teachet to be =tad in a chair directly +24:J14 (turn her. Thi super-
viior begins by presenting her thoughts.
.
..CMPertilar. Ikh, I detect that-you are having probLuns iichisorne-glour
students in fifth period class. I wituldlike_ to in making that class mute
attentive."
Mr. Finer _(shrugging his shltildets). "it's not;too bad. 111 ger thernunder
mild"
Sup -visor: "rtes sure you'will, but time is moving on and I'd like to help.
I'm planning to visit the cuss tomorrow afternoonfot the entire period:
Mr. Finer (again Sheugshis shoulderi) I "Weil, I'm showing a all tliJak9L-
t09Z,S0-1t1Oret know how Much get -to see." ;
Supervitar: "All right,111 be in the following day. Listen, I'm going to ,

closely observe ,The snidetnititss the class and see how attentive the are.
Perhaps-( ratr-iecMme dues as to ifty they Itx.e. attention." ,

;Att.. Finer: 1 can jive you a, due. Watch James, Matthew, and 11- egina.
Watch how tlky ger evezyoneloing."
Strpervitor: 111 use an -instrument to resotti the behavior of thoSe
_ three students. if they are the :nurse of the problem, ac an come up with a
Plan for keeping than under-maw:A. See-you in two days,"
The super-v4ot ,teas dea beta in charge of the preconference. She his
daSsifiedthe_ problem, chet.V,Vit out with the teacher, and outlined, haw she
observe the class. She -likened to the teacher to verify or :CPIs" her crOni
thitiOng, but she has,nat encouraged the-teacher to talkon. The.supetvisot wants
immediate, direct action and.,4tioids any (cachet hesitancies. The super?iiot
not hostile or intimidating,, instead, she is businesslike, serious, an task-
,.
O'stented.

Ohmvatic:a
: r
The supervisor uses 3. cheddist at five minute intervals. Each time "sliE
observes prie4--the squlents listening to the it.u.hgr, engaging in dassroont
aisrussiort,,or doing assigned work, she puts a check in the "Attentive .to Tzik'
box. When she =ices one of the students v.iontly scaring into space or-sating
with his.orher heart on the desk, she puts a check in the Inatterinvel.Passive"
box. Each time one of the three students is out of his orlset sat, wandering,,
around, talking with others about nonsehoul matturs, ghzieg, or displaying

26
 oRIEfrAT10145 TO SUPERVISION' 19
.
.
.
Student Behavior
1
. "
*Ism _syc so Task Inattentive/Passive Inattentive / Active i

1:20
1:25
4;30

`other.dis,ru iitivebehaviorohe supervisor putS a check.in.thelnattentive/Active"

loi;lEacIvitudent is' given an initial observation and nine 'five-minute, observa-
liorii,during- the chss period 4s:.the end of the .class, the supervisor asks,*
+- 'Finer to tneet,with-heetoliiktss the Observation.

Arialysii andnterpretation

'Back !niter office, she reviews the _completed form artil.prepares for the
postcort farerite. The completed form looks as follows: 4

Student Behavior
Attentive to Task Inattentive/Passive "I? Oatrative/Active
1:10 -i"5: :* x
X X . x
XX X
1:25 .X ` X X .....
1:50 ... X X
(all class
X nalio
1;35 X. SC r.
..
g , X X
1:45 X X X
t ,
1:50 ...
X X X
1:55 X

11)e supervisor quickly concludes that the three students were attentive
only oisseriatiohs out .of 36, or 26 percent of the time. On. further analysis,
she-notices that-the students began as attentive; moved to passive inattention,
20 ,lEihVELpliMENTA SUi,ERVISION

and then-.to active inattent . After that point the best that Mr. Finer could, do

warto-yell-at them togetvassive inattention. Only once did a student gef-back

to "attentive to-the task.' The supervisor concludes that Mr..Firier must not
,ditly- stop their- disruptive behaVior (inattentive/active) but more frequently
?mst get them back to the task. If snot, the supervisor concludes, Mr. Finer' is
fighting -a-- losiog. battle with the -three students. The supervisor -Concurs with
Mr. Finer's -previous, judgment that the three students, do appear to, instigate.
trouble with,,,the zrest of the students; The-supervisor sits back and determines
what she will-tell Mr. Finer.

Postebriference (After reviewing the filled out instrument with the teacher.)

Supeivisor:, "So, Bob, you can see that you're fighting a holding dctior...
When youetjames, Matthew, and-Regina to stop their misbehavior,,you-have-
to get- them-,actively engaged in learning or else they are soon clowning around
again:'
Mr.-Finer: "Well, yeah, but whenJ tell them to do something, they don't."
Supervisor: "Thai may be true but when I was observing, you were telling
stop--and-not telling them,what to do." _

Air,.Eitier:Btit they don't want io do their work."

Supervisor: "Then I think you,need a,threefold attack. First, get them away
-from each other. Secoild, give them each an individual project that they like-to
do.-Use-it as a reward for finishing their assigned work. Third, remind them of
what they -are to do, not what not to do. At times, you might even move over
-to one of them, pick up their -hand with ihe pencil, open up the correct page,
and,shovi.then What should be done.
Mr. Finer: "Well, okay, but I'm not sure I can find a special project for
them.".
Superviior: "Tomorrow I'll take over -your class. You observe for the first
.half' hour how I correct them and see if it works. For the second half of the
Period,. visit Mrs. Kitchen's class and see what kinds of individual science
projects she has.':
Mr. Finer: "Okay, I'll do what you say, but I'm still not sure- if it will
work.''
Supervisor: "We don't know unless we try and I know that you're a good'
teacher. You can do it. So,here's your assignment. Tothorrow you are to:
(1) "Observesine teach a demonstration lesson
-(2) %serve Mrs. Kitchen's science class and the various projects. Then for the .
next two weeks you are to: (a) Give James, Matthew, and Regina a special
project to do ;when they finish their work. (b) When correcting them, tell

28
 .10;7;47..
r

'ORIENTATIONS TO SUPERVISION 21,

them what,indo,eyen -show them. (c) Change their seating pattern,so 'they are
._ _
tilt-ire thin-,two seati.away from each other_________--- --
--,---------7111'beliadc in your classroom-two-
. weeks from- today, same period,
--..

and
-N.
-I Want -.
,t46.* ii -you.' halierinereased their attentive tithe, to - ae least 50 percent. Any
- "--. ...,
`questions
.
? "'-' I

. ..,.
_ ',Mi..Finer: "No, I-dnn't,think so. What if I-don't ,get 5Q percent of atten- <
,
'dire ...?"
. time - ge
,Superviror: "I think that you can..,In fad, 1:11 Wager on .it,Ifryotisan- reach
56*- percent ,I'll; see that you get thoie extra dissectiOn kits_ that _you've been
Wanting.'

rioStanaliksis (The following morning, while conversing in the hall:)

Supervisor :: "that do you think about what we've done up to now?"

Mr.. Finer: "I'm still not sure if all this will help, but at least I have
directions. to' follow. I was really floundering before."
'Supervisor. "If irdoesn't work, 'I have some other ideas to try later on.
But I thirik.itsWill."

= Discussion

The, directive supervisor took the "bull by the horns" and after carefully
thinking about Bob -Finer's situation, she collected data; presented it, and gave
the.teacher;a two-week_ action assignment. -She carefully detailed what,the.teacher
Will' do -and what -the' criteria for itnproverrient will-be. The- supervisor engaged
primarily -in. the behaviors ..of ,clarifying and:,prerenting- her thinking, _directing
what Will'happeri, demonstrating appropriate- teaching behaviors, inch standard=
lzint tt,cargetJevel=9( student progress. The supetvisor, used praise atitl-;rewards
as an incentive or reinforcement fOr-carrying out the plan. (In such
situation,.
.attempting ,toplease the supervisor might besufficient-inCentive'by itsel f.)-
Directive 'supervision- should -not beconftised with arbitrary, capriCious,.Or
totalitarian behavior. The directive supervisor has-judged that the most-effective
ivary.,to improve instruction,is by making-standards clear and by tangibly.show-
ing,,ieach'ers: hoW to ,attain.-suChstandards: It- -is -though, busineislike-
-apprOichlbated,cin a careful,collection of-data. The approach presumei that the
supervisor knows -more about the context of teaching and -learning than the
.teacher does. Therefore, the supervisor's decisions are more effective than if the
teacher is left to-his or her own devices.

'29
 _;FicRits'4:- Time StipeiviWtit-Behaitior Continuum Directive Orientation
. , 5
.1' 7 it, a. , 4 Problem 0 8 7 . 8 9 10
, Listening - Clarifying, gneouraging _Presenting_ Solving. .Negotiating __Demonstrating
_Demonstrating
. . , -, .. - . -
.- Directing Standardizing Reinforcing -t
S
'(a) Supervisor
clarifies
-teacher's'
prehterne
(b) Supervisor
presents dice
on what and,
how informa-
tion will be
icollected
(c) Supervisor
directs
leacher on
whet actions
will take place
(d) Supervisor
demonstrates
appropriate
teaching,
behavior
(e) Supervisor
sets baleline
data and
standard for
f
Improvement
(O'Supervisor
uses materiel
or social
Incentives

Key: T = Maximum teacher responsibility S = Maxinium supervisor responsibility

Minini0m teacher responsibility- a = Minimum supervisor responsibility PrOduct: Assignment for the Teacher

30
 ORIEIVTATIONS TO SUPERVISION 23
,
' As we see in Figure ,t the directive supervisor
employs behaviois to
develop a detailed assignment for the teacher. Although
the sequence may vary,
-.the supervisor's dominant hehaviors are: .

.' Clarifying-the ,teacher's pfobletri and, perhaps

perhaps asking the teacher for
confirmation or revision.
0-,Presentlrq,-1:14 _of. her Oivti. ideas on What information.
should be col-
#cied 'in& hoW it..*4 be collected, - "
-.1 Directing-the ;teacher, -after , data collection and analysis, on the actions i
.

that need to be taken.

'0 Demonitrating for, the teacher appr kiate teaching
behavior, or asking
the teaChettO'observe in another classroom.
'. Setiint-the standard' for. ithprov. em tQased .oti
line inforinatiOn,
the preliminary base-
.'
i' 'Reinioicing,',by using Materials or social incentives.

tie Collaborative Orientation toSupervision

A Collaborative orientation to.sucervislon would include the
major be-
haViori of listening, pre*ntiiit probleM salving, and negotiating.
The end
-result .-.vould:be a-mutually agrad'upOn
contract by -supervisoi-and teacher -that
would' delineite'the structure, process, and criteria for subsequent
instructional
:.tifproverinent.

"Swan ,VaidOek, fourth-grade teacher in a sell-contained classroom,

is she Pei.-
sonification,- of energy. She if constantly, moving around the
-listening; and observing. Her claim-am is filled with materials, classroom, talking,
much of which- has
been Created:by students -and teacher. The classroom has an
,activity. By -1151Jrun6,Mt. tlaidock appears tired..TW ice in incessant tiims-or
one week she uncharac-
-teristically-lost, her- kink? at students who failed to Sign
out classroom books. Ai
recess,,sha,itayOri her/elassroom rather thatr,,fOining others 'in the teachers
lounge.,
The callaborapve supervisor might decide
to speak casually with Ms.
Valaock.to see if help ,is desired,,or wait for her to initiate a conversation-1n:
:PattiCufir case, ,the superii4or_ls concerned about Ms. Valdocic'g
,physical
Thesupervisot decides that a-haggard teach% in an actively-centered
rooMportenids trouble. Therefore, the superVisor
decides to take the initiative
ati meet yith -the teacher.

