Manuel Luis Quezon University

School of Graduate Studies

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PSYCHOLOGY
Quiapo, Manila, Philippines

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
First Semester SY 2014-2015

INTRODUCTION
Why do we remember people whom we met years ago, but
sometimes seem to forget what we learned in a course shortly after we
take the final exam (or worse, sometimes right before)? How do we
manage to carry on a conversation with one person at a party and
simultaneously eavesdrop on another more interesting conversation
taking place nearby? Why are people so often certain that they are
correct in answering a question when in fact they are not? These are
just three of the many questions that are addressed by the field of
cognitive psychology.
Cognitive

psychologists

study

how

people

perceive,

learn,

remember, and think. Although cognitive psychology is a unified field,

it draws on many other fields, most notably neuroscience, computer
science, linguistics, anthropology, and philosophy. Moreover, cognitive
psychology interacts with other fields within psychology, such as
psychobiology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and
clinical psychology.
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Cognitive psychologists study a wide range of psychological

phenomena such as perception, learning, memory, and thinking. In
addition, cognitive psychologists study seemingly less cognitively
oriented phenomena, such as emotion and motivation. In fact, almost
any topic of psychological interest may be studied from a cognitive
perspective.
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY DEFINED
Cognitive Psychology is the study of how people perceive, learn
and remember, and think about information. A cognitive psychologist
might study how people perceive various shapes, why they remember
some facts but forget others, or how they learn language (Sternberg,
2012).
Cognitive Psychology focuses on the study of how people think,
understand, and know. They emphasizes on learning how people
comprehend and represent the outside world within themselves and
how our ways of thinking about the world influence our behavior.

From a cognitive learning perspective, learning involves the

transformation of information in the environment into knowledge that
is stored in the mind. Learning occurs when new knowledge is acquired
or existing knowledge is modified by experience. Among the main
issues studied and discussed by cognitive psychologists are:
The cognitive theories present a positive view of development,
emphasizing conscious thinking.

The

cognitive

theories

(especially

Piagets

and

Vygotskys)

emphasize on the individuals active construction of understanding.

Piagets and Vygotskys theories underscore the importance of
examining developmental changes in childrens thinking.
The information processing theory offers detail descriptions of
cognitive processes.

In cognitive psychology, the ways of addressing fundamental

issues have changed, but many of the fundamental questions remain
much the same. Ultimately, cognitive psychologists hope to learn how
people think by studying how people have thoughts about thinking.
The progression of ideas often involves a dialectic. A dialectic is a
developmental process where ideas evolve over time through a pattern
of transformation. What is this pattern? In a dialectic:
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 A thesis is proposed. A thesis is a statement of belief. For example,

some people believe that human nature governs many aspects of
human behavior (e.g., intelligence or personality; Sternberg, 1999).
After a while, however, certain individuals notice apparent flaws in the
thesis.
An antithesis emerges. Eventually, or perhaps even quite soon, an
antithesis emerges. An antithesis is a statement that counters a
previous statement of belief. For example, an alternative view is that
our nurture (the environmental contexts in which we are reared)
almost entirely determines many aspects of human behavior.
A synthesis integrates the viewpoints. Sooner or later, the debate
between the thesis and the antithesis leads to a synthesis. A synthesis
integrates the most credible features of each of two (or more) views.
For example, in the debate over nature versus nurture, the interaction
between our innate (inborn) nature and environmental nurture may
govern human nature.
The dialectic is important because we may be tempted to think
that if one view is right, another seemingly contrasting view must be
wrong. For example, in the field of intelligence, there has been a
tendency to believe that intelligence is either all or mostly genetically
determined, or else all or mostly environmentally determined. A similar
debate has raged in the field of language acquisition. Often, we are
better off posing such issues not as either/or questions, but rather as
4

examinations of how different forces covary and interact with each

other. Indeed, the most widely accepted current contention is that the
nature or nurture view is incomplete. Nature and nurture work
together in our development.
Nurture can work in different ways in different cultures. Some
cultures, especially Asian cultures, tend to be more dialectical in their
thinking, whereas other cultures, such as European and North
American ones, tend to be more linear (Nisbett, 2003). In other words,
Asians are more likely to be tolerant of holding beliefs that are
contradictory, seeking a synthesis over time that resolves the
contradiction. Europeans and Americans expect their belief systems to
be consistent with each other.
Similarly, people from Asian cultures tend to take a different
viewpoint than Westerners when approaching a new object (e.g., a
movie of fish in an ocean; Nisbett & Masuda, 2003). In general, people
from Western cultures tend to process objects independently of the
context, whereas people from many Eastern cultures process objects in
conjunction with the surrounding context (Nisbett & Miyamoto, 2005).
Asians may emphasize the context more than the objects embedded in
those contexts. So if people see a movie of fish swimming around in
the ocean, Europeans or Americans will tend to pay more attention to
the fish, and Asians may attend to the surround of the ocean in which
the fish are swimming.
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The evidence suggests that culture influences many cognitive

processes, including intelligence (Lehman, Chiu, & Schaller, 2004). If a
synthesis seems to advance our understanding of a subject, it then
serves as a new thesis. A new antithesis then follows it, then a new
synthesis, and so on. Georg Hegel (17701831) observed this
dialectical progression of ideas. He was a German philosopher who
came to his ideas by his own dialectic. He synthesized some of the
views of his intellectual predecessors and contemporaries. You will see
that psychology also evolved as a result of dialectics: Psychologists
had ideas about how the mind works and pursued their line of
research; then other psychologists pointed out weaknesses and
developed alternatives as a reaction to the earlier ideas. Eventually,
characteristics of the different approaches are often integrated into a
newer and more encompassing approach.
PHILOSOPHICAL ANTECEDENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY
RATIONALISM VS EMPIRICIM
Rationalist believes that the route to knowledge is through
thinking and logical analysis. That is, a rationalist does not need any
experiments to develop new knowledge. A rationalist who is interested
in cognitive processes would appeal to reason as a source of
knowledge or justification.
An Empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical
evidence that is, we obtain evidence through experience and
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observation (Figure below). In order to explore how the human mind

works, empiricists would design experiments and conduct studies in
which they could observe the behavior and processes of interest to
them. Empiricism therefore leads directly to empirical investigations of
psychology.

