Derek Offord Using Russian A Guide To Contemporary Usage 2005
Derek Offord Using Russian A Guide To Contemporary Usage 2005
Derek Offord Using Russian A Guide To Contemporary Usage 2005
Using Russian
Using Russian is a guide to Russian usage for those who have already
acquired the basics of the language and wish to extend their
knowledge. Unlike conventional grammars, it gives special attention to
those areas of vocabulary and grammar which cause most difculty to
English speakers, and focuses on questions of style and register which
are all too often ignored. Clear, readable and easy to consult, it will
prove invaluable to students seeking to improve their uency and
condence in Russian.
This second edition has been substantially revised and expanded to
incorporate fresh material and up-to-date information. Many of the
original sections have been rewritten, the passages illustrating register
are all fresh and one brand new chapter has been added, providing a
clear picture of Russian usage in the twenty-rst century.
derek offord is Professor of Russian Intellectual History at the
University of Bristol, where he has served as Chairman of the School
of Modern Languages and Head of Department. His previous
publications include Portraits of Early Russian Liberals (1985), The
Russian Revolutionary Movement in the 1880s (1986) and Modern
Russian: An Advanced Grammar Course (1993), as well as numerous
articles and chapters on classical Russian literature and thought.
natalia gogolitsyna is Language Assistant at the University of
Bristol. She has taught Russian as a second language at St Petersburg
Pedagogical University, and has been a visiting academic at the
University of Essex. Her previous publications include Problems of
Translation: Russian Words and Concepts with No Exact Equivalents in
English (1995) and various articles on culture-specic words and
concepts.
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Using Russian
A guide to
contemporary usage
Second edition, revised and augmented
DEREK OFFORD
University of Bristol
NATALIA GOGOLITSYNA
University of Bristol
caxniioci uxiviisir\ iiiss
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, So Paulo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cn: :iu, UK
First published in print format
isnx-:, ,;-c-,::-,;o:-:
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Derek Offord and Natalia Gogolitsyna 2005
2005
Information on this title: www.cambridg e.org /9780521547611
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of
relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
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Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
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paperback
eBook (NetLibrary)
eBook (NetLibrary)
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Contents
Preface to the rst edition xiii
Preface to the second edition xv
Acknowledgements xviii
Sources xix
Note on transcription, stress marks and transliteration xxii
Glossary of linguistic terms xxiii
List of abbreviations xxxiii
1 Varieties of language and register 1
1.1 The Russian language and its distribution 1
1.2 Varieties of language 6
1.3 Registers 9
1.3.1 The colloquial register (R1) 10
1.3.2 Demotic speech (D) 13
1.3.3 The neutral register (R2) 14
1.3.4 The higher register (R3) 15
1.3.5 Styles of belles-lettres ( ee
ea) 17
1.3.6 Language of the internet ( eea) 17
1.4 Illustration of register in vocabulary 18
1.5 Regional variation in Russian 19
1.5.1 Standard pronunciation 20
1.5.2 Classication of Russian dialects 21
1.5.3 Regional features 22
1.6 Current debate about standard Russian 25
2 Passages illustrating register 32
2.1 R1: from a TV show 32
2.2 R1: based on a conversation in a Russian internet chatroom 36
2.3 R2: magazine interview with a popular actor 40
2.4 R2: question-and-answer session with President Putin 43
2.5 R3a: academic style (modern historiography) 45
2.6 R3a: academic style (scientic writing) 47
2.7 R3b: ofcial/business style (legal) 50
2.8 R3b: ofcial/business style (commercial) 53
2.9 R3c: political journalism (reporting) 57
2.10 R3c: political journalism (comment) 60
2.11 Classical poetry 62
2.12 Literary prose 65
2.13 Language of the internet 68
v
Contents
3 Problems of meaning: Russian words 73
3.1 Homonyms 73
3.1.1 Examples of homonyms 73
3.1.2 Homonyms with different plural forms 78
3.2 Homophones and homoforms 79
3.3 Homographs 81
3.4 Paronyms 82
3.5 Faux amis (e ) 87
3.6 Problems of number 91
3.6.1 Nouns with plural form only 91
3.6.2 Nouns with singular form only 92
3.7 Russian words difcult to render in English 93
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian 98
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian 98
4.2 Translation of the verb to be 150
4.3 Translation of English modal auxiliary verbs 154
4.4 Transitive and intransitive verbs 159
4.5 Translation of English forms ending in -ing 160
4.6 Translation of too, also, as well 162
5 Vocabulary and idiom 163
5.1 Neologisms 163
5.1.1 Western loanwords in Russian 163
5.1.2 Recent loanwords from English 165
5.1.3 Neologisms derived from existing Russian words 166
5.1.4 Slang 169
5.1.5 Computing terminology 171
5.2 Transition words 176
5.3 Fillers 177
5.4 Modal particles 179
5.5 Interjections 188
5.6 Vulgar language 190
5.7 Idioms 193
5.8 Proverbs and sayings ( ) 199
5.9 Similes 202
6 Language and everyday life 203
6.1 Measurement 203
6.1.1 Length, distance, height 203
6.1.2 Area 204
6.1.3 Weight 204
6.1.4 Volume 205
6.1.5 Russian pre-revolutionary units of measure 205
6.1.6 Speed 206
6.1.7 Temperature 206
6.2 Currency 207
vi
Contents
6.3 Fractions and presentation of numerals 207
6.4 Time 207
6.5 Telephone numbers 208
6.6 Postal addresses 208
6.7 Family relationships 209
6.8 Public notices 209
6.9 Abbreviations of titles, weights, measures and
common expressions 211
6.10 Acronyms and alphabetisms 213
6.11 Names of countries and nationalities 216
6.11.1 Russia and the other states of the former
Soviet Union 216
6.11.2 Other regions and national minorities of Russia and the
former Soviet Union 217
6.11.3 Europe (Ea) 218
6.11.4 Africa (
Aa) 220
6.11.5 America (Aea) 221
6.11.6 Asia (
A) 221
6.11.7 The Middle East ( B) 222
6.11.8 Australia and New Zealand 223
6.12 Words denoting inhabitants of Russian and former
Soviet cities 223
6.13 Jokes (ae) and puns (aa) 225
7 Verbal etiquette 228
7.1 Introductory remarks 228
7.2 Use of and 229
7.3 Personal names 230
7.3.1 First names (ea) 230
7.3.2 Patronymics (ea) 233
7.4 Attracting attention (eee a) 235
7.5 Introductions (a) 237
7.6 Greetings (ee) 239
7.7 Farewells (ae) 241
7.8 Congratulation (aee) 242
7.9 Wishing (eae) 242
7.10 Gratitude (aa) 244
7.11 Apologising (ee) 244
7.12 Request (a) 245
7.13 Invitation (aee) 247
7.14 Reassurance and condolence (eee, eae) 247
7.15 Compliments (e) 248
7.16 Telephone conversations (ee a) 248
7.17 Letter writing (eea) 250
8 Word-formation 252
8.1 Principles of word-formation 252
vii
Contents
8.2 Types of consonant, spelling rules and consonant changes 253
8.2.1 Hard and soft consonants 253
8.2.2 Use of the hard sign 253
8.2.3 Devoicing of consonants 254
8.2.4 Spelling rules 254
8.2.5 Consonant changes 255
8.2.6 Epenthetic 255
8.3 Verbal prexes 255
8.4 Noun prexes 263
8.5 Adjectival prexes 264
8.6 The verbal inxes -a-/-a- 265
8.7 Noun sufxes 266
8.7.1 The principal noun sufxes 266
8.7.2 Noun sufxes denoting females 274
8.7.3 Miscellaneous noun sufxes 276
8.8 Diminutive, augmentative and expressive sufxes 277
8.8.1 Diminutive and hypocoristic sufxes 277
8.8.2 Double diminutive sufxes 279
8.8.3 The augmentative sufx -e/-a 279
8.8.4 Pejorative sufxes 279
8.9 The principal adjectival sufxes 280