1
 tmviiciimENTAL's gitvisioN

,'Preconference
;The meeting-is set for lunch period: Ms. Valclock-and Jon, the supervisor,
',.bring their ,lunches and A around a-table. 1.

.
"Well, Jon, hoiv goes it?"
Supervisor:'"Fine: The curriculum study is taking,alot out of me, but its
pig)gr6sing. HoW is life. going-with Jou?"
Vaidock: "Okay. -I can't. wait until spring vacation, butlife-is all right.''
Supervisor: "You -lOok- tired to 'me; I'm concerned", that, you're losing your
old\virn,and`,iiigOr."
.igs.&i4doek: "Well, maybe I am a bit tired, bht gerverit."
Supervisbr: "What can be dorie-to get your energy level back up? What is
making oU tired
Mr. Vaidock: "You. know, .I've just moved- into a new home and with
Unpacking 'boicei,,painting -walls,,getting my' ownkids adjusted, and lrying to
niceep.uP"With all my classroom activities, it gets-to-be-a bit much."
Sisp,erVisori"tell, -I can't-help you redeCorate at- -home; `but maybe I- can
help ,your redecoratein class. Maybe _you're tryinitlo'bite of too much. Your-
planning has always. -been a..fullztime job and now with II* extra chores, of
-Moir,ME, Maybe, you just can't keepUp the same pace.
Ms.'ilalciock: "I don't feel right about doing-less for my students because
. ,
of-iny,personallife-I'll make it."
SUpervisor: "Yeah, you might make -it and spend the last three months of
.school in a- convalescent home. How about it I'Come into your class oveI the
next** days, just to see what's-going,on?" Maybe we could discuss- some-ways
,04 to do'the-sainefor the students in less_tithe."
M.r.,Valdock: "You're always invited to come in. Don't just observe, though.
If you see some students who need help with their activities, please work with

Supervisor: "Okay, =for the next week I'll be. part -time observer and Part-
tithe tutor."
Throughout this preconference there is friendly negotiation -going on. First,
the_supervisor has to gain entry into the teacher's ,problem. If the teacher did
not _Want help, the supervisor would have to 'decide either to back off- and 'try
to hnd'accessiater or more t forcefully, piess with words like, "I am concerned
andfeel-thatas a supetvisoil need to get involved. You appear-tired and I want
to.help." If 'the teacher still- refused, -the supervisor aS_a negotiator might attempt
to counter -with .a proposal and _then, look 'for a counter -proposal with such.
words-aS, "I'm -going to come in and take a closer look.at -your classrooin. What
do-you want me to look at and how do you want to use me in the claisrobm?"

32
 ORIENTATIONS TO SUPERVISION y 25

Tie supervisor, when encouaeririg-arr- unwilling feather, tries to strike up a

deal to -'the iffehis or her own involvement`is imperative but asks- the
teacher,to- state the\conditioni .tor involvement. At this point they can both ;
consider, each other's proposals and come to an agreement.

Motivation

As- agreed, the supervisor cotRies Into the classroom the next four days. He
visits 'for twenty minutes. twice .each day and is careful to select different
periods: Duffing that time, he keeps a notebook in his hands and moves about
the classroom observing the teacher's instruction, checking on 'students' activi-
ties, discuSsing with students their Assignment, and helping individual students
who have questions about their present activities. He jots down notes and, upon
leaving the classroom, hurriedly writes down general observations. An example
of his notes folloWs:
.

,.Observation-#3, Tuesday, February 15,10 -10:20 a.m:

Studenis are at nine different learning stations, Ms. Valdock is
at the reading station having indRidual conferences witrihildren on
the latest books they have read. She spends a few mint's asking ques-
tions,about the books, puts the book report in the bin, and writes the
number - of the report next to student's name on the wall chart. In
the math station,, three students are listening to a cassette and filling out
a worksheet on geometric figures, two othei students are estimating
the height of the school building. They asked me to guess and we
talked ;about different ways to mathematically arrive at a good esti-
mate. While talking, we couldn't help noticing the students over in
the construction area who were trying to bbild a miniature lunar craft.
The-hammer-banging and aiguing were quite loud. Ms. Valdock had
to stop her conferences three times to tell the construction group to
stop. Finally, she told them to leave the area.
General Observation:
Ms. Valdock must have an enormous amount of recordkeeping
and assignments to correct each night. There is a bin for colleCted
daily assignments of every student in the reading, math, spelling,
science, and communication stations. Also, it seems distracting,to stu-
dents 'to hive-noisy activities going on next to quiet activities.

Analysis

After -four days, the supervisor rereads his obserirations and jots down
questions to ask Ms. Valdock at the poitconference:
1. How many assignments does she personally correct each day?

33
 26.; DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION"

2. Can feWer assignMents be given or are there altrliative ways to correct

'them?,
3. 'Whatis thereason for nine centers?
4. Couldlbere be fewer- centers?-
5. Ciiiiidnoisy centers and quiet centers be done at, separate times?
6:- -Doti every student need- ro -1* met individually or could more -grouping- of
Students bedarie for:particillar.scilli?-.
The supervisor,_,in his observations, -believes that regardless of
k
what Ms. Valdock has -g g on -at hoineshe haS too much to oversee_ and
.coordinate. She is doing too much for)tudents and not:lIng:theM take more
'responsibility for their Glasswork. He decides to ask the above0iestions,-liiten to
Ms. Valdock's respons&ask.her what she thinks could be done, propose.what he.
thinIcs.should -be done, and then find mutual solutions, to -write in a contract
form,
,.
-Poirconteresiee \ I

After liSteningfo the questions, Ms. Valdock answers that. she (1)nor,
mally corrects three assignments per student eaCii day (a total.of-8,i); (2) is
unsure, if 'feWer- assignments could 'be given because she needs to monitor, each
studenei!prOgress; (3) has nine centers so she can divide the class nine
,graupi of three times; (4)- had _riot -thought ,about reducing the ,thaters;
(5) had:considered eliminating the construction center but wanted -to keep the
rl art and inusic centers which were noisy'but not trouhleSothe;-and (6) did not
.believe hi'abilify grodps and wciuld.rather keep the work as individualized as
-possible. The supervisor then carefully begins problem solving by saying,
think we should take some time to think-about what_ chatigeS_canbe made to
reduce the. amount of reacher work and generally. streamline your class-opera-
_tion. I-have always admired chi- exciteMent and interest that you generate in
outdas,stoksnotiose_shationight why don't you andlzwrite alst o
two or three posSible immediate changes that could be made:Wen/fleet before
school and share each other's
Iharnight the supervisor,writes cloWn:
1. Allow-selected students to *red simple,assigiiinents.
2. -Have two different times-for quiet and noisy stations.
a. Ilave_niathematics,....reading,_cmmunications, creative writing and__
spelling at-one time and social studies, science, construttiononusic,
..and art at another time.
b: During the quiet time,_meet with-groups of six-or -seven students
who need comparable instruction -in one of she quiet subjects.
c. During the noisy trine, meet with groups of six or seven students
who need comparable instruction in one of the noisy subjects.
:
34.
ia
 ORIENTATIONS 7O gUPERVISION 27

rye Same7eVening, the teacher jots down:

1. .Ask Sociya-Jerclel,- the sixth-grade teacher if I may use sortie of her, top
students as paper chei:lcers and-recorders o_ r-see if Felix's mother would
like. to correct papers. She asked meat the beginning of thelear if
-she Might help.
2. ilfiiiinate 'the construction .center and' instead 'have an all-class con-
sfructibipetiod:ow-Friday afternoon..
3. Let the redecorating. wait until spring vacation, unpacking boxes is
enough- fOrnow. Stop being so compulsive!

The following morning the _postconference continues with the _focus :on
presentingreach other's ideas,and then revising,, picking, and choosing activities-
that both' supervisor and teacher agree-will sblve the.problem--of "teacher over-
laid." let's pick up the conversation after- ihesupervisor .and- the teacher have
read- their suggestions to each -other

Supertihor: "I don't know about using a parent volunteer or. an -older
student id -help coireCt_papers.'I thinkmoit of-your students,A given detailed.
itistrtictioni,ind a master sheet, could correct spelling assignments. Why _don't
you let thein'try_it?"
Aft.-Vddockit's worth a try-for a week or two, I'll select two of my-best
spelleri:to correct spelling assignMents and two of -my best writers -to respond
'to the creative writings. Could you-help me- start this prograM by-goingAover
directions with them and occasionally check their corrections before passing
Mem back to :the class? I still want to correct the arithmetic and:science papers
i."
Supervisor :Sounds fine. I'll-help by..getting your-correctors started. Now-
what about the idea of`silent and active periods and -small groups?"
Ms: VaideckNo,-t-tion't think so. I: want them to learn 'how to-work
independently and- they progress- so much quicker when I 'individualize their
assiinmerifs.Idon't *ant to mess with the-basic classrooth arrangeMent right
now I-will eliminate the con_ struction center, as a daily activity and haveit on
Friday:only."
Supervisor: "If you don't want to change the basic plan, why eliniinate-the
construction- Center?_,Instead, go over the' rules .for the cenier and _revoke the
Privilege to use it' if- students don't_obey the rules."
"Well, that Would-be one leis.change to think about. I'll work
on tutting-down the number of paperS that'I personally have to correct and be
-*re:stringent onshe_tise.d.the.conStruction center"
Supervisor: 'Mire seem to have ceine up with a contract. Les write it
-down." He writes down what they have agreed to. Ms. Valdock also asks hiM to

35'
 28 DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION

include her Promise to herself that she will drop the home decorating until
'spring break. The supervisor agrees and they-both sign and date the paper.

INSTRUCTION CONTRACT
between
Ms. Sue Valdock, Teacher"
Mr. Jon Dollop, Supervisor
Mar Ch 18,1981-

Objective: To reduce the amount of teacher work.

Teacher activities:
1. Select students to oorrect spelling assignments.
2. Stress construction center rules and penalize violators.
3. Leave home-redecorating until spring.'

Supervisor activities:
1. Hold 01611:group session with spelling correctors and
show therri how to proceed.
2. Monitor corrections of spelling papers once a week.
Follow -up meeting schedujed torApril 3,1981.
A

Teacher signature

Supervisor signature

Postcritique

Ms. Valdock arid the supervisor review the process. Ms. Valdock c:plains
that the procedures have been helpful as she was being pulled into too many
directions. She is happy that the supervisor did not persist with basic classroom
reorganization-.because she would have felt that her personal life ,had cornpro-
,suised:her professional life. The supervisor mentioned that he is satisf4.,d but
hop6s that she' has not closed her mind to further changes in the classroom.

