Cookery - Module 1
Cookery - Module 1
Cookery - Module 1
INC.
Parallel St., Sugar Road, Brgy.Tiguman, Digos City
COOKERY
NCII
MODULE 1
CLEAN AND
MAINTAIN KITCHEN
PREMISES
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Module 1
Clean and Maintain Kitchen Premises
COOKERY NCII
Introduction:
This unit deals with the skills and knowledge involve in cleaning, sanitizing and
maintaining kitchens, equipment and utensils for food preparation and storage in
commercial/institutional kitchens.
Nominal Duration:
Learning Outcomes:
1. Clean, sanitize and store equipment
2. Clean and sanitize premises
3. Dispose of waste
Assessment Criteria:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Chemicals and clean potable water are selected and used for cleaning and/or
sanitizing kitchen equipment utensils, and working surfaces
Equipment and/or utensils are cleaned and/or sanitized safely using
clean/potable water and according to manufacturers instructions
Clean equipment and utensils are stored or stacked safely in the designated
place
Cleaning equipment and supplies are used safely in accordance with
manufacturers instructions
Cleaning equipment are assembled and disassembled safely
Cleaning equipment are stored safely in the designated position and area
Assessment Method:
1. Direct observation of the candidate while cleaning a kitchen
2. Written or oral questions to test knowledge of candidates on cleaning materials and
equipment and issues
3. Review of portfolios of evidence and third party workplace report of on-the-job
performance of the candidate
Module 1
Clean and Maintain Kitchen Premises
COOKERY NCII
Culinary art
(Culinary profession)
Culinary
Arts is
the art of
preparing
and cooking foods. The word "culinary" is
defined as something related to, or connected
with, cooking. A culinarian is a person working in the culinary arts. A culinarian working
in restaurants is commonly known as a cook or a chef. Culinary artists are responsible
for skilfully preparing meals that are as pleasing to the palate as to the eye. They are
required to have a knowledge of the science of food and an understanding of diet and
nutrition. They work primarily in restaurants, delis, hospitals and other institutions.
Kitchen conditions vary depending on the type of business, restaurant, nursing home,
etc. The Table arts or the art of having food can also be called as "Culinary arts".
Food
and
Beverage Controller
Purchase
and
source ingredients in
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Food and Beverage Managers Manage all food and beverage outlets
in hotels and other large establishments.
Food Stylists and Photographers Work with magazines, books, catalogs and
other media to make food visually appealing.
Food Writers and Food Critics Communicate with the public on food trends,
chefs and restaurants though newspapers, magazines, blogs, and books. Notables
in this field include Julia Child, Craig Claiborne and James Beard.
Research
and
Development Kitchens
Develop
new
products
for
commercial manufacturers and may also work in test kitchens for publications,
restaurant chains, grocery chains, or others.
Sales Introduce chefs and business owners to new products and equipment
relevant to food production and service.
Chef
A chef is a person who cooks professionally for other people. Traditionally it refers to a
highly skilled professional cook who is proficient in all aspects of food preparation.
The word "chef" is adopted (and shortened) from the term chef de cuisine, the director
or head of a kitchen. (The French word comes from Latin caput and is
a doublet with English "chief".) In English, the title "chef" in the culinary
profession originated in the haute cuisine of the 19th century. Today it is often used to
refer to any professional cook, regardless of rank, though in most classically defined
kitchens, it refers to the head chef; others, in North American parlance, are "cooks.
Module 1
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COOKERY NCII
The various titles given to those working in a professional kitchen and each can be
considered a title for a type of chef. Many of the titles are based on the brigade de
cuisine (or brigade system), while others have a more general meaning depending on
the individual kitchen.
Chef de cuisine, executive chef, chef manager, head chef, and master chef
Master Executive Chef
This person is in charge of all things related to the
kitchen, which usually includes menu creation,
management of kitchen staff, ordering and purchasing
of inventory, and plating design. Chef de cuisine is the
traditional French term from which the English word
chef is derived. Head chef is often used to designate
someone with the same duties as an executive chef,
but there is usually someone in charge of a head chef,
possibly making the larger executive decisions such
as direction of menu, final authority in staff
management decisions, etc. This is often the case for
executive chefs with multiple restaurants. There is also another name for this type of
chef called the Masterchef.
Sous-chef
The Sous-Chef de Cuisine (under-chef of the kitchen) is the second-in-command and
direct assistant of the Chef de Cuisine. This person may be responsible for scheduling
the kitchen staff, and substituting when the head chef is off-duty; he or she will also fill in
for or assist the Chef de Partie (line cook) when needed. This person is accountable for
the kitchen's inventory, cleanliness, organization, and the ongoing training of its entire
staff. A sous-chef's duties can also include carrying out the head chef's directives,
conducting line checks, and overseeing the timely rotation of all food product. Smaller
operations may not have a sous-chef, while larger operations may have more than one
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Chef de partie
A chef de partie, also known as a "station chef" or "line cook,"is in charge of a particular
area of production. In large kitchens, each Chef de partie might have several cooks
and/or assistants. In most kitchens, however, the Chef de partie is the only worker in
that department. Line cooks are often divided into a hierarchy of their own, starting with
"first cook," then "second cook," and so on as needed.
Station-chef titles which are part of the brigade system include:
English
French
Description
Saut Chef
saucier
Responsible for all sauted items and their sauce. This is usually the highest
stratified position of all the stations.
Fish Chef
poissonnier
Prepares fish dishes and often does all fish butchering as well as appropriate
sauces. This station may be combined with the saucier position.
Roast Chef
rtisseur
Grill Chef
grillardin
Prepares all grilled foods; this position may be combined with the rotisseur.
Fry Chef
friturier
Vegetable
Chef
entremetier
Prepares hot appetizers and often prepares the soups, vegetables, pastas
and starches. In smaller establishments, this station may also cover those
tasks performed by the potagerand legumier.
Potager
Legumier
tournant
Roundsman
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Pantry Chef
garde
manger
Butcher
boucher
Butchers meats, poultry, and sometimes fish. May also be responsible for
breading meats and fish.
Pastry Chef
ptissier
Makes baked goods such as pastries, cakes, breads and desserts. In larger
establishments, the pastry chef often supervises a separate team in their own
kitchen.
Commis (Chef)
A commis is a basic chef in larger kitchens who works under a chef de partie to learn
the station's responsibilities and operation. This may be a chef who has recently
completed formal culinary training or is still undergoing training.
Kitchen assistants
Kitchen assistants are of two types, kitchen-hands and stewards. Kitchen-hands assist
with basic food preparation tasks under the chef's direction. They carry out relatively
unskilled tasks such as peeling potatoes and washing salad. Stewards are involved in
the scullery, washing up and general cleaning duties. In a smaller kitchen, these duties
may be incorporated.
A communard is in charge of preparing the meal for the staff during a shift. This meal is
often referred to as the staff or family meal.
The escuelerie (from 15th century French and a cognate of the English "scullery, or the
more modern plongeur or dishwasher, is the keeper of dishes, having charge of dishes
and keeping the kitchen clean. A common humorous title for this role in some modern
kitchens is "chef de plonge" or "head dishwasher".
Culinary education
Culinary education is available from many institutions offering diploma, associate, and
bachelor degree programs in culinary arts. Depending on the level of education, this can
take one to four years. An internship is often part of the curriculum. Regardless of the
education received, most professional kitchens follow the apprenticeship system, and
most new cooks will start at a lower-level 2nd or 1st cook position and work their way
up.
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The training period for a chef is generally four years as an apprentice. A newly qualified
chef is advanced or more commonly a torquecommis-chef, consisting of firstyearcommis, second-year commis, and so on. The rate of pay is usually in accordance
with the training status. Commis chefs, like all other chefs except the executive-chef,
are placed in sections of the kitchen (e.g., the starter (appetizer) or entre sections)
under the guidance of a demi-chef de partie and are given relatively basic tasks. Ideally,
over time, a commis will spend a certain period in each section of the kitchen to learn
the basics. Unaided, a commis may work on the vegetable station of a kitchen.
The usual formal training period for a chef is two to four years in catering college. They
often spend the summer in work placements. In some cases this is modified to 'dayrelease' courses; a chef will work full-time in a kitchen as an apprentice and then would
have allocated days off to attend catering college. These courses can last between one
to three years.
Uniform
A chef
The standard uniform for a chef includes a hat called a
touge, necktie, double-breasted jacket, apron and
shoes with steel or plastic toe-caps. A chef's hat was
originally designed as a tall rippled hat called a Dodin
Bouffant or more commonly a toque. The Dodin
Bouffant had 101 ripples that represent the 101 ways
that the chef could prepare eggs. The modern chef's
hat is tall to allow for the circulation of air above the
head and also provides an outlet for heat. The hat
helps to prevent sweat from dripping down the face.
Neckties were originally worn to allow for the mopping of sweat from the face, but as
this is now against health regulations, they are largely decorative. The chef's neck tie
was originally worn on the inside of the jacket to stop sweat running from the face and
neck down the body.The jacket is usually white to show off the chef's cleanliness and
repel heat, and is double-breasted to prevent serious injuries from burns and scalds.
The double breast also serves to conceal stains on the jacket as one side can be
rebuttoned over the other.
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Brigade de cuisine
Brigade de cuisine (French: kitchen brigade) is a system of hierarchy found in
restaurants and hotels employing extensive staff, commonly referred to as "kitchen
staff" in English speaking countries.
The concept was developed by Georges AugusteEscoffier This structured team system
delegates responsibilities to different individuals who specialize in certain tasks.
List of positions
This is an exhaustive list of the different members of the kitchen brigade system. Only
the largest of establishments would have an extensive staff of this size. As noted under
some titles, certain positions are combined into other positions when such a large staff
is unnecessary. Note: Despite the use of chef in English as the title for a cook, the word
actually means "chief" or "head" in French. Similarly, cuisine means "kitchen," rather
than referring to food or cooking generally, or a type of food or cooking.
Chef de cuisine (kitchen chef; literally "chief of kitchen")
Is responsible for overall management of kitchen; supervises staff, creates menus and
new recipes with the assistance of the restaurant manager, makes purchases of raw
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food items, trains apprentices, and maintains a sanitary and hygienic environment for
the preparation of food.
Sous-chef de cuisine (deputy kitchen chef; literally "sub-chief")
Receives orders directly from the chef de cuisine for the management of the kitchen,
and often serves as the representative when the chef de cuisine is not present.
Chef de partie (senior chef; literally "chief of party"; party used here as a group,
in the sense of a military detail)
Is responsible for managing a given station in the kitchen, specializing in preparing
particular dishes there. Those who work in a lesser station are commonly referred to as
a demi-chef.
Cuisinier (cook)
Is an independent position, usually preparing specific dishes in a station; may also be
referred to as a cuisinier de partie.
Commis (junior cook)
Also works in a specific station, but reports directly to the chef de partie and takes care
of the tools for the station.
Apprenti(e) (apprentice)
Are often students gaining theoretical and practical training in school and work
experience in the kitchen. They perform preparatory work and/or cleaning work.
Plongeur (dishwasher)
Cleans dishes and utensils, and may be entrusted with basic preparatory jobs.
Marmiton (pot and pan washer)
In larger restaurants, takes care of all the pots and pans instead of the plongeur.
Saucier (saucemaker/saut cook)
Prepares sauces and warm hors d'oeuvres, completes meat dishes, and in smaller
restaurants, may work on fish dishes and prepare sauted items. This is one of the
most respected positions in the kitchen brigade, usually ranking just below the chef and
sous-chef
Rtisseur (roast cook)
Manages a team of cooks that roasts, broils, and deep fries dishes.
Grillardin (grill cook)
In larger kitchens, prepares grilled foods instead of the rtisseur.
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Aboyeur (announcer/expediter)
Takes orders from the dining room and distributes them to the various stations; may
also be performed by the sous-chef de partie.
Communard
Prepares the meal served to the restaurant staff.