8.10 Sufxes of participial origin 284
8.11 The verbal sufxes -a and -a 285
8.12 Composition 286
8.12.1 Compound nouns 286
8.12.2 Compound adjectives 287
9 Inection 288
9.1 Declension of the noun 288
9.1.1 Gender 288
9.1.2 Basic declensional patterns of the noun 289
9.1.3 Mobile vowels 291
9.1.4 Genitive singular forms in -/- 291
9.1.5 Locative singular forms in - y/- 292
9.1.6 Masculine nouns with nominative plural in - a/- 294
9.1.7 Irregularities in the genitive plural of nouns 296
9.1.8 Irregularities in dative/instrumental/prepositional
plural forms 299
9.1.9 Nouns which are irregular throughout the plural 299
9.1.10 Nouns with irregular declension throughout 301
9.1.11 Declension of surnames 303
9.1.12 Indeclinable nouns 304
9.2 Declension of pronouns 305
9.3 Adjectival forms 307
9.3.1 Declension of adjectives 307
9.3.2 Formation of short adjectives 309
9.3.3 Formation of short comparatives 310
viii
Contents
9.4 Formation of adverbs 312
9.5 Declension of numerals 313
9.6 Verb forms 315
9.6.1 The system of conjugation 315
9.6.2 1A verbs 316
9.6.3 1B verbs with vowel stems and unstressed endings 316
9.6.4 1B verbs with stems in and p and unstressed endings 316
9.6.5 1B verbs with vowel stems and stressed endings 317
9.6.6 1B verbs with consonant stems and unstressed endings 317
9.6.7 1B verbs with consonant stems and stressed endings 319
9.6.8 Second-conjugation verbs 322
9.6.9 Irregular verbs 324
9.6.10 Formation of the past tense 325
9.6.11 Formation of the imperative 326
9.7 Formation of gerunds and participles 328
9.7.1 Formation of imperfective gerunds 328
9.7.2 Formation of perfective gerunds 328
9.7.3 Formation of present active participles 329
9.7.4 Formation of past active participles 329
9.7.5 Formation of present passive participles 330
9.7.6 Formation of past passive participles 330
10 Prepositions 333
10.1 Valency of prepositions 333
10.1.1 Prepositions followed by apparent nominative forms 333
10.1.2 Prepositions governing the accusative 334
10.1.3 Prepositions governing the genitive 337
10.1.4 Prepositions governing the dative 343
10.1.5 Prepositions governing the instrumental 345
10.1.6 Prepositions governing the prepositional or locative 346
10.2 Prepositional phrases based on nouns 350
10.3 Verbs followed by prepositions 350
10.3.1 Verbs followed by prepositions governing
the accusative 350
10.3.2 Verbs followed by prepositions governing the genitive 351
10.3.3 Verbs followed by prepositions governing the dative 352
10.3.4 Verbs followed by prepositions governing
the instrumental 352
10.3.5 Verbs followed by prepositions governing
the prepositional 353
10.4 Rendering of English prepositions in Russian 354
11 Syntax 377
11.1 Use of the cases 377
11.1.1 Use of the nominative 377
11.1.2 Use of the accusative 377
11.1.3 Use of case to denote animate direct object 378
ix
Contents
11.1.4 Basic uses of the genitive 380
11.1.5 Verbs governing the genitive 381
11.1.6 Case of direct object after a negated verb 382
11.1.7 Basic uses of the dative 384
11.1.8 Verbs governing the dative 386
11.1.9 Basic uses of the instrumental 388
11.1.10 Verbs governing the instrumental 388
11.1.11 Use of the prepositional 391
11.2 Use of pronouns 391
11.2.1 Use of as a relative pronoun 391
11.2.2 Use of a and as interrogative pronouns 392
11.2.3 Use of negative pronouns (, etc.) 392
11.2.4 Use of e, etc. 393
11.2.5 Use of the particles -, -, - 393
11.2.6 Use of 394
11.3 Use of short adjectives 395
11.4 Use of numerals 398
11.4.1 Use of 398
11.4.2 Use of numerals higher than one in nominative/
accusative 398
11.4.3 Use of numerals in oblique cases 399
11.4.4 Use of numerals with animate direct object 399
11.4.5 Use of collective numerals 400
11.4.6 Approximation 401
11.4.7 Agreement of predicate with a subject containing a
cardinal numeral 401
11.4.8 Translation of years and people after numerals 402
11.4.9 Distributive expressions 402
11.4.10 Time 403
11.4.11 Dates 404
11.4.12 Distance 404
11.4.13 Nouns expressing number 405
11.5 Use of aspects 405
11.5.1 Basic distinction between the aspects 405
11.5.2 Effect of adverbial modiers 406
11.5.3 Use of aspect in the indicative 406
11.5.4 Use of aspect in the innitive 408
11.5.5 Use of aspect in negative constructions 409
11.5.6 Use of aspect in the imperative 410
11.6 Problems in choice of tense 411
11.7 Use of verbs of motion 412
11.8 Use of reexive verbs 413
11.9 The conditional mood 415
11.10 The subjunctive mood 416
11.11 Use of gerunds and participles 418
11.11.1 Use of gerunds 418
11.11.2 Use of active participles 419
11.11.3 Use of present passive participles 419
x
Contents
11.11.4 Use of past passive participles 419
11.12 Conjunctions 420
11.12.1 Coordinating conjunctions 420
11.12.2 Subordinating conjunctions 422
11.12.3 Subordinating conjunctions used in R1 or R3 423
11.13 Syntactic features of colloquial speech 424
11.14 Word order 425
11.15 Punctuation 428
11.16 Use of capital letters 432
12 Stress 433
12.1 Introductory remarks 433
12.2 Stress in nouns 433
12.2.1 Masculine nouns 434
12.2.2 Feminine nouns 438
12.2.3 Neuter nouns 440
12.2.4 Irregular stress in certain prepositional singular forms 442
12.2.5 Prepositions that attract stress in certain phrases 443
12.3 Stress in adjectives 443
12.4 Stress in verbs 444
12.4.1 Stress in rst-conjugation verbs 444
12.4.2 Stress in second-conjugation verbs 445
12.4.3 Stress in past-tense forms 447
12.4.4 Stress in gerunds and participles 449
12.4.5 Miscellaneous points 452
12.5 Variation in stress 452
Index of Russian words, phrases and afxes 455
General index 487
xi
Preface to the rst edition
This book, like the volumes already published in the series on
contemporary usage in French, German and Spanish, is aimed at the
advanced learner who has studied the basic grammar of the language
and is now striving for a more comprehensive and sophisticated
knowledge. To this end the book includes much material on register,
vocabulary, verbal etiquette and word-formation, as well as material on
the subjects of morphology, prepositions and syntax with which the
post-A-level student should already have some familiarity. The book is
not conceived as a comprehensive grammar, although the main
grammatical topics that trouble the English-speaking student are quite
fully covered in the later chapters. The approach adopted is not
prescriptive. That is to say an attempt is made to show the range of
linguistic phenomena that might be encountered in modern Russian
and to dene the limits within which they are used rather than to lay
down rules for usage.
While offering, it is hoped, a multi-faceted view of the modern
language, two purposes are kept in mind throughout the book.
Firstly, it is intended to demonstrate that Russian, like any other
modern language with which the student may be familiar, is not a
stable, uniform abstraction that is applied inexibly in all situations. As
a living language spoken by millions of individuals of different ages
from different backgrounds and in different situations, Russian exists in
many varieties. Words, forms and constructions which are appropriate
in one context may be quite out of place in another. Even apparently
hard-and-fast grammatical rules may be relaxed, to the frustration of
the foreign student who has laboriously mastered them. Chapter 1
therefore aims to make the student aware of the existence of variety in
the Russian language, and this variety is borne in mind and examples
of it indicated in all the chapters that follow.
Secondly, the book attempts to address problems that the
English-speaking student of Russian may nd especially taxing.
Russian operates, of course, according to quite different grammatical
principles from those to which the English-speaker is accustomed.