(a) According to the rationalist, the only route to truth is reasoned

contemplation; (b) according to the empiricist, the only route to
truth is meticulous observation. Cognitive psychology, like other
sciences,

depends

on

the

work

of

both

rationalists

and

empiricists.

Psychological Antecedents of Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology has roots in many different ideas and
approaches. The approaches that will be examined include early
approaches such as structuralism and functionalism.

Understanding the Structure of the Mind: Structuralism

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Structuralism seeks to understand the structure (configuration of

elements) of the mind and its perceptions by analyzing those
perceptions into their constituent components (affection, attention,
memory, sensation, etc.).
Consider, for example, the perception of a flower. Structuralists
would analyze this perception in terms of its constituent colors,
geometric forms, size relations, and so on. In terms of the human mind,
structuralists sought to deconstruct the mind into its elementary
components; they were also interested in how those elementary
components work together to create the mind.
One of the methods used was introspection. Introspection is a
deliberate looking inward at pieces of information passing through
consciousness. The aim of introspection is to look at the elementary
components of an object or process.

Understanding the Processes of the Mind: Functionalism

Functionalism seeks to understand what people do and why they
do it. This principal question about processes was in contrast to that of
the structuralists, who had asked what the elementary contents
(structures) of the human mind are. Functionalists held that the key to
understanding the human mind and behavior was to study the
processes of how and why the mind works as it does, rather than to
study the structural contents and elements of the mind. They were
8

particularly interested in the practical applications of their research.

Functionalists were unified by the kinds of questions they asked but not
necessarily by the answers they found or by the methods they used for
finding those answers. Because functionalists believed in using
whichever methods best answered a given researchers questions, it
seems

natural

for

functionalism

to

have

led

to

pragmatism.

Pragmatists believe that knowledge is validated by its usefulness:

What can you do with it? Pragmatists are concerned not only with
knowing what people do; they also want to know what we can do with
our knowledge of what people do. For example, pragmatists believe in
the importance of the psychology of learning and memory. Why?
Because it can help us improve the performance of children in school.
It can also help us learn to remember the names of people we meet.

An Integrative Synthesis: Associationism

Associationism, like functionalism, was more of an influential way
of thinking than a rigid school of psychology. Associationism examines
how elements of the mind, like events or ideas, can become associated
with one another in the mind to result in a form of learning. For
example, associations may result from:
contiguity (associating things that tend to occur together at about
the same time);
similarity (associating things with similar features or properties); or
9

 contrast (associating things that show polarities, such as hot/cold,

light/dark, day/ night).
Key Themes in Cognitive Psychology
Remember, each of the topics in this text (perception, memory,
and so on) can be examined using these seven major themes in
cognitive psychology:
1. Nature versus nurture
Thesis/Antithesis: Which is more influential in human cognition
nature or nurture? If we believe that innate characteristics of human
cognition are more important, we might focus our research on studying
innate characteristics of cognition. If we believe that the environment
plays an important role in cognition,
we might conduct research exploring how distinctive characteristics of
the environment seem to influence cognition.
Synthesis: We can explore how covariations and interactions in the
environment (e.g., an impoverished environment) adversely affect
someone whose genes otherwise might have led to success in a
variety of tasks.
2. Rationalism versus empiricism
Thesis/Antithesis: How should we discover the truth about ourselves
and about the world around us? Should we do so by trying to reason
logically, based on what we already know? Or should we do so by

10

observing and testing our observations of what we can perceive

through our senses?
Synthesis: We can combine theory with empirical methods to learn
the most we can about cognitive phenomena.

3. Structures versus processes

Thesis/Antithesis:

Should

we

study

the

structures

(contents,

attributes, and products) of the human mind? Or should we focus on

the processes of human thinking?
Synthesis: We can explore how mental processes operate on mental
structures.

COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT

THEORY

AND

ITS

EFFECTS

ON

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The emergence of the Cognitive Development Theory took place
in the middle of the twentieth century after researchers began the
Cognitive Revolution in response to popular behaviorist theories. The
theory of cognitive development is a model of the evolution of thinking
abilities in people, particularly children, over time. The theory of
cognitive development is really a combination of many ideas by
different theorists that has evolved over time. As with most theories,
11

the theory of cognitive development is continuously being revised and

improved.
The two primary beliefs about learning and teaching today are
behaviorism and cognitivism. Behaviorists feel that learners are
passive in the learning process, while cognitive theorists believe that
learners actively seek out information to better understand their
environment In a cognitive sense learning is defined as the changing of
a persons mental perception of their environment which affects their
behavior. With the acceptance of theories of cognitive development
some of the older behaviorist theories have gone out of style. The
central premise of cognitive development is that learners are actively
engaged in their surroundings and attempt to process the information
they receive. Cognitive development is the interaction between the
learner and the environment. When a student is immersed in a
situation they will try to make sense of it and this does not always
mean that they will reason the situation appropriately. Depending upon
their stage of cognitive development a student may interpret the same
situation radically different (Kauchak, Eggen, & Carter, 2002).
Jean Piaget was one of the earliest proponents of the study of
cognitive development. Additionally, Piaget helped pioneer the study of
educational development and was one of cognitive developments
earliest, most famous and most out spoken philosophers. Happily,
unlike his decades pervious contemporary Sigmund Freud, Piaget was
12

more concerned with the way children learn rather than their
psychosexual development. The world only has room for one Freud.
Another great developmental theorist is the Russian psychologist, Lev
Vygotsky who is renowned for his study of the relationship between a
persons sociological factors and their psychological state.