36
 s

ficitire'5. The Superelsory-BehaviorContinuumCollaborative Orientation

.
5-
1 2 33 4 ---'Piiitilem 8 7 8 9 - 10
1.1stinin-g: ,Clarifying Encouraging' Presenting Solving Negotiating Demonstrating Directing
.
Standardizing Reinforcing t
S
'(a) Supervisor
presents
perceptions'
of areas for
improvement
(b) Supervisor
saki teacher.
to Present-
pi f septions
of irestfor
Improvement
(e) Supervisor
listens to
teacher
(d) Supervisor
and teacher
propose
alternative
actions
la) Supervisor
and teacher
revise, reject,
and agree on
plan

.Key: T = MaximuMteabher responsibility S = Maximum supervisor responsibility

I = Minimum teacher respbnsibitity s = Minimum supervisor responsibility Product: Supervisor and Teacher Contract

7.
 30; DEVELOPMENTAL suppEy'jsioN

Discussion
The : "supervisor_ and teacher _have actively- negotiated the plan for action.
Neither, .supetidior nor teacher, has 'a final plan that excludes the- other's,View.
They ,have reviewed; revised, rejected, proposed, antl.,counter proposed until
__
agreement'
greement was reached. The collaborative, i orientation,
i that a super-
+isor:t oileacher's individual ideas abont instructional improveMent are not as
efiePCtiVe as mutual'onei. Each, might hitit long and hard.io promote his or her
proposals,:but in-the erid each must, accept changes.
The pragmatic- reader mighr question what -will happen if.the- supervitpr
and teacher canno -agree. In a truly -collaborative context a- third 'mediator.
agreeable-to'both:parties (suctras a master teacher or .central office. consultant)
wintild bye toistepiri with authority,to "break the vote if it came to that
_The cOabOrarive ,orientation -can be ,simPlified, along, the supervisory be-
Itavjorsontinutinr(Figure 5 ):'The final product:Is a contract, agreed" to by both
,-/ and carried out as a joint responsibility:
A. The supervisor encounters the teacher with 'his or her 'perceptions -of
the instruCtional, area needing improVetheni.'(pierenting).
B. The supervisor asics-forteacher perceptions'of instructional area (clath
bing)*.
C. The supervisor listens -to teacher perceptions (listening).
D. Supervisor and teacher piopose alternative actions for improvement
(problern
E.'Supervisor and teacher discuss and alter actions until a. joint plan is
agreed-Upon (negotiating).

The-Ncindiz:ectilve Orientation
Herbert klungir walks over to his desk, and sits down. He mulls ,oVer -the,
class that has just ended. Members of the English class have given oral reports on
their interpretation of Shakespeare's Othello: The reporti Were uninspiring and
remarkably uniform in toncand content. Mr. KIsinger, thinks that many -had either
"borrofeed"Alitii from one ,udent or had bought a.summary_on Othello andruted
the. main Ideas. Regardless, none of the reports indicated any excitement for the
cbaracter and-plot development.
Mr.Klunger, reflects on previous classes and,thinks that stridents haven't always
been this way.'One class in particular -he remembers: "How they .argued and" ana-
lyzed Shakespeeret If only I could recreate some of that enthusiasm." Later that
day MI. Garcia, hit department supervisor, stops by.

The nondirective orientation to supervision rests on the major premise

that teachers are capable of analyzing and solving their own instructional

38
 ORIENTATIONS TO SUPERVISION 31
s,
:problem's. s. Only when-the individual sees the need' for and takes,major
leiponsibility for it will instructional improvement be meaningful and lasting.
TherefOre, the supervisor wishes to act as a facilitator for the teacher by impos-
ing-little 'formal structure or direction. This does not mean that the supervisor
is passive and alloWs the teacher coinplete autonomy. Instead, he or she actively
uses theixhaviors of listening, darifying, encouraging, and presenting to
channeLthe =Cher towards self - discovery. The supervisor leaves the discovery
.to the teacheilut cakes initiative to sec that it occurs.
A nondirective supervisor, more than the collaborative or diredive=super-
visor, probably Would not use such a-standa:d format as the five steps of clinical
supervisio when working with a-!eacher. Instead, depending on the teacher's
needs, the supervisor might-simply observe the .teacher without analyzing and
interpreting; listen without making observations, or arrange inscryice and
_provide r'eque'sted materials and resources. For the sake of consistency though,
we will follow- the supervisor teacher relationship Itccottling to the clinical
model, noting'hoW the model is'altcred-after the preconference. a nandirec-
tive orientation, the teacher determines the steps that will follow the pre-
conference.

Preconfere...:e (As Ms. Garcia enters Mr. Klunger's room.)

Mr. Klunger: "Welcome, Ms. Garcia, Have a scat. What a class!"
Mr. Garcia: "Thank you. Is life treating you all right?"
Mr. Klunger: "Well, Ihavc my ups and downs, times I chink that
teaching just isn't fdi me."
Mr. Garcia: "Teaching is not for you? I didn't know you felt chat way."
Mr. Klunger: "Yeah, at times I really wonder ., if I'm accomplishing any-
thing. Just today that fifth period class made Shake:ware appear as exciting as
a rotting elm tree, If they can't see the wonder(Gf his 'writing, I don't know how
they can ever appreciate literature::
Ms. Garcia (nbdding her head): "It's fruscratin "
Mr. Klunger: "Yes it is!"
Mr. Garcia, (pauses, waits for Mr. Klunger to say mote. When it appears
that Mr. Klunger is not going co speak, she looks attentively at him). "Go on;
cell me more about what's so frustrating."
Mr. Klunger: "The students show no initiative. Teaching just isn't exciting
anymixe. Oh, the ocher classrooms ate tolerable but that fifth class is Dooms-
ville!"
Mr. Garcia: "Whargoes on during fifth period?"
Mr. Klunger: "Nothing! That's the problem."
MI: Garcia. "Nothing?"

39
32 DAVELOPMENTALSUPERViSION:

langer: Tread them-passages of-Shakespeare. Ask-,for-their- itnerpre-

lacions And try to get.a discussion going. They just don't think lot theinseives."
the cosnVersation'continues for ten-morc minute's with Mr. KlOnger mainly
talking.and Ms. Garcia listening. Finally after another prolonged pause,_ Ms
Garcia itels'its timelo ask Mr. Kiunger for 'his analysis of What can-bedone.
Garcia: it sounds as pcytish both you.and-'yout students are less than
happy, What do you think misfit be dotter.
flit.. Purism. ."01raiously, my tried-andwue lesson plans for Shakespeare
artret-working. I'm going ,to have to charge my approach."
Gaicia: "Do you *nt tow/ soinething different now?"
Mr. ]hunger. "Yes, startmg tomorrow -1'm going to have a classdiscuss'
with them, I'm .goins to tell. them _about my- dissatisfaction- v. ith them and. thy
94/11 _teachitv,and see if--wc-Can, begin Afacbah with freih approach. Why,
don't -you came into tlas's And listop to what goes on? i%).. might give me sonic
information-thatInimissing
Girths: "Okay, see you tomkrrow,"

Thepreconference is. the "go or no-go" point. if M. Kiunger did-not ask

for -Ms.-Garcia to observe, the process would stop and Ms, Garcia might need
to follow-up with atfother conference n discuss what had transpired sincttheir
last talk. However, in this case she has been asked -co obseri informally.

Observation .
:

Site enters the class, sits in the track, does not rake notes, and listens to the
class discussion. She notices chat Mi. Kiunger spends most of the timeexpress
ing his disappointment to the students on their lack of interest in'Shakespeare.
At'ihe.end,-he does ask them what might be done to improve the class. Ot)te.11
than one student stating that "the reading is real dif cult, but I'll try harelir,"
the discussion goes nowhere.

Analysis and Interpretation

-
Ms. Garcia; returning to her office, thinks Mr, Kiunger is wrong in the way
he handled the class discussion. Stich an approach would never Ext, honest
student-feedback To herself, she pledges to "bite het lip" and not give advice
or suggestions unless Mr. Kiunger asks for them. If he asks lot her observatiobs
she will Merely tell him, without judgments, what she saw. Then, she might
askhim what he could do to change the content and methods-of the lesson to
bring Shakespeare alive, I1-asked for he( ideas; she will suggest another CJM .

40
 .
ORIENTATIONS. TO SUPERVISION 33

tOoiri'diseuSsiciri-- to get more student ideas or allow students to pick .out -their
-own ptisiages--cf Macbeth and rewrite them as a modern playwright Might
R*0.14 at the conclusion of .the- meeting, will_ask Mr. Klunger what he
io -tin-and t,:assjitance shear, ight offer.

Rette.oriference 04 Garcia enters the teachers room during his planning

Mr; Kist:lei ,looks up: "Well, didn't -I telt you how disinterested those
students are? You saw how -muckresPonse I got, one incoherent student reply."
Mr. Garcia: "There was one reply and the group did seem pretty down."
Mr. Klunger: 1 was tough on them, but they need to get motivated."
Ms. Garcia (jumping on the opening). "How could you get them moti-
vated? -
Mr. Klunger: "Just the question that I was going to ask you."
Ms. Garcia: "You tell me first; then, if you wish, I'll give you my thoughts."
Mr. Klunger: think I'm going to have only one class lecture next Week.
Instead, ni introduce 'Macbeth, have them read the entire bdok, and then have
them choose one of four scenarios to act out spend -time with each group
and then on friday let them give mini-dramas. What do you think?"
Garcia ,(bein& asked,4The responds forthrightly): "Sounds fine but I
wonder-if-rill the students would Want to act in front of the class. Some of the
students-might feel foolish. Maybe you should ask them for ideas, or I thought
they-might be assigned different individual activities such as drawing a scene,
rewriting a section of the play according to modern times, verifying historical
circumstances, or putting particular verses to Music"
Mr. Munger: like that idea. I'll have four groups focus on the same
section of the play but some students. will be assigned different tasks."
Ms Garcia: "This certainly will be a.change. Maybe you should go slow in
dointhis, perhaps only rwo.groups to begip.
Mr. Klunger: "No, I'm not that type of person. I want to get them-excited.
Its all nothing! I'm going to start. Wednesday when we begin 'Macbeth."
Mr. Garcia: "Can I help you in anyway?"
Me. Munger: "Could you see the Polanski film of 'Macbeth is .ava liable
forrenral in three weeks?"
Mr. Garcia: "Will dol What about any help with the class changes?"
Mr. Klunger: "No, thanks but I'm all set."
Garcia: "Okay, stop by -and see how the battle

. 41.
 -1

-:019tire 6. ;The Stiporvisorei BihaviOr-Cantina iumNondirective Oilentation

t5._
1: 2 , 3, 4: Problem 8 8
T, Llitening Clarifying 9 10
Encouraging' Presenting Solving Negotiating Demonstrating Directing Standardizing Reinforcing
(a) Supervisor S
Ilitene:
attentively
to teacher'
discuss'
. Instructional
:concern
(b) Supervisor
encourages
teacher to
elaborate on
Concern
(o).SuPervitor
asks questions
:and rephrases
teacher state
ments to make
sure problem
Is clearly
understocki
(d) When
asked by
teacher.
supervisor
otters
thoughts and
possible S
solutions
(a) Supervisor
asks teacher
to determine
what actions
will be taken

Key:11= Maximum teacher responsibility rS = Maximum supervisor responsibility

-1 = Minimum teacher responsibility '' e = Minimum supervisor responsibility
Product: Teacher SelfPlan

42
 ORIENTATIONS TO SUPERVISION 35

Postanaysis ,(Before leaving the room.)