(One thinks in particular of its system of declension of nouns,
pronouns, adjectives, numerals and participles and of the aspectual
distinction that runs through the Russian verbal system.) Moreover, in
the eld of vocabulary correspondences between Russian and English
words are often limited or inexact and similarities can be misleading.
Again, in certain situations Russians simply do not express themselves
in the same way as English-speakers in a similar situation, or at least a
direct translation of what an English-speaker would say in that situation
would seem to a Russian to some degree unnatural. Much attention is
xiii
Preface to the rst edition
therefore devoted in this book to problems of non-equivalence in the
two languages in vocabulary, phraseology and verbal etiquette as well as
grammar.
Beyond these purposes it is also hoped that the book, through its
broad approach, will increase the students general awareness of the
structure and resources of the Russian language, and that his or her
understanding and appreciation of the immense vitality and depth of
experience of the Russian people may thus in some small way be
enhanced.
xiv
Preface to the second edition
This new edition of Using Russian: a Guide to Contemporary Usage
represents an extensively revised and augmented version of the rst
edition, which was published in 1996. Whereas the rst edition
consisted of ten chapters the current edition has twelve and is some
ninety pages longer than the rst. Our thanks are due to Cambridge
University Press for allowing this enlargement.
Some material in the rst edition that is now out-of-date or that is
for some other reason of less interest than it was in 1996 (for example,
neologisms associated with the period of gl asnost
iana, a e,
eaa aea, no. 16 (April 2003) (1.6)
Khlebtsova, Ol
s ss
The symbol
placed after a letter indicates that the preceding
consonant is soft, e.g. l
ul
().
Stress is indicated in this book by the use of an acute accent over the
stressed vowel, e.g. ea. In words which may be stressed in different
places by different speakers an acute accent is placed over both the
vowels that may bear the stress, e.g. a. The secondary stress (see
Glossary) that may occur in some words, especially compound nouns
or adjectives, is marked by a grave accent.
The system of transliteration used to render Russian names (e.g.
Petia, i.e. e), place names and other Russian words in Roman script
is that used in The Slavonic and East European Review. In this book stress
has been marked in these transliterated forms (e.g. P ushkin, perestr oika),
as well as in Cyrillic forms (, eea) unless the Cyrillic
form, with stress indicated, is adjacent to the transliterated form.
xxii
Glossary of linguistic terms
Besides providing explanation of terms used in this book, the
following glossary should aid understanding of the linguistic concepts
required for advanced study of Russian. It will in any case be found
that many educated Russians have a high degree of awareness of the
grammar of their language and that in talking about it they will use
some of the terms dened here. Numbers in brackets refer to the
section(s) in this book that deal(s) with the phenomenon in question.
accusative case (e ae): the case in which the direct
object of a transitive verb is expressed, e.g.
Oa ae ,
Ol
e (ae): pronunciation of
e as
a after a soft consonant in the
pretonic syllable. In strong (e) ae, pretonic
a replaces
e
irrespective of the quality of the vowel in the stressed syllable, e.g.
n
asl a (ea), s
al om (e), n
as u (e), t
ap
er
(ee). In
moderate (eee) ae, pretonic
a replaces
e only before
hard consonants, e.g. n
asl a (ea), s
al om (e), n
as u (e), but
t
eper
it
ej (ee), n
isl a (ea),
t
ip
er
(ee), vz
il a (a), r
id (), t
in u ().
imperative mood (eee aee): verbal mood
expressing command, invitation, suggestion, entreaty, request, etc.,
e.g. come in, sit down (6.8, 9.6.11, 11.5.6).
imperfective aspect (eee ): describes an action
without reference to its extent and thus presents it as incomplete,
xxvi
Glossary of linguistic terms
e.g. Oa ea, She was singing/used to sing (11.5); cf. perfective
aspect.
indicative mood (ee aee): mood which afrms
or denies that the action or state denoted by the verb in question is
an actual fact, e.g. I read, she went, they were sitting, the sun was not
shining.
indirect object (ee ee): a noun, pronoun or phrase
denoting an object indirectly affected by an action, e.g. He gave the
book [direct object] to his sister [indirect object]. See also dative
case.
indirect speech (also called reported speech; ea e):
discourse in which the substance of sbs words or thoughts is related
without being quoted verbatim, e.g. He told me that he would do it,
She said she was twenty (11.6).
innitive (): verb form expressing the idea of an
action without reference to person or number, e.g. to speak,
.
inx (): element inserted in the middle of a word to modify its
meaning or use, e.g. aa (8.6); English, unlike Russian, has
no inxes.
inection (also exion; ae): the grammatical ending that
expresses relations of case, tense, number, gender, etc. in nouns,
pronouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs and participles, e.g. aa,
ee, , , a, a.
instrumental case (e ae): the case denoting the
agent by which or the instrument with which sth is done, e.g.
a , the treaty signed by him, a
aaa, to write with a pencil (9.1.2, 9.1.8, 10.1.5, 10.3.4,
11.1.911.1.10).
interjection (eee): an exclamatory word, invariable in form,
which is thrown into an utterance to express emotion, e.g. oh!, ox!
(5.5).
intransitive verb (eee a): a verb that does not require
a direct object, e.g. The sun rises, A crowd gathered (4.4, 11.8).
isogloss (a): a line separating one region from another which
differs from it in a feature of dialect. The isogloss may indicate e.g.
the limits of distribution of a certain word or the boundary beyond
which one phenomenon (e.g. ae) is replaced by another
(aae).
lexical (ee): relating to vocabulary (as opposed to grammar).
locative case (e ae): the case which indicates location of
an object; used after the prepositions and a (9.1.2, 9.1.5, 10.1.6,
10.3.5, 11.1.11); see also prepositional case.
long form (of adjective; a a): full form that must be used
when a Russian adjective is attributive, e.g. , a, ee,
e, etc. (9.3.1); cf. short form, which may be used when the
adjective is predicative.
xxvii
Glossary of linguistic terms
main clause (ae eee): a clause which can stand
independently, e.g. I went home [main clause] after I had spoken to
you [subordinate clause, q.v.].
mobile vowel (e a): one of the vowels o, or e when
(a) they precede the nal consonant of a masculine noun in its
nominative singular form but disappear once an inection is added,
e.g. (a, etc.; see 9.1.3), or (b) are inserted in certain types of
feminine or neuter noun which in the genitive plural have a zero
ending (q.v.), e.g. a (), ee (ee; see
9.1.7).
modal particle (aa aa): a short indeclinable word
which emphasises, intensies or in some other way expresses the
speakers emotion or attitude, e.g. e, e (5.4).
modal verb (a a): verb (e.g. Eng can, could, may;
Russ ) expressing possibility, permissibility, obligation, etc., and
followed by another verb which it modies (4.3).
monosyllable (e ): word comprising one syllable,
e.g. cat, word.
mood (aee): form of the verb that indicates how the speaker
views an action or state, i.e. whether it is seen as matter-of-fact,
desirable, contingent on sth else, etc. See also conditional,
imperative, indicative, subjunctive.
morphology (): study of the forms of words.
Inectional morphology (see inection) relates to the
declension of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numerals and participles
and conjugation of verbs (see Chapter 9). Lexical (q.v.)
morphology relates to word-formation (q.v.; see Chapter 8).
neologism (e): a new word or phrase (e.g. a, ee),
or the use of an old word in a new sense (e.g. e) (5.1).
nominative case (ee ae): the case in which the
subject is expressed, e.g.
Oa ae , Ol
ga is reading a book
(9.1.2, 10.1.1, 11.1.1).
number (): the grammatical property of a word which indicates
whether it is singular, dual (q.v.) or plural. The difference between
car/cars, mouse/mice, I am/we are is in each instance a difference of
number.
numeral (ee): a word denoting number, e.g. two, ve; see
also cardinal numeral and ordinal numeral.
object (ee): see direct object and indirect object.
oblique case (e ae): any case other than the nominative
(and in other Slavonic languages, vocative), i.e. in Russian
accusative, genitive, dative, instrumental, prepositional. In this book
the term is used to embrace the last four of these cases, but not
generally the accusative.
okan
, e.g. c
udo.
velar (ae): consonant sound produced by raising the back
of the top of the tongue against the soft palate (); in Russian
the sounds g, k, x.
vocative case (ae ae): case used in direct personal
address; now defunct in Russian, except in relics such as e and
and in certain colloquial forms in the spoken language (see
7.3.1). (The vocative survives in other Slavonic languages, e.g.
