Ancient Versions of The Bible
Ancient Versions of The Bible
Ancient Versions of The Bible
Yeshua ewsy
He began working on his codex in 1897 and the work on the original
concluded by 1912 or a year before. He was unable to complete the work before
his death. Younan adapted the Church of the East Peshitta text to Jewish NeoAramaic which is typically written phonetically and replaces certain characters
with others and written with the standard Hebrew alphabet - at least according
to the spelling and grammatical rules in which he was using.
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The Holy Bible, Containing the Old and New Testaments. The text carefully
printed from the most correct copies of the present authorized translation,
including the marginal readings and parallel texts: with a commentary and
critical notes; designed as a help to a better understanding of the sacred
writings. Published by T. Tegg and Son, 1837
See APPENDIX II, Shakhad in DSS, Pshitta Tanakh and Masoretic Text
Peshitta.org
upon that version that the Ferrara Bible, printed in 1553, was
based. This famous Spanish Bible was intended to serve the needs
of both Jews and Christians. Certain deviations were made in the
copies intended for Christian readers. For example, where the
copies intended for Jews read 'young woman,' the copies set aside
for Christian use put 'virgin.'
Personal religious sentiment for a particular text while blatantly
ignoring the historical facts of the more ancient versions can put
one in a serious situation doctrinally - especially when they
choose to continue using a corrupted text that did not even exist in
the first century as it exists today.
As far as the Aramaic versions are concerned, they are faithful
editions of the original Hebrew text from just after the time of the
Exodus from Egypt to Sinai. Because of the very nature of the
Aramaic versions, they faithfully retain the original intent, or
meaning of what was written in the time of Moses and the
prophets.
The earliest Aramaic transcribers had a great reverence for the
text, which was not the case, as has already been commented
above, with the later editors up to the eleventh century.
Someone who is not familiar with textual criticism or even with
the history of ancient versions and the manners in which sacred
texts were transmitted may erroneously conclude that the Hebrew
text currently in use in the synagogues and translated in Protestant
Bibles is the original. This is far from the truth! The Hebrew MT
no longer resembles the same text that was used in the first
century during the time of the Apostles.
Although an ancient Hebrew text was used in the synagogues
during the first century, since the language of Messiah and the
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This is also the era of the origin of the Aramaic New Testament known as
the Peshitta, which I don't yet cover in detail within the draft of this paper.
However, for a list of some differences between the Aramaic, Hebrew and
Greek, see APPENDIX IV, Catalog of Differences Peshitta, MT and Greek
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Summary
The Peshitta Tanakh (A"NK) is a reflection of the original Hebrew
autograph. That original, or autograph no longer exists except in
the form of the Aramaic version. The currently used Hebrew
Masoretic Text is NOT the original autograph. I believe carefully
examining the Targums also give the diligent student a shadow of
that original autograph.
As a rule I do not and will not use the Masoretic Text as a guide to
the original since it has come down to us with its many
corruptions. This does not mean that I have no respect for the
western body of Masoretic texts. I take Theodore of Mopsuestia's
comment very seriously, it would be nonsense to disregard the
voice of the Hebrew, but when I see clearly identifiable errors, I
must disregard the later for the earlier, especially if there are
textual witnesses to give evidence of a more pure text.
So which sources do I think are more reliable? Without a doubt the Peshitta Tanakh and its related manuscripts such as the various
Targums.
==============================
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APPENDIX I.
Emendations of the Soferim
Concerning the Divine Name.
Genesis 18:3,27,30,31,32; 19:18; 20:4.
Exodus 4:10,13; 5:22; 15:17; 34:9(2x).
Numbers 14:17.
Joshua 7:8.
Judges 6:15; 13:8.
Kings 3:10,15; 22:6.
2 Kings 7:6; 19:23.
Isaiah 3:17,18; 4:4; 6:1,8,11; 7:14,20; 8:7; 9:7(8),16(17); 10:12;
11:11; 21:6,8,16; 28:2; 29:13; 30:20; 37:24; 38:14,16; 49:14.
Ezekiel 18:25,29; 21:14(9); 33:17,20.
Amos 5:16; 7:7,8; 9:1.
Micah 1:2.
Zechariah 9:4.
Malachi 1:12,14.