Klunger: "Thanks for talking -with me. I needed someone to Unload

77s.
my-woes to and help me figure out what I was going to do. I'm almost excited
agaiit."
Ms. Garciel choughtyou were troubled about something. I enjoy listen -
a scholar -think out loud. See you later."

Di_ stussion
ThroughoUt the clinical steps, the teacher was respected as the ultimate
determiner of his future course of action. The supervisor actively listened,
s.
rephraseikatements, asked questions, and kept the teacher's ,discourse on track
,towards resolution. If the teacher had not wanted to change, then. the "pure"
nondirective supervisor would drop the discussion but continue actively at other
times to stimulate the teacher to think about what he was doing. In Ms./Garcia's
case, her active role turned Mr. Klunger's initial response,,"I don't think teach-
ing-is for me," to "I'm going to have to change my approach," and eventually
"I'm going to break them into groups and then, . ." The supervisor never loses
sight of working towards a teacher self-plan; which might result from borrowed
ideas or from teacher insight alone. Nevertheless, the supervisor accepts the
teacher's-right and responsibility to make the final decision.
The pragmatic reader might ask, "What if the teacher plan is downright
bad, cruel, or harmful; does the supervisor simply acquiesce?" In such a case,
the nondirectivesupervisor has every right to explain his or her misgivings
about teacher's plan and ask for reConsideration. However, a: nondirective
orientation- ultimately assumes that the teacher makes, the wisest and most
responsible decisions for his or her own classroom; thus the final determination
is still left with the teacher.
Returning to the supervisory behavior continuum (Figure 6), we have
seen the nondirective supervisor engage in listening, encouraging, clarifying,
presenting, and problem solving to help the ;teacher arrive at a self-plan. The
following, are simplified proceedings of such actions.
Ttl supervisor listens to the teacher'S problem by facing and showing
attention tb the teacher. The supervisor shOws empathy with the teacher by
nodding hjs or her head and ,restating emotions, such as "It is frustrating."
(Listenag
supervisor encourages the teacher to analyze the problem further:
"Tell me ore," "Please continue on," "Explain that further." (Encouraging)
e supervisor clarifies the teacher problem by paraphrasing and ques-
tioning: You mean the students are bored with the topic?" "Do they like any-
thing abo t the lesson?" "What feedback do you get from them?" (Clarifying)

43
 36 DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION ,

If the teacher asks for suggestions, the supervisor offers alternatives.

"The students could be reorganized, or the topic could be changed to _Include
their interests." (Presenting)
Finally, at the moment of, truth, the supervisor asks the teacher to
decide on a plan, "What are you going to do?'' and offers assistance, "How can
I be of help?" (Problem solving)
VI:
Sumthary
-In the directive orientation, the supervisor emphasizes the ehaviors of pre-
senting, directing, demonstrating; standatdizing,.and rtinforcing in developing
an assignment for the teacher. In the collaborative ()den:a:ky,' the behayiors of
presenting, clarifying, listening, problem-solving, and negonakng ate used to
develop a contract between teacher and supervisor. In the nondirective orien-
t
tation/ the behaviors of listening, encouraging, clarifying,t presenting, and
problem solving are used to create a teacher self-plan. In/the next chapter,
criteria-to determine a teacher's present stage of developme,o4 will be explained
so that a supervisor can be guided in selecting the most a propriate orientation.
The reader who would like to study in-greater erail the rationale and/
practice of each orientation to supervision might find tl2 following resources
helpful. ,...

Readings Directive Supervision:

,
,Alfonso, Robert J.; Firth, Gerald R.; and Neville; Richard Instructrojtal Super-
vision: A Behavior System. 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1980: A thorough
review of research on formal organizations, role theory, communication, deci-
sion making, and personality theory is used to establish the skint an effective
supervisor needs. Emphasis is placed on the supervisor applying such theory
and research within a management system approach to "promoting those condi-
tions which help the organization to achieve its goals."
Lucio, William H., and McNeil, John, D. Supervision: A .cyrthesis of Thought and
Action.,3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979. Lucio and McNeil develop an
approach to supervision that they label "practical intelligence." Their primary
concern is with the supervisor applying objectively what is already known
about education through a systematic and quantifiable means of checking
results.
Popham, James. Criterion Referenced Supervision. Los Angeles: VIMCET Asso-
ciates, 197.e -emu supervisor focuses on the effects of teaching behavior on
student outcomes. This is done through precisely developing instructional
objectives, setting levels of student performance, ani ,ollecting information
on student achievement.
Readings in Collaborative Supervision:
Blumberg, Arthur. Supervisors and Teachers: A Private Cold War, 2nd ed.
Berkeley, Cal.: McCutchan Publishing Co., 1980. This book details problems

44
 ORI TATIONS TO SUPERVISION 37
in Communication and describes how to
_
use -the process of reciprocity and
.team -superviSion in order to meet the mutual needsof supervisor and teacher.
Cogan, Morris. Clinical-Supervision. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1973. The author
describes a- step-by-step
process of meeting-With.teacher(s), analyzing neEds
,togetherc:arid;aereeing otx steps to foilOw, for improving initruction.
Sergientanni, Thomas 3., Starrat; Robert J. Supervision: Human Perspective.
-Nevryork:-Mcgraw-Hill, 1979.-The_aim.of this book is to-enable the super-
!' visor-to assist the staff 'in obtaining' job_iatisfiction of-high morale and 'task
acComplishment-by an orientation entitled "human resources." This satisfac-
tion is_ateoniplished_bY actively workirigiviiih teachers to establish
-agenda-Of adcommon

Wiles,'Kiinball:, Supervision for Better Schools. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.

J.:
PrenticeHill, 1967. Wiles in many ways ushered' in the collaborative move-
ment in supervision with the 'first editioniof this book in 1955. His point of
view that effective supervision must be made through group decision making
is emphasized throughout his human relations approach to communications,
curriclum development, instruction, staff morale, and staff development.
Readings in,lkiondirective Supervision:
Bernian, Louise M. Supervision, Staff Development and Leadership. Columbus,
Ohio: Charles E.*-Merrill, 1971. The supervisor is given insight into
such
dimensions as perceiving, knowing, patterning, creating, valuing. The aim
is to help educators make conscious their inner goals and aspirations and
put
them into concrete action.
Combs, Arthur; Avila, Donald L.; and Purkey, William H. Helping Relationships:
Basic-Concepts for the Relping Professions. 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon,
1979. Selected articles ranging from "Cognitive Field Theory," to "The Mean-
ing of- Wholeness" to "The Creative Attitude" provide an orientation directed
'at releasing the hypothesized innate
drive towards rationality and self-
improvement.
Mosher, 'Ralph L., and Purpel, David E. SupervisionThe Reluctant
Prof ession.
Boston: 'HoughtonMifflin, 1972. Chapter Six, "Implications for Supervision
of Counseling Theory and Techniqucrottlines how.a supervisor might work
with a teacher on the piychologi-al issues of personal philosophy, emotional
challenges, anxiety, and personal role definition through 'ego counseling."
The
authors- point out that such techniques arc for professional self-growth and
are not to be used by supervisors to probe, interpret, or psychoanalyze an

Kelley, Earl C. The Workshop Way of Learning. New York: Har1,

and Brothers,
1951; Kelley writes of ten years of using ongoing group part
tion to help
teachers determine their own needs,andAevelop self-improvmit
strategies,
and to monitor their changes. -
Rogers, Carl-R. 'IA Plan for Self-Directed Change in an Educa 'onal System."
Educational Leadership, May 1967, pp. 717-731. Rogers, who is gentrally
regarded as the -founder of nondirective counseling, writes on the specific
applications'of his theory to organizational change throughout a school
system.
He advocates certain types, formats, and uses of encounter groups for ad-
-ministrators, supervisors, and teachers to provide a supportive nonjudgmental
environment for all individuals to rethink purpose and attempt change.
".?

44 .

iDeVelOpMentalCriteia for Chosing

Apptoriata'aupeNitoty-Orientation
all- teachers -.Were-alike it .would: be -easy to determineLthe =most- effective
itipeiviSorr However,:the-research on. the impact of various ,super-
.,
'Visory, styles on teacher perceptions anti behaviors, to,say, the least, is bewilder-
ing. Aithut Blumberg .(1974) _fgund,that reachers-,Silit ,into =two,grous, on
perCeiving,positive .supervisory. -behavior. One group of teachers,Was MOst,posi-
dile- about supervisors who listened to _them as well as presented' their pwn
ideas: Such ,-a- combination, of 'behaviors. is identified with the. collaborative
orientation. .However, the -other _group of .teachers was rnost,pbSitive about
stipeAso:rs- who, primarily listened, encouraged, and clarified .the teacher's own
ideas. Such a ceombination- of behaviors is identified with the nondirective
orientation ;To -quOie,Blurnberg, `

Generally positive evaluations bY `teicheri._ of; the quality of their SuperVisery

interpersonal ielatiOns*.appear tek.develop, a teacher perceives, his Super-
hehaVior as consisting of , a heavy .einphasis both,tellingt,euggestink,
'criticizing, -'and on `reflecting, asking for inforiaation, opinions, etc.: or when
.a.,,teache,i:perCeivei his stiperviSer as 'putting little emPhasii _on telling, and
Ch On reflecting, and. isking.

':FuitherMore,,Hairis`(1975)- has-cited the research of Alan E Brown (1962)

in which student' feachers were put under directive., highly. pressured ,super-
-

The' supervisor judged, criticized, and ,set down_ standards of perform_ -

ance, from oneleSson to-the nest. Concerning the 78 subjects, Harris wrote, .
1114' kind of supervision !produced' a variety of effects. Forty -five percent
taught Iesi effectively , Tvisiity-sizt, percent taught as-well . . . twenty-nine=
,iiircent;:thowedvisible improvement. -

.
So, in Blumberg's cast we see.that
some sachersAspond to collaborative
;supervision apdionie.to tive supervision. In Harris' case, a significant
group responded to directive sneryision. Zins (1977) asked teachers for their
ptefirerice on three types of consultation Models. Thirty -five percent- chose the
AO DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION

medical/clinical model, 46 percent the beh.sioral, and 19 percent the mental

health. Those models of consultation are roughly equivalent to our three mien-
*tationslif,,supervision. Such research on varying teacher perceptions of effective
styles of supervision should come as. no surprise to those who have followed
the research on the relationship between teaching style and student learning.
Brophy (1979), Good (1979), and others have repeatedly demonstrated that
student variables such as achievement, aptitude, attitudes, and socioeconomic
class are.,critically matched with specific types of instruction. (For example, loW
socioeconomic undeliachieving students appear to be taught basic skills most
effectively through .direct, sequential, large-group instarction. Such instruction
is not as_effective With other groups.) Rita and Kenneth Dunn (1978), Jack
Frymier (1977), and. others have looked more deeply into the variations of
instruction for individual students. Their instructional systems employ varying
materials, environments, and instruction according to student personality, moti
vation, intelligence, and physiological characteristics. Research on human learn-
ing from birth to adulthood has long supported the need for the variation of
"1
instruction according to individual characteristics of students. The classical
works= of Jean Piaget (1955) and Jerome Bruner (1960) ushered in the mod-
em "individualization of instruction movement" over twenty .years ago.
The natural extension of looking at child learning has been to study adult
learning. What is known about learning, individual differences, and teachers
leads to the strong premise that effective supeivision must be based on matching
orientations of supervision with the individual needs and characteristics of
teachers. Unless all teachers in a staff are remarkably homogeneous, no single
approach will be effective for all. If supervision of staff is viewed as an attempt
to change teacher behavior in order to improve student learning then super-
vision is primarily an educative task. Therefore, what is known about human
learning and adult and teacher development becomes critical when deciding
which supervisory orientation and which supervisory -behaviors to use with a
particular teacher. In recent years, two critical elements of teacher effectiveness
have been found: (1) teacher's commitment and (2) teacher's ability to think
,abstractly. Both elements are developmental in that specific levels of growth
can be assessed. It is in knowing the levels of commitment and abstraction an
individual teacher possesses that a criteria for deciding upon appropriate super-
visoiy behaviors emerges.