Czech, Polish, Serbo-Croat.)
voiced consonant ( a): consonant produced with
the vocal cords vibrating, e.g. Russian b, v, g, d, z, z; see also
voiceless consonant.
voiceless consonant ( a): consonant produced
without vibration of the vocal cords, e.g. Russian p, f, k, t, s, s, x,
c, c
, s s
.
vowel (a): sound produced by passage of air through mouth
without obstruction of the airstream, e.g. a, e, i, o, u.
word-formation (aae): formation of new words by
combining roots and afxes or by other means; also the study of the
structure of words and the laws of their formation in a language
(Chapter 8).
zero ending (ee ae): ending of a Russian noun in an
oblique case in which no inection is present e.g. a, soldier
(which is genitive plural as well as nominative singular); (gen pl;
nom sg ea, wife); e (gen pl; nom sg e, place).
xxxii
List of abbreviations
acc accusative
act active
adj adjective
adv adverb
agric agricultural
biol biological
C Central
col column
collect collective
conj conjunction
D demotic
dat dative
dimin diminutive
E East
econ economic
Eng English
esp especially
f feminine
g gurative
n nancial
Fr French
fut future
gen genitive
geog geographical
geol geological
Ger German
gram grammatical
imp imperative
impers impersonal
impf imperfective
incl including
indecl indeclinable
inn innitive
instr instrumental
iron ironical
lit literally
loc locative
m masculine
math mathematical
med medical
mil military
mus musical
N North
n neuter
NE North-East
nom nominative
non-re non-reexive
NW North-West
obs obsolete
OCS Old Church
Slavonic
ofc ofcial
part participle
pass passive
pej pejorative
pers person
pf perfective
phil philosophical
pl plural
poet poetic
pol political
prep prepositional
pres present
R register
re reexive
rhet rhetorical
Russ Russian
sb somebody
SE South-East
sg singular
Sp Spanish
sth something
subst substantivised
SW South-West
tech technical
theat theatrical
vulg vulgar
The Russian particle - is frequently abbreviated to -.
xxxiii
1 Varieties of language and register
1.1 The Russian language and its distribution
The Russian language belongs to the East Slav group of languages,
itself part of the Slavonic branch of the Indo-European family. The
relationship of Russian to the other modern European languages is
illustrated by Figure 1 (which includes only languages still used by
substantial numbers of speakers).
It is difcult to give accurate up-to-date gures for the number of
people for whom Russian is their native or rst language, or at least
their rst language for some purpose or purposes (e.g. professional or
social). This difculty arises for several reasons. Firstly, we are dealing
with several different categories of user, including the following: ethnic
Russians who are citizens of the Russian Federation; ethnic Russians
who are citizens of other former republics of the Soviet Union;
members of other ethnic groups who are citizens of the Russian
Federation; and members of other ethnic groups who are citizens of
other former republics of the Soviet Union but who continue to use
Russian at work or at home, perhaps because their community or
family is mainly Russian-speaking. It is not always easy to dene
whether Russian is the rst or second language of at least the latter two
groups. Secondly, there has been much migration between the regions
and states of the former Soviet Union since the collapse of the Union
in 1991, with the result that numbers and proportions of ethnic
Russians or other speakers of Russian in each former republic may
have changed signicantly over the last thirteen years. Thirdly,
considerable numbers of both ethnic Russians and members of
non-Russian ethnic groups who grew up in Russia or the Soviet
Union using Russian as their rst language have in the same period
emigrated from the Russian Federation to countries outside the
former Soviet Union. The number of Jews in the Russian Federation,
for example, fell from roughly 540,000 in 1989 to 230,000 in 2002 and
the number of Russian Germans has declined over the same period
from 840,000 to 600,000. It is difcult to determine how many
emigr es continue to use Russian as their rst language, or for how
long they do so, after their emigration.
The most easily quantiable group of Russian-speakers, of course, is
the citizenry of the Russian Federation, of which Russian is the ofcial
language. According to the census of the Russian Federation carried
out in 2002, the population of the Federation was a little over 145
million,
1
of whom some 116 million (i.e. almost 80 per cent) describe
themselves as ethnically Russian.
1
1 Varieties of language and register
G
e
r
m
a
n
i
c
W
e
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G
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r
m
a
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i
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N
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r
t
h
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t
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l
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P
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C
r
o
a
t
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l
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B
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,
W
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R
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)
U
k
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.
1
.
T
h
e
I
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d
o
-
E
u
r
o
p
e
a
n
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
s
1.1 The Russian language and its distribution
Among the remaining 20 per cent, or approximately 29 million, of
the population of the Russian Federation (many of whom will also
consider Russian their rst language) 160 nationalities were
represented, according to the 2002 census. The largest of these
non-Russian groups, in descending order, were Tatars (of whom there
were over ve million), Ukrainians (almost three million, although
their number in the Russian Federation has been decreasing), Bashkirs
and Chuvashes (over a million each), and Chechens and Armenians
(also over a million each, and their numbers in the Russian Federation
have been increasing). Figure 2 shows the composition of the
population of the Russian Federation by ethnic group, as revealed by
the 2002 census.
Of the non-Russian citizens of the Federation the Ukrainians and
Belorussians (whose numbers in the Russian Federation have also been
decreasing) are ethnically close to the Russians. Their languages (i.e.
Ukrainian and Belorussian respectively) are closely related to Russian,
which Ukrainians and Belorussians are likely also to speak with native
or near-native facility. However, many of the non-Russian citizens of
the Russian Federation (e.g. Estonians, Kazakhs, Latvians) belong to
quite different ethnic groups from the Russians, including
non-European groups. They may therefore speak a language that is
only distantly related to Russian (e.g. Latvian, which is also
Indo-European) or that belongs to a different linguistic group (e.g.
Estonian, which is a Finno-Ugric language, or Kazakh, which is a
Turkic language).
2
These non-Russian citizens of the Federation have
varying degrees of command of Russian. A substantial number of them
consider Russian their rst language.
It needs to be borne in mind, incidentally, that different Russian
terms are used to denote the different types of Russian who have
been identied in the preceding paragraphs. The substantivised
adjective (f a) denotes a person who is ethnically
Russian. Used as an adjective, this word also denotes the Russian
language ( ). The noun (f a), on the
other hand, conveys the broader concept of a person who is a citizen
of the Russian Federation but who is not necessarily ethnically
Russian. The adjective has a correspondingly broader
sense than the adjective , as, for example, in the name of the
country itself (Pa eea), which denotes a political
rather than an ethnic, linguistic or cultural entity.
The numbers of ethnic Russian and non-Russian speakers of
Russian outside the Russian Federation are more difcult to quantify.
Some idea of their number can be gauged from the fact that at the
time of the 1989 census (the last census carried out in the Soviet era)
there were 25 million ethnic Russians living in other republics of the
Soviet Union (see 6.11.1 for a list of these republics), the majority of
them in Ukraine. Moreover, since Russian was used as a second
language throughout the non-Russian areas of the Union, whose total
3
1 Varieties of language and register
F
i
g
.
2
.
P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
t
h
e
R
u
s
s
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a
n
F
e
d
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r
a
t
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o
n
b
y
e
t
h
n
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c
g
r
o
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p
,
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c
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r
d
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n
g
t
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t
h
e
2
0
0
2
c
e
n
s
u
s
1.1 The Russian language and its distribution
population in 1989 was 287 million, one may assume that the language
was used as a rst or second language by at least a further 50 million
Soviet citizens. However, the status of the Russian language is now
diminishing in the former Soviet republics in proportion as the
languages of the ethnic groups that are dominant in the new states (e.g.