Jean Piaget- Major Cognitive Development Theorist

Jean Piaget is celebrated for his stage theory which gained
popularity in the 1960s and 1970s (Flavell, et al. 1963). He has had
the foremost impact on the field of cognitive development to date,
although, like Freud, some of his principles have been criticized in
recent times due to more recent research. Piaget studied the
development

of

intelligence

extensively

and

concluded

that

intelligence is demonstrated by the way a person interacts with their

environment. Piagets theories, or Piagetian theories as they have
come to be known, can be organized into two groups: the theory of
adaptation and stages of development (Flavell, et al. 1963).
Adaptation theory asserts that each person is born with certain
reflexes that facilitate interaction with their environment. As the
individual matures, these reflexes are replaced by developing mental
processes that enable them to adapt to their environment Piaget
pictured cognitive development in conjunction with a biological

13

perspective. He proposed that two major values drive in cognitive

development and growth: adaptation and organization.
Adaptation
Piaget believed that people desire a state of cognitive balance.
Assimilation is the incorporation of new knowledge or information with
something is already known.
Accommodation is the alteration of actions or thoughts in response
something.
Organization refers to a persons natural inclination to organize
information into related categories. The most basic structure of
developmental organization is the system.
Piaget

claimed

that

learning

follows

development

and

that

development is inspired by cognitive divergence.

Piaget

proposed

four

chronological

stages

of

cognitive

development. According to Piaget a person must have social, physical,

and logical (i.e. mathematical) knowledge in order to be successful in
each of the cognitive development stages. Piaget defined the four
stages of development as:
(Piaget, 2001)
Sensorimotor: (0-2 yrs)
The earliest stage of development is when the child learns about
themselves and their environment through basic motor skills and
reflexes. At this stage the child should be able to separate aspects of
14

their environment from themselves. Movement facilitates knowledge

acquisition at this stage. An important facet of this stage is the concept
of object permanence. At around seven months infants begin to
understand the idea that objects continue to exist even when they
cannot be seen.

Preoperational: (2-7yrs)
The second stage of development the child should begin about the
time the child begins to talk. At this stage the child tends to personify
objects, but is better able to comprehend that things which are not
present still exist. The child will have some difficulty in comprehending
the presence of time and is influenced by fantasy. He or she takes in
information and then changes it to fit his ideas-cognitive development
is happening

Concrete: (7-11 yrs)

During the third stage of Piagets theory of cognitive development the
child develops the capability of abstract thinking and rational assessing
with out physically manipulating the subject.
Formal Operations: (11-15 yrs)
The final stage of Piagetian development is characterized by the
presence of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. A child in the fourth

15

stage of development will be able to consider many possibilities from a

variety of perspectives.
One weakness of Piagets stages is that he neglects to explain how and
why a child progresses from one stage to another. Since his initial
proposal of the four stages of development, subsequent developmental
theorists have expounded on his original ideas.

Lev Vygotsky- Major Cognitive Development Theorist

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist and contemporary of
Jean Piaget. Vygotsky is well known for his theoretical question, How is
information from the external world transformed and internalized?
(Slavin, 1994). Vygotsky hypothesized that people encode and
represent our world through language, also known as Second Signal
System. According to him, language is a symbolic system by which we
communicate as well as a cultural tool. Vygotsky held that language
has

two

primary

purposes:

communication

and

regulation.

Communication is used in the passing of history and culture between

individuals and groups. Regulation is the principal of control over ones
behavior. The goal of development is to take a person from being
externally regulated, such as by parents or teachers, to self-regulated
(Slavin, 1994).
Vygotsky (1978) stated that social interaction is vital to the
transformation

and

internalization
16

processes.

He

argued

that

development initially occurs on the social plane. According to this

belief, the child first observes the parents then tried to imitate them.
The parents then guide the child in their efforts at imitation. Later the
child develops an internal plane, when language becomes internalized,
i.e. thinking to yourself or inner speech.
Vygotsky also had an interest in human intellectual development.
Vygotsky (1978) claimed that individuals have a set range of potential
learning Scaffolding, the process of guiding a learner from the currently
known to new material, occurs in the Zone of Proximal Development
which is defined as the range between the current development level
and the potential development level (Vygotsky, 1978). He believed that
learners

would

regard

person

with

more

understanding

or

intelligence as the More Knowledgeable Other and would seek out their
connection to gain deeper understanding (Vygotsky, 1978). Lev
Vygotsky held that society and culture are central to cognitive
development as expounded in his social development theory. He saw
social interaction as the structural plane on which all learning and
development takes place.
This principle asserts that all higher mental functions must be
filtered through the external consciousness in the form of social
context first. After an external assessment is made, the subject begins
to internalize the ideals of society into their own consciousness and
use those judgments in decision making. As a result of this, Vygotsky
17