Garon de cuisine (literally "kitchen boy")
In larger restaurants, performs preparatory and auxiliary work for support.
Development chef
A development chef is a trained chef specialising in the development of new dishes or
food products.
With food companies, this type of chef is often responsible for the creating of new preprepared meals and food products. Within the health care, the chef is often responsible
for the development of variations of the mainstream meals, to fit in the different types of
diets while still having an appetizing meal. Individual restaurant seldom have a
development chef but restaurant chains often do. Here the chef is typically responsible
for designing the dish and ensuring that the local kitchen staff can create/prepare the
dish to an exact standard.
Training
Development chefs need sufficient training in Culinary arts, experimental food methods
and food science plus sufficient experience in actual preparing of dishes. This makes
that a development chef in most cases has a background as a professional chef.
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Cuisine
Part of a series on
Meals
Common meals
History
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Cuisine can be stated as the foods and methods of food preparation traditional to a
region or population. The major factors shaping a cuisine are climate, which in large
measure determines the native raw materials that are available, economic conditions,
which affecttrade and can affect food distribution, imports and exports, and
religiousness or sumptuary laws, under which certain foods are required or proscribed.
Climate also affects the supply of fuel for cooking; a common Chinese food preparation
method was cutting food into small pieces to cook foods quickly and conserve scarce
firewood and charcoal. Foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing,
and pickling have remained significant in world cuisines for their altered gustatory
properties even when these preserving techniques are no longer strictly necessary to
the maintenance of an adequate food supply.
New cuisines continue to evolve in contemporary times. An example is fusion cuisine,
which combines elements of variousculinary traditions while not being categorized per
any one cuisine style, and generally refers to the innovations in many contemporary
restaurant cuisines since the 1970s.
Regional cuisines
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olive oil. China likewise can be divided into rice regions and noodle & bread regions.
Throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean there is a common thread marking the
use of lamb, olive oil, lemons,peppers, and rice. The vegetarianism practiced in much of
India has made pulses(crops harvested solely for the dry seed) such
as chickpeas and lentils as significant as wheat or rice. From India to Indonesia the use
of spices is characteristic; coconutsand seafood are used throughout the region both as
foodstuffs and as seasonings.
Kitchen
A kitchen is a room or part of a room used
for cooking and preparation. In the West, a modern
residential kitchen is typically equipped with
a stove, a sink with hot and cold running water,
a refrigerator and
or
preparing
food
but
it
may
also
be
used
History
The evolution of the kitchen is linked to the invention of the cooking range or stove and
the development of water infrastructure capable of supplying water to private homes.
Until the 18th century, food was cooked over an open fire. Technical advances in
heating food in the 18th and 19th centuries, changed the architecture of the kitchen.
Before the advent of modern pipes, water was brought from an outdoor source such
as wells, pumps or springs.
Antiquity
The houses in Ancient Greece were commonly of the atrium-type: the rooms were
arranged around a central courtyard for women. In many such homes, a covered but
otherwise open patio served as the kitchen. Homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a
separate room, usually next to a bathroom (so that both rooms could be heated by the
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kitchen fire), both rooms being accessible from the court. In such houses, there was
often a separate small storage room in the back of the kitchen used for storing food
andkitchen utensils.
Kitchen with stove and oven of a Roman inn (Mansio) at the Roman villa of
Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler, Germany.
Middle Ages
The roasting spit in this EuropeanRenaissance kitchen
was driven automatically by a propellerthe black
cloverleaf-like structure in the upper left.
Early
medieval
European longhouses had an open
fire under the highest point of the
building. The "kitchen area" was
between the entrance and the
fireplace. In wealthy homes there was
typically more than one kitchen. In some homes there were upwards of three kitchens.
The kitchens were divided based on the types of food prepared in them. [1] In place of a
chimney, these early buildings had a hole in the roof through which some of the smoke
could escape. Besides cooking, the fire also served as a source of heat and light to the
single-room building. A similar design can be found in the Iroquois longhouses of North
America.
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In the larger homesteads of European nobles, the kitchen was sometimes in a separate
sunken floor building to keep the main building, which served social and official
purposes, free from indoor smoke.
The first known stoves in Japan date from about the same time. The earliest findings
are from the Kofun period (3rd to 6th century). These stoves, called kamado, were
typically made of clay and mortar; they were fired with wood or charcoal through a hole
in the front and had a hole in the top, into which a pot could be hanged by its rim. This
type of stove remained in use for centuries to come, with only minor modifications. Like
in Europe, the wealthier homes had a separate building which served for cooking. A kind
of open fire pit fired with charcoal, called irori, remained in use as the secondary stove
in most homes until the Edo period (17th to 19th century). A kamado was used to cook
the staple food, for instance rice, while irori served both to cook side dishes and as a
heat source.
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Clean and Maintain Kitchen Premises
COOKERY NCII
With the advent of the chimney, the hearth moved from the center of the room to one
wall, and the first brick-and-mortar hearths were built. The fire was lit on top of the
construction; a vault underneath served to store wood. Pots made of iron, bronze,
orcopper started to replace the pottery used earlier. The temperature was controlled by
hanging the pot higher or lower over the fire, or placing it on a trivet or directly on the
hot ashes. Using open fire for cooking (and heating) was risky; fires devastating whole
cities occurred frequently.
Leonardo da Vinci invented an automated system for a rotating spit for spit-roasting: a
propeller in the chimney made the spit turn all by itself. This kind of system was widely
used in wealthier homes. Beginning in the late Middle Ages, kitchens in Europe lost their
home-heating function even more and were increasingly moved from the living area into
a separate room. The living room was now heated by tiled stoves, operated from the
kitchen, which offered the huge advantage of not filling the room with smoke.
Freed from smoke and dirt, the living room thus began to serve as an area for social
functions and increasingly became a showcase for the owner's wealth. In the upper
classes, cooking and the kitchen were the domain of the servants, and the kitchen was
set apart from the living rooms, sometimes even far from the dining room. Poorer
homes often did not have a separate kitchen yet; they kept the one-room arrangement
where all activities took place, or at the most had the kitchen in the entrance hall.
The medieval smoke kitchen (or Farmhouse kitchen) remained common, especially in
rural farmhouses and generally in poorer homes, until much later. In a few European
farmhouses, the smoke kitchen was in regular use until the middle of the 20th century.
These houses often had no chimney, but only a smoke hood above the fireplace, made
of wood and covered with clay, used to smoke meat. The smoke rose more or less
freely, warming the upstairs rooms and protecting the woodwork from vermin.
Colonial America
In the Colony of Connecticut, as in other states of New England during Colonial
America, kitchens were often built as separate rooms and were located behind
the parlor and keeping room or dining room. One early record of a kitchen is found in
the 1648 inventory of the estate of a John Porter of Windsor, Connecticut. The inventory
lists goods in the house over the kittchin and in the kittchin. The items listed in the
kitchen
were; silver
spoons, pewter, brass,
iron,
arms,
ammunition, hemp, flax and other implements about the room.
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In the southern states, where the climate and sociological conditions differed from the
north, the kitchen was often relegated to an outbuilding, separate from the big house,
the mansion, for much of the same reasons as in the feudal kitchen in medieval Europe:
the kitchen was operated by slaves, and their working place had to be separated from
the living area of the masters by the social standards of the time. Separate summer
kitchens were also common on large farms in the north. These were used to prepare
meals for harvest workers and tasks such as canning during the warm summer months.
Technological advances
A typical rural American kitchen of 1918 at The Sauer-Beckmann
Farmstead, Texas
Technological
advances
during industrialization brought major changes to the
kitchen. Iron stoves, which enclosed the fire
completely and were more efficient, appeared. Early
models included the Franklin stove around 1740, which was a furnace stove intended
for heating, not for cooking. Benjamin Thompson in England designed his "Rumford
stove" around 1800. This stove was much more energy efficient than earlier stoves; it
used one fire to heat several pots, which were hung into holes on top of the stove and
were thus heated from all sides instead of just from the bottom. However, his stove was
designed for large kitchens; it was too big for domestic use. The "Oberlin stove" was a
refinement of the technique that resulted in a size reduction; it was patented in the U.S.
in 1834 and became a commercial success with some 90,000 units sold over the next
30 years. These stoves were still fired with wood or coal. Although the first gas street
lamps were installed in Paris, London, and Berlin at the beginning of the 1820s and the
first U.S. patent on a gas stove was granted in 1825, it was not until the late 19th
century that using gas for lighting and cooking became commonplace in urban areas.
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Industrialization also caused social changes. The new factory working class in the cities
was housed under generally poor conditions. Whole families lived in small one or tworoom apartments in tenement buildings up to six stories high, badly aired and with
insufficient lighting. Sometimes, they shared apartments with "night sleepers",
unmarried men who paid for a bed at night. The kitchen in such an apartment was often
used as a living and sleeping room, and even as a bathroom. Water had to be fetched
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from wells and heated on the stove. Water pipes were laid only towards the end of the
19th century, and then often only with one tap per building or per story. Brick-and-mortar
stoves fired with coal remained the norm until well into the second half of the century.
Pots and kitchenware were typically stored on open shelves, and parts of the room
could be separated from the rest using simple curtains.
In contrast, there were no dramatic changes for the upper classes. The kitchen, located
in the basement or the ground floor, continued to be operated by servants. In some
houses, water pumps were installed, and some even had kitchen sinks and drains (but
no water on tap yet, except for some feudal kitchens in castles). The kitchen became a
much cleaner space with the advent of "cooking machines", closed stoves made of iron
plates and fired by wood and increasingly charcoal or coal, and that had flue
pipes connected to the chimney. For the servants the kitchen continued to also serve as
a sleeping room; they slept either on the floor, or later in narrow spaces above a
lowered ceiling, for the new stoves with their smoke outlet no longer required a high
ceiling in the kitchen. The kitchen floors were tiled; kitchenware was neatly stored
in cupboards to protect them from dust and steam. A large table served as a workbench;
there were at least as many chairs as there were servants, for the table in the kitchen
also doubled as the eating place for the servants.
The urban middle class imitated the luxurious dining styles of the upper class as best as
they could. Living in smaller apartments, the kitchen was the main roomhere, the
family lived. The study or living room was saved for special occasions such as an
occasional dinner invitation. Because of this, these middle-class kitchens were often
more homely than those of the upper class, where the kitchen was a work-only room
occupied only by the servants. Besides a cupboard to store the kitchenware, there were
a table and chairs, where the family would dine, and sometimesif space allowed
even a fauteuil or a couch.
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Gas pipes were first laid in the late 19th century, and
gas stoves started to replace the older coal-fired
stoves. Gas was more expensive than coal, though,
and thus the new technology was first installed in the
wealthier homes. Where workers' apartments were
equipped with a gas stove, gas distribution would go
through a coin meter.
In rural areas, the older technology using coal or wood
stoves or even brick-and-mortar open fireplaces
remained common throughout. Gas and water pipes
were first installed in the big cities; small villages were connected only much later.
Rationalization
The Frankfurt kitchen using Taylorist principles
The
trend
to
increasing
gasification
andelectrification continued at the turn of the 20th
century. In industry, it was the phase of work process
optimization. Taylorism was born, and time-motion
studies were used to optimize processes. These ideas
also spilled over into domestic kitchen architecture
because of a growing trend that called for a
professionalization of household work, started in the
mid-19th century byCatharine Beecher and amplified
by Christine Frederick's publications in the 1910s.