Kazakhs in Kazakhstan) are promoted, particularly within the
educational system. Admittedly Russian remains a lingua franca for
commercial and diplomatic transactions in the former Soviet republics,
especially among the older generation of speakers who were educated
in Soviet times, when Russian was the dominant language throughout
the Union. On the other hand, the rise of English as the language of
global communication, and therefore the rst foreign language to be
taught in schools, may further weaken the status of Russian outside the
Russian Federation. One may predict that in twenty or thirty years
Russian will be less widely spoken in the former Soviet republics than
it is today, especially in those countries with a relatively small residual
ethnic Russian population (e.g. Lithuania). It is also possible that many
people who do speak Russian in those countries will use it less than
they do today and that they will have a poorer command of it than
non-Russians who speak Russian there now.
Russian is of course also spoken, with varying degrees of uency,
accuracy and proximity to the Russian now spoken in Russia itself, by
many emigr es or their descendants in countries outside the former
Soviet Union. Russians, or members of other ethnic groups who were
formerly Soviet citizens, have left the Soviet Union or not returned
to it at four main periods in the last ninety years or so: in the years
immediately or soon after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917; after the
Second World War (193945), following their displacement; in the
Br ezhnev period (especially in the 1970s, after the granting of
permission to Jews to leave the country); and from the mid-1980s,
following the further relaxation of emigration controls. The principal
destinations of these emigrants, at one time or another, have been
France, Germany, Britain, the US and Israel. Many members of the
Russian diaspora are permanently settled abroad but some mainly
more recent emigr es are only temporarily resident outside Russia,
perhaps because they are working or studying abroad.
Russian is also spoken by millions of people as a foreign language,
especially people from Africa, Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe
who received all or most of their higher education in the Soviet
Union. Moreover, Russian has been widely taught outside Russia
since the Second World War, particularly when the Soviet Union was
at its most powerful from the 1960s to the1980s. Organisations such as
the International Association of Teachers of the Russian Language and
Literature (Meaa aa eaaee
a or MAP
u (),
zdr assti (a), u t
e (e),
p
iis
a/
ee
to die a (pf)
isl a (ea), vz
il a
(a), c
ek (e).
r
There are four labiodental fricatives, i.e. hard voiced v and soft voiced
v
e (e).
r
There are two distinct affricates, the hard hissing affricate c, as in cyg an
(a), and the soft hushing affricate c
as in c
aj (a). (This
distinction is also observed in most S and C dialects.)
1.5.2 Classication of Russian dialects
Dialects are dened not by a single phenomenon but by a set of
phenomena, on the basis of a so-called bundle of isoglosses. However,
the isoglosses dening the territorial limits of the use of one
phenomenon do not necessarily coincide neatly with isoglosses relating
to another phenomenon. Identication and classication of Russian
dialects is therefore a complex matter that will not be addressed here,
except insofar as it is possible to make a broad distinction between the
following regional forms of Russian that may be heard in European
Russia.
(a) The N regional dialects (eee aee), i.e. the Russian spoken
north of a line running a little to the north of N ovgorod, Tver
and
Nzhnii N ovgorod (but excluding St Petersburg). This regional dialect
embraces such groups of local dialects as the L adoga-Tkhvin group,
the V ologda group and the Kostrom a group. The N regional dialect is
characterised especially by ae and use of occlusive g.
(b) The S regional dialect (e aee), i.e. the Russian spoken from
the borders of Belarus and Ukraine in the west and south and up to a
line passing through Kol omna, to the north of Kal uga and Riaz an
.
This regional dialect embraces a SW group of dialects around
Smol ensk (inuenced by Belorussian features), an Upper Dnepr group,
an Upper Desn a group around Briansk, the Kursk and Ori ol group,
and a group including the Russian of Riaz an
ap
er
(ee), n
as
i (e), s
al (e), n
al o (e),
n
os)
(some S dialects).
r
ae, e.g. caj (a), csto (), c udo (), i.e. hard ae
(NW and also many C and SE dialects); or c
aj, c
isto, c
() (some S
and C dialects).
r
Various paradigms of , e.g. , e, etc.; , ,
etc.; , e, etc. (some S dialects).
r
Use of rst-person-singular forms of second-conjugation verbs
without epenthetic or consonant change, e.g. (),
() (some S and SW dialects).
r
Use of certain compound prepositions of the type -a, -,
syntax
which are not found in the standard language (used with instrumental
to indicate the site of action), e.g. - , under the hillside;
-a e, over the river (some N and S dialects).
r
Use of certain prepositions with a case different from the case they
govern in the standard language, e.g. e, , e + acc (cf.
genitive in the standard language), e.g. e e (e e, near the
river) (some N dialects).
r
Use of c + gen in sense of out of (cf. in the standard language), e.g.
a, to go out of the room; ea M, to come
from Moscow.
r
Use of nominative rather than distinctive accusative (or accusative/
genitive) form of a noun which is the direct object of a transitive verb,
24
1.6 Current debate about standard Russian
e.g. e a (e , to bring water); aa e
(aa ea, to rock a baby) (some N dialects).
r
Use of a + acc after short comparative adjectives (cf. genitive in the
standard language), e.g. O ae a Ca (O ae Ca, Hes
older than Sasha) (some S dialects).
r
Use of a pluperfect tense consisting of the past tense of + the past
tense of the verb denoting the action in question, e.g. A ee
e a, a , Snow had fallen in
September, but October was warm (some N dialects).
r
Predicative use of perfective gerunds, e.g. ee a, A tree is
down; Kaa e, The porridge is burnt (some NW dialects;
note, however, that the form , drunk, is used in this way in
the standard language).
r
Various impersonal constructions involving the use of a short form of a
past passive participle, e.g. C a ae, I sawed it up with
my own hands (lit with my own hands it has been sawn); M
aa, A lot of work has been done; Ce e, Ive been
sitting around/People have been sitting around at my place; or use of a past
passive participle that does not agree with the noun to which it relates,
e.g. O a e e, One soldier is buried here; M
, Some milk has been spilt.
r
Less differentiation than in the standard language of subordinating
conjunctions (which in any case occur less in R1 than in R2 and
especially R3; see 11.12.2); correspondingly broader use of certain
conjunctions, especially: in causal sense, e.g. O e a
a, a, Hes laughing at us for being so stupid; and a in
(a) conditional sense (=e, if ), e.g. a e, a ee
a a , If its calm Ill go, but if its windy I certainly shant;
(b) causal sense (= , because), e.g. Be - e a,
a eaa, I shant write myself, because I cant write; (c) temporal
sense (=a, when), e.g. a a , a a
, When it was hot the cats would lie down in the grass.
r
Use of the emphatic post-positive particle - (see 5.4 on use of this
particle in the standard language). In some dialects (esp N and E) the
article changes according to the gender and number of the noun, i.e.
-, a-a, -, -e. In some C dialects the forms
- and - r - may be used for the sake of harmony with the
ending of the noun to which the particle is attached e.g. a ee-,
e -.
1.6 Current debate about standard Russian
We return at this point to the notion of a linguistic standard that was
broached in section 1.2 above. By linguistic standard we mean a
25
1 Varieties of language and register
canonical form of a language which grammarians and lexicographers
have sought to codify and which certain works of literature are felt to
exemplify. In some countries it is the function of some institution (e.g.
the Acad emie francaise in France) to preserve this standard. (In Russia
this function is fullled by the V. V. Vinogr adov Russian Language
Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Linguistics Institute
of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the A. S. P ushkin Russian
Language Institute, and other institutions.) It will be clear from what
was said in 1.2 that the standard is not only the uniform language that
educated speakers are believed actually to use but also an exemplary
language that it is felt speakers of the language in general ought to
aspire to use. In other words, the term standard when applied to a
language has both a descriptive and a prescriptive sense.
This book is primarily descriptive. We aim to acquaint students with
contemporary Russian usage (its registers and functional styles, lexis,
morphology, syntax and stress) as we nd it rather than to exhort
students to adhere exclusively to usage that a purist might consider as
conforming to an educated standard. We therefore have no hesitation
in pointing out non-standard features of contemporary Russian. This
leaning towards descriptivism rather than prescriptivism, which is in
the spirit of the series to which this book belongs, is intended to help
the foreign student to become aware of the full stylistic and expressive
range that is available to the Russian native speaker. Evidence of such
awareness may raise the foreign learners authority in the eyes of native
speakers.
