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Acute arterial occlusion of the lower extremities (acute limb ischemia)

Authors
Marc E Mitchell, MD
Emile R Mohler, III, MD
Jeffrey P Carpenter, MD
Section Editors
Denis L Clement, MD, PhD
James Hoekstra, MD
Deputy Editor
Kathryn A Collins, MD, PhD, FACS
Disclosures

Last literature review version 19.2: May 2011 | This topic last updated:
September 8, 2008 (More)
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS According to the 2007 Inter-Society
Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease (TASC II), acute limb
ischemia is defined as a sudden decrease in limb perfusion that causes a potential
threat to limb viability (manifested by ischemic rest pain, ischemic ulcers, and/or
gangrene) in patients who present within two weeks of the acute event [1]. Patients
with similar manifestations who present later than two weeks are considered to have
critical limb ischemia, which is by definition chronic.
The management of acute arterial occlusion remains a challenge for vascular
specialists. Surgical thromboembolectomy and bypass grafting were the mainstays of
therapy for many years [2]. Subsequently, thrombolytic therapy and percutaneous
transluminal angioplasty (PTA) have become treatment options for selected patients.
Despite these advances, the morbidity, mortality, and limb loss rates from acute
lower extremity ischemia remain high. Thus, regardless of the treatment modality
used, early diagnosis and rapid initiation of therapy are essential in order to salvage
the ischemic extremity.
The major causes and management approaches to acute limb ischemia will be
reviewed here. Issues related to critical limb ischemia (ie, similar manifestations in
patients who present more than two weeks after symptom onset) are discussed
separately. (See "Clinical manifestations and evaluation of chronic critical limb
ischemia" and "Treatment of chronic critical limb ischemia".)
ETIOLOGY Acute arterial occlusion can be the result of emboli from a distant
source, acute thrombosis of a previously patent artery, or direct trauma to an artery
(table 1).

Arterial emboli Eighty percent of arterial emboli originate in the heart and travel
to the extremities; the lower extremities are affected much more frequently than the
upper extremities [3]. The majority of these emboli occur in patients with significant
underlying cardiac disease; the severity of the patient's underlying cardiac condition
may increase the risk of surgery, and limit the options available for restoring blood
flow to the ischemic extremity.
Potential sources of emboli from the heart include left ventricular thrombus formation
following myocardial infarction, and atrial thrombus in patients with atrial fibrillation.
Up to 75 percent of patients with emboli to the lower extremities have a history of
recent myocardial infarction or atrial fibrillation. (See "Left ventricular thrombus after
acute myocardial infarction" and "Echocardiography in detection of intracardiac
sources of embolism".)
Arterial to arterial embolization of thrombus or plaque originating from aneurysms or
atherosclerotic lesions is another well described occurrence and accounts for 20
percent of peripheral emboli. (See "Embolism from aortic plaque:
Thromboembolism" and "Embolism from aortic plaque: Atheroembolism (cholesterol
crystal embolism)".)
Emboli typically lodge where there is an acute narrowing of the artery, such as an
atherosclerotic plaque or a point where the vessel branches; the common femoral,
common iliac, and popliteal artery bifurcations are the most frequent locations. In a
large series of arterial embolism, for example, the following frequencies were noted
[4]:

Femoral 28 percent

Arm 20 percent

Aortoiliac 18 percent

Popliteal 17 percent

Visceral and other 9 percent each

In comparison to clot emboli, atheroemboli are less likely to produce symptoms of

acute arterial occlusion. Atheroemboli are typically nondistensible and irregularly
shaped; as a result, they tend to produce incomplete occlusion with secondary
ischemic atrophy. One exception is the blue toe syndrome. (See 'Blue toe
syndrome' below and "Embolism from aortic plaque: Atheroembolism (cholesterol
crystal embolism)".)