A stepstone was the kitchen designed in Frankfurt by
MargaretheSchtte-Lihotzky. Working class women frequently worked in factories to
ensure the family's survival, as the men's wages often did not suffice. Social
housing projects led to the next milestone: the Frankfurt Kitchen. Developed in 1926,
this kitchen measured 1.9 m by 3.4 m (approximately 6 ft 2 inby 11 ft 2 in, with a
standard layout. It was built for two purposes: to optimize kitchen work to reduce
cooking time and lower the cost of building decently equipped kitchens. The design,
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Unit/fitted
A kitchen produced by the German company Poggenpohl in 1892
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during World War II greatly brought down the cost of a kitchen. Units which are kept on
the floor are called "floor units", "floor cabinets", or "base cabinets" on which a
kitchen worktop, originally often formica and often now made of granite, marble, tile or
wood is placed. The units which are held on the wall for storage purposes are termed as
"wall units" or "wall cabinets". In small areas of kitchen in an apartment, even a "tall
storage unit" is available for effective storage. In cheaper brands, all cabinets are kept a
uniform color, normally white, with interchangeable doors and accessories chosen by
the customer to give a varied look. In more expensive brands, the cabinets are
produced matching the doors' colors and finishes, for an older more bespoke look.
Technicalization
Stainless steel home appliances popular in modern western kitchens
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In the former Eastern bloc countries, the official doctrine viewed cooking as a mere
necessity, and women should work "for the society" in factories, not at home. Also,
housing had to be built at low costs and quickly, which led directly to the standardized
apartment block using prefabricated slabs. The kitchen was reduced to its minimums
and the "work kitchen" paradigm taken to its extremes: in East Germany for instance,
the standard tenement block of the model "P2" had tiny 4 m kitchens in the inside of
the building (no windows), connected to the dining and living room of the 55 m
apartment and separated from the latter by a pass-through or a window.
Open kitchens
Starting in the 1980s, the perfection of the extractor hood allowed an open kitchen
again, integrated more or less with the living room without causing the whole apartment
or house to smell. Before that, only a few earlier experiments, typically in newly built
upper-middle-class family homes, had open kitchens. Examples are Frank Lloyd
Wright's House Willey (1934) and House Jacobs(1936). Both had open kitchens, with
high ceilings (up to the roof) and were aired by skylights. The extractor hood made it
possible to build open kitchens in apartments, too, where both high ceilings and
skylights were not possible.
The re-integration of the kitchen and the living area went hand in hand with a change in
the perception of cooking: increasingly, cooking was seen as a creative and sometimes
social act instead of work. And there was a rejection by younger home-owners of the
standard suburban model of separate kitchens and dining rooms found in most 19001950 houses. Many families also appreciated the trend towards open kitchens, as it
made it easier for the parents to supervise the children while cooking and to clean up
spills. The enhanced status of cooking also made the kitchen a prestige object for
showing off one's wealth or cooking professionalism. Some architects have capitalized
on this "object" aspect of the kitchen by designing freestanding "kitchen objects".
However, like their precursor, Colani's "kitchen satellite", such futuristic designs are
exceptions.
Another reason for the trend back to open kitchens (and a foundation of the "kitchen
object" philosophy) is changes in how food is prepared. Whereas prior to the 1950s
most cooking started out with raw ingredients and a meal had to be prepared from
scratch, the advent of frozen meals and pre-prepared convenience food changed the
cooking habits of many people, who consequently used the kitchen less and less. For
others, who followed the "cooking as a social act" trend, the open kitchen had the
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advantage that they could be with their guests while cooking, and for the "creative
cooks" it might even become a stage for their cooking performance.
The "Trophy Kitchen" is equipped with very expensive and sophisticated appliances
which are used primarily to impress visitors and to project social status, rather than for
actual cooking.
Ventilation
The ventilation of a kitchen, in particular a large restaurant kitchen, poses certain
difficulties that are not present in the ventilation of other kinds of spaces. In particular,
the air in a kitchen differs from that of other rooms in that it typically contains grease,
smoke and odours.
Materials
The Frankfurt Kitchen of 1926 was made of several materials depending on the
application. The built-in kitchens of today use particle boards or MDF, decorated with
veneers, in some cases also wood. Very few manufacturers produce home built-in
kitchens from stainless-steel. Until the 1950s, steel kitchens were used by architects,
but this material was displaced by the cheaper particle board panels sometimes
decorated with a steel surface.
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separated the functions of preparing food and cooking it altogether by moving the stove
into a compartment adjacent to the kitchen.
Christine Frederick published from 1913 a series of articles on "New Household
Management" in which she analyzed the kitchen following Taylorist principles, presented
detailed time-motion studies, and derived a kitchen design from them. Her ideas were
taken up in the 1920s by architects in Germany and Austria, most
notablyBrunoTaut,Erna Meyer, and MargareteSchtte-Lihotzky. A social housing project
in Frankfurt (the Rmerstadt of architect Ernst May) realized in 1927/8 was the
breakthrough for her Frankfurt kitchen, which embodied this new notion of efficiency in
the kitchen.
While this "work kitchen" and variants derived from it were a great success for tenement
buildings, home owners had different demands and did not want to be constrained by a
6.4 m kitchen. Nevertheless, kitchen design was mostly ad-hoc following the whims of
the architect. In theU.S., the "Small Homes Council", since 1993 the "Building Research
Council", of the School of Architecture of the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign was founded in 1944 with the goal to improve the state of the art in home
building, originally with an emphasis on standardization for cost reduction. It was there
that the notion of thekitchen work triangle was formalized: the three main functions in a
kitchen are storage, preparation, and cooking (which Catharine Beecher had already
recognized), and the places for these functions should be arranged in the kitchen in
such a way that work at one place does not interfere with work at another place, the
distance between these places is not unnecessarily large, and no obstacles are in the
way. A natural arrangement is a triangle, with the refrigerator, the sink, and the stove at
a vertex each.
This observation led to a few common kitchen forms, commonly characterized by the
arrangement of the kitchen cabinets and sink, stove, and refrigerator:
A single-file kitchen (or one-way galley) has all of these along one wall; the
work triangle degenerates to a line. This is not optimal, but often the only solution if
space is restricted. This may be common in an attic space that is being converted
into a living space, or a studio apartment.
The double-file kitchen (or two-way galley) has two rows of cabinets at opposite
walls, one containing the stove and the sink, the other the refrigerator. This is the
classical work kitchen.
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In the L-kitchen, the cabinets occupy two adjacent walls. Again, the work
triangle is preserved, and there may even be space for an additional table at a third
wall, provided it does not intersect the triangle.
A U-kitchen has cabinets along three walls, typically with the sink at the base of
the "U". This is a typical work kitchen, too, unless the two other cabinet rows are
short enough to place a table at the fourth wall.
A G-kitchen has cabinets along three walls, like the U-kitchen, and also a partial
fourth wall, often with a double basin sink at the corner of the G shape. The Gkitchen provides additional work and storage space, and can support two work
triangles. A modified version of the G-kitchen is the double-L, which splits the G into
two L-shaped components, essentially adding a smaller L-shaped island or
peninsula to the L-kitchen.
The block kitchen (or island) is a more recent development, typically found in
open kitchens. Here, the stove or both the stove and the sink are placed where an L
or U kitchen would have a table, in a free-standing "island", separated from the other
cabinets. In a closed room, this does not make much sense, but in an open kitchen,
it makes the stove accessible from all sides such that two persons can cook
together, and allows for contact with guests or the rest of the family, since the cook
does not face the wall any more. Additionally, the kitchen island's counter-top can
function as an overflow-surface for serving buffet style meals or sitting down to eat
breakfast and snacks.
In the 1980s, there was a backlash against industrial kitchen planning and cabinets with
people installing a mix of work surfaces and free standing furniture, led by kitchen
designer Johnny Grey and his concept of the "Unfitted Kitchen".
Modern kitchens often have enough informal space to allow for people to eat in it
without having to use the formal dining room. Such areas are called "breakfast areas",
"breakfast nooks" or "breakfast bars" if the space is integrated into a kitchen counter.
Kitchens with enough space to eat in are sometimes called "eat-in kitchens".
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A canteen kitchen
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processes; in modern times, the microwave oven and prepared meals have made this
task much easier. Galleys are kitchens aboard ships or aircraft (although the
termgalley is also often used to refer to a railroad dining car's kitchen). On yachts,
galleys are often cramped, with one or two burners fueled by an LP gas bottle, but
kitchens oncruise ships or large warships are comparable in every respect with
restaurants or canteen kitchens. On passenger airliners, the kitchen is reduced to a
mere pantry, the only function reminiscent of a kitchen is the heating of in-flight meals
delivered by a catering company. An extreme form of the kitchen occurs in space, e.g.,
aboard aSpace Shuttle (where it is also called the "galley") or the International Space
Station. The astronauts' food is generally completely prepared, dehydrated, and sealed
in plastic pouches, and the kitchen is reduced to a rehydration and heating module.
Outdoor areas in which food is prepared are generally not considered to be kitchens,
even though an outdoor area set up for regular food preparation, for instance
when camping, might be called an "outdoor kitchen". Military camps and similar
temporary settlements of nomads may have dedicated kitchen tents.
In schools where home economics (HE) or food technology (previously known as
"domestic science") are taught, there will be a series of kitchens with multiple equipment
(similar in some respects to laboratories) solely for the purpose of teaching. These will
consist of six to twelve workstations, each with their own oven, sink, and kitchen
utensils.
Japan
Kitchens in Japan are called Daidokoro ( ; lit.
"kitchen"). Daidokoro is the place where food is
prepared in a Japanese house. Until the Meiji era, a
kitchen was also called kamado (; lit. stove) and
there are many sayings in the Japanese language that involve kamado as it was
considered the symbol of a house and the term could even be used to mean "family" or
"household" (similar to the English word "hearth"). When separating a family, it was
called Kamadowowakeru, which means "divide the stove". Kamadowoyaburu (lit. "break
the stove") means that the family was bankrupt.
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Kitchen utensil
An exhibit of a batterie de cuisine, from the beginning of the 20th
century, at the MuseCernuschi in Paris.
Materials science
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Benjamin Thompson noted at the start of the 18th century that kitchen utensils were
commonly made of copper, with various efforts made to prevent the copper from
reacting with food (particularly its acidic contents) at the temperatures used for cooking,
including tinning, enamelling, and varnishing. He observed that iron had been used as a
substitute, and that some utensils were made of earthenware. By the turn of the 20th
century, Maria Parloa noted that kitchen utensils were made of (tinned or enamelled)
iron and steel, copper, nickel, silver, tin, clay, earthenware, and aluminum.The latter,
aluminium, became a popular material for kitchen utensils in the 20th century.
Copper
Copper has good thermal conductivity and copper utensils are both durable and
attractive in appearance. However, they are also comparatively heavier than utensils
made
of
other
materials,
require
scrupulous
cleaning
poisonous tarnish compounds, and are not suitable for acidic foods
to
remove
Iron
Iron is more prone to rusting than (tinned) copper. Cast iron kitchen utensils, in
particular, are however less prone to rust if, instead of being scoured to a shine after
use, they are simply washed with detergent and water and wiped clean with a cloth,
allowing the utensil to form a coat of (already corroded iron and other) material that then
acts to prevent further corrosion (a process known asseasoning). Furthermore, if an
iron utensil is solely used for frying or cooking with fat or oil, corrosion can be reduced
by never heating water with it, never using it to cook with water, and when washing it
with water to dry it immediately afterwards, removing all water. Since oil and water are
immiscible, since oils and fats are more covalent compounds, and since it
is compounds such as water that promote corrosion, eliminating as much contact with
water reduces corrosion. For some iron kitchen utensils, water is a particular problem,
since it is very difficult to dry them fully. In particular, iron egg-beaters or ice cream
freezers are tricky to dry, and the consequent rust if left wet will roughen them and
possibly clog them completely. When storing iron utensils for long periods, van
Rensselaer recommended coating them in non-salted (since salt is also an ionic
compound) fat or paraffin.
Iron utensils have little problem with high cooking temperatures, are simple to clean as
they become smooth with long use, are durable and comparatively strong (i.e. not as
prone to breaking as, say, earthenware), and hold heat well. However, as noted, they
rust comparatively easily.