At the same time it is essential that a foreigner learning a language
should know what native speakers consider to be standard (the norm at
which they will probably feel foreigners should aim) and what they
consider sub-standard (and may therefore expect the foreign learner to
eschew). In particular, the foreign learner should understand that the
freedom that he or she enjoys to use the resources of the language
being acquired, especially its sub-standard forms, is on the whole more
limited than that enjoyed by native speakers. This statement is true as a
matter of fact, inasmuch as there will no doubt be lacunae in
knowledge of vocabulary, idiom and grammar that inhibit the foreign
user of a language. It also holds good with respect to etiquette. For the
relatively limited nature of the foreigners understanding of the cultural
contexts in which the foreign language is used is likely to be felt at
some level by native speakers to impose a duty on the foreigner to
observe a certain humility and linguistic restraint. The disapproval of
native speakers may easily be aroused by deployment of sub-standard
forms by the foreign learner in an inappropriate context.
Debates about what the standard form of a language is or should be
and about the desirability and feasibility of preserving, purifying or
reforming the language are commonplace among peoples whose
languages are widely used for political, commercial, administrative,
literary and other purposes as well as for everyday social intercourse.
With respect to the English language, for example, there has in recent
26
1.6 Current debate about standard Russian
years been much discussion about such questions as the following. Is
standard spoken English the same thing as standard written English?
(It is widely thought by socio-linguists not to be.) Is there such a thing
as standard spoken English at all? Is it right to attempt to impose a
standard spoken form of English, including received pronunciation,
through the educational system? What are the social implications of
such a policy? What political assumptions lie behind the positions
taken up on such issues? Such debates are often fuelled by concern that
what is thought to be a standard form of language is being polluted by
the increasing toleration of non-standard pronunciation (e.g. the
pronunciation that characterises what is known as estuary English), or
by the inux into a language of lexis that is perceived by educated
users as coarse or vulgar, or by the establishment of grammatical
phenomena that are considered by such users to be incorrect.
A debate about the state of the Russian standard began in the late
1980s and has quickened in the 1990s and the early years of the
twenty-rst century. This debate needs to be seen against the
background of the political, economic, social and cultural changes
(eaa) that have affected the Russian language in the
post-Soviet period. For example, Russians now have much closer
contact with the West, as a result of increased opportunities for travel
abroad, the inux of a larger number of foreigners into Russia than in
the Soviet period, and easier access to Western culture, particularly
material and popular culture, through the media and the internet. The
one-party state of Soviet times has given way to a state with democratic
institutions in which political parties of various complexions compete
with one another. A free-market economy is developing. Mass media,
including new and independent television stations and newspapers,
have proliferated. Women have asserted themselves to a greater extent
than before. The Soviet cultural legacy is receding.
The effect of these changes on the Russian language, especially in
the areas of lexis and style, may be viewed in different ways. On the
one hand they may be seen positively as having enriched Russian with
numerous neologisms expressing new concepts or presenting old
concepts in a new light (see 5.1 below). They have also helped to
release the language from the ideological straitjacket of the Soviet era.
It is perhaps indicative of a recognition of the positive effect, or at least
the naturalness and legitimacy, of linguistic change that Russian
linguists have in recent years become more interested than they were in
Soviet times in usage in non-standard registers.
On the other hand the post-Soviet Russian language is widely
perceived, particularly by educated speakers brought up in the Soviet
period, as having undergone barbarisation (aaa). It has
come to be seen as a vehicle for mass culture. It has received numerous
loanwords (aa) of international currency. (Resistance to
what linguistic conservatives perceive as inundation with foreign words
was exemplied as early as 1995 by Solzhentsyns P a
ae (A Russian Dictionary of Linguistic Expansion).)
27
1 Varieties of language and register
Numerous slang words (a) have come into common use,
many of them associated with youth culture (and often disseminated
through rock music) and others originating in the underworld. The
complaint is heard that whereas once people were encouraged to write
or speak in a way that was comprehensible to the masses (
aa) now the demand is that they write or speak in a way
that is entertaining to the masses ( a aa). Thus
the linguistic standard has been broadened and the average level of
speech in public contexts lowered. The point is not that mistakes were
not made before, of course, for languages are always used loosely by
many speakers. Rather it is that lax usage in Russian is now widely
disseminated in the mass media (CM, i.e. ea a
a), television serials (eeea), talk shows (-),
lms, advertising (eaa), contemporary ction and the public
speech of ofcials and politicians (whose parliamentary debates are
broadcast).
We should add to these complaints the fact that there often occurs
what might be described as a sort of linguistic ination. Certain words
lose their original worth, because a meaning comes to be attached to
them that is more trivial than their original meaning or simply because
they are overused. The process applies even to vulgar language (see
5.6) when it becomes habitual. The lexical currency is thus devalued.
In response to the perceived debasement of the standard Russian
language, or ea , commentators now routinely discuss
the ecology of the language (), expressing concern
about the phenomena that have come to be tolerated in public
discourse and lamenting the alleged impoverishment of the language.
For example, the authors of two recent articles in the paper
eaa aea (Ivan ova and Khlebts ova; see Sources)
complain about departures from the standard in the areas of
pronunciation, enunciation, stress, morphology, syntax, lexis and style
that they have observed in the media, even in broadcasts that are not
live and in which editors might therefore have been expected to ensure
a higher linguistic standard. They criticise correspondents and
presenters for halting and stumbling delivery, for speaking inaudibly
and with unclear diction, for speaking too quickly and omitting
syllables from words, and for pronouncing words in a colloquial or
demotic way. They disapprove of the appearance on central television
and radio channels of presenters who have a regional accent. (This
practice has long since been accepted in British broadcasting; in some
respects Russian purists are reacting to the shock of what to them is
novel.) They point to examples of non-standard stress, e.g. a,
a, a, e, e instead of a,
taken, a, they will include, a, gas pipeline,
, new-born, e, to facilitate, respectively.
In the eld of grammar, one area of particular concern to such
purists is the incorrect or innovative combination of nouns and
prepositions, e.g. a aee, ae, instead of
28
1.6 Current debate about standard Russian
aee, in the government, a ae, in (the) Ukraine (see
note 1 on a in 10.1.6(c)). Another is the widespread incorrect
declension of numerals, e.g. , instead of a, about
200; ee instead of e e
, by 2001; and a e , instead of e
e , 2003. Khlebts ova points to the use of double subjects
(a colloquial phenomenon sometimes known in English as heads),
e.g. e ea, a aae ee e, todays
subject, it concerns an interesting problem. More pedantically, perhaps,
Ivan ova notes that certain nouns are inected that should not be, such
as the names of settlements () and large Cossack villages
(a). Conversely, other proper nouns, such as the names of cities
and villages, are not inected when they are in apposition, although
strictly speaking they should be, e.g. e H and
e aa, instead of e He, in the city of
Novosibirsk, and e ae, in the city of Basra, respectively.
As far as lexis is concerned, Ivan ova and Khlebts ova lament the
inundation of the language of the media with foreign, especially
English, vocabulary (see 5.1.2 below), slang (5.1.4) and professional
jargon, especially computing terminology (5.1.5). Furthermore they
bemoan the allegedly limited vocabulary of people who work in the
media and their consequent underemployment of synonyms and their
failure to distinguish between registers. They also complain of the
assignation of new meanings to words. For example, the verb
a, to feel, Khlebts ova believes, now does service for a,
aa, a and a (to think, suppose, understand and
consider, respectively), as in the question she has heard put to someone
on television: a aee, e Aea aa
ae? (How do you feel/What do you think, will
America ratify the disarmament treaties?). (In this modish use a
may be an anglicism.) Similarly the verb a/ has
gained currency as a synonym for aa/a ee,
/e and aa (to express an opinion, utter and
say, respectively). At the same time the volume of words that belong to
a relatively high stratum of Russian lexis, Ivan ova believes, has
diminished.