Psalms 2:4; 16:2; 22:31(30); 30:9(8); 35:17,22,23; 37:13;
38:10(9),16(15),23(22); 39:8(7); 40:18(17); 44:24(23); 51:17(15);
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APPENDIX II
Shakhad in DSS, Pshitta Tanakh and Masoretic Text.
Summary: Concerning the use of the word shachar and
shachad in DSS Isaiah (Dead Sea Scrolls), Pshitta Tanakh and
the Hebrew MT
Until recently I had not paid much attention to the use of the word
shachad and shachar in these various ancient versions of the
Bible. I wasn't aware that DSS Isaiah used shachad which I find
fascinating since it seems to agree with the Peshitta Tanakh as
opposed to the much later MT. This peeked my interest after a
member of the Peshitta.org forum posted a question about its use
in the Great Isaiah Scroll. I reproduce my response below.
The word dxs (dx$) has been translated as bribe, gift and
reward by different translators.
Isaiah 8:20 from Pshitta Tanakh uses the word bribe dxs
(sh'khad) while the Masoretic text uses: rxs (shachar) which is
often translated as morning, light or dawn.
Translation of Isaiah 8:20 from the Aramaic:
To the testimony and the law! If you do not speak according to
this word, because there is none who bribe them.
Jastrow's Dictionary of the Targumim says of the word shachad:
to win the favor of, bribe and quotes Sanhedrin 43b (see below).
Strong's Hebrew Bible Dictionary gives this information for the
word shachad: a primitive root; to donate, i.e. bribe:--hire, give
a reward... from 'shachad' (7809); a donation (venal or
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APPENDIX III.
Yemenite Esther.
For a list of differences see www.chayas.com/dod.htm
In the final edition of this paper I plan to provide a transcription of
the Yemenite Esther followed by the commonly used Hebrew
Masoretic. The Yemenite will be transcribed from a scroll from
my private collection (Bibliotheca Aramaica).
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APPENDIX IV.
Catalog of Differences Between Peshitta, MT and Greek.
This is a preliminary list of verses that have variances between the
Aramaic, Hebrew MT and the Greek. I have not verified each of
these. Some of the references are from my own research, some
from that of my great grandfather and others from various sources.
In the final publication of this paper, each of the verses will be
translated and compared with each other in detail. Passages from
the Peshitta New Testament will also be included.
Genesis 1:2
Genesis 1:26
Genesis 2:2
Genesis 3:6
Genesis 6:3
Genesis 12:3
Genesis 17:16
Genesis 27:40
Genesis 32:28
Genesis 32:30
Genesis 47:31
Genesis 49:14
Exodus 6:20
Exodus 20:7
Exodus 20:11
Exodus 38:8
Leviticus 18:21
Numbers 25:4
Deuteronomy 5:11
Deuteronomy 23:1
Judges 14:15
1 Samuel 1:24
25
1 Samuel 2:13
1 Samuel 2:35
1 Samuel 6:19
1 Samuel 13:5
1 Samuel 24:3
2 Samuel 15:7
2 Samuel 14:4
2 Samuel 18:4
1 Chronicles 2:15
1 Chronicles 5:2
1 Chronicles 12:1
1 Chronicles 23:13
1 Chronicles 29:19
2 Chronicles 3:4
2 Chronicles 16:9
2 Chronicles 21:2
2 Chronicles 22:2
2 Chronicles 36:9
1 Kings 5:11
Nehemiah 10:32
Nehemiah 12:24, 36
Job 5:24
Job 6:6
Job 6:9, 10
Job 6:14
Job 13:20, 21
Job 19:25
Job 24:19, 20
Job 31:10
Job 36:21
Job 38:7
Psalm 7:11
Psalm 48:14
Psalm 68:11
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Psalm 74:5
Psalm 89:47
Psalm 119:48
Psalm 139:13
Psalm 139:15
Psalm 145:1
Proverbs 6:3
Proverbs 6:11
Proverbs 11:25
Proverbs 18:22
Ecclesiastes 10:19
Canticles 5:7
Isaiah 5:17
Isaiah 6:10
Isaiah 9:6
Isaiah 10:27
Isaiah 14:12
Isaiah 19:10
Isaiah 28:10
Isaiah 28:13
Isaiah 28:20
Isaiah 30:33
Isaiah 33:1
Isaiah 33:24
Isaiah 43:28
Isaiah 47:6
Isaiah 49:4
Isaiah 51:20
Isaiah 59:19
Isaiah 61:2
Isaiah 64:5
Jeremiah 4:10
Jeremiah 5:10
Jeremiah 7:4, 5
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Jeremiah 8:4
Jeremiah 23:23
Jeremiah 27:1
Jeremiah 46:18
Ezekiel 32:5
Daniel 8:24
Hosea 12:3
Amos 6:10
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APPENDIX V.