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Aluminium
James Frank Breazeale in 1918 opined that aluminum "is without doubt the best
material for kitchen utensils", noting that it is "as far superior to enameled ware as
enameled ware is to the old-time iron or tin". He qualified his recommendation for
replacing worn out tin or enameled utensils with aluminum ones by noting that "oldfashioned black iron frying pans and muffin rings, polished on the inside or worn smooth
by long usage, are, however, superior to aluminum ones".
Aluminums advantages over other materials for kitchen utensils is its good thermal
conductivity (which is approximately an order of magnitude greater than that of steel),
the fact that it is largely non-reactive with foodstuffs at low and high temperatures, its
lowtoxicity, and the fact that its corrosion products are white and so (unlike the dark
corrosion products of, say, iron) do not discolour food that they happen to be mixed into
during cooking. However, its disadvantages are that it is easily discoloured, can be
dissolved by acidic foods (to a comparatively small extent), and reacts to alkaline soaps
if they are used for cleaning a utensil.
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chromium, manganese, nickel, zinc, titanium, tin: less than 0.1% each
copper: less than 0.1% (or less than 0.2% if the proportions of chromium and
manganese both do not exceed 0.05%)
Alloyed aluminium
34
other elements: less than 0.05% each, and less than 0.15% in total
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water), two types of teganon (frying pan) for deep and shallow frying, an iskutla (a glass
serving platter), a tamui (ceramic serving bowl), a keara (a bowl for bread), a kiton (a
canteen of cold water used to dilute wine), and a lagin (a wine decanter).
Ownership and types of kitchen utensils varied from household to household. Records
survive of inventories of kitchen utensils from London in the 14th century, in particular
the records of possessions given in the coroner's rolls. Very few such people owned any
kitchen utensils at all. In fact only seven convicted felons are recorded as having any.
One such, a murderer from 1339, is recorded as possessing only the one kitchen
utensil: a brass pot (one of the commonest such kitchen utensils listed in the records)
valued at three shillings. Similarly, in Minnesota in the second half of the 19th century,
John North is recorded as having himself made "a real nice rolling pin, and a pudding
stick" for his wife; one soldier is recorded as having a Civil War bayonet refashioned, by
a blacksmith, into a bread knife; whereas an immigrant Swedish family is recorded as
having brought with them "solid silver knives, forks, and spoons [...] Quantities of copper
and brass utensils burnished until they were like mirrors hung in rows"
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Assistant, wrote with the assumption that her readers would have the "usual quantity of
utensils", to which she added a list of necessary items:
Copper saucepans, well lined, with covers, from three to six different sizes; a flatbottomed soup-pot; an upright gridiron; sheet-iron breadpans instead of tin; agriddle; a
tin kitchen; Hector's double boiler; a tin coffee-pot for boiling coffee, or a filter either
being equally good; a tin canister to keep roasted and ground coffee in; a canister for
tea; a covered tin box for bread; one likewise for cake, or a drawer in your store-closet,
lined with zinc or tin; a bread-knife; a board to cut bread upon; a covered jar for pieces
of bread, and one for fine crumbs; a knife-tray; a spoon-tray; the yellow ware is much
the stringest, or tin pans of different sizes are economical; a stout tin pan for mixing
bread; a large earthen bowl for beating cake; a stone jug for yeast; a stone jar for soup
stock; a meat-saw; a cleaver; iron and wooden spoons; a wire sieve for sifting flour and
meal; a small hair sieve; a bread-board; a meat-board; a lignum vitae mortar,
and rolling-pin, &c. Putnam 1858, p. 318
MrsBeeton, in her Book of Household Management, wrote:
The following list, supplied by Messrs Richard & John Slack, 336, Strand, will show the
articles required for the kitchen of a family in the middle class of life, although it does not
contain all the things that may be deemed necessary for some families, and may
contain more than are required for others. As Messrs Slack themselves, however,
publish a useful illustrated catalogue, which may be had at their establishment gratis,
and which it will be found advantageous to consult by those about to furnish, it
supersedes the necessity of our enlarging that which we give:
1 Tea-kettle
1 Toasting-fork
1 Bread-grater
1s. 0d.
1 Pair of Brass
Candlesticks
37
1s. 6d.
5s. 9d.
5 Iron Saucepans
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1 Flour-box
1s. 0d.
3 Flat-irons
3s. 6d.
2 Frying-pans
4s. 0d.
1 Mustard-pot
2s. 0d.
1s. 0d.
6s. 6d.
6s. 6d.
1 Bottle-jack
6 Spoons
1s. 6d.
2s. 0d.
2 Candlesticks
8s. 9d.
3 Jelly-moulds
8s. 0d.
1 Candle-box
1 Plate-basket
5s. 6d.
5s. 3d.
6s. 6d.
1 Cheese-toaster
1s. 10d.
2 Sets of Skewers
1s. 0d.
1 Coal-shovel
2s. 6d.
1 Meat-chopper
1 Cinder-sifter
1s. 3d.
1s. 9d.
1 Coffee-pot
10s. 0d.
Stand
1 Salt-cellar
8d.
1 Pepper-box
6d.
1 Wood Meat-screen
30s. 0d.
The Set
8 11s. 1d.
Parloa, in her 1880 cookbook, took two pages to list all of the essential kitchen utensils
for a well-furnished kitchen, a list running to 93 distinct sorts of item. [19] The 1882 edition
ran to 20 pages illustrating and describing the various utensils for a well-furnished
kitchen. Sarah Tyson Rorer's 1886 Philadelphia Cook Book (Rorer 1886) listed more
than 200 kitchen utensils that a well-furnished kitchen should have.
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An assortment of utensils
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In the Western world, utensil invention accelerated in the 19th and 20th centuries. It was
fuelled in part by the emergence of technologies such as the kitchen
stove andrefrigerator, but also by a desire to save time in the kitchen, in response to the
demands of modern lifestyles.
Name
Purpose in food
preparation
Alternative names
Apple
corer
Apple
Cutter
Baster
40
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Design
Cf. peeler
An implement
resembling a
simplepipette,
consisting of
a tube to hold
the liquid,
and a rubber
top which
makes use of
a
partial vacuu
m to control
the liquid's
intake and
release. The
process of
drizzling the
liquid over
Image
meat is
calledbasting
when a
pastry brush
is used in
place of a
baster, it is
known as
abasting
brush.
Biscuit
cutter
Biscuit
press
41
Biscuit mould,
Cookie cutter,
Cookie mould
Cookie press
Generally
made of
metal or
plastic, with
fairly sharp
edges to cut
through
dough. Some
biscuit cutters
Shaping biscuit dough
simply cut
through
dough that
has been
rolled flat,
others also
imprint or
mould the
dough's
surface.
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It consists of
a cylinder
with a
plunger on
one end
which is used
to extrude co
okie dough
through a
small hole at
the other end.
Typically the
cookie press
has
interchangea
ble perforated
plates with
holes in
different
shapes, such
as a star
shape or a
narrow slit to
extrude the
dough in
ribbons.
Blow
torch
Boil over
preventer
42
Commonly used to
create a hard layer of
Blowtorch, blowlamp
caramelized sugar in
a crme brle.[2]
Milk watcher,
Milk guard,
Pot minder
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Preventing liquids
from boiling over
outside of the pot
A disc with a
raised rim,
designed to
ensure an
even
distribution of
temperature
throughout
the pot. This
preventing
bubbles from
forming in
liquids such
as milk, or
water which
contains
starch (for
instance if
used to cook
pasta). Can
be made of
metal, glass
or ceramic
materials.
Bottle
opener
Bowl
Bread
knife
Browning
tray
43
A round, open
topped
container,
capable of
holding liquid.
To hold food, including
Materials
food that is ready to used to make
be served
bowls vary
considerably,
and include
wood, glass
and ceramic
materials.
A serrated bla
de made of
metal, and
long enough
to slice across
a large loaf of
bread. Using
a sawing
motion,
instead of
pushing force
as with most
knives, it is
possible to
slice the loaf
without
squashing it.
Browning plate,
Browning bowl
Generally
made of glass
or porcelain
to absorb
Used in a microwave
heat, which
oven to help turn food
helps colour
brown
the layer of
food in
contact with
its surface.
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Used to produce
decorativebutter shap
es.
Butter
curler
Cake and
pie
server
Cheese
knife
Cake shovel,
pie cutter
This utensil
typically
features a
thin edge to
assist with
To cut slices in pies or
slicing, and a
cakes, and then
large face, to
transfer to a plate or
hold the slice
container
whilst
transferring
to a plate,
bowl or other
container.
Cheesecl
oth
To assist in the
formation of cheese
Chef's
knife
Originally used to
slice large cuts of
beef, it is now the
general utility knife
for most Western
cooks.
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A gauzed cott
on cloth, used
to remove
whey from
cheese curds,
and to help
hold the curds
together as
the cheese is
formed.
Cherry
pitter
Chinoise
Olive stoner
Chinois
Straining substances
such as custards,
soups and sauces, or
to dust food with
powder
A conical
sieve
Colander
A bowlshaped
container with
holes,
typically
made from
plastic or
metal. It
Used for draining
differs from a
substances cooked in
sieve due to
water
its larger
holes,
allowing
larger pieces
of food, such
as pasta, to
be drained
quickly.
Corkscre
w
45
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Crab
cracker
Lobster cracker
A clamping
device,
similar in
design to a
nutcracker
but larger,
with ridges on
the inside to
grip the shell.
[2]
Cutting
board
Dough
scraper
Egg
piercer
46
Cutting board
Bench scraper,
Scraper
A portable board on
which food can be cut.
Usually
smaller and
lighter than
butcher's
blocks,
generally
made from
wood or
plastic.
To shape or cut
dough, and remove
dough from a
worksurface
Most dough
scrapers
consist of
handle wide
enough to be
held in one or
two hands,
and an
equally wide,
flat, steel
face.
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Egg
poacher
Egg
separator
A slotted spoon-like
utensil used to
separate the yolk of
an egg from the egg
white.
Egg slicer
Egg timer
47
Consists of a
slotted dish
for holding
the egg and a
hinged plate
of wires or
blades that
can be closed
to slice.[3]
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the boiling
rate.
Fillet
knife
Fish
Scaler
Urokotori
Fish slice
Spatula, turner
Flour
sifter
Food mill
48
Typically
consists of a
bowl, a plate
with holes like
a colander,
Used to mash or sieve
and a crank
soft foods.
with a bent
metal blade
which crushes
the food and
forces it
through the
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holes.
Funnel
Used to
channel liquid or finegrained substances
into containers with a
small opening.[2]
Garlic
press
Grapefrui
t knife
Grater
Gravy
strainer
Herb
chopper
49
A pipe with a
wide, conical
mouth and a
narrow stem.
Cheese grater,
Shredder
Gravy separator
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Ladle
A ladle is a type
of serving spoon used
for soup, stew, or
other foods.
Lame
Lemon
reamer
Lemon
squeezer
A juicer, similar in
function to a lemon
reamer, with an
attached bowl.
Lobster
pick
A long-handled,
narrow pick, used to
pull meat out of
narrow legs and other
parts of a lobster or
crab.[2]
50
Lobster fork
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Operated by
pressing the
fruit against a
fluted peak to
release the
juice into the
bowl.
Mandolin
e
Mated
colander
pot
Traditionally
comes in an 8
fluid ounce
size, it is used
to measure
either dry or
liquid
ingredients.[6]
Measurin
g spoon
Meat
grinder
51
Mincer
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Meat
tenderise
r
Meat
thermom
eter
Melon
baller
Mezzalun
a
To finely and
consistently
chop/mince foods,
especially herbs.
Mortar
and
pestle
52
Molcajete
To crush food,
releasing flavours and
aromas
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Generally
made from
either
porcelain or
wood, the
mortar is
shaped as a
bowl. The
pestle,
generally
shaped like a
small club, is
used to
forcefully
squeeze
ingredients
such as herbs
against the
mortar.[8]
Nutcrack
er
Nutmeg
grater
A small, specialized
grating blade
for nutmeg.