Level of Commitment
Gail Sheehy (1976) in her popular book about adult life, Passages, jour-
nalistically shows that as adults age, what they care about and their ,attitudes
to life change. Our goals, aspirations, and plans in early adulthood (at age 21)

47
 CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING ORIENTATIONS 41

are not the same as in middle age or old age. Suddenly once burning career
ambitions to "reach the top" mien become less important than slowing down
"forour,family or Close friends.
Maslow (1960) discussed the developmental changes in Jae as a hier-
archical procession- of satisfied needs. Motivation to act is derived from first
physiological -needs to satisfy hunger, to the -need for security and shelter,-to
the need foi love and belongingness, to the need for recognition, and finally
to the need to be truly oneself or tb be "self-actualized." Erickson (1963),
from a .>sychoanalytical perspective, classified this progression of sstages as the
overcoming of conflicts of eight stages in life: (1) trust versus' mistrust, (2),
autonomy, .versus shame and doubt, 13) initiative versus guilt, (4) industry
versus inferiority, (5) identity versus role confusion, ('6) intimacy versus
`isolation, (7:) generativityversus stagnation, (8) Integrity versus dei-pair..
The.research by Gould (1972), Levinson (1978), and Loevinger (1976)
has more percisely identified these adult changes in motivation and life crises.
Loevinger integrated such theories into testable stages of adult ego develop-
ment. Adult responses to periods-of life break into the following progressive
stages: amoral, fearful, dependent, opportunistic, conforming to, persons, con-
forming'to rules, and principled autonomy. From the work of Maslow, Erikson,.
and Loevinger we can detect a consistent trend of Movement from egocentric
concern with ones own case, to becoming a member of a group, to finding
recognition as a leader of the group, to finally acting upon reasoned, universal
principles that transcend the group and are in the interest of humahity. This
progression of adult changes provides the basic framework for looking at
career- specific changes in teachers. Keep in mind that development is based on;
1. identified stages
2. Stages,that are hierarchical (bujlt on each other)
3. Individual rates of movement through stages -
. .
The pioneer longitudinal study of teachers by Francis Fuller (1969)
suggested that over time teachers' concerns about their work and profession
change. Eugene Hall (1978) and his many associates have built upon Fuller's
work by studying teachers' concerns when involved in curriculum implementa-
tionAn their schools. Newman;(1978); Peterson (1979); Witherell (1978);
Ayers (1980); Burden (1979); Adams, Hutchinson, and Mactray (1980); and
others have continued to investigate what happens to teachers. Fuller (1969)
found that beginning teachers were mostly concerned abowl their own self.
survival or adequacy ("Can I be a teacher? Can I survive or will I have to find
another profession?"). Eventually when teachers find that they can manage and
that students, administrators, and peers are not going to drive them out of the
profession, their concern shifts from worrying about survival to becoming con-
cerned with improving the learning environment for students. In other words,

48
-
 42 DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION

"If I know that I can make it from one week to the next, now I can focus my
energy on helping my students improve from one week to the next." Finally,
with success and recogqition in helping students, teachers come to view them,
selves as competedt, anctconcern shifts to providing help beyond the classroom
to other teachers,,studentsmhe school, and the profession as a whole.
Ruby Anderson is a striking example of a teacher .who moved to the high-
. est stage of concern. The f011owing story appeared in the University of
'Georgia's Faculty Staff Newspaper (Dendy, 1979).

Miss Ruby's Legacy

Friends and former students of the late Miss Ruby Anderson were
not surprised to learn that the legendary Athens High School English
teacher had left the university money to provide scholarships for
teachers.
In her death, as in most of her life, Miss Ruby had no greater love
than education.
During her nearly 60 years in the classroom, Miss Ruby, as she was
universally known, taught thousands of Athens young-tersthrec
gcncratiohs of some familiesabout the glories of Shakespeare and
the importance of correct English grammar.
The first inductee to the Georgia Teacher Hall of Fame, she was a
leader in state and national education organizations,.including a Na-
tional Education Association commission on which she served with
Dwight D. Eisenhower.
She was a STAR Teacher, was named Athens Woman of the Year
in Education, and_many former students proclaim her the best teacher
theyever had.
So her $82,819 bequest to the University of Georgia College of
Education to establish scholarships seems a fitting culmination to a
life devoted to education.
McDaniel, who was a friend of Miss Ruby's when he was Clarke
County school superintendent, wrote a letter to the Athens newspaper
citing the "sacrifice and commitment of- a competent and dedicated
teacher" and noting Miss Ruby's "moral and ethical influence" on her
students.
"This final af.; on Miss Ruby's part epitomizes the lifetime of service
and dedication which she gave to her fellow citiiens," McDaniel wrote.
When she died 'October 30, '1978, her obituarrwas front-pagd
news in the Athens papers. In an editorial, the paper said:
"If there was ever an example of a dedicated public servant who
led an exemplary life for those who f011ow it was Miss Ruby. Anderson.
Her death removed from our midst a valued and respected person who
dedicated her entire being to, her chosen profession, that of teaching
young people both in the classroom and by example of her leadership
and dedication:*

49
 CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING ORIENTATIONS 43
_.---
.A.:fornier teacher-mho 'workedwith Miisuby for 10 years recalls
'that. "School was her whole life. The principals depended on her. They
-knew-that if you wantedsoniething-dorie,you asked Miss Ruby." \
She tried to be the first teathCr:tO-sChOof,eaCh. morning,_ and 0'as
ustilly, the last tOJeave each-afternoon. She-turned down several offe
of higher payinglobi-at the University, and she once tried 'to- refuse
her own salary because she thoughtthe school system needed the Money,
morie.

Fuller- (1969) and others have found teacher development to parallel

adult development in that adults_ first need to -take -Care of their own needs
before looking nthe care of-their immediate._group members_(students) before
attempting to help others outside of their own clas* sroom or immediate experi-
ence.,Maslovi and'Erilcson_ring true. The individual is first dependent on,otheLs.
bejore joining,and.being- an active,graiii, member, before accepting and,beiisg
recognized'in'a leadership role in the grout, before, making decisions and taking
.actioni that-transcend the-interests of one's own group in the best- Interest of
-all persons. Now how do we come-off these lofty theoriticalpremises and put
such ideas.inta practice? -
We Can first"look at a common word bandied around the schoolcom-
mirnient. Educators-indicate that some teachers make a "commi:-
ment!' t some make little or no "commitment." Commitment
larger than Concern because it includes tiine.and effort: Miss Ruby was .ob-
viously- not just involved in, but committed to, her work. A teacher who has
no commitment' is really a person who is view' ed as-caring only about hc..self
or himself, simply going through the motions to keep one's jOb, not caring
about improving-or*willing to give time and energy to look at possible ways
of iinproving.'On the other hand, when her admirers said that Miss Ruby, was
a totally committed teacher, they were also saying that she wanted to do mote
fOi her students and, for other teachers, and that she willingly worked far
beyond the contracted hours of the job. ..
Teache_rs can be v. iewed along a commitment continuum, moving from
Slow to high.
r.
Figure 7. Commitment Continuum
Low High
little concern for students High concern for students and
Little time or energy expended other teachers

Primary concern with keeping Extra tine or enerjy expended

One's job Primary concern with doing.
more for others

50
44 DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION

One might readily identify teachers in a school or organization along this

continuum. Some teachers fall in the low end, some at the high end, and many
fall somewhere in between. For example, a teacher of moderate commitment
might work in "spurts" or single out one particular academic area to work
hard on and neglect others, or work diligently with a particular group of stu-
dents and spend less time with others. Most teachers, as most of us, fall, ir.to
that middle range.
If level of commitment were the only variable to emerge as aAcey fattor
to successful instructional improvement, then we could begin matching super-
visory _orientation accordingly. However, another important variable must be
considered when working with teachers. That variable is their ability to tjink
abstractly.

Level of Abstraction
The research of Harvey (1966) and Hunt and Joyce (1967) have clocu-
mented,,that teachers at high levels of cognitive dtvelopment, where abstract/
symbolic thinking predominates, are able to function with greater flexibility and
complexity in. -the classroom. For example, Parkay (1979) found that teachers
in an inner-city high school who had the highest levels of conceptual under-
standing of education had the lowest levels of stress and had more positive
relationships with peers. Glassberg's (1979) review of research on teachers'
cognitive development concluded that:

In summary, these studies suggest that high stage teachers tend to be adaptive
in teaching style, flexible, and tolerant, and able to employ a wide range of
teaching models. ... Effective teaching in almost any view is a most complex
form of human behavior. . . . Teachers at higher, more complex stages of
human development appear as more effective in classrooms than their peers
at lower stages.

Oja (1979) in a separate review of research on the development of abstract

thinking,in teachers recorded similar findings:

The research evidence does suggest that teachersat higher conceptual levels
may be able to assume multiple perspectives, utilize a wide variety of coping
behaviori,,,employ a broad repertoire of teaching models, and consequently be
more effective with students.