On the stylistic level Ivan ova criticises pleonasm (e.g.
-ee, the former ex-premier, and a aa, world
globalisation) and presenters continuing recourse to ofcial clich es (e.g.
a e, at the present moment; e e, to
undertake measures (an embellishment of the ofcial phrase
e, to take measures). Both authors deplore the ubiquitous use of the
vague llers a and a, sort of/like, e.g. a a ae,
they sort of rented it out; a ee e aa,
were like reforming the education system; a -a, like, a rock
group. Indeed it has become possible to talk of a as a
phenomenon emblematic of the debasement of which defenders of the
standard complain.
29
1 Varieties of language and register
Those who deploy the language in advertising are held by
Khlebts ova to be particularly culpable, on the grounds that they
promote the use of absurd epithets (aa eaa e, the
most inammable comedy; eae , superbreathable
nappies), inated exclamations ( e a !, Try
the taste of pleasure! ), and youth slang (O ! or
O ! Have a good time! Have fun!). It is a further
source of concern to such commentators that words that were
formerly taboo, i.e. words denoting sexual organs or describing bodily
functions, have become commonplace in the language of light
broadcasting and journalism and popular entertainment. They also
complain that an anglicised, or rather americanised, less respectful,
more aggressive manner of addressing the listener, viewer or reader is
often adopted. This alien manner may extend to use of a rising
intonation at the end of an utterance in place of the falling intonation
that is characteristic of statements (as opposed to questions) in Russian.
The purists recommend various means of combating the poor
linguistic usage of which they complain. (These means might seem to
Westerners more or less impracticable and unlikely to produce the
results that the purists desire; in fact the purists, like all conservatives in
times of rapid change, run the risk of appearing jaundiced and
outmoded.) They argue, for example, that Olympiads and other
competitions should be organised and given publicity, and that prizes
should be awarded for success in them, in order that kudos might be
attached to those who demonstrate command of the language. In
addition Ivan ova proposes the following measures: that the linguistic
competence of people applying for jobs in which they will use the
language in a professional capacity be tested; that advertising be
scrutinised with a view to eliminating orthographic and logical errors
and the use of an aggressive tone; that the language of sections of the
media be permanently monitored and that linguists be invited regularly
to analyse and comment on the results of this monitoring; that the use
of vulgar language, slang, demotic vocabulary or low borrowings from
other languages be somehow prohibited in public discourse; and even
that editors be ned for poor linguistic usage in the media that they
manage.
It is important, nally, to emphasise that although the Russian
language has recently changed in signicant ways that are examined in
this book under such headings as the language of the internet (1.3.6)
and neologisms (5.1) it has not undergone fundamental grammatical or
for that matter lexical change as a result of the political, economic,
social and cultural transformation of Russia in the post-Soviet period.
The most important change to which we draw attention here is of a
socio-linguistic nature. It is that registers that were once seen as
relatively formal, such as the registers of political discourse,
broadcasting and journalism on current affairs, have been invaded by
the habits and phenomena of colloquial and demotic speech. It is
primarily to this redenition of the boundaries within which varieties
30
1.6 Current debate about standard Russian
of language are used that those concerned with the ecology of the
language seem to be objecting, although of course they also fear that
unless the norms they advocate are disseminated they will in time be
altogether forgotten.
Notes
1. The population has decreased slightly, by almost two million, since 1989,
when the last Soviet census was carried out. Nevertheless the Russian
Federation is the seventh most populous country in the world, after China,
India, the US, Indonesia, Brazil and Pakistan. The census also reveals that:
almost three-quarters of the population live in towns (although the process
of urbanisation has ceased); women are in the majority; the average age of
the population is increasing; the literacy rate (which in any case was very
high in Soviet times) has increased; and the birth rate is declining.
2. Many other languages besides Russian and the minority languages already
mentioned above are spoken by the numerous ethnic minorities in Russia
itself, especially various Finno-Ugric languages (e.g. Karelian, Komi, Mari,
Mordvin, Udmurt), Caucasian languages (Abkhaz, Georgian, Ingush,
Lezgi), Turkic languages (Iakut, Kirgiz, Turkmen), languages of the
Mongolian group (Buriat, Kalmyk), and Tadzhik (a language of the Iranian
branch of the Indo-European family).
3. It should be noted that some linguists use the term style to designate a
variety of language viewed from the point of view of formality and the
term register to designate a variety of language determined by topic,
subject matter or activity, such as the register of mathematics, the register of
medicine, or the register of pigeon fancying (Trudgill in Bex and Watts).
31
2 Passages illustrating register
All the passages presented below have been edited. Three dots
(e; see 11.15 below) may indicate either a pause in the
original text or our own omission of a passage from it.
2.1 R1: from a TV show
The following passage is an excerpt from a popular TV show in which
people are confronted, in the presence of a studio audience, by
members of their family, partners, friends or enemies about problems
in their lives. The context of this excerpt is that a young man (Anton)
takes a young woman whom he wants to marry to meet his parents in
a provincial town outside Moscow. However, he has to leave her on
her own with his parents because he is called back to Moscow by his
employer. When he returns a week later he nds that his parents and
his girl-friend (Marina) are not talking to one another. When Anton
and Marina get back to Moscow Marina tells Anton she is breaking off
their relationship. Anton tells the presenter that he has tried to nd out
from his mother (Ella Georgievna) what has gone wrong.
A: aa a. Maa e- ee e
eae, a e e aa.
Be: A aae ee a. Baa aa
a eea. (B
a eea) ae,
aae, aa. (A) C a. 5
10
15
20
A: Maa, e ae, .
a eea: a, aa . . . . ae , ,
a eaa. X, a eaa. e ee
ea . Tee aa ea e a ee.
Be A (ee): e?
a eea: e, aae e? a ,
a ee e e ee ea.
aa- aa.
Oa a a e e, e e e e
e a e, e.
A: Tee e e, ee a e a.
a eea: B a e a, a e a,
a , a . . .
Be: A - ? T, a e e ee ea,
e . . .
a eea: a, e.
Be: Ta a e.
32
2.1 R1: from a TV show
a eea: H, ee e. B . . . ee e. 25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
A: Oa e a, e. Me a,
.
a eea: a a? Me ea ee, a e
ae, ee ee, e ee
a. a e.
A: Oa e ee a, a a - a?
a eea: Oa e ee a, e a
a (eae e a ). E
e aa, ee
aa.
Be: ea . . . ee a. (B Maa)
ae, Maa. B ae e
e a, B. . .
Maa: Ca.
Be: A e a aa ? e a .
H, ae-?
Maa: e ea a . Me a a.
(A) Ta ea ee aa, e aa
eaa ea. B, a- e
a aa ea e e a ee. T
e ea e a a e . . .
Be: e . . .
Maa: a, , ae, a e e ae . . .
ae, ea eea e e, , a
. . .
A: e a.
a eea: H , a e e , e
a e . . . a, a.
A: ae. . .
Maa: a, a, a e a
ae.
A (ae): ae eae? ae
eae?
aa ea, e
a, e? e ?
Maa: e , a aa, e
e.
a eea: ee ee e e.
From the television programme O
a comp` ered
by Dmitrii Nagiev, broadcast on NTV in February 2004
Anton: I ask mum. Mum gives me some answer I dont understand, she just
wont give me a straight answer.
33
2 Passages illustrating register
Presenter: Well lets ask mum herself. Your mum Ella Georgievna. [Ella
Georgievna appears.] Hello, take a seat please. [To Anton] Ask your
mum.
Anton: Mum, will you explain to me now what happened.
Ella Georgievna: Yes, Ive heard . . . everything. You know what, its a good
thing that shes gone. Its a good thing that shes gone. Ive hardly been
able to bear all this. You really dont need a woman like that.
Presenter and Anton [together]: Whys that?
Ella Georgievna: Why, he asks why. Well because she cant do a thing. Shes a
cow. She was with us for several days and I just dont want anything else
to do with her, I dont want her.