Oven
glove
Pastry
bag
Pastry
blender
53
Oven mitt
To evenly dispense
soft substances
(doughs, icings,
fillings, etc.).
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[4]
Pastry
brush
Basting brush
Cuts straight or
crimped lines through
dough for pastry or
pasta.
Pastry
wheel
Peel
Pizza shovel
Peeler
Potato peeler
54
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Some brushes
have wooden
handles and
natural or
plastic bristle
s, whilst
others have
metal or
plastic
handles
andsilicone br
istles.
Pepper
mill
Burr mill,
burr grinder,
pepper grinder
Pie bird
Pizza
cutter
Pizza slicer
Potato
masher
Potato
ricer
55
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Potholder
Poultry
shears
Ricer
Roller
docker
Rolling
pin
56
A long, rounded
wooden or marble tool
rolled across dough to
flatten it.
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Salt
shaker
Scales
Kitchen scales,
Weighing scales
Scissors
Kitchen scissors
Scoop
Shellfish
scraper
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Sieve
Sifter, strainer
Slotted
spoon
Skimmer
Spatula
Spider
A wide
For removing hot food
shallow wirefrom a liquid or
mesh basket
skimming foam off
with a long
when making broths
handle
Sugar
thermom Candy thermometer
eter
Tamis
58
Drum sieve
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Measuring the
temperature,
or stage, of sugar
Used as
a strainer, grater,
or food mill.
A tamis has a
cylindrical
edge, made
ofmetal or wo
od, that
supports a
disc of
fine metal, ny
lon,
or horsehair
mesh.
Ingredients
are pushed
through the
mesh.
Tin
opener
Tomato
knife
Tongs
Trussing
needle
59
Can opener
Designs vary
considerably;
the earliest
tin openers
were knives,
adapted to
open a tin as
easily as
possible.
A small
serrated
knife.
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Whisk
Wooden
spoon
Zester
Most whisks
consist of a
To
long, narrow
Balloon whisk, gravy blend ingredientssmo
handle with a
whisk, flat whisk, flat oth, or to incorporate
series of wire
coil whisk, bell
air into a mixture, in a
loops joined
whisk, and other
process known
at the end.
types.
as whisking orwhippin
Whisks are
g
also made
frombamboo.
A handle and
a curved
metal end,
the top of
For
which is
obtaining zest fromle
perforated
mons and other citrus
with a row of
fruit.[5]
round holes
with
sharpened
rims
Cookware and bakeware are types of food preparation containers commonly found in
a kitchen. Cookware comprises cooking vessels, such as saucepans and frying pans,
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History
Ancient Greek casserole and brazier, 6th/4th century BC, exhibited in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed in
theStoa of Attalus.
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Kitchen
in
the Uphagen House in Long Market,Gdask, Poland
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Cookware materials
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Metal
Metal pots are made from a narrow range of metals because pots and pans need
to conduct heat well, but also need to bechemically unreactive so that they do not alter
the flavor of the food. Most materials that are conductive enough to heat evenly are too
reactive to use in food preparation. In some cases (copper pots, for example), a pot
may be made out of a more reactive metal, and then tinned or clad with another.
Aluminium
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below states "These findings support the hypothesis that aluminium in drinking water is
a risk factor for AD." (Alzheimer's disease)" The Alzheimer's Association states that
"studies have failed to confirm any role for aluminium in causing Alzheimer's. [Today]
few [experts] believe that everyday sources of aluminium pose any threat.
Copper
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Enameled cast iron cookware was developed in the 1920s. In 1934, the French
company Cousances designed the enameled cast iron Doufeu to reduce excessive
evaporation and scorching in cast iron Dutch ovens. Modeled on old braising pans in
which glowing charcoal was heaped on the lids (to mimic two-fire ovens), the Doufeu
has a deep recess in its lid which instead is filled with ice cubes. This keeps the lid at a
lower temperature than the pot bottom. Further, little notches on the inside of the lid
allow the moisture to collect and drop back into the food during the cooking. Although
the Doufeu (literally, "gentlefire") can be used in an oven (without the ice, as a
casserole), it is chiefly designed for stove top use.
Stainless steel
Carbon steel
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use powdered ceramic or titanium mixed with the non-stick material to strengthen them
and to make them more resistant to abrasion and deterioration. Some non-stick
coatings contain hardening agents. Some coatings are high enough in quality that they
pass the strict standards of the National Sanitation Foundation for approval for
restaurant use.
The enamel over steel technique creates a piece that has the heat distribution of carbon
steel and a non-reactive, low-stick surface. Such pots are much lighter than most other
pots of similar size, are cheaper to make than stainless steel pots, and do not have the
rust and reactivity issues of cast iron or carbon steel.Enamel over steel is ideal for large
stockpots and for other large pans used mostly for water-based cooking. Because of its
light weight and easy cleanup, enamel over steel is also popular for cookware used
while camping.
Clad aluminum or copper
Cladding is a technique for fabricating pans with a layer of heat conducting material,
such as copper or aluminum, covered by a non-reactive material, such as stainless
steel. Some pans feature a copper or aluminum layer that extends over the entire pan
rather than just a heat-distributing disk on the base.
Aluminum pans are typically clad on both their inside and the outside surfaces,
providing both a stainless cooking surface and a stainless surface to contact the
cooktop. Copper is typically clad on its interior surface only, leaving the more attractive
copper exposed on the outside of the pan.
Some high-end cookware uses a dual-clad process, with a thin stainless layer on the
cooking surface, a thick core of aluminum to provide structure and heat diffusion, and a
thin layer of copper on the outside of the pot that provides additional diffusion and the
"look" of a copper pot. This provides much of the functionality of tinned-copper pots for a
fraction of the price.
Non-metallic cookware
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Silicone ladles.
Glass-ceramic
Glass ceramic is used to make products such as Corningware in the USA and
Pyroflam in Europe, which have many of the best properties of both glass and ceramic
cookware. While Pyrex can shatter if taken between extremes of temperature too
rapidly, glass-ceramics can be taken directly from deep freeze to the stove top. Their
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Cookware
"Saucepan" redirects here. For the unofficial Australian astronomic term, see Pavo (constellation).
"Caldero" redirects here. For the geological term, see Caldera.
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Rmertopf
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Braising pans and roasting pans (also known as braisers and roasters) are
large, wide and shallow, to provide space to cook a roast (chicken, beef, or pork).
They typically have two loop or tab handles, and may have a cover. Roasters are
usually made of heavy gauge metal so that they may be used safely on a
cooktop following roasting in an oven. Unlike most other cooking vessels,
roasters are usually oblong oroval. There is no sharp boundary between braisers
and roasters - the same pan, with or without a cover, can be used for both
functions. In Europe, a clay roaster
(Swedish:Lergryta, German: Rmertopf, Slovene: Rimski lonec) is still popular
because it allows roasting without adding grease or liquids. This helps preserve
flavor and nutrients. Having to soak the pot in water for 15 minutes before use is
a notable drawback.
Casserole pans (for making casseroles) resemble roasters and Dutch ovens, and
many recipes can be used interchangeably between them. Depending on their
material, casseroles can be used in the oven or on the stovetop. Casseroles are
commonly made of glazed ceramics or pyrex.
Dutch ovens are heavy, relatively deep pots with a heavy lid, designed to recreate oven conditions on the stovetop (or campfire). They can be used
for stews, braised meats, soups, and a large variety of other dishes that benefit
from low heat, slow cooking. Dutch ovens are typically made from cast iron, and
are measured by volume.
A Wonder Pot is an Israeli invention that acts as a dutch oven but is made of
aluminum. It consists of three parts: an aluminum pot shaped like a Bundt pan, a
hooded cover perforated with venting holes, and a thick, round, metal disc with a
center hole that is placed between the Wonder Pot and the flame to disperse
heat.
Frying pans, frypans, or skillets provide a large flat heating surface and
shallow sides, and are best for pan frying. Frypans with a gentle, rolling slope are
sometimes called omelette pans. Grill pans are frypans that are ribbed, to let
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fat drain away from the food being cooked. Frypans and grill pans are generally
measured by diameter (2030 cm).
Spiders are skillets with three thin legs to keep them above an open fire.
Ordinary flat-bottomed skillets are also sometimes called spiders, though the
term has fallen out of general use.
Griddles are flat plates of metal used for frying, grilling, and making pan breads
(such as pancakes, injera, tortillas, chapatis, and crepes). Traditional iron
griddles are circular, with a semicircular hoop fixed to opposite edges of the plate
and rising above it to form a central handle. Rectangular griddles that cover
two stove burners are now also common, as are griddles that have a ribbed area
that can be used like a grill pan. Some have multiple square metal grooves
enabling the contents to have a defined pattern, similar to a waffle maker. Like
frypans, round griddles are generally measured by diameter (2030 cm).
Both griddles and frypans can be found in electric versions. These may be
permanently attached to a heat source, similar to a hot plate.
Saucepans (or just "pots") are vessels with vertical sides about the same height
as their diameter, used for simmering or boiling. Saucepans generally have one
long handle. Larger pots of the same shape generally have two handles close to
the sides of the pot (so they can be lifted with both hands), and are called saucepots or soup pots (312 liters). Saucepans and saucepots are measured by
volume (usually 18 L). While saucepots often resemble Dutch ovens in shape,
they do not have the same heat capacity characteristics. Very small saucepans
used for heating milk are referred to as milk pans, such saucepans usually have
a lip for pouring the heated milk.
Ironically, the saucepan is not the ideal vessel to use for making sauces. It is
more efficient to use saucepans with sloping sides, called Windsor pans, or
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Saut pans, used for sauteing, have a large surface area and low sides to permit
steam to escape and allow the cook to toss the food. The word "saut" comes
from the French verb "sauter", meaning to jump. Saute pans often have straight
vertical sides, but may also have flared or rounded sides.
Stockpots are large pots with sides at least as tall as their diameter. This
allows stock to simmer for extended periods of time without reducing too much.
Stockpots are typically measured in volume (6-36 L). Stock pots come in a large
variety of sizes to meet any need from cooking for a family to preparing food for a
banquet. A specific type of stockpot exists for lobsters, and an all-metal stockpot
usually called a caldero is used in Hispanic cultures to make rice.
Woks are wide, roughly bowl-shaped vessels with one or two handles at or near
the rim. This shape allows a small pool of cooking oil in the center of the wok to
be heated to a high heat using relatively little fuel, while the outer areas of the
wok are used to keep food warm after it has been fried in the oil. In the Western
world, woks are typically used only for stir-frying, but they can actually be used
for anything from steaming to deep frying.
Bake ware
Bake ware is designed for use in the oven (for baking), and encompasses a variety of
different styles of baking pans as cake pans, pie pans, and loaf pans.
Cake pans (or cake tins in the UK) include square pans, round pans, and
speciality pans such as angel food cake pans and spring form pans often used
for baking cheesecake. Another type of cake pan is a muffin tin, which can hold
multiple smaller cakes.
Sheet pans, cookie sheets, and jelly-roll pans are bake ware with large flat
bottoms.
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Pie pans are flat-bottomed flare-sided pans specifically designed for baking pies.
Learning Outcome # 1
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Assessment Criteria:
1. Chemicals and clean potable water are selected and used for cleaning
and/or sanitizing kitchen equipment utensils, and working surfaces
2. Equipment and/or utensils are cleaned and/or sanitized safely using
clean/potable water and according to manufacturers instructions
3. Clean equipment and utensils are stored or stacked safely in the
designated place
4. Cleaning equipment and supplies are used safely in accordance with
manufacturers instructions
5. Cleaning equipment are assembled and disassembled safely
6. Cleaning equipment are stored safely in the designated position and area
Conditions/Resources
Equipment
Surfaces
Kitchen utensils
Pots, pans, dishes
Food storage Containers
Chopping boards
Garbage bins
Walls
Floors
Shelves
Supplies
Chemical dispensers
Supplies
Paper towels
Cleaning agents
Sanitizers
Contents:
1.