A teacher's ability to stand back from his or her classroom, to clarify his or
her own instructional problems (management, discipline, record keeping, or-
ganization, student attitudes), determine alternative solutions to these probleMs,
and then to plan a course of action is an abstract process. It stands to reason
that teachers who have skills fo: problem solving and who can judge conse-
 CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING ORIENTATIONS 45

quences of alternative actions will be more effective in meeting the instructional

needs of students.'A teacher who does not have such abseract ability is= limited
in finding an appropriate course of action. Low level thinking about problems
usually results in repeating one or two habitual responses to ongoing problems
or in defining an incomplete plan of action.
Piager (1955), Bruner (1966), and Kohlberg (1969) can help us under-
stand how reasoning develops. They have ,found a consistent develtipmental
sequence in children. Thinking is focitsed on a singular characteristic of a
property before two or more characteristics of the same property -can be con-
sidered. Parents can identify this process when talking with their young children.
To a two-yearcild the family dog .is "Rufus" and "Rufus" alone. Only as the
child grows and hears others discuss larger categories of dogs can he begin to
understand- that "Rufus" is not just "Rufus" but is also a. dog. He learns that
"Rufus" possesses characteristics that are common with all other animals called
dogs. Theiefore, when the child's thinking moves from a single categorization
("Rufus") to a larger categorization (dogs), only then can he begin to listen,
sort add combine other properties of "Rufus" such as cocker spaniel, brown
dog, animal, brown animal, brown cocker spaniel, cocker spaniel dog, and so
on. Abstract or symbolic thinking is the ability to move away from the visual,
tactile identification of a property and the ability to "mediate" with the mind,
to recategorize, and to generalize.
Such a simple example of cognitive development_ with the classification
of dogl might not appear applicable to adults and teachers. All adult educators
are able to categorize dogs in different ways, but what happens when we change
the idea of "dog" to such concepts as "jhstice," "morality," "government,"
"student record keeping," "slow learners," and so forth? With such larger con-
cepts, developmental learning processes apply. If one can categorize the issue
of discipline in only one way, then the person is "blinded" to other ways of
working with students. It is only when one can recategorize or synthesize the
characteristics of d problem that alternative actions can be identified and
analyzed.
A troubling aspect of fostering development is documented by the re-
search of Kohlberg and Turkl (1971). The spur or stimulus for helping people
move into higher stages of abstract reasoning comes from the interaction with
others who are in more advanced stages. More advanced stage people can pro-
mote the conditions, set up the materials and environments, and provide the
questions and ideas that provoke students to think about issues in 'different
ways. Kohlberg has documented six stages of moral reasoning and has found that
only 10 percent of teachers are higher than stage four. The interesting question
posed by Wilkins (1980) is, if Kohlberg is correct, how are students to learn
to reason in higher stages than those their teachers possess? Similarly, the

52
I4 DEVELOPMENTAL Su PgRVISION

alarmingstatistics of Harvey (1970) of conceptual attainment amonwpreservice

and inservice feathers shows char the percentage of persons in the highest
levels otabstract thinking drops from 7 percent to 4 percent as experience in
professional education increases, In other words, the high abstract thinkers
cither'drop out of teaching or regress to lower levels, and, furthermore, t. jese
at loWer level's do not increase their levels of abstract thinking. As supervisors,
we need .to-be concerned about abstract thinking in teachers. Those teachers
who have the ability to think abstractly need to be challenged to use it and
stay in the profession. Those who do not have that ability need to be stimu-
lated to acquire it. The supervisor might think of teachers along a continuum of
abstract thinking. NI,

Figura 8. Levels of Abstract Thinking

Low Moderate High
Confused about the Can define the - Can-think of the
problem problem problem from many
Doesn't know what Can think of one or perspectives
can be done two possible Congener* many
"Show me" responses to the alternatiVe !Mans
problem Can choose a plan
Has one or two
habitual responses Has trouble and think through
to problems thinking through a- each step
comprehensive
plan

Teachers with low abstract thinking ability are not sure if they have a
classroom problem or, if they do. they arc very confused about the problem.
They don't know what can be done and they need to be shown what can be
done. They normally have a limited repertoire of one or two solutions such as
be tougher- or -give more homework ',regardless of whether the problem
involves misbehavior, underachievement, or inappropriate textbooks.
Teachers with moderate abstract thinking ability can usually define the
problem according to how they see it. They can think of one or two possible
actions but have problems in coordinating an overall plan. Fur example, if many
students are failing chemistry, teachers of moderate abstract thinking ability

Par more sophisticated assel..arnt of abstract thinking. the reader mighgellifer

to Harvey's Conceptual Systems Test (Harvey 196'). The Unapt Izvel Questionnaire
Hunt and Halverson. 1964). Kohlberg's Moral Deselopment Test il9S8). of Nfeilnick.s
Remote Associates Test (Mednick, 1962).

53
 .Z
ir
CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING ORIENTATIONS.-
47
. - I
-might think-of acatingsome remedial packets written
at a lower reading level.
They might then, implement the packets. with students but
fail to plan ahead
toc,such routers as monitoring progress, alluring
enough class time, providing
other work for themore advanced
students, explaining the rules for using the
packets, and clarifying the need for More individualized
work. The moderately
abstractteacher.might face these additional issues as they occur without
having
planned.preventivemeasares.., _

Teachers ,with high abstract thinking ability

can view the. problem from
many perspectives; (one's own, student?, parent?, aide?, administrators')
and
generate Many alternative solution. They can think through the
advantages
and disadvantages of each plan and decide
upon one. They a willing to
change That plan if the predicted cohsequences do
planning, they can judge additional problems that nor material! e. When
. mighr arise an systertati-
callyirov ideprev ent ion.
. \
intersecting Variables tosEstablisb. Criteria
Using the two developmental variables of level of ;jacket
commitment and
level of abstraction,. the supervisor can assess an individual archer. The .
meat can assess-
accomplished with a simple paradigm with two intelsecting
one line of lines
inmitment going from low to high and one line of abstraction
going from -lo v. 'o igh. Thus, as seen in Figure 9 on the next
four quadrantsor 'page, there are
its that define "types" of teachers. Of course, net all
teachers' fir cleanly .tar these boxes, but the qUadrants
give a supervisor A
- \reasoned basis for viewing differences in teachers,
..\ Quadrant I: This teacher has a low level of commitment and
, Of \abstr;ction. He is tete:fed to a low level
\
the itqnijnal motions in order
as a Teacher Dropout He simply goes 'through
to keep his job. He has little motivation for
improvslo competencies. Furthermore, he
cannot think about what changes
could be de and is quite satisfied
to keep the same routine day after day, He
does not 't.,any reasons for improvement The causes of
any difficulties are
blamed on others. In this teacher's view, if is the Students
or administration
or community' that need help, never the teacher. He comes
to work exactly on
time anti leaves school as soon as officially permissible.
@dram-II: This teacher has a high level of commitment burs low level
of abstraction. She is enthusiastic, energetic, and full
desires to become a better leacher and make her class ofgood intentions. She
mote exciting and tele.
not ro students. She works very hard and usually leaves school
under materials to be worked on at home. Unfortunately, staggering
though, good inten
dons are thwarted by her lick of ability to think problems
through and act fully
and realistically. This teacher is classified as an Unfocused
Worker She usually
becomes involved in multiple projects and activities but becomes
easily con.

54
 - . .

4$ ea VtitoPmetirm. SUPERVISION

-Figure Patadigm of Teacher Categories

Quadrant.] II Quadrant IV
Analytical Observers Professionals

I
Level of Commitment High
.--
-,-
Qdadrant I Quadrant H
II Unfocused Workers .
Teacher Dropouts

Low

fused, liscouraged, and swamped by self - imposed and unrealistic tasks As a

result, rarely does this teacher complete any instructional improvement effort
before undertaking a new one
Quadrant III; This teacher has a inw level of commitment but a high
. level of abstraction. This teacher is the intelligeni, highly
verbal person whO
us always `full of great ideas about what can be done in his own classroom, in
other classrooms, and in the school as a whole."1-fe can discuss the issues dearly
and think through the steps necessary for successful implementation. This
,_teacher is V.beled the Analytical Observer because his ideas often do nor result
in any action. Hp knows what needs to be done but is unwilling to commit
the time, energy, and um necessary to carry out the plan.
Quadrant IV. This teacher ha s.both a high level of coMmitment and a high
level of, abstraction. She is the true Professional, committed to continually
improving herself, her students, and fellow faculty. She can think about the
task at hand, consider mernatives, make a rational choice, and develop and
carry out an appropriate plan of action. Not only can she do this for her class-
room but with the faculty as a whole. She is regarded by. others as an inforipal
leader, one to whom others go willingly for help. Not only does this 'teacher
provide ideas, activities, and resources, but such a ,person becomes actively
`involved in seeing any proposed plan through to its completin. She is a
thinker arid a doer.

55
 Figure 10. Developmental Directionality of the Superviiory Behavior Continuum

0c
Z 1 2 cC
=a gi, 2, 0
----- 1
.s
ti
c
ce
Cc
it

0=
Ea S. 7:3c
g Os .E.
a to .
c
c
r4
273
to+
u
2----__ g a
fa '8 76; a Z

teacher low
supervisor low
Control supervisor high
teacher high

Directive Collaborative Nondirectivo

,:-Teacher Type Teacher Dropout Analytical Unfocused Professional

Observer Worker

,'.Teacher Lave, Low Abstraction High Abstraction Low Abstraction High Abstraction
Low Commitment Low Commitment High Commitment High Commitment

56
 SUPERVISION

Discussion
By 'focusing on the two variables of level of commitment and level of
abstraction that are related to teacher effectiveness, the supervisor can begin
to think about individual teachers as developmentally different. Teachers can
be-worked with in ways to help them develop a higher level of abstraction and
higher level of commitment. The supervisor must first begin to work with a
teacher at his or her current stage on each of these levels; as gain is realized
the'supervisor can provide less supervisory direction and more teacher respon-
sibt1C7 Remembering the developmental characteristics implicit in the super-
visbry behavior continuum, the supervisor's is always to decrease those
behaviorS' that give the supervisor control over the im rovement of instruction
and to increase those behaviors that ultimately enable the teacher to be the
controller of his or her own improvementThis does not occur overnight. With
some teachers, quite frankly, it may never happen. With others it may take one
to three yeas. Some teachers may alteady be fully capable of self-direction. In
all efforts with teachers, the supervisor should keep in mind this developmental
directionality, as represented in Figure 10.
With such a scheme, the supervisor can determine a starting point for
using su?ervisory orientationsrwith individual teachers. The Teacher Dropout
is matched with the directive orientation, the Analytical Observer is matched with
the collaborative orientation with emphasis on negotiating, the Unfocused Worker
is matched with the collaborative orientation with emphasis on presenting
supervisor ideas, and the Professional is best matched with a nondirective
orientation to supervision.