held that all higher functions initiate as interpersonal relationships

between individuals (1978). Vygotsky (1978) supposed that two levels
of mental processing are present in people: elementary and higher.
Elementary mental functions are instinctual, meaning people are born
with them. Higher mental functions are formed from response to
stimuli.
Comparisons and Contrasts Between Piaget and Vygotsky
Both Piaget and Vygotsky were constructivists. Constructivism is based
on the idea that cognition is the result of a mental construction (Cole &
Wertsch, 1996). To simplify this means that people learn by fitting new
information in with what they already know. Constructivists propose
that cognitive development and learning is directly affected by the
context in which the information is presented. Both Piaget and
Vygotsky held that society influenced the boundaries of cognitive
growth. Additionally, they both believed that cognitive development
could result from cognitive conflict (Cole & Wertsch, 1996).
While Piaget's theory has four distinct stages, Vygotsky held that there
are no set stages at all. Piaget believed that development stems from
the individual to society, while Vygotsky believed that development
headed from society to the individual (Solso, 1995).
Impact on the Classroom
Since students attempt to gain understanding from their surroundings,
teachers must overcome preconceived ideas that students may have
18

formed earlier and may or may not be accurate. Students are actively
engaged

learners

who

dynamically

seek

to

understand

the

environment around them. Students will link any new information to

what they feel they already know. If a student believes they have
knowledge and that knowledge is incorrect, then the teacher will have
to either re-teach the original subject matter or find some other way to
overcome that barrier. With the emergence of newer theories, such as
the Cognitive Development Theory, teachers are learning that they
need to provide purposeful examples and presentations in order to
engage the active learner (Kauchak, Eggen, & Carter, 2002). Educators
face difficulties in getting children to learn specific information,
concepts and skills in ways that the children will be able to understand
and retain for use later in life, because the children are already actively
engaged in the learning process, these concepts must be taught to
them correctly and in conjunction with what the students are already
perceiving (Savin, 2006).
Because there are numerous theories it is impossible to follow a
single set of recommendations when using a construnctivistic
approach in the classroom. The most important thing is the
development of meaning rather than many meaningless facts which
will be forgotten quickly. It is important to apply only the theories that
relate to the particular student.

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Teachers and school systems could use either Vygotsky or Piagets

theories of cognitive development, separately or in conjunction with
one another. For example a school teacher may review and use
Piagets stages of development in order to determine how to relate to a
child of a particular age group. Another teacher could use Vygotsky's
cognitive theory of social development to justify the recommended
socialization of students with varying knowledge levels to increase the
knowledge of those students on the lower end of the knowledge
spectrum by means of peer learning.
Cognitive development is vital to the learning and thinking methods of
children; as such, it is crucial to know in an effort to effectively teach
those children. The insights of Vygotsky and Piaget provide teachers
with possible ways children learn. By utilizing those theories it would
be possible to enhance current teaching methods and to create an
environment more conducive to learning.
Piaget (2001) strongly advocates waiting for the student to be ready to
learn new information before presenting it. This would be useful in
determining when to introduce a particular piece of coursework.
Whether using one of Piagets theories or Vygotskys theories both
theorists suggest connecting previous knowledge to new material in
order for the new information to be retained.

OTHER COGNITIVE THEORIES

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Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such

as

motivation,

problem

solving,

decision-making,

thinking,

and

attention.

4 Explanations for Forgetting

Attention

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Left Brain vs. Right Brain Dominance

Memory

Perceptual Organization

Theories of Intelligence

Information Processing Theory

The Schema Theory

EXPLANATIONS FOR FORGETTING

REASONS WHY WE FORGET
What are some of the major reasons why we forget information? One of
today's best known memory researchers, Elizabeth Loftus, has
identified four major reasons why people forget: retrieval failure,
interference, failure to store, and motivated forgetting.
1. Retrieval Failure

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Have you ever felt like a piece of information has just vanished from
memory? Or maybe you know that it's there, you just can't seem to
find it. The inability to retrieve a memory is one of the most common
causes of forgetting.
So why are we often unable to retrieve information from memory. One
possible explanation retrieval failure is known as decay theory.
According to this theory, a memory trace is created every time a new
theory is formed. Decay theory suggests that over time, these memory
traces begin to fade and disappear. If information is not retrieved and
rehearsed, it will eventually be lost.
One problem with this theory, however, is that research has
demonstrated that even memories which have not been rehearsed or
remembered are remarkably stable in long-term memory.
2. Interferance
Another theory known as interference theory suggests that some
memories

compete

and

interfere

with

other

memories.

When

information is very similar to other information that was previously

stored in memory, interference is more likely to occur.
There are two basic types of interference:

Proactive interference is when an old memory makes it more

difficult or impossible to remember a new memory.

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Retroactive

interference

occurs

when

new

information

interferes with your ability to remember previously learned

information.
3. Failure to Store
Sometimes, losing information has less to do with forgetting and more
to do with the fact that it never made it into long-term memory in the
first place. Encoding failures sometimes prevent information from
entering long-term memory.
In one well-known experiment, researchers asked participants to
identify the correct U.S. penny out of a group of incorrect pennies
(Nickerson & Adams). Try doing this experiment yourself by attempting
to draw a penny from memory, and then compare your results to an
actual penny.
How well did you do? Chances are that you were able to remember the
shape and color, but you probably forgot other minor details. The
reason for this is that only details necessary for distinguishing pennies
from other coins were encoded into your long-term memory.