Arterial thrombosis Thrombosis of a previously patent but stenotic artery is a

well known complication of atherosclerosis. Occlusion of atherosclerotic vessels may
occur by two mechanisms:

Progressive atherosclerotic narrowing of the artery, with resultant low flow,

stasis, and eventual thrombosis

Intraplaque hemorrhage and local hypercoagulability

The ischemia resulting from arterial thrombosis in the face of underlying

atherosclerosis is usually less severe than that following an acute embolus. This
difference is primarily due to the collateral circulation that develops over time in
patients with atherosclerosis and chronically narrowed vessels. Collaterals are
frequently so extensive that patients notice no change or only a mild increase in their
symptoms of chronic ischemia when a major atherosclerotic vessel becomes
occluded.
Arteritides, ergotism, and hypercoagulable states can also result in arterial
thrombosis, occlusion, and acute extremity ischemia. While these conditions most
frequently affect the venous circulation, certain hypercoagulable states favor arterial
thrombosis (eg, antiphospholipid antibodies and hyperhomocysteinemia). (See
"Clinical manifestations of the antiphospholipid syndrome".)
Arterial trauma Acute arterial occlusion complicating vascular or cardiac
diagnostic and interventional procedures has become a more frequent cause of acute
extremity ischemia. (See "Complications of diagnostic cardiac catheterization".) The
incidence of arterial complications following interventional cardiac catheterization
(including hematomas, arteriovenous fistulae, pseudoaneurysms, arterial occlusion,
and cholesterol emboli) has been reported to range from 1.5 to 9 percent [5].
Although acute arterial occlusion occurs in less than 1 percent of interventional
catheterization procedures, this complication demands immediate surgical
consultation [6]. Intimal flaps and dissections are frequently the cause of the
occlusion, and operative repair of the vessel is required. Thromboemboli can also
develop at the sheath site or catheter tip, with embolization occurring during sheath
removal.
CLINICAL EVALUATION A thorough history and physical examination is the first
step in the evaluation of the patient with acute extremity ischemia (table 2) [7]. The
five "P's" of acute ischemia or large vessels are:

Pain

Pulselessness

Pallor

Paresthesias

Paralysis

In addition, small vessel occlusion can cause the blue toe syndrome. (See 'Blue toe
syndrome' below.)
Pain Pain associated with acute ischemia is usually located distally in the
extremity, gradually increases in severity, and progresses proximally as the length of
ischemia increases. Later, the pain may decrease in severity due to progressive
ischemic sensory loss.
It is essential to determine if the patient had symptoms of chronic ischemia before
the acute event occurred. Patients with an embolus usually have no preexisting
ischemic symptoms, and can frequently pinpoint the exact time that symptoms
began. Thus, the sudden and dramatic development of ischemic symptoms in a
previously asymptomatic patient is most consistent with an embolus, while gradually
increasing symptoms in a patient with chronic ischemia is indicative of thrombosis.
Pulse The quality and character of the peripheral pulses must be evaluated. If
pulses are not palpable, a hand held Doppler should be used. It is rare to have acute
limb-threatening ischemia without a major pulse deficit.
The status of the pulses in the contralateral extremity is also important. The
presence of a pulse deficit in an asymptomatic contralateral extremity is an indication
of underlying chronic arterial occlusive disease and suggests that acute thrombosis of
an already diseased vessel is the most likely cause of the acute occlusion. By
contrast, the presence of normal pulses in the contralateral extremity suggests the
absence of chronic occlusive disease, and increases the likelihood that an embolus is
the etiology of acute occlusion.
Skin The skin of both the normal and affected extremity should be examined for
temperature, color, and capillary refill. The skin of the ischemic extremity is typically
cool and pale with delayed capillary filling. The level of arterial obstruction is usually
one joint above the line of demarcation between the normal and ischemic tissue.
Both extremities should also be examined for signs of chronic ischemia such as
atrophy of the skin, hair loss, and thickened nails.
Neurologic examination A careful neurologic examination must be performed.
Subjective sensory deficits such as numbness or paresthesias are signs of early
nerve dysfunction secondary to ischemia. Major loss of sensory or motor function is
indicative of advanced ischemia. The anterior compartment of the lower leg is most

sensitive to ischemia, and sensory deficits over the dorsum of the foot are often the
earliest neurologic sign of vascular insufficiency.
Blue toe syndrome The blue toe syndrome is characterized by the sudden
appearance of a cool, painful, cyanotic toe or forefoot in the often perplexing
presence of strong pedal pulses and a warm foot (picture 1). There may also be
scattered areas of petechiae or cyanosis of the soles of the feet.
The blue toe syndrome is usually due to embolic occlusion of digital arteries with
atherothrombotic material from proximal arterial sources. These episodes portend
similar and more severe episodes in the future. Thus, identification and eradication of
the embolic source is usually indicated [8].
Expeditious evaluation by angiography is required to evaluate the source; complete
exclusion and bypass of the diseased segment are indicated. However, caution is
advised for performing angiography in patients who have other signs suggestive of
multiple atheroemboli, such as livedo reticularis, since angiography may lead to
further embolization. (See "Embolism from aortic plaque: Atheroembolism
(cholesterol crystal embolism)".)
CLASSIFICATION The following clinical categories of acute limb ischemia have
been proposed (table 2) [7,9,10]:

