Vijayanagara literature

Chalukya pillars and dravida vimana, Hampi

Vijayanagara literature was produced in the

Vijayanagara Empire during a golden age of literature in South India in general. The rulers patronised
Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit and Tamil scholars who
wrote in the Jain, Virashaiva and Vaishnava traditions.
The period produced hundreds of works on all aspects
of Indian culture, religion, biographies, Prabhandas
(stories), music, grammar, poetics and medicine. An
attempt is made in this section to list the various poets
and saints and their most famous works.

Kannada

courtyard pillars Hampi

Main article: Kannada literature in Vijayanagara empire

Kannada literature took a strong Hindu bent with the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings.[1][2][3][4] Some eminent names were Kumara Vyasa, Narahari, BhimaKavi,
Padmanaka, Mallanarya, Singiraja and Chamarasa.

1.1

nakaravarni wrote Bharatesha Vaibhava, Triloka Sataka,

Aparajitasataka and Someswara Sataka, Ayatavarma
wrote Ratnakarandaka in Champu style (mixed proseverse form), Vrittivilasa wrote Dharmaparikshe and
Sastrasara, Kalyanakirti wrote the Jnanachandrabhyudaya (1439) and Vijayanna wrote the Dvadasanuprekshe
(1448), Mangarasa III wrote Jayanripa-Kavya and other
writings, Santarasa wrote Yogaratnakara.

Jain poets

Among Jaina poets, Madhura patronised by Harihara II

and Deva Raya I wrote Dharmanathapurana, Vritta Vilasa wrote Dharmaparikshe and Sastrsara, Bhaskara of
Penugonda who wrote Jinadharacharite (1424), Bommarasa of Terkanambi wrote Santakumaracharite and
Kotesvara of Tuluvadesa wrote on the life of Jivandharaja in Shatpadi metre (seven line metre). Bahubali
Pandita (1351) of Sringeri wrote the Dharmanathapurana. Jainism ourished in Tuluva country and there Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda wrote Kavyasara, Salva wrote
Jaina version of Bharata in Shatpadi metre and Rasaratnakara, Nemanna wrote Jnanabhaskaracharite, Rat-

1.2 Shaiva poets

Veerashaiva literature saw a renaissance during this
period.
Singiraja wrote Singirajapurana and Malabasavaraja Charitra, Mallanarya of Gubbi who was patronised by Krishnadevaraya wrote Veerasaivamrita Purana (1530), Bhavachintaratna (1513) and Satyendra
Cholakathe. Deva Raya II patronised several Virashaivas
like Lakkana Dandesa who wrote Shivatatwa Chintamani, Chamarasa who wrotePrabhulinga Leele, Jakka1

2 TELUGU

narya wrote Nurondushthala. Guru Basava wrote seven metre of Battisaputtalikathe). Krishnadevarayana Diworks, six in Shatpadi metre called Saptakavya including nachari is a recent discovery. The Vijayanagar period
the Shivayoganga Bhushana and the Avadhutagite. Shiv- continued the ancient tradition of Kannada literature.
agna Prasadi Mahadevayya and Halageyadeva were famous for their Shunya Sampadane.
Kallumathada Prabhuva, Jakkanna, Maggeya Mayideva,
Tontada Siddalingayati were other noted Vachanakaras
(writers of Vachana poetry). Bhimakavi wrote Basavapurana (1369) and Padmanaka authored Padmarajapurana. Tontada Siddesvara, guru of Virupaksha Raya
II authored 700 Vachanas called Shatsthalajnanamrita.
Virakta Tontadarya wrote Siddhesvarapurana, Nijaguna
Shivayogi wrote Anubhavasara, Sivayogapradipika and
Vivekacintamani. Viruparaja wrote a Sangatya (literary composition to be sung with a musical instrument) on life of King Cheramanka, Virabhadraraja
wrote ve Satakas, a Virashaiva doctrine and morals
and Virabhadra-Vijaya. Sarvajnamurti wrote Sarvajnapadagalu, Chandra Kavi wrote Virupakshasthana,
Bommarasa wrote Saundara purana, Kallarasa wrote
Janavasya (also called Madanakatilaka), Nilakhantacharya wrote Aradhyacharitra, Chaturmukha Bommarasa wrote Revanasiddhesvara Purana, Suranga Kavi
wrote the Trisashti-Puratanara-Charitre giving an account of the 63 devotees of Lord Shiva, Cheramanka
wrote the Cheramankavya, Chennabasavanka wrote the
Mahadeviyakkana-Purana, Nanjunda of Kikkeri wrote
the Bhairavesvara Kavya, Sadasiva Yogi wrote the
Ramanatha vilasa and Viarkta Tontadarya wrote the
Siddesvara-Purana and other works, Virupaksha Pandita
wrote Chennabasava-Prurana (1584).