4. Motivated Forgetting
Sometimes, we may actively work to forget memories, especially those
of traumatic or disturbing events or experiences. The two basic forms
of motivated forgetting are: suppression, a conscious form of
forgetting, and repression, an unconscious form of forgetting.
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However, the concept of repressed memories is not universally

accepted by all psychologists. One of the problems with repressed
memories is that it is difficult, if not impossible, to scientifically study
whether or not a memory has been repressed. Also note that mental
activities such as rehearsal and remembering are important ways of
strengthening a memory, and memories of painful or traumatic life
events are far less likely to be remembered, discussed, or rehearsed.
THEORY ON ATTENTION
Attention is a concept studied in cognitive psychology that refers to
how

we

actively

process

specific

information

present

in

our

environment. As you are reading this, there are numerous sights,

sounds and sensations going on around you the pressure of your feet
against the floor, the sight of the street out of a nearby window, the
soft warmth of your shirt, the memory of a conversation you had
earlier with a friend. How do we manage to experience all of these
sensations and still focus on just one element of our environment?
According to psychologist and philosopher William James, attention "is
the taking possession of the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of
what may seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of
thoughtsIt implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal
effectively with others."
Think of attention as a highlighter. As you read through a section of
text in a book, the highlighted section stands out, causing you to focus
24

your interest on that area. Attention allows you to "tune out"

information, sensations and perceptions that are not relevant at the
moment and instead focus your energy on the information that is
important.
References:
James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. New York: Holt.

THEORY ON COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

People tend to seek consistency in their beliefs and perceptions. So
what happens when one of our beliefs conflicts with another previously
held belief? The term cognitive dissonance is used to describe the
feeling of discomfort that results from holding two conflicting beliefs.
When there is a discrepancy between beliefs and behaviors, something
must change in order to eliminate or reduce the dissonance.
How exactly does cognitive dissonance work and how does it influence
how we think and behave?
Psychologist Leon Festinger proposed a theory of cognitive dissonance
centered

on how

people

try

to

reach

internal

consistency.

He

suggested that people have an inner need to ensure that their beliefs
and behaviors are consistent. Inconsistent or conflicting beliefs leads to
disharmony, which people strive to avoid.
In his book A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Festinger explained,
"Cognitive dissonance can be seen as an antecedent condition which
25

leads to activity oriented toward dissonance reduction just as hunger

leads toward activity oriented toward hunger reduction. It is a very
different motivation from what psychologists are used to dealing with
but, as we shall see, nonetheless powerful."
The amount of dissonance people experience can depend on a few
different factors, including how highly we value a particular belief and
the degree to which our beliefs are inconsistent.
Cognitive dissonance can often have a powerful influence on our
behaviors and actions. Let's start by looking at some examples of how
this works.
Examples of Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance can occur in many areas of life, but it is
particularly evident in situations where an individual's behavior
conflicts with beliefs that are integral to his or her self-identity. For
example, consider a situation in which a man who places a value on
being environmentally responsible just purchased a new car that he
later discovers does not get great gas mileage.
The conflict:

It is important for the man to take care of the environment.

He is driving a car that is not environmentally-friendly.

In order to reduce this dissonance between belief and behavior, he has

a few difference choices. He can sell the car and purchase another one
that gets better gas mileage or he can reduce his emphasis on
26

environmental-responsibility. In the case of the second option, his

dissonance could be further minimized by engaging in actions that
reduce the impact of driving a gas-guzzling vehicle, such as utilizing
public transportation more frequently or riding his bike to work on
occasion.
A more common example of cognitive dissonance occurs in the
purchasing decisions we make on a regular basis. Most people want to
hold the belief that they make good choices. When a product or item
we purchase turns out badly, it conflicts with our previously existing
belief about our decision-making abilities.

More Examples

"The person who continues to smoke, knowing that it is bad for

his health, may also feel (a) he enjoys smoking so much it is
worth it; (b) the chances of his health suffering are not as serious
as some would make out; (c) he can't always avoid every
possible dangerous contingency and still live; and (d) perhaps
even if he stopped smoking he would put on weight which is
equally bad for his health. So, continuing to smoke is, after all,
consistent with his ideas about smoking."(Festinger, 1957)

"Imagine that you prepared at great length for a dinner party at

your home. You constructed the guest list, sent out the
27

invitations, and prepared the menu. Nothing was too much effort
for your party: you went to the store, prepared the ingredients,
and cooked for hours, all in anticipation of how pleasant the
conversation and people would be. Except it wasn't. The guests
arrived late, the conversations were forced, and the food was
slightly overcooked by the time all of your guests arrived. The
anticipation and excitement of the great time you were going to
have are discordant with your observation of the evening. The
pieces do not fit. You're upset, partly because the evening did not
go well, but also because of the inconsistency between your
expectation and your experience. You are suffering from the
uncomfortable,

unpleasant

state

of

cognitive

dissonance."(Cooper, 2007)
How to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance
There are three key strategies to reduce or minimize cognitive
dissonance:

Focus on more supportive beliefs that outweigh the dissonant

belief or behavior

Reduce the importance of the conflicting belief

Change the conflicting belief so that it is consistent with other

beliefs or behaviors

Why is Cognitive Dissonance Important?