Introduction to the Aramaic Jewish Bible
A Translation from the Aramaic to English by
Ya'aqub Younan-Levine and Associates of Bibliotheca Aramaica
The Aramaic Jewish Bible is called the "Peshitta Tanakh" (or
ANK) and it is a holy text to the ancient Israelites and it is the
official Bible of Assyrian Judaism. The word "Tanakh" is an
acronym of the three words Torah (Law or Teachings), Nevi'im
(Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). The text of the Tanakh is
regarded as being holy, in particular the Name of God, especially
in its four letter form hwhy, Aramaic: hy (Yah), or hyrm (MarYah,
Lord YHWH).
The Pshitta Tanakh is the ancient Scriptures translated into
Lishana Aramaya (Aramaic language) from the original Hebrew
text which pre-dated the Greek Septuagint text (LXX). The
Aramaic Tanakh uses many Hebraic terms, many times
transliterating the words and phrases rather than translating them.
Often times the Aramaic Peshitta and the LXX agree against the
Masoretic text. The Masoretic text is not the original Hebrew that
was used by the translators of the Aramaic Pshitta. In other words,
the text used by those who translated the Aramaic Pshitta is much
older than the Masoretic text. The Aramaic Pshitta Tanakh was
completed during the first century C.E., while the standardized
Masoretic text was completed between the seventh and tenth
centuries C.E.
According to the canon of this Aramaic Bible, it contains fifty-two
books, which are divided into three sections: The Law
(Aurayta/Torah, the Five Books of Moses); The Prophets; and the
Writings. The books of the Prophets are traditionally divided into
the "Former Prophets" and the "Latter Prophets", or sometimes as
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APPENDIX VI.
Exodus 20:7,11 Comparisons with Aramaic Tanakh
Peshitta - Exodus 20:7, 11: You shall not swear falsely in the
name of MarYah your Alaha, for MarYah will not consider him
innocent who swears falsely in his Name... for MarYah made the
heavens and the earth, the seas and all that is with them in six
days, and rested on the seventh day; for that reason, Alaha blessed
the seventh day and made it holy {or, sanctified it}.
LXX:
...
s
(Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God
in vain; for the Lord thy God will not acquit him that takes his
name in vain... For in six days the Lord made the heaven and the
earth, and the sea and all things in them, and rested on the seventh
day; therefore the Lord blessed the seventh day, and hallowed it. Brenton)
Masoretic: You shall not take the name of Yahweh your God in
vain; for Yahweh will not allow to go unpunished he who takes
his name in vain... For in six days Yahweh made the heavens and
the earth, the sea and all which is in them. And he rested on the
seventh day; thus, Yahweh blessed the seventh day and sanctified
it.
King James Version: Thou shalt not take the name of the LORD
thy God in vain; for the LORD will not hold him guiltless that
taketh his name in vain... For in six days the LORD made heaven
and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh
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day: wherefore the LORD blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed
it.
Targum Jonathan: My people of the house of Israel, Let no one of
you swear by the name of the Word of the Lord your God in vain;
for in the day of the great judgment the Lord will not hold
guiltless any one who sweareth by His name in vain... For in six
days the Lord created the heavens, and the earth, and the sea, and
whatever is therein, and rested on the seventh day: therefore the
Lord hath blessed the day of Shabbatha and sanctified it.
(Etheridge)
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APPENDIX VII.
Canon of the Pshitta Tanakh.
The following list of the Books of the Aramaic Pshitta are
according to notes by Aran Younan in 1901, and correspond to the
list and order of ancient Aramaic Codex Ambrosianus.