Various types and uses of chemicals and equipment for cleaning and sanitizing
2.
Occupational health and safety requirements for bending, lifting, carrying and using equipments.
3.
Logical and time-efficient work flow
4.
Environmental-friendly products and practices in relation to kitchen cleaning Sanitation and
cross-contamination issues related to food handling and preparation
Actual Demonstration with Oral Questioning:
1. Sanitizing and disinfecting procedures and techniques
2. Using and storing cleaning materials and chemicals
3. Waste management and disposal procedures and practices
Institutional Assessment:
1. Assessment may be done in the workplace or in a simulated workplace
setting (assessment centers)
2. Assessment activities are carried out through an accredited
assessment center
Information sheet
1.1-1
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Sanitization
It is important to differentiate and define certain terminology:
Sterilize refers to the statistical destruction and removal of all living organisms.
Disinfect refers to inanimate objects and the destruction of all vegetative cells
(not spores).
Sanitize refers to the reduction of microorganisms to levels considered safe from
a public health viewpoint.
Appropriate and approved sanitization procedures are processes, and, thus, the
duration or time as well as the chemical conditions must be described. The official
definition (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) of sanitizing for food product
contact surfaces is a process which reduces the contamination level by 99.999% (5
logs) in 30 sec.
The official definition for non-product contact surfaces requires a contamination
reduction of 99.9% (3 logs). The standard test organisms used are Staphylococcus
aureus and Escherichia coli.
General types of sanitization include the following:
Thermal Sanitization involves the use of hot water or steam for a specified
temperature and contact time.
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The physical condition of the soil deposits also affects its solubility. Freshly precipitated
soil in a cool or cold solution is usually more easily dissolved than an old, dried, or
baked-on deposit, or a complex film. Food soils are complex in that they contain
mixtures of several components.
Fat-based Soils
Fat usually is present as an emulsion and can generally be rinsed away with hot water
above the melting point. More difficult fat and oil residues can be removed with alkaline
detergents, which have good emulsifying or saponifying ingredients.
Protein-based Soils
In the food industry, proteins are by far the most difficult soils to remove. In fact, casein
(a major milk protein) is used for its adhesive properties in many glues and paints. Food
proteins range from more simple proteins, which are easy to remove, to more complex
proteins, which are very difficult to remove. Heat-denatured proteins can be extremely
difficult.
Generally, a highly alkaline detergent with peptizing or dissolving properties is required
to remove protein soils. Wetting agents can also be used to increase the wettability and
suspendability of proteins. Protein films require alkaline cleaners that have hypochlorite
in addition to wetting agents.
Carbohydrate-based Soils
Simple sugars are readily soluble in warm water and are quite easily removed. Starch
residues, individually, are also easily removed with mild detergents. Starches
associated with proteins or fat scan usually be easily removed by highly alkaline
detergents.
Mineral Salt-based Soils
Mineral salts can be either relatively easy to remove or be highly troublesome deposits
or films. Calcium and magnesium are involved in some of the most difficult mineral
films. Under conditions involving heat and alkaline pH, calcium and magnesium can
combine with bicarbonates to form highly insoluble complexes. Other difficult deposits
contain iron or manganese. Salt films can also cause corrosion of some surfaces.
Difficult salt films require an acid cleaner (especially organic acids that form complexes
with these salts) for removal. Sequestering agents such as phosphates or chelating
agents are often used in detergents for salt film removal.
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Microbiological Films
Under certain conditions, microorgranisms (bacteria, yeasts, and molds) can form
invisible films (biofilms) on surfaces. Biofilms can be difficult to remove and usually
require cleaners as well as sanitizers with strong oxidizing properties.
Lubricating Greases and Oils
These deposits (insoluble in water, alkali, or acid) can often be melted with hot water or
steam, but often leave a residue. Surfactants can be used to emulsify the residue to
make it suspendable in water and flushable.
Other Insoluble Soils
Inert soils such as sand, clay, or fine metal can be removed by surfactant-based
detergents. Charred or carbonized material may require organic solvents.
Quantity of Soil
It is important to rinse food-contact surfaces prior to cleaning to remove most of the
soluble soil. Heavy deposits require more detergent to remove. Improper cleaning can
actually contribute to build-up of soil.
The Surface Characteristics
The cleanability of the surface is a primary consideration in evaluating cleaning
effectiveness. Included in surface characteristics are the following:
Surface Composition
Stainless steel is the preferred surface for food equipment and is specified in many
industry and regulatory design and construction standards. For example, 3-A Sanitary
Standards (equipment standards used for milk and milk products applications) specify
300 series stainless steel or equivalent. Other grades of stainless steel may be
appropriate for specific applications (i.e., 400 series) such as handling of high fat
products, meats, etc. For highly acidic, high salt, or other highly corrosive products,
more corrosion resistant materials (i.e., titanium) is often recommended.
Other "soft" metals (aluminum, brass, copper, or mild steel), or nonmetallic surfaces
(plastics or rubber) are also used on food contact surfaces. Surfaces of soft metals and
nonmetallic materials are generally less corrosion-resistant and care should be
exercised in their cleaning.
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Aluminum is readily attacked by acids as well as highly alkaline cleaners, which can
render the surface non-cleanable. Plastics are subject to stress cracking and clouding
from prolonged exposure to corrosive food materials or cleaning agents.
Hard wood (maple or equivalent) or sealed wood surfaces should be used only in
limited applications such as cutting boards or cutting tables, provided the surface is
maintained in good repair. Avoid using porous wood surfaces.
Surface Finish
Equipment design and construction standards also specify finish and smoothness
requirements. 3-A standards specify a finish at least as smooth as a No. 4 ground finish
for most applications. With high-fat products, a less smooth surface is used to allow
product release from the surface.
Surface Condition
Misuse or mishandling can result in pitted, cracked, corroded, or roughened surfaces.
Such surfaces are more difficult to clean or sanitize, and may no longer be cleanable.
Thus, care should be exercised in using corrosive chemicals or corrosive food products.
Various types and uses of chemicals and equipment for cleaning and sanitizing
Cleaning and Sanitizing Agents
1. Cleaning Solution- designed to remove dirt and soil to clean food contact
surfaces like the food preparation table.
Cleaning agents are substances, usually liquids, powders, sprays, granules that are used to
remove dirt, including dust, stains, bad smells, and clutter on surfaces. Purposes of cleaning
agents include health, beauty, absence of offensive odor, avoidance of shame, and avoidance of
spreading of dirt and contaminants to oneself and others. Some cleaning agents can
kill bacteria and clean at the same time.
Types
Cleaning agents normally water solutions that might be acidic, alkaline, or neutral, depending on
the use. Cleaning agents may also besolvent-based or solvent-containing and is then called
degreasers.
Acidic
Acidic washing agents are mainly used for removal of inorganic deposits like scaling. The active
ingredients are normally strong mineral acids and chelants. Often, there are added surfactants
and corrosion inhibitors. One common mineral acid is Hydrochloric Acid, (also called Muriatic
Acid), is typically used for cleaning swimming pools and concrete. Vinegar can also be used to
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clean hard surfaces, and aid in the removal of calcium deposit buildup. Sulfuric acid is added into
domestic acidic drain cleaners to unblock clogged pipes by dissolving greases, proteins and even
carbohydrate-containing substances (like tissue paper).
Alkaline
Alkaline washing agents contain strong bases like sodium hydroxide and/or potassium hydroxide.
The alkali also dissolves grease, oils,fats, and protein-based deposits. Often there are
added dispersing agents to prevent redeposition of dissolved dirt and/or chelants to attack rust on
metal parts.
Bleach (pH 12) and Ammonia (pH 11) are also common Alkaline cleaning agents. While many
people believe that mixing cleaning agents together will create a compound that is more powerful,
this is false. Mixing cleaning agents such as bleach and ammonia together can be dangerous or
fatal .
Neutral
Neutral washing agents are pH-neutral and based on non-ionic surfactants that disperse different
types of dirt.
Degreaser
Cleaning agents specially made for removal of grease are called degreasers. These may
be solvent-based or solvent-containing and may also have surfactants as active ingredients. The
solvents have a dissolving action on grease and similar dirt. The solvent-containing degreaser
may have an alkaline washing agent added to a solvent to promote further degreasing.
Degreasing agents may also be made solvent-free based on alkaline chemicals and/or
surfactants.
Common cleaning agents
1.
The most common cleaning agent : water which is a very powerful polar solvent.
2.
Carbon tetrachloride, also known by many other names (the most notable being carbon tet in the
cleaning industry, and as Halon 104 or Freon 10 in HVAC; see Table for others), is the organic compound with
the formula CCl4. It was formerly widely used in fire extinguishers, as a precursor to refrigerants, and as
a cleaning agent. It is a colorless liquid with a "sweet" smell that can be detected at low levels.
Both carbon tetrachloride and tetrachloromethane are acceptable names under IUPAC nomenclature.
3.
Ammonia or azane is
It
is
colorless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of
terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food andfertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is
also a building-block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals and is used in many commercial cleaning
products. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. The global industrial production of
ammonia for 2012 is anticipated to be 198 million tons, a 35% increase over the estimated 2006 global output of
146.5 million tons.
Ammonia, as used commercially, is often called anhydrous ammonia. This term emphasizes the absence of
water in the material.
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4.
Borax,
5.
Sodium
6.
Carbon dioxide
7.
Calcium hypochlorite
8.
9.
Chromic acid
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Trisodium phosphate
15.
Sodium percarbonate
16.
Sodium perborate
2. Detergent- Penetrates quickly and softens soil so the soil can be scrubbed and
rinsed away.
3. Degreaser- Special type of detergent that contains a grease-dissolving agent.
Also known as solvent cleaners, degreasers are used on food contact surfaces
like the grill.
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4. Acid cleaner- Used to remove mineral buildup in coffee makers, steam tables,
and dishwashing machines. Not for use on aluminum.
5. Abrasive cleaner- used to carefully scour dirt or grease that has baked or
burned onto pots and pans.
6. Dishwashing Detergent- removes food and grease; designed to be used in a
dish machine.
7. Sanitizer- Designed for sanitizing handwashed items such as knives, chemical
sanitizers kill micro- organisms.
8. Chlorine- Sanitizing agent that can be used on most items (except metal which
it corrodes. Because chlorine is an irritant, contact with skin should be avoided.
9.
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Information sheet
1.1-2
Occupational health and safety requirements for bending, lifting, carrying and
using equipments.
Instructor:
The following script can be used to deliver a 10- to 15-minute training session to
employees. The text emphasizes important points related to back injury prevention.
Ideally, you should demonstrate proper lifting techniques as part of your presentation.
Points to Emphasize
Bend to lift an object - don't stoop
Keep your back straight by tucking in your chin
Lift with the strong leg muscles, not the weaker back muscles
Proper methods of lifting and handling protect against injury. Proper lifting makes work
easier. You need to "think" about what you are going to do before bending to pick up an
object. Over time, safe lifting technique should become a habit.
Following are the basics steps of safe lifting and handling.
1. Size up the load and check overall conditions. Don't attempt
the lift by yourself if the load appears to be too heavy or
awkward. Check that there is enough space for movement,
and that the footing is good. "Good housekeeping" ensures
that you won't trip or stumble over an obstacle.
2. Make certain that your balance is good. Feet should be
shoulder width apart, with one foot beside and the other foot
behind the object that is to be lifted.
3. Bend (he knees; don't stoop. Keep the back straight, but not
vertical. (There is a difference. Tucking in the chin
straightens the back.)
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4. Grip the load with the palms of your hands and your fingers.
The palm grip is much more secure. Tuck in the chin again
to make certain your back is straight before starting to lift.
5. Use your body weight to start the load moving, and then lift
by pushing up with the legs. This makes full use of the
strongest set of muscles.