Viable Viable limbs are under no immediate threat of tissue loss. There is
no sensory loss or muscle weakness and both arterial and venous Doppler
signals are audible

Marginally threatened Marginally threatened limbs are salvageable if

treated promptly. There is minimal (in the toes) or no sensory loss, no muscle
weakness, arterial Doppler signals are often inaudible, and venous Doppler
signals are audible.

Immediately threatened Immediately threatened limbs are salvageable

with immediate revascularization. Sensory loss involves more than the toes
and may be associated with rest pain. There is mild to moderate muscle
weakness, arterial Doppler signals are usually inaudible, and venous Doppler
signals are audible.

Irreversible (nonviable) Irreversible limbs have major tissue loss and/or

permanent nerve damage. Sensory loss is profound, muscle weakness is
profound with paralysis and possible rigor, and arterial and venous Doppler
signals are inaudible. These nonviable extremities require major amputation
regardless of the therapy that is instituted. Revascularization may be required
to permit healing of the amputation or amputation at a lower level.

DIAGNOSTIC TESTS Arteriography is the diagnostic procedure that provides the

most useful information in the setting of acute arterial occlusion. In addition to
demonstrating detailed arterial anatomy, arteriography can usually distinguish
between thrombosis and embolism.

An embolus will often demonstrate a sharp cutoff with a rounded reverse

meniscus sign. The embolus may also be visible as an intraluminal filling
defect if the vessel is not completely occluded. Other findings which are most
consistent with an embolus include the presence of otherwise normal vessels,
the absence of collateral circulation, and the presence of multiple filling
defects.

Arterial thrombosis is usually visualized as a sharp or tapered, but not

rounded, cutoff on arteriography. Diffuse atherosclerosis with well developed
collateral circulation is generally present.

Although all patients with acute extremity ischemia would benefit from the
information obtained from arteriography, it is not possible to perform this test in
every case. Patients with a threatened extremity, for example, cannot tolerate the
several hour delay in revascularization while arteriography is being performed. Thus,
patients with a viable extremity should generally undergo diagnostic arteriography,
while those with a threatened extremity should have immediate surgical
revascularization with intraoperative arteriography as necessary.
TREATMENT It is difficult to compare published results of the treatment of acute
extremity ischemia because of different methods used to describe the severity of
ischemia and differences in the duration of ischemia. However, it is clear that acute
extremity ischemia is associated with a high hospital morbidity and mortality and
high rates of limb loss. Limb loss rates as high as 30 percent and hospital mortality
as high as 20 percent have been quoted in surgical series [2]. Cardiopulmonary
complications account for the majority of the deaths, underscoring the severity of the
baseline medical condition of these patients.
Heparin The best defense against limb loss is prompt initiation of therapy. Thus,
once the diagnosis of acute arterial occlusion has been made by history and physical
examination, the 2008 American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) guideline on
antithrombotic therapy for peripheral artery occlusive disease and the 2007 TASC II
consensus document on the management of PAD recommend that the patient should
immediately receive intravenous heparin followed by a continuous heparin infusion
[1,11].

Anticoagulation will prevent further propagation of thrombus, and inhibit thrombosis

