Duration of hypertension and antihypertensive agents in correlation

with the phases of female sexual response cycle

Rozimah Abdul Latif
a
, Rosediani Muhamad
a
, Anne Yee Hway Ann
b
, Hatta Sidi
c,

,
Nik Ruzyanei Nik Jaafar
c
, Marhani Midin
c
, Srijit Das
d
, Loh Huai Seng
e
, Ng Chong Guan
b
a
Department of Family Medicine, School of Medical Science, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kota Bahru, Kelantan, Malaysia
b
Department of Psychological Medicine, University Malaya Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
c
Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
d
Department of Anatomy, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
e
Department of Family Medicine, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract
Objective: This cross-sectional study aimed to determine the construct of the phases of the female sexual response cycle (SRC) in women
with hypertension and their association with the duration of hypertension and types of antihypertensive agents.
Methods: The sexual response phases were measured with a validated Malay version of the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI). The
correlations structure of the items of the SRC's phases (i.e. desire, arousal, orgasm, satisfaction and pain) was determined using principal
component analysis (PCA), with varimax rotation method. The number of factors obtained was decided using Kaiser's criteria. A total of 348
hypertensive women were recruited for this study. Four constructs were extracted in the analysis of all subjects.
Results: Using the factor analysis, the six domains (i.e. sexual desire, arousal, etc.) of the women's SRC among hypertensive women merged
into 4 constructs. They were composed of (i) sexual desire and arousal, (ii) orgasm and sexual satisfaction, (iii) vaginal lubrication and (iv)
sexual pain. Interestingly, vaginal lubrication stood out alone as one construct, compared to the non-hypertensive women. It was also
observed that the duration of hypertension, beta blocker and diuretic antihypertensive medications had different influence on the SCR (in
terms of constructs).
Conclusion: Duration of hypertension and types of antihypertensive drugs may affect the components of the SRC. A clear understanding
would help the clinician in strategizing the treatment approach of sexual dysfunction in women with hypertension.
2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Sexual dysfunction in hypertension is commonly ob-
served in clinical practice. It may be a consequence of the
natural progression of the disease itself and/or the antihy-
pertensive medications [1,2]. Although the theory of
endothelial dysfunction and inflammatory markers is
currently inconsistent [3], the effect of hypertension on
vascular system and neural component of the genitalia, may
cause a reduction in blood flow (secondary to hypertensive
arteriosclerosis) and mucus secretion of the vagina, subse-
quently leading to sexual dysfunction [4]. Certain antihy-
pertensive medications especially the diuretics and beta
blockers may have negative impact on the sexual functioning
[2,5]. This creates not only adverse biochemical (increased
cortisol level) but psychological reactions, which in turn
exacerbate the sexual dysfunction [6].
Over the past few years, there has been a growing
understanding in the differences of the SRC between males
and females. While the linear model of SRC as described by
Masters and Johnson was readily applied in males, Basson
introduced an alternative model, known as the intimacy-
based model or SRC circular model to explain the SRC in
females. According to this model when a sexually neutral
woman faces intimacy, she is driven by both biological
(subjective arousal from non-genital and genital stimula-
tions) and psychological factors (to get emotional closeness
to her partner) to experience sexual arousal. What follows is
an ongoing enjoyable sexual sensation which can further
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Comprehensive Psychiatry 55 (2014) S7S12
www.elsevier.com/
Publication of this supplement was supported by Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysian Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 603 91456142; fax: +1 603 91737841.