Genesis - Sipra d'Berita
Exodus - Sipra d'Mapkana
Leviticus- Sipra d'Kakhane
Numbers- Sipra d'Minyane
Deuteronomy - Sipre d'Tinyan Aurayta
Job - Ketava d'Yob
Joshua - Ketava d'Ishu bar Nun
Judges - Sipra Dayane
1 Samuel / 2 Samuel - Ketava Kadmaya d'Shemuel / Ketava
Trayana d'Shemuel
Psalms - Ketava d'Mazmore (d'David)
1 Kings / 2 Kings - Sipra Kadmaya d'Malke / Sipra Trayana
d'Malke
Proverbs - Ketava d'Matle
Wisdom*
Ecclesiastes - Ketava d'Kukhlat
Song of Songs - Tishbekhat Tishbekhata
Isaiah - Ketava d'Eshaya Nebya
Jeremiah - Ketava d'Eramya Nebya
Lamentations - Ketava d'Olyata
Epistle of Jeremiah*
Epistle of Baruch*
Baruch*
Ezekiel - Ketava d'Khazquiel
Hosea - Ketava d'Khosha Nebya
Joel - Ketava d'Yoel Nebya
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APPENDIX VIII.
Genesis 1:2 in Comparison.
Peshitta: And the Earth was chaos and shallow, and darknesses
was on the surface of the deep abyss. And the Spirit of God
incubated/brooded/hovered on the surface of waters.
Most translations of this verse, which are from the Masoretic, use
the words "moved" or "swept", NRSV: "swept over the face of the
waters". The Masoretic text uses the phrase "me'rachepheth", from
"rachaph" (See #7363 in Strong's Hebrew Concordance, a
primitve root meaning "to brood").
Targum Onkelos (transliterated) rendered this verse in the
following manner:
v'are'a havath tzad'ya v'reiqanya nachshokha al-apei t'homa
v'Rukha min qadam YY (MarYah) m'nash'va al-apei ma'ya. (My
transliteration may not follow standards)
Onkelos: a wind from before the Lord blew upon the face of the
waters
Jerusalem Targum: the Spirit of mercies from before the Lord
breathed upon the face of the waters
Lamsa translated Genesis 1:2 in the following manner: And the
earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face
of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the
water.
It appears to me that the text of Peshitta indicates Rukha
d'Koodsha was incubating life as in preparing it and growing
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APPENDIX IX.
A Comparison of Proverbs 11:25 cursed/watered
Peshitta: The blessed soul will prosper, and the cursed one will be
damned more. (or "cursed more", "more cursed")
American Standard Version: The liberal soul shall be made fat;
And he that watereth shall be watered also himself.
J.P. Green: The blessed soul will be made fat; he who waters will
also drink fully.
New International Version: A generous man will prosper; he who
refreshes others will himself be refreshed.
King James Version: The liberal soul shall be made fat: and he
that watereth shall be watered also himself.
New Revised Standard Version: A generous person will be
enriched, and one who gives water will get water.
Douay-Rheims Bible: The soul that blesseth, shall be made fat:
and he that inebriateth, shall be inebriated also himself.
Young's Literal Translation: A liberal soul is made fat, And
whoso is watering, he also is watered.
Geneva Bible 1587: The liberall person shall haue plentie: and he
that watereth, shall also haue raine.
Jewish Publication Society 1917: The beneficent soul shall be
made rich, and he that satisfieth abundantly shall be satisfied also
himself.
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APPENDIX X.
Comparing Deuteronomy 23:1 adulterer/eunuch
Peshitta Tanakh: No adulterer shall enter the congregation of
MarYah.
Masoretic text (23:2 in Hebrew): A man with crushed testicles or a
severed organ shall not enter the congregation of YHWH. (from
the Stone Chumash, 1998 Mesorah Publications, Artscroll)
Aleppo Codex: (this particular verse in Aleppo reads the same as
the other Hebrew Masoretic texts),
Biblia Peshitta: Ningn adltero entrar a la congegacin de
Yahweh. (from the Spanish Peshitta, 2006)
Other Versions
New American Standard Bible: "No one who is emasculated or
has his male organ cut off shall enter the assembly of the LORD.
King James Version: He that is wounded in the stones, or hath his
privy member cut off, shall not enter into the congregation of the
LORD.
American Standard Version: He that is wounded in the stones, or
hath his privy member cut off, shall not enter into the assembly of
Jehovah.
Bible in Basic English: No man whose private parts have been
wounded or cut off may come into the meeting of the Lord's
people.
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APPENDIX XI.
Isaiah 6:10, past/present tense.
Peshitta: For the heart of this city/people has been (has become)
hardened, they have deafened their ears and have closed their
eyes, so that they do not see with their eyes, neither hear with their
ears, nor understand with their heart, nor (have any) regret nor are
they pardoned.