1.4 Secular literature

King Deva Raya II was a poet and authored, in Kannada,
the Sobagina Sone, a collection of romantic stories in the
form of a narration by the author to his wife.[5] Manjaraja I a Jain authored a book on toxicology called Khagendramanidarpana, Abhinava Chandra wrote on veterinary sciences in Asva-vaidya, Sridharadeva wrote a
medical work called Vaidyamrita, Deparaja a Virashiava
wrote a collection of romances called Sobagina-sone,
Brahmin poet Manjaraja II wrote Manjaraja-Nighantu
(1398) was a metrical lexicon giving Kannada meanings
of Sanskrit words, Lingamantri authored the lexicon Kabbigarakaipidi, Viarkta Tontadarya wrote the lexicon Karnatakasabdamanjari, Devottama a Jain wrote a lexicon
Nanartharatnakara.

2 Telugu
2.1 Early Vijayanagar

The Vijayanagar period was the golden age of Telugu

literature.[1][4][6] Srinatha, who was respected as Kavi
Sarvabhouma(king of poets) in Telugu, and patronised
by many kings including the Kondavidu Reddy Kings,
1.3 Vaishnava poets
Velamas of Rachakonda and Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara wrote Marutratcharitra, Salivahana Saptasati, PanAmong Vaishnava scholars, Kumara Vyasa patronised ditaaradhyacharita, Sivaratri Mahatmya, Harivilasa, Bhiby Deva Raya II wrote Gadugina Bharata. This was makanda, Kashikhandam, Shringara Naishadham, Palalater completed by Timmanna Kavi as KrishnaRaya nati Veeracharitra, Sringaradipika and Kridabhiramam
Bharata (patronised by king Krishnadevaraya), Nara- over the subjects of history and mythology.
hari wrote Torave Ramayana. Other important works
were Bhagavatha by Chatu Vittalanatha who was pa- Bammera Potana translated Bhagavata purana into Teltronised by Krishnadevaraya and Achyuta Raya, Nala ugu and wrote Bhogini Dhandaka and VirabhadraViCharite, Haribhakthisara, Mohana Tarangini and Ra- jaya. Vemana wrote Satakas, moral and social poems,
madhanya Charitre by the great saint Kanakadasa, Dasa that became colloquial Telugu phrases. Annamacharya,
Sahithya and Keerthanas and thousands of Devaranama who was also patroned by Saluva Narasingaraya wrote
of kritanas in praise of Lord Venkateswara of
by Purandaradasa Kanakadasa, Sripadaraya, Vyasatirtha hundreds [7]
Tirupati.,
that became popular Telugu prayer songs.
and Vadirajatirtha. Nanjunda wrote Kumara Rama
His
wife
and
the rst known Telugu poet, Tallapalka TimCharita, Kereya Padmarasa wrote Padmaraja Purana.
makka
wrote
Subhadra Parinaya.
Kanakadasas Ramadhanya Charitre is considered a
unique work on class struggle. Linganna wrote Ke- Mallayya and Singayya together wrote Varahapuranamu
ladinripavijayam and Kavi Malla wrote Manmathavi- and Prabodhacandrodaya while Vishvanatha Nayani
jaya, Madhava wrote Madahaalankara (a translation of wrote Rayavachakamu. Nachanna Soma was patronDandis Sanskrit Kayvadarsha), Isvara Kavi also known ised by Bukka Raya I. Virabhadra Kavi translated the
as Bana Kavi wrote Kavijihva-Bandhana (a work on Jaimini Bharata and Sringara Shakuntala. Prema Raju
prosody), Sadananda Yogi wrote portions of Bhaga- Jakkana wrote Vikramarkacharita, a eulogy of the great
vata and Bharata, Tirumala Bhatta wrote the Sivagite king of Ujjain, Duggapalli Duggaya wrote Naciketaand Thimma wrote Navarasalankara, Ramendra wrote pakhyana, Durgagupta wrote Vishnupurana and Gaurana
the Saundarya-Katharatna (a metrical version in tripadi wrote Harishchandrapakhyana.