E-mail address: hattasidi@hotmail.com (H. Sidi).
0010-440X/$ see front matter 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.10.008
trigger and sustain a sexual desire which may eventually lead
to sexual satisfaction [7].
In Malaysia, the local data support the theory of Basson's
circular model of female [8,9]. In the present study, the sexual
function of 230 married women was assessed by using the
Malay-translated version of Female Sexual Function Index
(MVFSFI). Using the PCA with varimax rotation, three
factors were extracted from the analysis whereby sexual
desire, arousal and lubrication were highly correlated and fell
into one component. Orgasm and satisfaction fell into another
construct. Lastly, pain items formed the third component.
The first component was described as a driving force
followed by the achievement of positive outcome of sex as
the second component. Pain was an isolated component
which is considered as the negative outcome of sex.
However, when the similar study was carried out in a
group of depressed women in remission, the orgasm became
highly correlated to sexual desire, arousal and lubrication but
not sexual satisfaction. The author explained that the women
with depression may adopt a different sexual model. Hence,
depression which affects the SRC in women, has the most
impact on sexual satisfaction [9].
Previous studies showedthat female sexual functionmay be
disrupted by hypertension and/or its medications [2,5].
However, to the best of our knowledge, there are no studies
which have identified the phases of SRC which the hyperten-
sion and antihypertensive medications affecting such. The
present was the first of its kind to examine the association
betweenhypertensivevariables i.e. thedurationof hypertension
and antihypertensive medications and the correlations of
the phases of SRC among the treated hypertensive women.
2. Materials and methods
Prior ethical approval was obtained from the Ethical
Comittee, Universiti Sains Malaysia Hospital for conducting
the research study.
2.1. Study design and setting
This cross-sectional, correlational study was conducted
over a period of five months at a hypertension clinic of a
teaching hospital in Malaysia. The data on sexual function was
obtained using a self-administered questionnaire. Hyperten-
sive women, aged 3565 years, who were diagnosed more
than a year ago using WHO criteria, were recruited for the
study. They were selected via systematic random sampling in
the ratio of 1:2 based on clinic attendance lists. The individuals
who were excluded were those who were illiterate, were
having active psychotic symptoms or were bedridden
secondary to any underlying medical diseases.
2.2. Data collection
Subjects of this study were identified from the primary
care and hypertension clinics in Universiti Sains Malaysia
Hospital, Kelantan, Malaysia. Kelantan is a state that is
situated at the north-east coast of Peninsular Malaysia with
1.7 million population. Nearly half of the population are
women, with local Malays as the main ethnicity (i.e. 95%).
Written consent was obtained from all recruited subjects
after explaining the the nature and objectives of the study.
Subjects were then interviewed in a privatre room to ensure
their privacy and comfort. Female sexual dysfunction/
response phases were assessed using the local Malay Version
of the Female Sexual Function Index (MVFSFI). The basic
socio-demographic data of the subjects were collected using
a predesigned questionnaire. Medical record was reviewed to
gather the patient's medical information (i.e., blood pressure,
body mass index, duration of hypertension and type of
medication prescribed).
2.3. Malay version of the female sexual function index
(MVFSFI)
Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) is a brief, multi-
dimensional self-report measure of sexual functioning. It was
validated on a clinically diagnosed sample of women with
female sexual dysfunction. It consists of 19 items and were
divided into 6 basic domains in female sexual dysfunction
such as desire, subjective arousal, lubrication, orgasm,
satisfaction and pain. Each of the domains had two to four
questions with five to six options for patients to choose the
most likely answer. These answers represented their sexual
function within 4 weeks prior to the day before the
questionnaire was administered [10,11].
The Malay Version of the Female Sexual Function Index
(MVFSFI) is a validated and locally accepted questionnaire
for use in the assessment of female sexual dysfunction in the
Malaysian population. For this questionnaire, a total score of
55 was taken as the cut-off point for the MVFSFI to
distinguish between women with and without sexual
dysfunction (sensitivity=99%, specificity=97%). The cut-
off score for each domain was also established for the
MVFSFI [12].
2.4. Data analysis
Data were analyzed using SPSS version 13 for Windows
(SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The sum scores of all items
in each phase were calculated. Principal component analysis
(PCA) with varimax rotation method was used to explore the
correlation structure of the phases. The number of factors or
components to obtain was decided using Kaiser's criteria (a