The ancient text of Peshitta appears to show that this is something
that has already taken place to the people/city, whereas the
Hebrew of the Masoretic text indicates this is almost like a
petition to God in order to make this happen to the people/city.
Biblia Peshitta (Spanish): Porque el corazn de este pueblo le ha
sido endurecido. l ha ensordecido sus odos y ha cerrado sus
ojos, para que no vea con sus ojos, ni oiga con sus odos, ni
entienda con su corazn, ni se arrepienta ni le sea perdonado.
Hebrew Masoretic text:
--
American Standard Version: Make the heart of this people fat, and
make their ears heavy, and shut their eyes; lest they see with their
eyes, and hear with their ears, and understand with their heart, and
turn again, and be healed.
Lamsa: For the heart of this people is darkened and their ears are
heavy and their eyes closed, so that they may not see with their
eyes and hear with their ears and understand with their heart and
be converted and be forgiven.
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King James Version: Make the heart of this people fat, and make
their ears heavy, and shut their eyes; lest they see with their eyes,
and hear with their ears, and understand with their heart, and
convert, and be healed.
Revised Standard Version: Make the heart of this people fat, and
their ears heavy, and shut their eyes; lest they see with their eyes,
and hear with their ears, and understand with their hearts, and turn
and be healed.
New Revised Standard Version: Make the mind of this people
dull, and stop their ears, and shut their eyes, so that they may not
look with their eyes, and listen with their ears, and comprehend
with their minds, and turn and be healed.
New American Standard Bible: Render the hearts of this people
insensitive, Their ears dull, And their eyes dim, Otherwise they
might see with their eyes, Hear with their ears, Understand with
their hearts, And return and be healed.
Douay-Rheims: Blind the heart of this people, and make their ears
heavy, and shut their eyes: lest they see with their eyes, and hear
with their ears, and understand with their heart, and be converted
and I heal them.
Complete Jewish Bible: Make the heart of this people [sluggish
with] fat, stop up their ears, and shut their eyes. Otherwise, seeing
with their eyes, and hearing with their ears, then understanding
with their hearts, they might repent and be healed!
Young's Literal Translation: Declare fat the heart of this people,
And its ears declare heavy, And its eyes declare dazzled, Lest it
see with its eyes, And with its ears hear, and its heart consider,
And it hath turned back, and hath health.
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APPENDIX XII.
Habakkuk 2:11, Theodore of Mopsuestia.
Theodore of Mopsuestia is quoted by J.P. Migne as writing,
Some have said that the Syrian version reads 'peg'; but it would
be nonsense to disregard the voice of the Hebrew -- in which the
prophets spoke and which the Seventy with their own translation
have made clear to us, for they were notables and perfectly knew
that language -- and pay attention to the Syrian who has altered
the voice of the Hebrews into that of the Syrians. Besides he often
wants to raise his own mistakes to a linguistic law, without
knowing what he is talking about.
Theodore's reference to the Seventy is the Septuagint. It appears
by this comment that Theodore is rejecting the Peshitta text over
that of the Septuagint (for this particular passage at least) which
says beetle while the Peshitta says peg or nail.
From Aramaic: For the stone shall implore from the wall, and the
nail from the wood shall respond. (or a different tense: For the
stone has implored/called out from the wall, and the nail from the
wood has responded.)
Lamsa: For the stone shall cry out from the wall, and the nail in
the wood shall answer it.
Jewish Publication Soc. (1917): For the stone shall cry out of the
wall, and the beam out of the timber shall answer it.
Jewish Publication Soc. (modern edition): For a stone shall cry
out from the wall, and a rafter shall answer it from the woodwork.
Brenton's Septuagint: For the stone shall cry out of the wall, and
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APPENDIX XIII.
Differences between the Aramaic of Numbers 25:4
with other versions or translations.
English translation of the ancient Aramaic Peshitta: MRYH said
to Moses: Take all the heads [or chiefs] of the town and drive
[or disperse, move, lead] them before MRYH, toward the
light of the sun and my wrath will turn away from the children of
Israel.
Jewish Publication Society, 1917: based on the common Hebrew
Masoretic text, And the LORD said unto Moses: Take all the
chiefs of the people, and hang them up unto the LORD in face of
the sun, that the fierce anger of the LORD may turn away from
Israel.