28

Cognitive

dissonance

plays

role

in

many

value

judgments,

decisions, and evaluations. Becoming aware of how conflicting beliefs

impact the decision-making process is a great way to improve your
ability to make faster and more accurate choices.
Observations

"The basic hypothesis I wish to state are as follows: 1. The

existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable,
will motivate the person to try to reduce the dissonance and
achieve consonance. 2. When dissonance is present, in addition
to trying to reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and
information

which

would

likely

increase

the

dissonance."(Festinger, 1957)

"Festinger's insistence that cognitive dissonance was like a drive

that needed to be reduced implied that people were going to
have to find some way of resolving their inconsistencies. People
do not just prefer eating over starving; we are driven to eat.
Similarly, people who are in the throes of inconsistency in their
social life are driven to resolve that inconsistency. How we go
about dealing with our inconsistency can be rather ingenious.
But, in Festinger's view, there is little question that it will be
done."(Cooper, 2007)

29

Have you ever heard people say that they tend to be more of a rightbrain or left-brain thinker? From books to television programs, you've
probably heard the phrase mentioned numerous times or perhaps
you've even taken an online test to determine which type best
describes you. Given the popularity of the idea of "right brained" and
"left brained" thinkers, it might surprise you learn learn that this idea is
just one of many myths about the brain.
LEFT BRAIN - RIGHT BRAIN THEORY?
According to the theory of left-brain or right-brain dominance, each
side of the brain controls different types of thinking. Additionally,
people are said to prefer one type of thinking over the other. For
example, a person who is "left-brained" is often said to be more logical,
analytical, and objective, while a person who is "right-brained" is said
to be more intuitive, thoughtful, and subjective.
In psychology, the theory is based on what is known as the
lateralization of brain function. So does one side of the brain really
control specific functions? Are people either left-brained or rightbrained? Like many popular psychology myths, this one grew out of
observations about the human brain that were then dramatically
distorted and exaggerated.
The right brain-left brain theory originated in the work of Roger W.
Sperry, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1981. While studying the
effects of epilepsy, Sperry discovered that cutting the corpus collosum
30

(the structure that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) could
reduce or eliminate seizures.
However, these patients also experienced other symptoms after the
communication pathway between the two sides of the brain was cut.
For example, many split-brain patients found themselves unable to
name objects that were processed by the right side of the brain, but
were able to name objects that were processed by the left-side of the
brain. Based on this information, Sperry suggested that language was
controlled by the left-side of the brain.
Later research has shown that the brain is not nearly as dichotomous
as once thought. For example, recent research has shown that abilities
in subjects such as math are actually strongest when both halves of
the brain work together. Today, neuroscientists know that the two sides
of the brain work together to perform a wide variety of tasks and that
the two hemispheres communicate through the corpus collosum.
"No matter how lateralized the brain can get, though, the two sides still
work together," science writer Carl Zimmer explained in an article for
Discover magazine. "The pop psychology notion of a left brain and a
right brain doesnt capture their intimate working relationship. The left
hemisphere specializes in picking out the sounds that form words and
working out the syntax of the words, for example, but it does not have
a monopoly on language processing. The right hemisphere is actually

31

more sensitive to the emotional features of language, tuning in to the

slow rhythms of speech that carry intonation and stress."
In one study by researchers at the University of Utah, more 1,000
participants had their brains analyzed in order to determine if they
preferred using one side over the other. The study revealed that while
activity was sometimes higher in certain important regions, both sides
of the brain were essentially equal in their activity on average.
Its absolutely true that some brain functions occur in one or the other
side of the brain. Language tends to be on the left, attention more on
the right. But people dont tend to have a stronger left- or right-sided
brain network. It seems to be determined more connection by
connection," explained the study's lead author Dr. Jeff Anderson.
While the idea of right brain / left brain thinkers has been debunked, its
popularity persists. So what exactly did this theory suggest?
The Right Brain
According to the left-brain, right-brain dominance theory, the right side
of the brain is best at expressive and creative tasks. Some of the
abilities that are popularly associated with the right side of the brain
include:

Recognizing faces

Expressing emotions

Music

Reading emotions
32

Color

Images

Intuition

Creativity

The Left Brain

The left-side of the brain is considered to be adept at tasks that involve
logic, language and analytical thinking. The left-brain is often described
as being better at:

Language

Logic

Critical thinking

Numbers

Reasoning

So Why Do People Still Talk About Right-Brain, Left-Brain

Theory?
Researchers have demonstrated that right-brain/left-brain theory is a
myth, yet its popularity persists. Why? Unfortunately many people are
likely unaware that the theory is outdated. Today, students might
continue to learn about the theory as a point of historical interest - to
understand how our ideas about how the brain works have evolved and

33

changed over time as researchers have learned more about how the
brain operates.
While over-generalized and overstated by popular psychology and selfhelp texts, understanding your strengths and weaknesses in certain
areas can help you develop better ways to learn and study. For
example,

students

who

have

difficult

time

following

verbal

instructions (often cited as a right-brain characteristic) might benefit

from writing down directions and developing better organizational
skills. The important thing to remember if you take one of the many
left brain/right brain quizzes that you will likely encounter online is that
they are entirely for fun and you shouldn't place much stock in your
results.
References
Nielsen, J. A., Zielinski, B. A., Ferguson, M. A., Lainhart, J. E., &
Anderson, J. S. (2013). An evaluation of the left-brain vs. right brain
hypothesis
resonance

with

resting

imaging.

state

functional

<i>PLOS

connectivity
One</i>.