new factor or component was obtained if the eigenvalue of
the factor was more than one).
3. Results
A total of 355 hypertensive female patients were recruited
for this study. However, three of them refused to participate
in the study and another four were unable to understand parts
S8 R.A. Latif et al. / Comprehensive Psychiatry 55 (2014) S7S12
of the questionnaire. Therefore, the overall response rate was
98% with total subjects being 348. The socio-demographics,
marital, obstetric and gynaecological, and medical charac-
teristics of 348 participants were shown in Table 1.
Table 2 showed the sexual function items among this
group of women who were divided into four constructs. The
first component consisted of sexual desire and sexual arousal
times. The second component included only lubrication
items. Orgasm and satisfaction fell into the third component.
The last component was formed by the pain items.
Table 3 revealed those patients with hypertension for less
than 10 years, had high correlation between sexual desire and
sexual arousal. Hence, they were considered as one
component, while lubrication was a standalone component.
The third construct was composed of orgasm and satisfac-
tion. Pain remained as the last component. However, for
patients who had hypertension for more than 10 years,
lubrication was shown to have merged with orgasm to
become one component. Satisfaction, then became an
individual component.
Table 4 showed that participants who were on beta
blockers had all the sexual items merged into 1 component.
However, for those who were not on beta blockers, the three
constructs which were sexual desire, sexual arousal and
lubrication remained as one component, while orgasm and
satisfaction fell into another component. Pain items were
found in the last component.
Table 5 revealed that participants who used diuretics had
only 3 constructs which consisted of sexual desire, sexual
arousal and lubrication as one component. Orgasm and
satisfaction became another component, while pain items
remained as the last component.
The factor loadings of sexual function items among the
participants who used calcium channel blockers, angiotensin
converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI) and angiotensin
receptor blockers (ARB), were similar to those in the
group who had less than 10 years of hypertension.
4. Discussion
Using the principal component analysis with varimax
rotation, we found that the six domains of the women's
sexual response could be divided into four constructs or
concepts among hypertensive women. The first construct
was composed of highly correlated sexual desire and arousal.
The second construct only included lubrication. The third
construct was orgasm and sexual satisfaction. Pain remained
as the last component. Interestingly, the domains for
lubrication stood out alone as one construct, when compared
to the non-hypertensive women study [8] in which
lubrication was highly correlated with sexual desire and
arousal. In this study, we also found out that the duration of
hypertension, beta blocker and diuretic antihypertensive
medications had different influence on the SCR (in term of
constructs) in this group of women.
Previous studies had shown that hypertension was
associated with increased sexual dysfunction in women.
These included reduced sexual desire and arousal, inade-
quate lubrication, difficulty attaining orgasm, dyspareunia
and lack of sexual satisfaction [2,13]. Duncan et al., in a
study of premenopausal Caucasian women, found that
24.1% of the hypertensive women had vaginal dryness
Table 1
Socio-demographics and medical characteristic of participants (N=348).
Variables Mean (SD) n (%)
Age (year) 53.50 (7.16)
Duration of marriage (years) 31 (9.9)
Race
Malay 338 (97.1)
Non-Malay 10 (2.9)
Education level
None 20 (5.7)
Primary 73 (21.0)
Secondary 217 (62.4)
Tertiary 38 (10.9)
Employment
Employed 115 (33.0)
Unemployed 233 (67.0)
Monthly family income (RM)
b1000 171 (49.1)
10001999 75 (21.6)
20003000 33 (9.5)
N3000 69 (19.8)
Parity
2 children 50 (14.4)
35 children 180 (51.7)
N 5 children 118 (33.9)
Menopause
Yes 202 (58.0)
No 146 (42.0)
Duration of hypertension
10 years 242 (69.5)
N10 years 106 (30.5)
ACE I
Yes 130 (37.4)
No 218 (62.6)
B Blocker
Yes 128 (36.8)
No 220 (63.2)
Calcium channel blocker
Yes 223 (64.1)
No 125 (35.9)
Diuretics
Yes 92 (26.4)
No 256 (73.6)
ARB
Yes 96 (27.6)
No 252 (72.4)
Body mass index (kg/m
2
)
Normal weight 58 (16.7)
Overweight 290 (83.3)
Diabetes Mellitus
Yes 120 (34.5)
No 228 (65.5)
Hyperlipidemia
Yes 259 (74.4)
No 89 (25.6)
S9 R.A. Latif et al. / Comprehensive Psychiatry 55 (2014) S7S12
which led to dyspareunia [14]. Although there is a paucity of
literature on how the hypertension mediates the sexual
responses in female, it has been suggested that the
hypertension, as the systemic disease that affects the blood
vessels in the entire body, could affect the vascularisation of
the genital area. Physiologically, lubrication would take
place during sexual arousal as a result of increased blood
flow in the genital area. Therefore, if the blood vessels
were affected by hypertension, inadequate vaso-congestion
Table 2
Factor loading of sexual function items on four components among
hypertensive participants.