3.1

2.2

Advaita literature

Late Vijayanagar

During the reign of Krishnadevaraya Telugu culture and

literature ourished and reached their heyday. The great
emperor was himself a celebrated poet having composed
Amuktamalyada. In his court, eight Telugu poets were
regarded as the eight pillars of the literary assembly.
In the olden days, it was believed that eight elephants
were holding the earth in eight dierent directions. The
title Ashtadiggajas celebrates this belief and hence the
court was also called Bhuvana Vijayam (Conquest of the
World). The period of the Empire is known as Prabandha Period, because of the quality of the prabandha
literature produced during this time.
Among these eight poets, Allasani Peddana is considered to be the greatest and is given the title of
Andhra Kavita Pitamaha (the father of Telugu poetry). Svarocisha Sambhava or Manucharita is his popular prabandha work and was dedicated to Krishnadevaraya. Nandi Thimmana wrote Parijathapaharanam.
Madayyagari Mallana wrote Rajasekhara Charitramu.
Dhurjati wrote Kalahasti Mahatyamu and Ayyalaraju
Ramabhadrudu wrote Sakalakatha Sangraha and Ramaabhyudayamu. Pingali Surana wrote Raghava Pandaviyamu, Kalapurnodayam, Prabhavate Pradyamana'.
Raghavapandaveeyamu is a dual work with double meaning built into the text, describing both the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata. Kalapurnodayam(means full
bloom of art) has been treated as the rst original poetic novel in Telugu literature. Battumurthy
alias Ramarajabhushanudu wrote Kavyalankarasangrahamu, Vasucharitra, Narasabhupaliyam and Harischandranalopakhyanamu. Among these works the last one
is a dual work which tells simultaneously the story of
King Harishchandra and Nala and Damayanti. Tenali
Ramakrishna rst wrote Udbhataradhya Charitramu, a
Shaivite work. However, he converted to Vaishnavism
later and wrote Vaishnava devotional texts Panduranga
Mahatmyamu, and Ghatikachala Mahatmyamu. Tenali
Rama remains one of the most popular folk gures in India today, a quick-witted courtier ready even to outwit the
all-powerful emperor.
Other well-known poets were Sankusala Nrisimha Kavi,
who wrote KavikarnaRasayana, Chintalapudi Ellaya,
who wrote Radhamadhavavilasa and Vishnumayavilasa,
Molla, a poet wrote a version of Ramayana, Kamsali
Rudraya wrote Nirankusopakhyana, and Addanki Gangadhara wrote Basavapurana. Manumanchi Bhatta wrote
a scientic work called Hayalakshana Sastra.