magnetic
Retrieved

fromhttp://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi
%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0071275
Rogers, M. (2013). Researchers debunk myth of "right brain" and "leftbrain" personality traits. University of Utah, Office of Public Affairs.
Retrieved

from

http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi

%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0071275
34

THEORY ON MEMORY
An Overview of Memory and How it Works
Have you ever wondered how you manage to remember information
for a test? The ability to create new memories, store them for periods
of time, and recall them when they are needed allows us to learn and
interact with the world around us. Consider for a moment how many
times a day you rely on your memory to help you function, from
remembering how to use your computer to recollecting your password
to log-in to your online bank account.
The study of human memory has been a subject of science and
philosophy for thousands of years and has become one of the major
topics of interest within cognitive psychology. But what exactly is
memory? How are memories formed? The following overview offers a
brief look at what memory is, how it works, and how it is organized.
What is Memory?
Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain,
and later retrieve information. There are three major processes
involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
In order to form new memories, information must be changed into a
usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding.
Once information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in
memory for later use. Much of this stored memory lies outside of our
35

awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it.
The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious
awareness.
The Stage Model of Memory
While several different models of memory have been proposed, the
stage model of memory is often used to explain the basic structure and
function of memory. Initially proposed in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin,
this theory outlines three separate stages of memory: sensory
memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this
stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a
very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a halfsecond for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory
information. We attend to only certain aspects of this sensory
memory, allowing some of this information to pass into the next
stage - short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the
information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In
Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the
conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates
the information in short-term memory. Most of the information
36

stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30

seconds. While many of our short-term memories are quickly
forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue on
the next stage - long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory
Long-term

memory

refers

to

the

continuing

storage

of

information. In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be

called the preconscious and unconscious. This information is
largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into working
memory to be used when needed. Some of this information is
fairly easy to recall, while other memories are much more
difficult to access.

The Organization of Memory

The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory
allows us to actually use these memories to make decisions, interact
with others, and solve problems. But how is information organized in
memory? The specific way information is organized in long-term
memory is not well understood, but researchers do know that these
memories are arranged in groups.
Clustering is used to organize related information into groups.
Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and
recall. For example, consider the following group of words:
37

Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum, table, green, pineapple, purple,

chair, peach, yellow
Spend a few seconds reading them, then look away and try to recall
and list these words. How did you group the words when you listed
them? Most people will list using three different categories: color,
furniture and fruit.
One way of thinking about memory organization is known as the
semantic network model. This model suggests that certain triggers
activate associated memories. A memory of a specific place might
activate memories about related things that have occurred in that
location. For example, thinking about a particular campus building
might trigger memories of attending classes, studying, and socializing
with peers.

GESTALT LAWS OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

Have you ever noticed how a series of flashing lights often appears to
be moving, such as neon signs or strands of Christmas lights?
According to Gestalt psychology, this apparent movement happens
because our minds fill in missing information. This belief that the whole
is greater than the sum of the individual parts led to the discovery of
several different phenomena that occur during perception.
The image on the left illustrates the law of closure, which states that
objects tend to be seen as part of a whole. There are no circles or
38

triangles in this image, but our minds fill in the missing information to
create these shapes.

Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology was founded by German thinkers Max Wertheimer,
Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka and focused on how people interpret
the world. The Gestalt perspective formed partially as a response to
the structuralism of Wilhelm Wundt, who focused on breaking down
mental events and experiences to the smallest elements. Max
Wertheimer noted that rapid sequences of perceptual events, such as
rows of flashing lights, create the illusion of motion even when there is
none. This is known as the phi phenomenon. Motion pictures are
based upon this principle, with a series of still images appearing in
rapid succession to form a seamless visual experience.
According to Gestalt psychology, the whole is different than the sum of
its parts. Based upon this belief, Gestalt psychologists developed a set
of principles to explain perceptual organization, or how smaller objects
are grouped to form larger ones. These principles are often referred to
as the "laws of perceptual organization."
However, it is important to note that while Gestalt psychologists call
these phenomena "laws," a more accurate term would be "principles of
perceptual organization." These principles are much like heuristics,
which are mental shortcuts for solving problems.
39

Law of Similarity

The law of similarity suggests that things similar things tend to appear
grouped together. Grouping can occur in both visual and auditory
stimuli.

Law of Pragnanz

The word pragnanz is a German term meaning "good figure." The law
of Pragnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of good figure or the
40

law of simplicity. This law holds that objects in the environment are
seen in a way that makes them appear as simple as possible.

Law of Proximity

According to the law of proximity, things that are near each other seem
to be grouped together.
Law of Continuity

41

The law of continuity holds that points that are connected by straight
or curving lines are seen in a way that follows the smoothest path.
Rather than seeing separate lines and angles, lines are seen as
belonging together.
Law of Closure

According to the law of closure, things are grouped together if they

seem to complete some entity. Our brains often ignore contradictory
information and fill in gaps in information.
42

According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children progress through a

series

of

four

key

stages

of

cognitive

development.

Each

stageis marked by shifts in how kids understand the world. Piaget

believed that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively
try to explore and make sense of the world around them.
Through his observations of his own children, Piaget developed a stage
theory of intellectual development that included four distinct stages:
the sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2; the preoperational stage,
from age 2 to about age 7; the concrete operational stage, from age 7
to 11; and the formal operational stage, which begins in adolescence
and spans into adulthood.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Numerous theories have emerged to define, explain and predict human
intelligence.
While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects within
psychology, there is no standard definition of what exactly constitutes
'intelligence.' Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a
single,

general

ability,

while

other

believe

that

intelligence

encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and talents.

The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have
emerged during the last 100 years.

43

Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a
concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After
using a technique known as factor analysis to to examine a number of
mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests
were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive
test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored
badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that
intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and
numerically expressed.

Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of
multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test
scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human
intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities.
His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills
and abilities that are valued within different cultures.
The eight intelligences Gardner described are:

Visual-spatial Intelligence

Verbal-linguistic Intelligence
44

Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence

Logical-mathematical Intelligence

Interpersonal Intelligence

Musical Intelligence

Intra personal Intelligence

Naturalistic Intelligence

Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity
directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, realworld environments relevant to ones life." While he agreed with
Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability,
he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better
viewed as individual talents.
Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which
is comprised of three different factors:

Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problemsolving abilities.

Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the

ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and
current skills.

Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to

adapt to a changing environment.

Final Thoughts:
45

While there has been considerable debate over the exact nature of
intelligence, no definitive conceptualization has emerged. Today,
psychologists

often

account

for

the

many

different

theoretical

viewpoints when discussing intelligence and acknowledge that this

debate is ongoing.
References:

Gardner,

H.

(1983).

Frames

of

mind:

The

theory

of

multiple

intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Spearman, C. (1904). "General intelligence," objectively determined
and measured. American Journal of Psychology 15, 201-293.
Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Thurstone, L.L. (1938). Primary mental abilities. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.

THE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

The Information Processing Theory approach to the study of
cognitive development evolved out of the American experimental
tradition in psychology. Information processing theorists proposed that
like a computer, a human mind is a system that processes information
46

through the application of logical rules and strategies. The mind has a
limited capacity for the amount and nature of the information it can
process.

The

terminology

of

the

Information

Processing

Model

as

illustrated in the Figure emphasizing the significance of encoding

(input) of information, the storage of information, and the retrieval
(access) of information. The language and the metaphor often used is
one of the minds of as computer. IPM theorist, U.Neisser, maintains
that the correlation between cognition and computers is a powerful
one(Benjafeld, 1992 in Tan, 2003). Most IPM theorists see the computer
as only a metaphor for human mental activity.
Finally, just as the computer can be made into a better
information processor by changing its hardware and its software
(programming), so do children who become more sophisticated
47

thinkers through changes in their brains and sensory systems

(hardware) and in the rules and strategies (software) that they learn.

THE MULTI-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY

One of the major issues in cognitive psychology is the study of
memory. The dominant view is labelled the stage theory and is based
on the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). The Atkinson-Shiffrin
model(also known as the Multi-store model, Multi-memory model and
the Modal model) is a psychological model proposed in 1968 by
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin as a proposal for the structure of
memory. It proposed that human memory involves a sequence of three
stages, which are sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term
memory as shown in Figure on the next page:

48

The multi-store model is a very common model of memory

assuming that there are different types of memory used for different
tasks. It is an explanation of how memory processes work. You hear,
see and feel many things, but you can only remember a few. These link
together in an effective sequence as explained below.

This was discussed in the Theory of memory section in this

paper.

THE SCHEMA THEORY

R. C. Anderson, a respected educational psychologist, developed
schema theory. This learning theory views organized knowledge as an
elaborate network of abstract mental structures which represent ones
understanding of the world. The term schema was first used by Piaget
in 1926, so it was not an entirely new concept. Anderson, however,
expanded the meaning.
Contemporary learning theory embraces schema theory in an attempt
to explain how information is best encoded in the long-term memory.
The theory emphasizes the nature and purpose of schemata as the
fundamental elements of cognitive processing (Douchy & Bouwens,
1990 in Tan et. al. 2003). They are prior knowledge linkages, and
49

they influence the amount and proficiency of our learning. Research by

schema theorists indicates that abstract concepts are best understood
after a foundation of concrete and relevant information has been
established (Schallert 1982:26). The general knowledge provides a
framework into which the newly-formed structure can be fitted.
Lists

some

characteristics

of

schemata

according

to

Anderson

(1977:418--419):
Schemata are always organized meaningfully, can be added to, and,
as an individual gains experience, develop to include more variables
and more specificity.
Each schema is embedded in other schemata and itself contains
subschema.
Schemata change moment by moment as information is received.
They may also be reorganized when incoming data reveals a need to
restructure the concept.

The

mental

representations

used

during

perception

and

comprehension, and which evolve as a result of these processes,

combines to form a whole, which is greater than the sum of its parts.
Diagram of a sample schema
Below shows a diagram that describes how a persons schema of
egg might include.

50

Schemata are an effective tool for understanding the world.

Through the use of schemata, most everyday situations do not require
effortful thought which absolutely automatic thought is all that is
required. People can quickly organize new perceptions into schemata
and act effectively without effort.

This theory would suggests that our prior knowledge can

facilitate or enhance transfer of a learning task. It is also true that prior
knowledge can inhibit or interfere with our acquisition of new
information (Leinhardt, 1992 in Tan et. al. 2003).

References:
Atkinson, R.C. and Shiffrin, R.M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed
system and itscontrol processes. In K. W. Spence and J. T. Spence
(Eds) The psychology of kearning and motivation (Vol 2). London:
Academic Press.
51

Bloom, B. (1984). The Search for methods of group instructions as

effective asone-to-one tutoring. Educational Leadership.
James, W. (1890). Principles of Psychology, New York: Holt.
Gagne, R (1970). The Conditions of Learning (Second Edition). New
York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston Holt.
Tan Oon Seng, Richard D. Parson, Stephanie lewis Hinson, Deborah
Sardo-Brown (2003). Educational Psychology.Singapore : Thomson
Learning.
Gagne, E.D., Yekovich, C. W., & Yekovich, F.R (1993). The Cognitive
Psychology of School Learning.
Lahey, B. B. 2004. Psychology: an introduction. 8th ed. Boston:
McGraw Hill.

52

MANUEL LUIS QUEZON UNIVERSITY

School of Graduate Studies
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PSYCHOLOGY
SY 2014-2015

THEORIES ON COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY

Submitted to:
53

DR. NILDA WOOLSEY

Professor

Submitted by:
ARVELLA M. ALBAY
Phd Psych Student

Date
September 6, 2014

54