Domain Item Component

1 2 3 4
Desire D1 0.781
D2 0.809
Arousal A3 0.775 0.307
A4 0.833
A5 0.793 0.306
A6 0.752 0.388
Lubrication L7 0.431 0.702
L8 0.313 0.814
L9 0.747
L10 0.821
Orgasm O11 0.357 0.492 0.781
O12 0.324 0.612 0.809
Satisfaction S13 0.308 0.317 0.775 0.307
S14 0.340 0.833
S15 0.793 0.306
S16 0.752 0.388
Pain P17 0.431 0.702
P18 0.313 0.814
P19 0.747

Using principal component analysis with varimax rotation (loadings

less than 0.3 are omitted in presentation for simplicity).

Four components were formed using Kaiser's criteria.

Table 3
Factor loading of sexual function items on four components among hypertensive participants (Comparing between duration of hypertension more or less than
10 years).

Domain Item Less than 10 years More than 10 years

Component

Component

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Desire D1 0.768 0.833
D2 0.813 0.801
Arousal A3 0.807 0.688 0.337 0.417
A4 0.819 0.828 0.305
A5 0.792 0.323 0.791
A6 0.745 0.389 0.770 0.377 0.314
Lubrication L7 0.454 0.310 0.688 0.397 0.712
L8 0.356 0.806 0.809 0.318
L9 0.734 0.783
L10 0.311 0.817 0.819
Orgasm O11 0.326 0.557 0.478 0.472 0.495 0.430
O12 0.356 0.400 0.570 0.670 0.340
Satisfaction S13 0.767 0.364 0.334 0.702
S14 0.306 0.779 0.401 0.765
S15 0.847 0.851
S16 0.795 0.811
Pain P17 0.806 0.771
P18 0.799 0.815
P19 0.773 0.804

Using principal component analysis with varimax rotation (loadings less than 0.3 are omitted in presentation for simplicity).

Four components were formed using Kaiser's criteria.

Table 4
Factor loading of sexual function items on three and four components among
hypertensive participants (comparing between the use of beta blocker).

Domain Item No beta blocker Use beta blocker

Component

Component

1 2 3 1 2 3 4
Desire D1 .774 .776 .377
D2 .785 .803 .316
Arousal A3 .798 .842 .337
A4 .826 .787 .332
A5 .811 .867
A6 .825 .845
Lubrication L7 .698 .469 .797
L8 .687 .393 .732 .383 .333
L9 .633 .433 .720 .337 .337
L10 .680 .449 .762 .397
Orgasm O11 .513 .606 .827
O12 .556 .519 .808
Satisfaction S13 .371 .760 .796 .366
S14 .351 .771 .726 .423
S15 .840 .764 .508
S16 .799 .755 .480
Pain P17 .796 .572 .481 .401
P18 .784 .562 .534 .416
P19 .329 .772 .607 .477 .368

Using principal component analysis with varimax rotation (loadings

less than 0.3 are omitted in presentation for simplicity).

Three components were formed using Kaiser's criteria.

Four components were formed using Kaiser's criteria.