57
 Matching Stages of Teacher
Pevelopment-WithAppropriate
,. SupervIsory Orientations
flaying established fat& quadrant i fcir assessing teachers, the supervisor an
agsthe iange of 'practices that he Of she needs to use. If the staff is fairly
uniform in theleyel of abstraction and the level of commitment then the num-
bet,of- orientations to be, employed for effectiYe sugrvision are, at least for the
inornerit'reduced.,If the staff is composed of mostly Teacher Dropouts, Then
the supervisor might emphasize a directive orientation by giving teacher assign- \
inents: If the StaiOs composed dwell intentioned Unfocused Workers otthought-
it& ArtalyticaL Obseryers, then a collaborative orientation of setting a frame-
work for 'choke would be suitable, If the; composition of thestiff is mostly
Professionals, then 'a nandirective orientation that releases the knowledge,
wisdiim, and efftirt Of the teachers would he ideal. Supervisors would haye
an eier job if teachers were all on the same levels.-However, we profess-to
live in a society, that prizes individuality above conformity ani heterogeneity
above hOrnogeneity. and, as a result, students and teachera tend to be quite
dissimilar,
Rare is the school that has all PrOfetsiorials or all Teacher Dropouts.
Rare is the 400l that has all "fast learners" or "slow learners." Public school
teachers wor-Vwith students at all levels tif achievement and ability. If we expect
teachers to individualize for diverse/Populations of students, then we as super-
visors must`fikewise- be able to individualize for teachers. The 'ideal to strive
for is to enable each teacher ter.become a Professional. The supervisor can
work toward that ideal by assessing the current levels of teacher development,
taking each teacher at his or her level, and helping the teacher move toward
the next stage of development
A typical school might have approximately 5 to 10 p ercent Teacher
Dropouts,,60 to 70 percent Unfocused Workersand Analytical Obsirvers, and
10 to 20 percent Professionals. A staff of 30 teachers.would yield, then, three to
four Dropouts, 18 to 23 in the iniddle range, and four to eight Professionals.
Therefore, the most commonly used approach with most teachers should be

51
52 DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION

the collaborative orientation. This might be the reason why so much writing
in the field of supervision is based on mutual and shared decision making.
The odds are on the collaborator'S side that his or her approach will be more
successful with most teachers. However, it is misleading for the advocates of
collaboration to use the high percentage as a justification for its exclusive
use. Because a set -of behaviors it successful with 80 percent of a staff does
not mean that one should continue to use that practice with the other 20 per-
cent of a,,rtall that is finding the approach frustrating, inappropriate, and
failure laden. Teacher Dropouts in a staff, in which the supervisor uses the
collaborative orientation may resist being, asked to contribute to shared decision
making. They often see a supervisor who uses such an approach as "wishy-
washy" and taking up their valuable time.
On the other hand, the Professionals in the same school in which the
collaborative orientation is solely used may also find their time being "frittered
away." Why should they continually have to come to mutual agreement with
a supervisor or others who may not possess the competencies and knowledge
of the teacher? The opportunity to challenge such teachers to think creatively
and independently might be drained away in finding consensus. Why limit their
potential to be a resource to others? The point is that although the collabora-
tive orientation is the most popularly advocated one, it does not help all
teachers grow. Collaboration helps more teachers but it stifles both those who
need explicit, structured directions and these who need the freedom to experi-
ment on their own. Using the directive orientation or nondirective orientation
exclusively creates even greater difficulties. Either orientation might be on
target for 10 percent and leave the other 90 percent of teachers unaffected or
resentful. No one approach works for all teachers. The goal is to .fielp all
teachers become Professionals. To reach that oal, behaviors of the supervisor
must vary according to the teacher.

How It's Done

Without repeating the procedures and steps explained in Chapter Three
for each supervisory orientation, let us consider four brief cases of teachers in
the difierent quadrants of level of commitment and level of abstraction Re-
member Ms. Horvback, Mr. Sangui, Ms. Tilton, and Mr. Donner who were
mentioned in Chapter One? It is time to return to them and use the information
about alternative supervisory orientations with developmental criteria to im
prove their instruction.

50
 MATCHING TEACHER STAGES WITH ORIENTATIONS 53

Mr. Donner

Bill Donner is in his filth year of teaching at Carden Elementary School. For
reasons unknown, the local college of education allowed him to graduate and be-
'Come certified- and the previous school adininistration allowed him to become a
tenured' teacher. The new supervisor has observed, that Mr. Donner h perceived
by students, other teachers, id parents as a poOr teacher. The supervisor agrees with
this judgMent. Mr. Donner teaches social studies and sclence,to fourth through
sikib graders, five periods of the day. Each class is operated in an identical manner.
He writes on the blackboard the pages to be read in she text and the assignment
to be done. Students enter and sit down. He instructs them with, "YoUr reading
and. assignment are on the board. Get to work and keep quiet." His paddle by the
side of the desk is used to enforce quiet. Occasionally he lectures; rarely does he
engagetiudents in discussion-or other activities. He sits behind his desk and grudg-
itigly answers questions when students come to him. When talking with Mr. Donner,
it is apparent that he dislikes, teaching ,and students. Yet, becauie of vacation time.
and shorthours, he plans to stay in the profession.

-- Discussion: The Mr. Donners of the world are ferr.'Yet teachers do exist
who could not care less about their job. They see no ethical problem with
continuing ("After all, I give students work to do"). Anything that is wrong
in the class, whether it be Hostile students, failed tests, or tardy assignments, is
Warned on the students because they are "lazy and slow" or they come from 1,
such "terrible homes."

Diagnosis and Prescription: Mr. Donner can be categoriied as a Teacher

Dropout, low in commitment and low in abstract ability. To be blunt, the only
way that Mr.-Donner is going to change his behavior is by a supervisor being
forceful The directive orientation should be followed with a clear assignment
needed change within a time sequence (refer back to Chapter Three,
direc ive orientation). If the changes occur, then Mr. Donner is ,to be praised
and re ded; if the changes do not occur, then Mr. Donner should be aware
of the cons ulnces such as no pay raise or even the beginning of proceedings
for dismissal. 'his is not an arbitrary scheme. to get rid of a teacher, it simply
acknowledges thairk7 is a need for a straightforward and easily, manageable
plan with the intent o improving Mr. Donners instruction. Thesupervisor
begins small (such as dirt Ong Mr. Donner to establish fcur group activities
for one class at least once a Week or to spend at least 50 percent of class time
away from his desk moving among the students in one class). The supervisor's
major responsibility is to see that scud nts are properly instructed, and if a
teacher is not responding to students, theft the supervisor must meet the issue
head on.

60
 54 DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION

Ms. Tilton

Shirley Tilton if in her first year atpRooleve lt Middle School. After the first
few weeki,.it becomes apparent thanhe rare; deeply a:bout her students. She often
stays in at breaks and alter school to work with youngsters having instructional
difficulties. She makes home visits and invites student; over to her home on weekends.
She is often at ;school until 5:00 p.m. working on new activities .and always leaves
school carrying a pile of work. At faculty meetings, she volunteers to serve on
various committees and willingly carries out extra assignments, hether monitoring
the lunchroom or watching another teacher's classroom. She wants to do well and
eagerly trig to please. 41
On, the other hand, her class does not operate smoothly or efficiently. There
are many materials scattered around, students become confused about their assign-
ments, and Mi. Tilton often misplaces lesson plan; and individual student assign-
/menu. The class usually begins in a state of confusion with students waiting and
becoming noisy, restless, and disruptive. Ms. Tilton is constantly trying to keep the
dais under control u bile encouragint, students to make up their own rules and
monitor their on n schedules. Ms. Tilton knout that her -class is not operating
efficiently and, to compensate, she, u orb harder and longer u ith individual students
and adds more creati: e acti: sties. The supervisor notices that although the students
like her, the majority of their instructional time is spent aimlessly.

Discussion: Ms. Tilton does not need to, be motivated, she truly desires
to be a better teacher and to make life productive and interesting for students.
She thinks that sht can overcome any problem by working harder, this simple
thinking is compounding her problem. Her students are confused_about the
number of choices already available to them. Her striving to provide more
activities contributes to greatey confusion. Yet she does not see that it is her
eagerness to create more that is adding w the problem.
Diagnosis and Prescription: Ms. Tilton falls within the quadrant of
Unfocused Workers. She is high on level of commitment but low on level of
abstraction. She is unable to stand back from her classroom, define the prob-
lem, and think through needed short- and long-term adjustments. She needs
direction for attacking the problem in ways that she is currently unable to
conceive.
The supervisor who is responding to Ms. Tilton's needs must provide
direction uith choice. He or she needs to observe the classroom and then give
Ms. Tilton two or three specific changes that might be made. In using a colla-
borative orientation, the supervisor clarifies thi problem, proposes a few alter-
native actions, asks the teacher to pick from those limited choices, and then
writes down a collaborative contract. With success, the supervisor when meeting
with Ms. Tilton again might provide more choices and press the teacher to
formulate her own actions. For the present, however, the Unfocused Worker
needs the supervisor to offer specific, concrete suggestions from which she can
choose.

61
 MATCHING TEACHER STAGES WITH ORIENTATIONS 55

-Ms. Horvback
(Ms. Horvback's case, described in Chapter One, is repeated here to refresh
the reader's memory.)
-Shirley Horvback is an English; teacher in her twelfth' year at New Castle
High' School. Sheik married, has no children, and lives in a high socioeconomic
neighborhood far from New Castle High. One reason she teaches there is her
desire "to help ',Went.: from impovirishedstsrcoundings acquire .an.. appreciation
for literature." She is an avid reader of contempOrary and, classical literature and
occasionally writes her own short stories.
::...
Ms..Horvback generally is regarded as a competent teacher. She has a rather
bonihaitic mannerof , speaking 'And with her large, robust and rangy physical
ititnie create! an -imposing presence. Many Of her students are afraid of her and
'the word is passed quickly to new students that "you don't mess with Old Lady
Horvback." Most students grudgingly believe that her clams are worthwhill. When
the hard work and teacher,pressua is over, students teem to emerge from her class
as better readers and writer!.
'Mt. Horvback,' except for one close friend,, is not liked by other teachers in
New Castle. They complain of her arrogant, elitist attitude. Ms. Horvback conveys-
the impression that poor New Castle High is privileged to have such rsliterate person
as herself on its staff. She lets it be known that she once was accepted as a Th.D.
student in English at a prestigious university and turned it down to teach high
school here. At faculty meetings, Ms. 110i/back's tense of superiority it evident in
her ansuiers to every schOol problem. She is insightful, analyzes and proposes
thoroughi solutions but when it comes to action, she back! off. She can easily sug-
gest what can bedone or what others should do to make New Castle a better school,
but she it usually the last to arrive at school and the first to depart. .
Ms. Horvback' can be viewed as a teacher who gets the basic job done. She
enjoys teaching, and her students learn. Her behavior with other teachers might be
troublesome but it is difficult to fault her classroom work. The co cern with Ms.
Horvback is not what she pre.,ently does but with what more she co ld possibly do.

Diagnosis and Prescription: Ms. Horvback is one of ou Analytical Ob.

, servers. She operates her classroom in a set but.adequate man er. She is high
on level of abstraction and full of refreshing ideas about how i hings should be
done in other classrooms and around the school, but she is ('relatively low on
level of commitment. She does not put her physical body and energy into
making her ideas a reality. There are other Analytkal Obse ers even lower on
commitment chaff Ms, Horvback who have classrooms th t verge on incom-
petence. They,know what should be done but simply don't care to change. In
Ms. Horvback's case, she does care about keeping her cla sroom operating on
a maintenance level that will avoid criticism or job insecurity. There is so much
more that this teacher could do for students and others y only she could be-
come more committed to improving her instruction. This then becomes the
major task of the supervisor.
The supervisor needs to work with a collaborative/i orientation that recog-
nizes the intelligence of the teacher yet forces her int/6 action. Therefore, the
56 DEV13LOPMNTAL SUPRV!S1ON

collaborative orientation involved in working with the Analytical Observer is

different than that required in working with the Unfocused Worker. In working
with the Analytical Observer, the supervisor encourages the tc2cher to do what
he or she dOes well, that is, to clarify problems and present alternative solu-
tions. Then the supervisor presses for a commhment by saying, n effect: "These
ideas are great. Now which one of them can we work on for the next two or
three weeks?" If the teacher tries to backtrack with excuses such as "I don't
have, enough time,' or "I'll get to it later," the supervisor needs to further
press the teacher. He or she might say, "Well, if you dont have tim to do all
of that, then what part of the plan could you do?" i.r "I'll help you with the
plan so it wonr take up that much of your time." The supervisor does not
allow the teacher to wiggle out of the plan and, insteaci, negotiates a commit-
ment from ;he teacher. Ehe idea is to get th observer doing The teacher i
forced not only to think but to act. The plan itself comes almost totally from th'e
teacher, yet the supervisor actively works to see that the plan is realistic and
manageable.