distally in the arterial and venous systems due to low flow and stasis. Time is crucial;
the decision to administer heparin is based upon the clinical evaluation and should
not be delayed while waiting for diagnostic procedures to be performed.
Following the initiation of heparin, treatment then varies depending upon the viability
of the limb. Options include surgery and thrombolytic therapy.
Patients with threatened extremities Patients with a threatened extremity
should undergo emergent surgical revascularization. The majority of these patients
have had an embolic event, and irreversible changes can occur within as little as four
to six hours of profound ischemia. While pharmacologic thrombolysis may
successfully dissolve the embolus (see below), the time required is usually too long
to allow this to be an acceptable alternative to surgery.
At surgery, an embolus will be found in the majority of patients. Embolectomy is
usually all that is required to relieve the occlusion and provide adequate blood flow to
the extremity. Most surgeons perform an intraoperative completion arteriogram after
the embolectomy to evaluate the adequacy of distal blood flow. Intraoperative
thrombolytic therapy may also be used if there are small emboli in the distal runoff
vessels. Depending upon the length and severity of the ischemia, a fasciotomy may
be required to prevent the development of a compartment syndrome.
The 2004 American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) guidelines on antithrombotic
therapy recommended the use of oral anticoagulation to prevent recurrent embolism
after embolectomy [11].
Patients with viable extremities Intraarterial thrombolysis is an alternative to
surgical therapy in patients with ischemic but viable extremities [12,13]. The
usefulness of thrombolytic therapy is limited by the severity and duration of the
ischemia, and the length of time required to achieve dissolution of the thrombus.
Thrombolytic therapy versus surgery After initial observational studies
suggested efficacy [13,14], randomized trials compared surgical revascularization to
intraarterial thrombolytic therapy in the treatment of acute ischemic but viable lower
extremities [15-19]. The results from the TOPAS and STILE trials illustrate the range
of findings.
A randomized, prospective, double blind study of thrombolysis or peripheral arterial
surgery (TOPAS) was performed in 544 patients who had acute lower extremity
ischemia for 14 days or less [15,16]. Phase 1 of this trial compared three different
doses of catheter directed recombinant urokinase (rUK) and found that a dose of
4000 IU/min for four hours, followed by 2000 IU/min for a maximum of 48 hours

provided the maximum lytic efficacy at a minimal bleeding risk [15]; recanalization
was achieved in 80 percent and complete lysis of thrombus in 68 percent [16].
Part 2 included 544 patients with acute arterial occlusion of less than 14 days in
duration who were randomly assigned to the above rUK regimen or surgery [16]. The
following findings were noted:

There was no significant difference between the groups in amputation-free

survival rates at six months (72 versus 75 percent with surgery), which was
the primary end point, or one year (65 versus 70 percent).

Among patients treated with thrombolytic therapy, the amputation-free

survival rates were better with bypass graft compared to native vessel
occlusion.

There was no significant difference between the groups in mortality at six

months (16 versus 12 percent with surgery) or one year (20 versus 17
percent).

Major (including intracranial) hemorrhage was more common with rUK (12.5
versus 5.5 percent, respectively).

Among the patients who received rUK, 40 percent required subsequent

surgery at six months. However, there was a reduced requirement for open
surgical procedures after thrombolytic therapy at six months (315 versus 551
in those assigned to surgery).

The STILE trial consisted of 393 patients with nonembolic arterial and graft occlusion
who presented with new or progressive symptoms of limb ischemia symptoms of up
to six months duration [17,18]. The patients were randomly assigned to treatment
with surgery or intraarterial catheter-directed thrombolysis with recombinant tissue
plasminogen activator or urokinase. Failure of catheter placement occurred in 28
percent of patients assigned to thrombolytic therapy.
Patients with ischemia of 14 days or less who were treated with thrombolysis had a
significantly lower rate of amputation (6 versus 18 percent) and shorter hospital
stays compared to the surgical group. By contrast, patients with ischemia for longer
than 14 days did better with surgical revascularization with significant reductions at
one year in the rates of major amputation (0 versus 10 percent with thrombolytic
therapy [35 versus 65 percent]) [18].
For the patients receiving thrombolysis who subsequently required surgery, the
magnitude of the surgical procedure was reduced (compared to those not receiving
prior thrombolytic therapy) in 56 percent. Factors associated with a relatively poor

outcome after thrombolytic therapy included femoral-popliteal occlusion, diabetes,

and critical limb ischemia [18].
These trials demonstrate that thrombolytic therapy is a safe and effective alternative
to surgery in certain subsets of patients.
Recommendations The issue of thrombolytic therapy is primarily limited to
patients with acute limb ischemia and viable extremities. Based in part upon the
observations in TOPAS and STILE, the following recommendations have been made
by major society guidelines:

The 2005 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association

(ACC/AHA) guidelines on PAD, which were produced in collaboration with
major vascular medicine, vascular surgery, and interventional radiology
societies, concluded that there was general agreement that catheter-based
thrombolytic therapy is effective and beneficial and is indicated in patients
with acute limb ischemia of less than 14 days duration [10]. The evidence was
considered less well established for patients with acute limb ischemia of more
than 14 days duration.
The guidelines also concluded that the weight of evidence was in factor of
mechanical thromboembolectomy as adjunctive therapy of acute limb
ischemia resulting from peripheral arterial occlusion.