S10 R.A. Latif et al. / Comprehensive Psychiatry 55 (2014) S7S12
during sexual arousal would result in decreased lubrication
and dyspareunia [15]. This in turn may explain why
lubrication had become a single entity among women who
had hypertension.
Sexuality in women is complex. It is not only coordinated
by vascular, hormonal and neurological factors, but it is also
interplayed by socio-psychological factors. Well known
psychological factors such as poor self-esteem, poor body
image, poor quality of relationship with her partner,
depression and anxiety, are all associated with female sexual
dysfunction [15]. In this study, women who had more than
10-year history of hypertension had their sexual satisfaction
separated from the lubrication and orgasm domains. These
findings are similar to a previous study [8] which showed
that orgasm and sexual satisfaction were highly correlated to
form a single construct. Davison et al. reported that women
with lower psychological well-being had more complaints of
sexual dissatisfaction [16]. Therefore, sexual satisfaction is
believed to be associated more with personal psychological,
relationship and social factors rather than the sexual activity.
There have been studies to show that antihypertensive
medications particularly the beta blockers and diuretics are
associated with increased sexual dysfunction. In a systemic
review of 14,897 patients [5], it was reported that the
frequency of sexual dysfunction was 21.6% in the beta
blocker group and only 17.4% in the placebo group. Fogari
et al. found that in a group of hypertensive premenopausal
women, who were treated with beta blocker, there were
reduced sexual desire and libido [17]. Interestingly, in the
present study, sexual desire, arousal, lubrication, orgasm,
satisfaction and pain were strongly correlated to each other
and integrated into one construct in those patients who were
treated with beta blocker. This suggests that this group of
patients were no longer able to clearly differentiate between
the phases of SCR. Stahl hypothesized that sexual arousal
was mainly increased by the elevated levels of dopamine,
norepinephrine, oxytocin and testosterone; and was inhibited
by increased level of serotonin at the mesolimbic, hypothal-
amus and prefrontal cortex [18,19].
It is well-known fact that beta blocker is a drug which
interacts with the neurotransmitters and hormones (mainly
norepinephrine and testosterone). This in turn may con-
fuse the brain in differentiating the phases of SCR. Hence
this may also explain why patients who are on antihyper-
tensive medications such as calcium-channel blocker, ACEI
and ARB, have less interaction with norepinephrine or
testosterone, and have fewer problems with sexual function
[17]. Earlier studies reported peripheral vasodilation and
potentiation of -adrenergic activity in the male sexual
organs like penis [20]. These results in less blood blow
to the genital organ and it may be an important cause of
sexual dysfunction.
Another question which may be raised is the duration of
the hypertensive use which can influence the results.
Furthermore,the present study also found that the factor
loading of sexual function items in this group of patients
followed a similar pattern compared to those who had
hypertension for less than 10 years.
Diuretics, mainly thiazides, are the most commonly used
antihypertensive medications to treat hypertension. Diuretics
are effective and less costly but they are associated with
some unwanted effects in sexual function, particularly,
reduced libido and vaginal lubrication. There are reports of
long term use of diuretics leading to general fatigue and
reduced sexual functions [21]. The exact mechanism still
remains unclear. Possible mechanisms may also involve the
vascular or central nervous system (CNS). If there is
involvement of the CNS, then cognitive functions may be
affected. Sexual impulses are also under nervous control and
they can be altered once the drug acts on the CNS.
It has been proposed that diuretics interfere with smooth
muscle relaxation and provoke decreased response to
catecholamine (norepinephrine and epinephrine) which
may cause reduced sexual arousal and desire. Interestingly,
diuretics also cause reduced vaginal lubrication [22]. This
could probably explain why the participants in the present
study who were on diuretics, could not differentiate between
sexual desire, arousal and lubrication. Therefore, while using
factor analysis on the MVFSI, we found that sexual desire,
arousal, and lubrication were highly correlated and formed
one construct in this group of participants.
There were few limitations in this research study. The
sample population was mainly comprosed of local Malays.
This could reflect a sampling bias which limited the findings'
Table 5
Factor loading of sexual function items on four components among
hypertensive participants (comparing between the use of diuretic).

Domain Item No Diuretic Use Diuretic

Component

Component

1 2 3 4 1 2 3
Desire D1 .778 .707 .534
D2 .826 .652 .519
Arousal A3 .760 .318 .710 .549
A4 .851 .716 .493
A5 .816 .722 .464
A6 .739 .411 .726 .491
Lubrication L7 .418 .712 .783 .323
L8 .312 .805 .813 .387
L9 .746 .790
L10 .824 .783 .439
Orgasm O11 .330 .545 .509 .493 .609 .340
O12 .315 .655 .354 .558 .410 .333
Satisfaction S13 .334 .740 .349 .748
S14 .325 .779 .786
S15 .859 .830
S16 .816 .755
Pain P17 .794 .305 .743
P18 .805 .803
P19 .791 .326 .782

Using principal component analysis with varimax rotation (loadings

less than 0.3 are omitted in presentation for simplicity).

Four components were formed using Kaiser's criteria.

hree components were formed using Kaiser's criteria.

S11 R.A. Latif et al. / Comprehensive Psychiatry 55 (2014) S7S12
generalizability. There was a lack of data on sexual
functioning of the subject's husbands which may have
affected the women's sexual responses. There may be a
possibility that the participants in this study were reluctant to
openly reveal their sexual problems due to cultural in-
hibitions. Some of the problems that might be of concern
would be the lack of assessment of the subjects' mental state.
Research has shown the subjects' mental health status may
influence their sexual functioning [23,24]. We did not
discriminate peri-menopausal period amongst the recruited
hypertensive women aged between 35 and 65 years. We also
admit that the components which constitute metabolic
syndrome were not analyzed. Finally, the beta-blockers
used in our patients were not homogenous. Thus, there may
not be any evidence of a class effect in this group.
5. Conclusion
It is advised that female sexual dysfunction may always
be kept in mind while prescribing antihypertensive medica-
tions. This may also influence the quality of life of the
patients. The SRC of hypertension women is highly affected
by the duration of the disease and different types of
antihypertensive medications. Keeping these facts in mind,
clinicians should treat hypertension judiciously and offer the
patients with antihypertensive medications which have the
least influence on their SRC.
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