Mr. Sangui

Mr. Sangui is in his next to las: year at Sunrise Eletnntary-Scboo4 Soon be

will be retiring. He bat consciously stayed in the classroom, having passed up sev-
eral opportunities to move into administrative positio?n. illl of his life be has
u'an ted to help youngster: learn. During his career be has bad as itudents parents
and even grandparents of some of b;s eurren! students. 4/mo;; to a person, former
and current students, faculty, parents, and administratori regard Mr. San gui as an
excePtional person. In hi: la.rt years be still involves himself with school affairs,
incorporates new materials in the classroom, holds an office in the local teachers
association, and attends workshops, courses, and professional conferences on his
ou'n. He has seen the tow population around Sunrise School change dramatically
from thu of exclusively middle class to a diverse mix of socioeconomic, racial, and
ethnic groups. He bai responded to these changes by learning about diffetences in
.rtudents, studying minority dialects and customs, and incorporating indivMual and
group materials into the chusrom that capitalize on multicultural experience;.
Other teachers shake their beads ir wonder at the man snd often seek him out
for advice.

Diagnosis and Presczlption: Mr. Sangui is a Professional. He is very

high on level of commitment to students, the school, and the profession. He is
also hih on level of abstract thnking. He can assess instructional problems,
has th&knowledge of alternatives, can choose and plan steps of implementation.
The orientation to supervising Mr. Sangul should be nondirective. The super-
visor actively Ustens to the teacher's problems, encourages teacher analysis,
clarifies the problem by paraphrasing and questioning, offers suggestions when
asked, and finally asks the teacher to develop a self-plan.

63
 MATCHING TEACHER STAGES WITH ORIENTATIONS 57

`Since a Professional has a concern greater than his or her

own classroom, the supervisor -.needs to encourage and rely on the teacher's
ability. A Professional is an independent person who speaks freely for what
-is, in the best Interest of all students, even though such ideas usually entail
niore.personal work. At times, Mr. Sangui might "take on" the .whole faculty
when he believes that they are making changes in the school to make life easier
for themselves- but which are not in the interest of students. Because of the
,Professional'i broad perspective on education, independence, and abstract
ability, hi or- she often will disagree with others whether they are parents,
teachers;PiKcipals, the superintendent, or school board members.
A Professional can be easier to identify thin to work with. The super-
visor must acknowledge that here exists a person who is at least the equal of
or superior to oneself when it comes to instructional matters. To tell a Pro-
fessional what to do is to fail to respect. this person's ability. The supervisor
needs to encourage the Mr. Sanguis of the world to contribute thei own plans,
to assist other teachers, and to be an informa' leader in the school. Conflicts in
ideas with a Professional are almost inevitable. Such conflicts should not be
viewed as a threat to the supervisor's position. Schools need more people like
Mr. Sangui, and the way to involve such people is to invite them to share
their views concerning school problems. At times, a supervisor might even
give up one's own plans when the Professional appears to have greater
expertiie about the matter at hand. The Professional will often make better
decisions than the group or the supervisor. If among the staff there are mem-
bers who have greater insight and knowledge into certain instructional matters
than others, -then encouraging these persons to take a major-role in the decision
can only help in reaching the goal of instructional improvement.

.
Development, Not Age
In describing teachers who fall into the quadrants of Teacher Dropout,
Unfocused Worker, Analytical Observer, and Professional, it is crucial, to
note that development is not a function of age or years of service. There
are older teachers who are in quadrant one (Teacher Dropout); there are
younger teachers who are in quadrant four (Professional); and there are
teachers of all ages and levels of experience who are scattered throughout
the quadrants. Neither age nor experience of the teacher is a crucial variable
in determining the appropriate .supervisory orientation to employ. Not all first
year teachers need a directive approach, neither are all 15-year teachers pre:
pared for a nondirective approach. The selection of the appropriate supervisory
-orientation must follow the assessment of the variables of level of abstraction
and level of commitment for each individual.

64
 1

,6.
Teacher Development: Further
Coptitierations.for the SuPervisor
;Wen bringing closure to a book, an author thinks of the many ideas, practices,
and constructs that have been left out. In this book, I have tried to keep the ,
focus narrow: The purposes were threefold: (1) to outline three practical
orientations to supervising teachers; (2) to identify key variables whet
assess-
' ing stages of teach development; ind (3) to show the match .betwen
super-
visory7orientations and teacher stages. Now that those purposes hogefully have,.
been accomplished, it is time to bring up some additional information, further
applications and-t-autions, and the philosophical basis for operating supervision
according to developmental criteria.

The Complexity of Supervision

"Working with people is a tremendously complicated matter. Every teacher_
has different experiences, personality trahs,.and_physical characteristics.
Further-
,moreveachetracher-interaiii with other teachers, with many students, and "with
Several superiors. The supervisor, as broadly defined as one who has responsi,
bility for the improvement of a teacher's instruction,
not only influences teach-
ers, but is s-influenced by teachers in return. To compound the
matter further,
the .supetyisor is, often the mediator of
studentt, concerns, school . policy,
central office directives, and community/parent expectations. Figure
11 illus.,
crates this relationship.
To put all these combinations of influential variables together would
vault in a computer print-out of relationships that would be beyond
human
comprehension. Therefore, to view the supervisor and teacher relationship
for
improvement.. of instruction according to three orientations' of supervision
(directive, collaborative, and nondirective), two variables among- teachers,
level of abstraction and level of commitment); and four quadrants of
teacher
types (Dropout, Unfocused Worker, Analytical Observer, and Professional)
does not account for the situational complexity that
every supervisor faces. A

59
65
.11117,,
(.60- PEVELOPMENtAL SUPERVISION'

Figure 11. Factors influencing Supervisors

Central
Office'

' Community/
Parents .

supervisor might have some teachers. who defy description within the quadrants.
A given teacher may be an Unfocused Worker when it comes to teaching
science and a Profeisional when it comes to teaching English. A supervisor
rnishr,work in a w.hool where the central office dictates that all supervision must
be collaborative. A local school might exist in a community where life is totally
flee wheeling and independent or totally structured and regimented. In other
words, supervisors must read and apply the concepts and practices of this book
that are appropriate in their own situations. There will never be a prescriptive
guide that tells supervisors exactly what co do in every situation with every
.persort to be successful
If professional judgment or situational complexity is so important and the
practices advocated in this book ye simplistic, then the reader might ask,
"Why write the book in the first plice?" It Is because supervision is so complex
that there is a need for trying to understand what is going on in schools and
with teachers so that we can determine supervisory starting points for,imprav
log instruction. To ay that complexity is bewildering and incomprehensible
is to negate our rational abilities to make sense of this world and act accord.
ingly. As supervisors we can admit our inability to know everything-4ut 10so
admit that we do know something and then use our knowledge to improve
instruction for students. We can never understand all but we can understand
tome, and it is using the lame that enables us to chink, to plan, and to work
purposefully with teackeirs..

66
 FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS 61

t The Question ,f "Flex"

Supervisors are bring asked to move beyond one way, of vdrking with
teachers and io use several, orientations according to individual teachers. This
the same position that Zits (1977.) makes when concluding his study on
three Model* of consultation. in view of the finding that teachers have
different preferences-for rhodels of consultatir, consultants need to be aware
of .these preferences and flexiblein response to them."
1 recently,cnanthoted a book (olfgang and Glicktnp, 1980) that sug
gestcd eight-models of discipline that teachers could draw on to solve beha-
Vioral problems. The ''(nisi consistent criticism of that book has been that
teachers cannot be proficient in all eight models or styles of teaching, that
m huma ns.= Inv ited n
'ost i their capacity to employ a range of behavys.
If the premise is accepted that a person can only be proficient in one or
two approaches of operating with people, then there are grave problems not
only with employing.supervision orientations according to developmentaldsf-
lerences in teachers, but also with selecting teacher apptoaches to meet develop-
mental diffeiences in students 'The 'question of whether a supervisor who has
a set disposition towards supetsising teachers can become proficient in mote
than one. style of operation is critical and needs to be researched. I have used
the word "flex" to mean the degree ilut a person can v.ary his or her behaviors.
Obviously, a supervisor can lent: to vary his or her style. Perhaps it's unrealistic
to expect a nonditective supers isut to become proficient quicicly in the opposite
behaviors of directiveness but it's not as unrealistic to believe that he of she
can acquire the skills of collaboration which incorporate sonic of his or her
already present behaviors. Eventually, with the practice 01 collabotation, the
supervisor can begin to learn directiveness. The same can be predicted for the
directive supervisor who would more cauly learn and practice collaboration
prior to nondirectiveness
To my knowledge, there has not been a great deal of research on how much
"flex" a person can acquire I urge supersisors who arc now willing to try out
the practices described in this book to infotee of the tesults of their efforts.
I also urge researchers to study the human capacity to acquire varying styles
of thinking, behaving, and living

The PhilosOphical Premile for Developmental Supervision

An advocacy of an educational practice, whether regarding instruction,
management of students, curriculum, or supervision of staff, has beneath it a
philosophical assumption of what is -gocxl" education. It is important fig the
reader to understand and acorpt the philosophical implications of Dirt clop.
mental Sitpettill011 bcfutc embracing and using the practice Derviopmenra;

67
62. DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION

Sopertiriorr is derived hum educational philosophy of progressivism. 1=4-

ing is the tenth of actively .pcitting ideas and knowledge to work to the real
world. Knowledge for its own sake is not the highest priority nor is
knowledge tot one's own locums' sake. Instead, knowledge slut enables in-
dividuals to act wi others in,ways to imprine the COnchtiOt11 of all is of greatest
importance. As F ymiet (1977) write ", the individual Is the end, subject
muter is the msa and society is the tesuIC SOCi4 inreracuan is therefore
valised as the priin.uy means to testing and expiating ideas. .
Developmental education is premised on invariant stage theory. All
xiduals move thmigh a _sequence of stages in -the phyfical. motor, et:picric,
social, and aesthetic domains. The Rte may vary and we may progress more
rapidly through some .1.411103 thui.othets. We Jo not reach the highest stages
unless. the environment ,of people Ind materials, is siikponive and stimulating.
The ultimate to guide individoah to teach those stages which ea.thre
them to be self reliant and independent, and to at upon intete3t3 'f people that
transcend their own The purpose of a school is to recognize the differences
in people, to instruct according to individual dilletences, to group students
seki,Ally so that `higher and diverse th... og is always present and, finally. to
assure that teachers as 9,dra# students continue to change and grow. Individu-
ality coupled with corkem fur helping others is the goal. conformity or 4.e. k.
aggrandizement are the Intithesis of development The supervisor must ;vac
with teachers in the same developthental manner that teachers are expected to
work with their students. Sameness and uniformity of approach are out Ind,-
Viiduality with sortsi responsibility is in

S
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71
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