New Revised Standard Version: impale them
Luther (1545): hang them
Septuagint (Brenton, 1851): And the Lord said to Moses, Take
all the princes of the people, and make them examples of
judgment for the Lord in the face of the sun, and the anger of the
Lord shall be turned away from Israel.
Lamsa: And the LORD said to Moses, Take all the chiefs of the
people and expose them before the LORD in the daylight that the
fierce anger of the LORD may be turned away from the children
of Israel.
Other languages use put to death, utterly destroy, smite,
slay.
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APPENDIX XIV.
Isaiah 45:17, Peshitta, Mass, LXX, etc.
Peshitta: The salvation of Israel is in MarYah, the Saviour of the
world; you will not be insulted nor confused forever.
Aleppo Codex:
Septuagint:
New American Standard Bible (1995): Israel has been saved by
the LORD With an everlasting salvation; You will not be put to
shame or humiliated To all eternity.
GOD'S WORD Translation (1995): Israel has been saved by the
LORD forever. You will never again be ashamed or disgraced.
King James Version: But Israel shall be saved in the LORD with
an everlasting salvation: ye shall not be ashamed nor confounded
world without end.
American Standard Version: But Israel shall be saved by Jehovah
with an everlasting salvation: ye shall not be put to shame nor
confounded world without end.
Bible in Basic English: But the Lord will make Israel free with an
eternal salvation: you will not be put to shame or made low for
ever and ever.
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APPENDIX XV.
Comparing Genesis 2:2.
Genesis 2:2, where it says seventh day in the following
translations, is in contradiction to Exodus 20:11.
New American Standard Bible: By the seventh day God
completed His work which He had done, and He rested on the
seventh day from all His work which He had done.
King James Version: And on the seventh day God ended his work
which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his
work which he had made.
American Standard Version: And on the seventh day God finished
his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day
from all his work which he had made.
Bible in Basic English: And on the seventh day God came to the
end of all his work; and on the seventh day he took his rest from
all the work which he had done.
Douay-Rheims Bible: And on the seventh day God ended his work
which he had made: and he rested on the seventh day from all his
work which he had done.
Darby Bible Translation: And God had finished on the seventh
day his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day
from all his work which he had made.
English Revised Version: And on the seventh day God finished his
work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from
all his work which he had made.
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earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them, and rested on the
seventh day: therefore the Lord blessed the seventh day, and
sanctified it.
Darby Bible Translation: For in six days Jehovah made the
heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested
on the seventh day; therefore Jehovah blessed the sabbath day, and
hallowed it.
English Revised Version: for in six days the LORD made heaven
and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh
day: wherefore the LORD blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed
it.
Jewish Publication Society Tanakh: for in six days the LORD
made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested
on the seventh day; wherefore the LORD blessed the sabbath day,
and hallowed it.
Webster's Bible Translation: For in six days the LORD made
heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested the
seventh day: wherefore the LORD blessed the sabbath-day, and
hallowed it.
World English Bible: for in six days Yahweh made heaven and
earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested the seventh day;
therefore Yahweh blessed the Sabbath day, and made it holy.
Young's Literal Translation: for six days hath Jehovah made the
heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and resteth
in the seventh day; therefore hath Jehovah blessed the Sabbathday, and doth sanctify it.
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APPENDIX XVI.
Targum literature.
The Targum literature includes:
(a) The two Targums to the Pentateuch and to the Prophets
respectively, which received the official sanction of the
Babylonian academic authorities. Both originated in Palestine, and
received their final form in the Babylonian colleges of the third
and fourth centuries. That to the Pentateuch, owing to the
misunderstanding of a statement concerning the Bible translation
made by Akylas (Aquila), was denominated the Targum of
Onkelos ('Akylas). That to the Prophets is ascribed by ancient
tradition to a disciple of Hillel, Jonathan b. Uzziel:
(b) The Palestinian Targum to the Pentateuch, the full text of
which has come down to us only in a late recension, where it has
been combined with the Targum Onkelos. Instead of being called
by its proper name, Targum Yerushalmi, this full text had
erroneously been called by the name of Jonathan. A less
interpolated form of the Targum Yerushalmi to the Pentateuch
revealed numerous fragments that must have been collected at an
early period. There are also Palestinian fragments of the Targum
to the Prophets.[On a peculiar Targum to the Hafarot, see R.