The 2008 American College of Chest Physicians guideline on antithrombotic

therapy for peripheral artery disease suggested catheter-based thrombolytic
therapy in patients with acute limb ischemia of less than 14 days duration
who had a low risk of myonecrosis and ischemic nerve damage during the
time required to achieve revascularization [11].

Although many patients treated with thrombolytic therapy will subsequently require
surgical or percutaneous revascularization, the magnitude and complexity of the
procedure required to revascularize the extremity is frequently less than in those not
receiving prior thrombolytic therapy.
Thus, patients found to have an ischemic but viable extremity on clinical examination
should undergo urgent arteriography in order to plan surgical or medical
revascularization. There are several findings on arteriography which are used to
determine if thrombolytic therapy, PTA, or surgical revascularization is the most
appropriate treatment. These include:

The presumed etiology (embolus versus thrombus)

The location and length of the lesion

The duration of symptoms

The availability of autologous vein for bypass grafting

The suitability of the patient for surgery

As an example, a proximal embolus at the bifurcation of the common femoral artery

is an ideal lesion for embolectomy. On the other hand, embolus to a distal vessel (eg,
to the tibial artery) may be best treated with a thrombolytic agent. The major use of
PTA is in the treatment of an underlying lesion after the clot has been lysed with
thrombolytic therapy.
A Cochrane review evaluated the best approach to thrombolytic therapy when this
form of treatment is chosen [20]. Intraarterial rather than intravenous administration
of the drug results in a better clinical outcome and reduced incidence of bleeding
complications. The angiographic catheter should be placed within the thrombus for
optimal results. High dose and forced infusion techniques result in more rapid
thrombolysis, but may increase bleeding risk and do not appear to improve clinical
outcomes.
The 2008 ACCP guideline also suggested long term anticoagulation with vitamin
K antagonists in patients who have undergone embolectomy [11].
Patients with nonviable extremities Patients with nonviable extremities should
undergo prompt amputation. Arteriography is usually not necessary, since the level
of amputation is determined by clinical findings and by the viability of tissues at the
time of surgery. Every effort should be made to preserve as many joints as possible,
in order to decrease the work of ambulating with a prosthesis and to improve the
chances for successful rehabilitation. Delays in amputation of a nonviable extremity
can result in infection, myoglobinuria, acute renal failure, and hyperkalemia. (See
"Treatment of chronic critical limb ischemia".)

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Huettl EA, Soulen MC. Thrombolysis of lower extremity embolic occlusions: a
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Ouriel K, Veith FJ, Sasahara AA. Thrombolysis or peripheral arterial surgery:
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GRAPHICS

Causes of acute arterial occlusion

Embolus

Thrombosis

Trauma

Cardiac source

Vascular grafts

Blunt

Atherosclerosis

Penetrating

Thrombosis of aneurysm

Iatrogenic

Atrial fibrillation
Myocardial infarction
Endocarditis
Valvular disease

Entrapment syndrome

Atrial myxoma

Hypercoagulable state

Prosthetic valves

Low flow state

Arterial source
Aneurysm
Atherosclerotic plaque

Paradoxical embolus

SVS/ISCVS classification of acute extremity ischemia

Viable

Threatened

Nonviable

Pain

Mild

Severe

Variable

Capillary refill

Intact

Delayed

Absent

Motor deficit

None

Partial

Complete

Sensory deficit

None

Partial

Complete

Arterial Doppler

Audible

Inaudible

Inaudible

Venous Doppler

Audible

Audible

Inaudible

Treatment

Urgent work-up

Emergency surgery

Amputation

From Rutherford, RB, Semin Vasc Surg 1992; 5:4.

Blue toe syndrome

Blue toes are a classic manifestation of peripheral embolization of atheromatous

material from proximal arterial sources (eg, aorta); the pedal pulses are often
normal. This patient, who has a 30-year history of type 1 diabetes and severe
peripheral vascular disease, presented with foot pain and discoloration. Cholesterol
microemboli from the aorta were suspected to be the cause. Reproduced with permission
from Lawrence B Stack, MD. Copyright Lawrence B Stack, MD.

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