6. Keep the arms and elbows close to the body while lifting.
7. Carry the load close to the body. Don't twist your body while
carrying the load. To change direction, shift your foot
position and turn your whole body.
8. Watch where you are going!
9. To lower the object, bend the knees. Don't stoop. To deposit
the load on a bench or shelf, place it on the edge and push
it into position. Make sure your hands and feet are clear
when placing the load.
Make it a habit to follow the above steps when lifting anything-even a relatively light
object.
Team lifting must be coordinated
If the weight, shape, or size of an object makes the job too much for one
person, ask for help.
Ideally, workers should be of approximately the same size for team lifting.
One individual needs to be responsible for control of the action to ensure
proper coordination. If one worker lifts too soon, shifts the load, or lowers it
improperly, either they or the person working with them may be injured.
Walk out of step
Lifting heavy objects
Safe lifting of heavy items requires training and practice. For example, we've
probably all seen a small person move heavy feed sacks with apparent ease.
The secret lies in taking the proper stance and grip.
When equipment is available, it should be used to lift and carry heavy objects.
Loaders, forklifts, hoists, etc. are made for this purpose.
Do's" and "Don'ts" of Safe Lifting and Carrying
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Don't
Techniques
Planning
Lifting
Carrying
Lowering
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Information sheet
1.1-3
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Cooperation between all kitchen staff is essential in creating an effective team. In this
way, confusion is eliminated, productivity is high and the working environment is better
for all.
Logical work lists and workflow plans enable kitchen staff to work effectively and
efficiently within specific timeframes and in the necessary order of importance. Work
plans act as a guide for staff to complete all required tasks. By planning you can check
that all tasks are included, understand how tasks relate to each other, and build in
efficiencies.
The objective of workflow planning is to make work easier. Simplifying the operation,
eliminating unnecessary movements, combining two operations into one where
possible, or improving old methods can achieve this. For instance, when peeling
carrots, if you let the peelings fall into a bowl, the need to clean the table is eliminated.
Likewise, before you start preparing a more involved recipe, it is important to select the
correct equipment and light the ovens, setting the desired temperature if necessary.
Workflow planning for the service of meal would take into consideration:
Apprentice chefs must understand that workflow planning makes work easier and
assists in teamwork; the cooperative aspect of a number of staff members working
together to achieve targets.
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WORKFLOW AND POINTS OF CARE
1.
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2.
3.
Work flow
Banquet Analysis Sheets
Menu breakdown
Team Work
Recipe breakdown
Equipment needed
Task delegation
Hygiene
Transportation storage
Workflow
Workflows ensure we work methodically and hygienically logically sequence of events
you organized
Menu breakdown analysis menu examine dishes, cookery methods, which take
longer to cook preparation time.
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Standard recipe cards SRC give the chef guidance quantities of product
qualities of product how to cook the dish logical sequence specific temperatures
presentation time
Equipment needed analysis of menu/recipes large equipment small equipment
store in fridge.
Work flow for menu prepare the sirloin prepare butter misture, pipe and
refrigerate place potato in oven prepare cocktail sauce assemble the cocktails-
chill whip cream for garnish off the basic mise en place.
Timing service presentation 19.00 serve cocktail, 19.20 cook steak, serve with
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Information sheet
1.1-4
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Fill 1 spray bottle completely with white vinegar and fill the other bottle with 50 percent water and 50
percent vinegar solution and label them accordingly.
Removing Odors
1.1 Remove unpleasant or lingering odors from rooms
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1.8 Remove stains from clothing. Tough stains such as ketchup, chocolate, wine, and jelly can
be removed with vinegar.
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Cleaning surfaces
1.1 Clean Windows with Vinegar
1.2 Clean and shines floors - vinegar is safe to use on no-wax flooring
1.3 Use vinegar as an all-purpose surface cleaner in the kitchen. Vinegar can effectively clean
kitchen counter tops, stove tops, and the tops of refrigerators and other appliances.
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1.3 Remove leftover soap residue from the inside of your washing machine
Learning Outcome # 2
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Assessment Criteria:
Surfaces
Kitchen utensils
Pots, pans, dishes
Food storage Containers
Chopping boards
Garbage bins
Walls
Floors
Shelves
Supplies
Chemical dispensers
Supplies
Paper towels
Cleaning agents
Sanitizers
Contents:
1. Sanitizing and disinfecting procedures and techniques
2. Using and storing cleaning materials and chemicals
3. Waste management and disposal procedures and practices
Actual Demonstration with Oral Questioning:
1. Sanitizing and disinfecting procedures and techniques
2. Using and storing cleaning materials and chemicals
3. Waste management and disposal procedures and practices
Institutional Assessment:
1. Assessment may be done in the workplace or in a simulated
workplace setting (assessment centers)
2. Assessment activities are carried out through an accredited
assessment center
Information sheet
1.2-1
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In some detergents, specific enzymes are added to catalytically react with and degrade
specific food soil components.
Physically Active Ingredients
The primary physically-active ingredients are the surface active compounds termed
surfactants. These organic molecules have general structural characteristic where a
portion of the structure is hydrophilic (water-loving) and a portion is hydrophobic (not
reactive with water). Such molecules function in detergents by promoting the physical
cleaning actions through emulsification, penetration, spreading, foaming, and wetting.
The classes of surfactants are as follows:
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under alkaline conditions. Ionic surfactants are generally characterized by their high
foaming ability.
Nonionic surfactants, which do not dissociate when dissolved in water, have the
broadest range of properties depending upon the ratio of hydrophilic/hydrophobic
balance. This balance are also affected by temperature. For example, the foaming
properties of nonionic detergents is affected by temperature of solution. As
temperature increases, the hydrophobic character and solubility decrease. At the
cloud point (minimum solubility), these surfactants generally act as defoamers, while
below the cloud point they are varied in their foaming properties.
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include
sodium
gluconate
and
ethylene
Oxidizing Agents
Oxidizing agents used in detergent application are hypochlorite (also a sanitizer) and--to
a lesser extent--perborate. Chlorinated detergents are most often used to clean protein
residues.
Enzyme Ingredients
Enzyme-based detergents, which are amended with enzymes such as amylases and
other carbohydrate-degrading enzymes, proteases, and lipases, are finding acceptance
in specialized food industry applications.
The primary advantages of enzyme detergents are that they are more environmentally
friendly and often require less energy input (less hot water in cleaning). Uses of most
enzyme cleaners are usually limited to unheated surfaces (e.g., cold-milk surfaces).
However, new generation enzyme cleaners (currently under evaluation) are expected to
have broader application.
Fillers
Fillers add bulk or mass, or dilute dangerous detergent formulations that are difficult to
handle. Strong alkalis are often diluted with fillers for ease and safety of handling. Water
is used in liquid formulations as a filler. Sodium chloride or sodium sulfate are often
fillers in powdered detergent formuations.
Miscellaneous Ingredients
Additional ingredients added to detergents may include corrosion inhibitors, glycol
ethers, and butylcellosolve (improve oil, grease, and carbon removal).
Sanitizing
Thermal Sanitizing
As with any heat treatment, the effectiveness of thermal sanitizing is dependant upon a
number of factors including initial contamination load, humidity, pH, temperature, and
time.
Steam
The use of steam as a sanitizing process has limited application. It is generally
expensive compared to alternatives, and it is difficult to regulate and monitor contact
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temperature and time. Further, the byproducts of steam condensation can complicate
cleaning operations.
Hot Water
Hot-water sanitizing--through immersion (small parts, knives, etc.), spray (dishwashers),
or circulating systems--is commonly used. The time required is determined by the
temperature of the water. Typical regulatory requirements (Food Code 1995) for use of
hot water in dishwashing and utensil sanitizing applications specify immersion for at
least 30 sec. at 77C (170F) for manual operations; and a final rinse temperature of
74C (165F) in single tank, single temperature machines and 82C (180F) for other
machines.
Many state regulations require a utensil surface temperature of 71C (160F), as
measured by an irreversibly registering temperature indicator in warewashing machines.
Recommendations and requirements for hot-water sanitizing in food processing may
vary. The Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance specifies a minimum of 77C (170F) for
5 min. Other recommendations for processing operations are 85C (185F) for 15 min.,
or 80C (176F) for 20 min.
The primary advantages of hot-water sanitization are relatively inexpensive, easy to
apply, and readily available, generally effective over a broad range of microorganisms,
relatively non-corrosive, and penetrates into cracks and crevices. Hot-water sanitization
is a slow process that requires come-up and cool-down time; can have high energy
costs; and has certain safety concerns for employees. The process also has the
disadvantages of forming or contributing to film formations and shortening the life of
certain equipment or parts thereof (gaskets, etc.).
Chemical Sanitizing
The ideal chemical sanitizer should:
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Be inexpensive.
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pH 5, nearly all is in the form of HOCl. At pH 7.0, approximately 75% is HOCl. The
maximum allowable level for no-rinse applications is 200ppm available chlorine, but
recommended usage levels vary. For hypochlorites, an exposure time of 1 min at a
minimum concentration of 50ppm and a temperature of 24C (75F) is recommended.
For each 10C (18F) drop in temperature, a doubling of exposure time is
recommended. For chloramines, 200ppm for 1 min is recommended.
Chlorine compounds are broad spectrum germicides that act on microbial membranes,
inhibit cellular enzymes involved in glucose metabolism, have a lethal effect on DNA,
and oxidize cellular protein. Chlorine has activity at low temperature, is relatively cheap,
and leaves minimal residue or film on surfaces.
The activity of chlorine is dramatically affected by such factors as pH, temperature, and
organic load. However, chlorine is less affected by water hardness when compared to
other sanitizers (especially the quaternary ammonium compounds).
The major disadvantage to chlorine compound is corrosiveness to many metal surfaces
(especially at higher temperatures). Health and safety concerns can occur because of
skin irritation and mucous membrane damage in confined areas. At low pH (below 4.0),
deadly Cl2(mustard gas) can form. In recent years, concerns have also been raised
about the use of chlorine as a drinking water disinfectant and as an antimicrobial with
direct food contact (meat, poultry and shellfish). This concern is based upon the
involvement of chlorine in the formation of potentially carcinogenic trihalomethanes
(THMs) under appropriate conditions. While chlorine's benefits as a sanitizer far
outweigh these risks, it is under scrutiny.
Chlorine dioxide. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is currently being considered as a
replacement for chlorine, since it appears to be more environmentally friendly. Stabilized
ClO2 has FDA approval for most applications in sanitizing equipment or for use as a
foam for environmental and non-food contact surfaces. Approval has also been granted
for use in flume waters in fruits and vegetable operations and in poultry process waters.
ClO2 has 2.5 times the oxidizing power of chlorine and, thus, less chemical is required.
Typical use concentrations range from 1 to 10ppm.
CLO2's primary disadvantages are worker safety and toxicity. Its highly concentrated
gases can be explosive and exposure risks to workers are higher than that for chlorine.
Its rapid decomposition in the presence of light or at temperatures greater than 50C
(122F) makes on-site generation a recommended practice.
Iodine
Use of iodine as an antimicrobial agents dates back to the 1800s. This sanitizer exists in
many forms and usually exists with a surfactant as a carrier. These mixtures are termed
iodophors. The most active agent is the dissociated free iodine (also less stable). This
form is most prevalent at low pH. The amount of dissociation from the surfactant is
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dependent upon the type of surfactant. Iodine solubility is very limited in water.
Generally recommended usage for iodophors is 12.5 to 25ppm for 1 min.
It is generally thought that the bactericidal activity of iodine is through direct
halogenation of proteins. More recent theories have centered upon cell wall damage
and destruction of microbial enzyme activity.
Iodophors, like chlorine compounds, have a very broad spectrum: being active against
bacteria, viruses, yeasts, molds, fungi, and protozoans. Iodine is highly temperaturedependent and vaporizes at 120F. Thus, it is limited to lower temperature applications.