Gotthell, "Journal of Amer. Orient Soc. Proceedings," xiv. 43;
Abrahams, "Jew. Quart. Rev." xi. 295; "Monatsschrift," xxxix.
394.G.]
(c) The Targums to the Hagiographa vary greatly in character. A
special group is formed by those of the Psalms and Job. According
to well-founded tradition there was as early as the first half of the
first century of the common era a Targum to Job. The Targum to
Proverbs belongs, as already mentioned, to the Syrian version of
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the Bible. The Five Rolls had their own Targums; the Book of
Esther several of them. The Targum to Chronicles was discovered
latest of all.
(3) Aramaic Apocrypha: There was at least a partial Aramaic
translation of the book of Sirach as early as the time of the
Amoraim. A portion of the Aramaic sentences of Sirach,
intermingled with othermatter, is extant in the "Alphabet of Ben
Sira." The Aramaic "Book of the Hasmonean House," also entitled
"Antiochus' Roll," contains a narrative of the Maccabeans'
struggles, and was known in the early gaonic period. A "Chaldaic"
Book of Tobit was utilized by Jerome, but the Aramaic Book of
Tobit found by Neubauer, and published in 1878, is a later
revision of the older text. An Aramaic Apocryphal addition to
Esther is the "Dream of Mordecai," of Palestinian origin.
(4) Megillat Ta'anit, the Fast Roll, is a list of the historically
"memorable days," drawn up in almanac form. It was compiled
before the destruction of the Second Temple, edited in the
Hadrianic period, and later on augmented by various Hebrew
annotations mostly of the tannaitic age.
(5) The Palestinian Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi), completed in
the beginning of the fifth century.
(6) The Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Babli), completed at the end
of the fifth century. The Aramaic contents of both Talmuds are the
most important and also the most abundant remains of the
Aramaic idiom used by the Jews of Palestine and Babylonia
respectively. The numerous stories, legends, anecdotes,
conversations, and proverbs reveal faithfully the actual language
of the popular usage. Neither Talmud is, however, entirely an
Aramaic work. As the utterances of the Amoraim and their halakic
discussions retain a great deal of the New Hebrew idiom of the
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APPENDIX XVII.
Jewish Encyclopedia on Targum Onkelos.
In addition to the complete Palestinian Targum (pseudo-Jonathan)
there exist fragments of the Palestinian Targum termed "Targum
Yerushalmi"; but of these fragments, comprised under the generic
term "Fragment-Targum," only those were until recently known
which were first published in Bomberg's "Biblia Rabbinica" in
1518 on the basis of Codex Vaticanus No. 440. A few years ago,
however, Ginsburger edited under the title "Das
Fragmententhargum" (Berlin, 1899) a number of other fragments
from manuscript sources, especially from Codex Parisiensis No.
110, as well as the quotations from the Targum Yerushalmi found
in ancient authors. This work rendered a large amount of
additional material available for the criticism of the Palestinian
Targum, even though a considerable advance had already been
made by Bassfreund in his "Fragmenten-Targum zum Pentateuch"
(see "Monatsschrift," 1896, xl.).
The general views concerning the Palestinian Targum and its
relation to Onelos have been modified but slightly by these new
publications. Although the relation of the Targum Yerushalmi to
Onelos has already been discussed, it may be added here that the
complete Palestinian Targum, as it is found in the pseudoJonathan, is not earlier than the seventh century; for it mentions
Ayeshah ('A'ishah) (or, according to another reading, Khadija
[adijah]) and Fatima, the wife and daughter of Mohammed, as
wives of Ishmael, who was regarded as Mohammed's ancestor.
It originated, moreover, at a period when the Targum Onelos was
exercising its influence on the Occident; for the redactor of the
Palestinian Targum in this form combined many passages of the
two translations as they now exist in the Targum Yerushalmi and
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CODEX AMBROSIANUS
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GLOSSARY
A simple glossary will be added to the final edition of this paper.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For some of the text in Aramaic and Hebrew I have utilized the
fonts Estrangelo, kindly provided by Paul Younan available
from Peshitta.org, and Levistam, kindly provided by Stephen
Silver from Dukhrana.com.
This is not the final version of this paper, and therefore may
contain typos and areas where clarification is necessary.
Please feel free to send feedback and notification of typos.
manuscritosarameos at gmail dot com
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