3.1 Advaita literature

The Sangama dynasty patronised the Advaita saints of
the Sringeri order. Some important works from this period were Sayana's Vedartha Prakasha, Yajnatantra Sudhanidhi, Prayaschitra Sudhanidhi, Alankara Sudhanidhi,
Yajnatantra Sudhanidhi, Sarvadarshanasangraha, Purushartha Sudhanidhi, many lesser manuals called Sudhanidhis treating expiation (Prayaschitta), Yagnatantra
(vedic ritual) and Purushartha (aims of human endeavour). Madhva Vidyaranya, the spiritual force behind the founding empire wrote Parasara Madhaviya,
Rajakatenirnaya, Vivaranapremayasangarha and Jivanmuktiviveka, Bharathitirtha wrote Pancadasi, Sangitasara. Anandapurna wrote commentaries on KhandanaKhandakhadya, Brahmasiddhi, Vivarana and Nyayachandrika. . Isavara Dikshita patronised by Krisnhadevaraya wrote two commentaries on the Ramayana, a
Laghu and a Brihad Vivarana in Hemakuta.
Appaya Dikshita(15541626), a devotional poet wrote
commentaries on various schools of philosophies including Srikanthas Saivite Advaita. He was patroned by king
Chinna Bomman of Vellore, a subject of emperor Aliya
Rama Raya.[9] Some of his works are Siva Karnamitra
and Sivarka Manideepiaka.
Vallabhacharya(14791531), a great poet-philosopher
and the fame of the Madhurastakam was patroned by
Krishnadevarya and had written many other works like
Vyasa Sutra Bhashya, Jaimini Sutra Bhasya, Bhagavata
Tika Subodhini, Pushti Pravala Maryada and Siddhanta
Rahasya in Sanskrit.[10] He also stayed at Kashi and other
places in India, and so it is not known whether all of his
works were done during his stay at Vijayanagara.

3.2 Dvaita literature

Many of the Madhwa haridasas of the Udupi order not only held positions of rajguru to Vijayanagar kings, they also wrote several famous works of
dvaita vedanta. Famous among them were Jayatirtha,
Sripadaraya, Vyasatirtha.

Vyasatirtha (14601539), saint, esteemed master of religious discourse, follower of Tattvavada, philosophical
school of thought (desciple of Srimad Ananda Trtha)
wrote several works including Nyayamrita, Tarkatandava, and Tatparyachandrika, collectively known as
Vyasa-Traya. Some other notable works from him are
Bhedojjivana and Mandaramanjari commentaries. He
was patroned by Saluva Narasimha at Chandragiri and
later became a rajguru to Krishnadevaraya. He was also
the Guru of Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa, two out3 Sanskrit
standing luminaries of the Haridasa tradition, the former
[11]
Sanskrit literature was given patronage by the Vijayana- also the founder of modern Carnatic music.
gar kings.[1][4][8] The early kings of the Sangama dynasty Vadirajatirtha who was rajguru to Saluva Narasimha
patronised the Sringeri saints while the Saluva and Tuluva Deva Raya wrote Yuktimallika (a doctrine meant to
kings patronised the Madhva saints of Udupi.
critique the works of Sankaracahrya). Other promi-

5 NOTES

nent haridasas were Jayatirtha who earned the title Vamana Bhatta Bana patronised by Reddy king
Tikacharya (wrote two polemics namely Nyayasudha, Pedda Komati Vema of Kondavidu wrote VemabhuVadavali), Raghottamatirtha and Vijayindratirtha.
palacharita, Nalabhyudaya, Raghunathacharitakavya,
Parvathiparaniya and Kanakalekha Kalyana. Pedda
Komati himself authored Amarusataka and Saptasati
3.3 Secular literature
sara (a selection of 100 verses from king Halas Prakrit
anthology). Katayavema wrote commentaries on plays
Vidyaranya of Sringeri wrote Sangitasara, a treatise on by Kalidasa.
music. Kallinatha patronised by Mallikarjuna Raya wrote
on music and his grandson Rama Amatya who was patronised by Aliya Rama Raya also wrote Svaramelakalanidhi
4 Tamil
on music.
Praudha Devaraya wrote Ratiratna Pradipika, a book on
erotics. Sayana wrote Dhtuvtti, a book of Sanskrit
grammar. Sayana also wrote Ayurveda Sudhanidhi, on
traditional Indian medicine. Lakshmana Pandita wrote
another medicine book Vaidyaraja Vallabham.
Anandapurana Vidyasagara of Gokarna wrote
Vyakhyaratnavali during the rule of Harihara II.
Peda komati of Kondavidu wrote two works on poetics
and music called Sahityachintamani and Sangitachintamani. Komatis predecessor Kumaragiri of Kondavidu,
whose wife Lakumadevi is a dancer, wrote Vasantarajeeyam, a work on dance. Simhabhupala of Rachakonda
wrote Rasarnavasudhakara a treatise on rasa and
rules of dramaturgy. His court poet Visvesvara wrote
Chamatkarachandrika a work on rhetoric. Vamana
Bhatta wrote Sabhda Ratnakara, a dictionary with
phonetics. Vallabhacharya wrote Lilavati Ganita, a
treatise on mathematics.