The degree to which iodophors are affected by environmental factors is highly
dependant upon properties of the surfactant used in the formulation. Iodophors are
generally less affected by organic matter and water hardness than chlorine. However,
loss of activity is pronounced at high pH.
Iodine has a long history of use in wound treatment. However, ingestion of iodine gas
does pose a toxicity risk in closed environments. The primary disadvantage is that
iodine can cause staining on some surfaces (especially plastics).
Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs)
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are a class of compounds that have the
general structure as follows (Figure 1):
The properties of these compounds depend upon the covalently bound alkyl groups (R
groups), which can be highly diverse. Since QACs are positively charged cations, their
mode of action is related to their attraction to negatively charged materials such as
bacterial proteins. It is generally accepted that the mode of action is at the membrane
function. The carbon length of R-group side chain is, generally, directly related with
sanitizer activity in QACs. However, because of the lower solubility in QACs composed
of large carbon chains, these sanitizers may have lower activity than short chain
structures.
QACs are active and stable over a broad temperature range. Because they are
surfactants, they possess some detergency. Thus, they are less affected by light soil
than are other sanitizers. However, heavy soil dramatically decreases activity. QACs
generally have higher activity at alkaline pH. While lack of tolerance to hard water is
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often listed as a major disadvantage of QACs when compared to chlorine, some QACs
are fairly tolerant of hard water. Activity can be improved by the use of EDTA as a
chelator. QACs are effective against bacteria, yeasts, mold, and viruses.
An advantage of QACs in some applications is that they leave a residual antimicrobial
film. However, this would be a disadvantage in operations such as cultured dairy
products, cheese, beer, etc., where microbial starter cultures are used.
QACs are generally more active against gram positive than gram negative bacteria.
They are not highly effective against bacteriophages. Their incompatibility with certain
detergents makes thorough rinsing following cleaning operations imperative. Further,
many QAC formulations can cause foaming problems in CIP applications.
Under recommended usage and precautions, QACs pose little toxicity or safety risks.
Thus, they are in common use as environmental fogs and as room deodorizers.
However, care should be exercised in handling concentrated solutions or use as
environmental fogging agents.
Acid-Anionic Sanitizers
Like QACs, acid-anionic sanitizers are surface-active sanitizers. These formulations
include an inorganic acid plus a surfactant and are often used for the dual function of
acid rinse and sanitization.
Whereas QACs are positively charged, these sanitizers are negatively charged. Their
activity is moderately affected by water hardness. Their low use pH, detergency,
stability, low odor potential, and non-corrosiveness make them highly desirable in some
applications.
Disadvantages include relatively high cost, a closely defined pH range of activity (pH 2
to 3), low activity on molds and yeasts, excessive foaming in CIP systems, and
incompatibility with cationic surfactant detergents.
Fatty Acid Sanitizers
Fatty acid or carboxylic acid sanitizers were developed in the 1980s. Typical
formulations include fatty acids plus other acids (phosphoric acids, organic acids).
These agents also have the dual function of acid rinse and sanitization. The major
advantage over acid anionics is lower foaming potential. These sanitizers have a broad
range of activity, are highly stable in dilute form, are stable to organic matter, and are
stable to high temperature applications.
These sanitizers have low activity above pH 3.5 - 4.0, are not very effective against
yeasts and molds, and some formulations lose activity at temperatures below 10C
(50F). They also can be corrosive to soft metals and can degrade certain plastics and
rubber.
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Peroxides
Peroxides or peroxy compounds contain at least one pair of covalently bonded oxygen
atoms (-O-O-) and are divided into two groups: the inorganic group, containing
hydrogen peroxide (HP) and related compounds; and the organic group, containing
peroxyacetic acid (PAA) and related compounds.
Hydrogen peroxide (HP), while widely used in the medical field, has found only limited
application in the food industry. FDA approval has been granted for HP use for sterilizing
equipment and packages in aseptic operations.
The primary mode of action for HP is through creating an oxidizing environment and
generation of singlet or superoxide oxygen (SO). HP is fairly broad spectrum with
slightly higher activity against gram-negative than gram-positive organisms.
High concentrations of HP (5% and above) can be an eye and skin irritant. Thus, high
concentrations should be handled with care.
Peroxyacetic Acid (PAA) has been known for its germicidal properties for a long time.
However, it has only found food-industry application in recent years and is being
promoted as a potential chlorine replacement. PAA is relatively stable at use strengths
of 100 to 200ppm. Other desirable properties include absence of foam and phosphates,
low corrosiveness, tolerance to hard water, and favorable biodegradability. PAA
solutions have been shown to be useful in removing biofilms.
While precise mode of action mechanisms have not been determined, it is generally
theorized that the PAA reaction with microorganisms is similar to that of HP. PAA,
however, is highly active against both gram-positive and gram-negative
microorganisms. The germicidal activity of PAA is dramatically affected by pH. Any pH
increase above 7-8 drastically reduces the activity.
PAA has a pungent odor and the concentrated product (40%) is a highly toxic, potent
irritant, and powerful oxidizer. Thus, care must be used in its use.
A general comparison of the chemical and physical properties of commonly used
sanitizers is presented in Table 3.
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The importance of proper cleaning can be appreciated when one realizes that
contaminated equipment (equipment and utensils which are not clean) is another major
cause of foodborne disease outbreaks.
Cleaning comprises many operations in the food establishment, and the process is
usually specific to the type of cleaning necessary. No cleaning task in the food
establishment is as important as the cleaning and sanitization of food contact surfaces
of equipment and utensils.
CLEANING FOOD CONTACT SURFACES
Food contact surfaces of equipment and utensils are those surfaces with which food
normally comes into contact. These surfaces also include surfaces from which food may
drain, drip or splash back onto surfaces normally in contact with food. For example, the
interior of a microwave oven is considered a food contact surface because food on the
sides or ceiling of the oven could drip into other foods being warmed in the oven.
Effective cleaning and sanitization of food contact surfaces of equipment and utensils
serve two primary purposes:
Reduces chances for contaminating safe food during processing,
preparation, storage and service by physically removing soil, bacteria and
other microorganisms; and
Minimizes the chances of transmitting disease organisms to the consumer by
achieving bacteriologically safe eating utensils.
Although we all know about the practice of "washing," many do not understand and/or
appreciate the principles and exactness of the process. For the most part, chemistry
plays a very important part in the cleaning and sanitization process. Washing equipment
and utensils until visibly clean is just not enough.
WAREWASHING CYCLE
The following numerated list and comments pertaining to the wash cycle of food contact
surfaces will help supervisors and managers appreciate why there is a particular order
in the process.
1.
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2.
SANITIZATION PROCEDURE
Chemical sanitization requires greater controls than hot water sanitization. The following
factors must be considered in order to obtain effective sanitization by chemical
sanitization methods:
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The pH and hardness needs to be determined. Should the water supply be from a
municipal supply, the water company may already have this information. If not, the
water will need to be tested periodically.
MANUAL SANITIZATION
The following table provides information pertaining to minimum and maximum chemical
sanitization requirements for manual operations (in parts per million - ppm). To use the
chart, identify which chemical compound your food establishment uses for sanitization
purposes. The Temp column refers to the temperature of the water used. The pH
column indicates the strength of the sanitizer to use, according to the pH of the water.
For example, if the water pH is 9.0, and the water temperature is 100F (warm) the
concentration of chlorine sanitizer needs to be 50 parts per million. The Maximum
column refers to the maximum strength of sanitizer. The Contact column refers to the
minimum time that the utensils or surfaces should be in contact with the sanitizer
solution. If the pH of the water is less than 5.0, Iodine should be used as the sanitizer.
Chemical pH Solutions Temp (F) 10 or less 8 or less Maximum Allowed 120 25 ppm
25 ppm 200 100 50 ppm 50 ppm 200 75 50 ppm 100 ppm 200 Chlorine 55 100 ppm
100 ppm 200 < Iodine 75+ 12.5 25 Quarts** 75+ As specified by manufacturer, see
label; hardness 500 ppm or less* 200
Use a gallon container and pour a gallon of water at a time into the sink until the
water is at a suitable depth; or
Use the following formula: width x length x water depth = total gallons 231 (cu. in.
in one gallon)
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Length of sink = 24" Width of sink = 24" Depth of sink = 16" 24 x 24 x 16 = 9,216 = 40
gallons 231 231
Use the test kit each time and adjust water amount or sanitizer amount until
proper concentration is obtained. In the first two methods, the same amount of
water must be used each time, unless the amount is recalculated.
Another problem in measuring the right amount of sanitizing chemical is the method of
measure stated on the label. The following table provides equivalents of various
measurements:
Drops ml. tsp. tbsp. f.o.
1 ml. 20 -- -- -- -- 1 tsp. 60 5 -- -- -- 1 tbsp. -- 15 3 -- -- 1 f.o. -- -- 6 2 -- 1 cup -- -- -- 16 8
Household bleach is often used as a sanitizer. When used, only pure bleach (without
additives) is acceptable.Ultra or Extra Strength bleach is not acceptable. Mixing
bleach with detergent will result in the bleach not being able to effectively sanitize any
surfaces. The amounts of bleach (which contains 5.25% sodium hypochlorite) needed
to obtain certain concentrations are as follows:
Concentration Amount of bleach/gallon(s)
water 25 ppm 3/4 teaspoon/2 gallons 1 1/2 teaspoons/4 gallons 1 tablespoon/8 gallons
50 ppm 3/4 teaspoon/1 gallon 1 1/2 teaspoons/2 gallons 1 tablespoon/4 gallons 1/4
cup/16 gallons 100 ppm 1 1/2 teaspoons/1 gallon 1 tablespoon/2 gallons 1/2 cup/16
gallons 200 ppm 1 tablespoon/1 gallon 1 cup/16 gallons
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Swabbing Method
1.
2.
Disassemble;
Rough clean to remove gross food
particles;
3.
4.
To confirm sanitizing solution strength and proper water temperature for manual
warewashing operations;
To check sanitizing solution strength and water temperature during the
warewashing period. Temperature and sanitizer concentrations need to be
checked throughout the cleaning process. This is because the effective strength
of the sanitizing solution may be reduced because of the carryover of organic
matter and because of a drop in temperature.
To check water temperature for hot water sanitization; and
To check proper operation of mechanical ware washing equipment.
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2.
3.
4.
Bulk water hauling equipment needs to be cleaned and sanitized, and the procedure
shall be similar to food processing equipment. For specific recommended procedures,
see EPA technical bulletin entitled Guidelines for the Preparation of Tank Trucks for
Potable Water Use.
SUMMARY
Contaminated equipment is another major cause of foodborne disease outbreaks.
Food contact surface is the surface of equipment and utensils with which food
normally comes into contact and those surfaces from which food may drain, drip or
splash back onto surfaces normally in contact with food.
Washing equipment and utensils until visibly clean does not complete the process. A
sanitization step must also be completed.
Proper sanitization is one of the most important steps in the warewashing cycle.
No rinsing or any other cleaning process should take place after the sanitizing
process.
Equipment and utensils must be air dried only.
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ELEMENT
1.
Clean, sanitize
and store equipment
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
Italicized terms are elaborated in the Range of Variables
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
2.
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PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
ELEMENT
2.3
2.4
3.
Dispose of waste
3.1
3.2
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RANGE OF VARIABLES
VARIABLE
1.
Equipment
2. Surfaces
RANGE
May include but are not limited to:
1.1 Kitchen utensils
1.2 Pots, pans, dishes
1.3 Food storage Containers
1.4 Chopping boards
1.5 Garbage bins
May include but are not limited to:
2.1 Walls
2.2 Floors
2.3 Shelves
2.4 Benches and working surfaces
2.5 Ovens, stoves, cooking equipment and appliances
2.6 Cold storage equipment
2.7 Store rooms and cupboards
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EVIDENCE GUIDE
2. Critical aspects of
Competency
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