3.4

Biographies and history

A family of poets called Dindimas from north Arcot

ourished from Harihara I to Achuta Devaraya. Rajanatha Dindima II wrote Saluvabhyudayam (poems on
the wars of Saluva Narasimha), Rajanatha Dindima III
wrote Achyutabhyudaya (also called as Achyutarayabhyudaya) on king Achyuta Raya. Gowda Dindima was
a well-known poet during this time and was defeated by
Srinatha, scholar in Telugu as well as Sanskrit.
Devanna Bhatta wrote Smriti Chandrika. Gangamba
Devi, a poet and queen wrote Madhura Vijayam, on her
husband Kamparayalus victory over Madurai Sultanate.
Tirumalamba Devi, also a poet wrote Varadambika Parinayam on Achyutadevarayas marriage.

Krishnadevaraya also patronised Tamil poet Harihara

who wrote Irusamaya vilakkam (an exposition on
saivism and Vaishnavism).[1][12] Other Tamil poets of
the Vijayanagar era were Arunagirinathar who wrote
Tiruppugazh containing more than 1360 songs in various meters and several songs in praise of Lord Muruga,
Svarupananda Deshika who wrote an anthology on the
philosophy of Advaita in his Sivaprakasap Perundirattu
and many poems like Paduturai, Nanavinoda Kalambakam, Mohavadaipparani and Annavadaipparani. His
pupil Tattuvaraya who wrote a short anthology called
Kurundirattu, Pugalendi, Jnanprakashar, Andari, Kacchiyappa Shivacharya wrote Kandapuranam and Ilanjuriyar were also patronised.

5 Notes
[1] Kamath (2001), pp 157-189
[2] Sastri (1955),pp 239-280, pp 355-366
[3] Narasimhacharya (1988), pp-21-23
[4] Arthikaje. Literary Activity, Art and Architecture. History of karnataka. OurKarnataka.Com. Retrieved 200612-31.
[5] Sinopoli (2003) p 131
[6] Sastri (1955), pp 239-280, pp 366-376
[7] Annamayya, a popular Carnatic music composer
[8] Sastri (1955), pp 239-280, pp 309-330

3.5

Other famous works from South India

[9] http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/
item.php?itemid=3249 Siva Advaita

Some of the kings themselvers are scholars.

Krishnadevaraya who patronised many poets, him- [10] Vallabhacharya
self an accomplished scholar wrote Madalasa Charita,
Satyavadu Parinaya and Rasamanjari and Jamba- [11] http://www.dvaita.org/scholars/vyasaraja/ Sri Vyaasa
vati Kalyana. King Devaraya I wrote Mahanataka
Trtha
Sudhanidhi. king Saluva Narasimha wrote Ramabhyu[12] Sastri (1955), pp 331-354
dayam.

References
Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise history of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter
books, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002)
OCLC: 7796041
Prof K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar,
1955, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002) ISBN 019-560686-8
Hampi, A Travel Guide, Department of Tourism, India, Good Earth publication, New Delhi 2003 ISBN
81-87780-17-7
R. Narasimhacharya, History of Kannada Literature, 1988, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,
Madras,1988, ISBN 81-206-0303-6
Carla M. Sinopoli, The Political Economy of Craft
Production: Crafting Empire in South India c.13501650, 2003, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521-82613-6
Arthikaje. Literary Activity, Art and Architecture. History of karnataka. OurKarnataka.Com.
Retrieved 2006-12-31.
Research on Vijayanagar empire by Robert Sewell

External links
Haridasas of Karnataka, C.R. Madhusudan Rao
Ashtadiggajalu and other telugu poets during Prabandha Period

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