Anton: Any girl I brought home you wouldnt like.
Ella Georgievna: When theres another one, when theres another well talk
about it, but as for this one . . .
Presenter: Well what about this one? The fact that she cant do a thing, it might
change . . .
Ella Georgievna: Well shes just a . . . [a bleep mufes the word: possibly shit].
And she was just totally rude to me.
Presenter: What do you mean, a . . . ? In the literal sense of the word?
Ella Georgievna: Yes, in the literal sense of the word.
Presenter: Then she needs to be treated for it.
Ella Georgievna: Well, treat her for it then. Let her . . . get treated for it.
Anton: I like her, I love her. I dont care what you say.
Ella Georgievna: What do you mean you dont care? I know better than you,
you dont understand that Im the only person who wishes you well. For
the time being.
Anton: She was with you for just a week, how could you nd anything out?
Ella Georgievna: She was with us for just a week, and that was enough for me
[makes a gesture over her head]. I could hardly wait, I could hardly wait.
Presenter: Amazing . . . And we can hardly wait either. [Marina appears.] Hello
Marina. Youve obviously lived all these years without knowing you were
a . . .
Marina: Thank you.
Presenter: And whys mum saying that? Try and explain it to us. So whats it
all about then?
Marina: I didnt want to come here. Ive just been dragged here. [To Anton]
Anyway, I wanted to tell you that your mums just not a normal woman.
Obviously your mum decided to go along with some ancient tradition
and check up on my virginity. Thats to say her sons wife had to be an
innocent . . .
Presenter: Little girl . . .
Marina: Yes, so you see, like, how much that degrades me . . . Do you under-
stand, I was saving myself all the time for you, thats what, and then all
of a sudden I get this . . .
Anton: I dont understand.
Ella Georgievna: Anton, the only thing I asked of her was: Marina, Ive got
a very good friend here whos a doctor, lets pop round there on the quiet,
well, lets go and see the doctor, itll be all right, its a woman and shell
have a look at you and Ill know that you really are . . .
Marina: Whats that necessary for, what for? After all, your son trusts me.
Ella Georgievna: Well, when you have a son of your own youll completely
trust . . . just words.
34
2.1 R1: from a TV show
Anton: Why . . .
Marina: Yes, I think that well, like, sort out our own lives for ourselves.
Anton [to his mother]: Why are you doing this? Why are you interfering in my
life?
Ella Georgievna: Ive seen a thing or two myself . . . [To Marina] And you
know what I want to say to you . . . If youre such a good girl, then what
have you got to be afraid of, why dont you just go and get checked? What
are you afraid of ?
Marina: Im not afraid of anything, I just want to tell you that youve got to
trust people a bit.
Ella Georgievna: I dont trust you at all.
The television programme from which the excerpt is taken follows the
format of Western talk shows such as ITVs Trisha and is therefore
symptomatic of the inux of Western popular culture into Russia.
Linguistically the excerpt illustrates the colloquial register that
people use for discussion, or argument, about highly personal matters.
Utterances are frequently incomplete or incoherent and people may
repeat themselves, e.g. o, a eaa (8), e,
aae e (11). The colloquial features of the passage
include the following.
r
Use of the familiar second-person-singular personal pronoun modes of address
(26, 28, 31), second-person-singular verb forms, e.g. ae (7, 65),
ae (47), eae (63), eae (64), and
second-person-singular imperative forms, e.g. (6). The
familiar forms of address are not conned to people who know each
other well (i.e. Ella Georgievna and her son, Anton, and Anton and his
girl-friend, Marina). Ella Georgievna also addresses Marina in this way
(and in this case the familiar form has a tone of condescension or
contempt). The presenter too at one point uses the familiar
second-person-singular imperative form C when addressing
Anton (5), thus entering into the intimate spirit of the exchanges.
r
Words such as a (21), the derogatory aa (12). vocabulary
r
Diminutive or familiar forms: e (53) and Maa (36),
a diminutive form of Maa (used by the presenter).
r
Repeated use by all three participants of the word , which occurs
in the expression a (323), or which may serve as a ller (6, 7,
17, 25, 48, 58). In one utterance by Ella Georgievna this word occurs
three times (1617). Other llers are used too: e (which is a
favourite of Ella Georgievnas: 13, 20, 21), and (41, 49) and
a (47, 61), both of which are characteristic of Marinas speech.
r
Use of modal particles, e.g. the post-positive particle - (18), (e)
(19, 40) and (40, 56, 58).
r
Turns of phrase such as H, ae- (40), a
syntax
(48-9), a (53), and a (59).
35
2 Passages illustrating register
r
Use of a clause with the second-person-singular imperative form in a
conditional or concessive sense: e e (15), if you
[one] were to bring any girl or whatever girl you [one] might bring.
r
Use of the verb to suggest sudden action (67).
2.2 R1: based on a conversation in a Russian
internet chatroom
A: ae, e ae. C !
B to A: A eae?
C to D: a e e ee, e , aee a eea, e
aa eea a!!
E to F: e ea, a ae e? 5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
F to E: e a a:)))
G to F: ae e ea aae ,
H to I: ae?
I to H: a eae , e, a e a a
, a e eee a aa ae aa aa, a
, 30 a a e 32 a
A: eae, a ae e, a
C to E: a!! a e e! a e ae aa!!!
I to A: a
D to C: -e, a :) a -, aeaea, a
ae, aa, . .
A to I: C a, a !
F to G: ea , a e aa?
E to C: ?
A to B: Haaa?
C to E: e a , ea!!
B to A: a . . . A . . . ?
B to A again: a . . .
H to I: He ! Paaa!
E to C: e a
I to H: e ee ae, , aa ee,
ae
A to B: a, e
G to F: e a a
C to D: ae ae a a !! a . .
e e a!!
F to G: e, a :))
C to E: a ea aa, aa a, ea aea a!!
a e!
D to C: e . . . a ee a a ee . . . .
eee, a a a:))
I to H: a e a, a e a a
ae a e, a a e e ,
ae aae
H to I: ?!?!
E to C: e a a
G to B: a, e a a, a e
36
2.2 R1: internet chatroom conversation
B to A: E e aa, aa: ea))))
C to D: a, a!! ! ! ae!? 45
50
A to B: ea e a, e a
C to E: a, a!!! a e a e ,
ae e!!!
I to H: a . . . a- ea aaaa
D to C: Ceae eee, e e?:)
E to C: e ee
C to D: e a, e e, a a
e ee a a!!
H to I: Ha! aa e a aae!
A: Hello, my good friends. Happy New Year.
B to A: And what about strangers?
C to D: and so if it isnt a secret, apart from the fact that you live on another planet,
wheres your base on Earth!!
E to F: ive seen that already, so how do you intend to satisfy me?
F to E: i dont know your needs :)))
G to F: the main difference between a computer and brans [brains] is that people use it
H to I: And what else?
I to H: a taxi goes past, i wave him down, and he says to me like itll cost you a hundred
to get to town but im so meeean with money and anyway im so gorgeous and
hes asking for a hundred so i say thirty and thats it and I give him a great big
smile . . .
A: And strangers as well, although there arent many of them [i.e. A claims to
know almost everybody].
C to E: bravo!! and what else have you seen! or better still tell us what youve showen
[shown]!!!
I to A: hi
D to C: well rstly lets be on familiar terms:)) [that is to say, on terms which in Russian
make possible the use of the informal personal pronoun as the means of
address] and secondly, my lovely, as youve noticed, my base is in K. [D names
a provincial Russian town here].
A to I: Happy holiday, my lovely!
F to G: its a bold idea, is it based on personal experience?:)
E to C: what are you on about?
A to B: are you Natasha?
C to E: so who are you talking to there about what youve seen!!
B to A: Yes . . . And are you . . . ? [B uses As screen name here.]
B to A again: i beg your pardon . . . [B is apologising for having used the formal pronoun
instead of the informal now that she is getting to know A.]
H to I: Dont keep me on tenterhooks! Tell all!
E to C: im not withanyone [sic] im alone
I to H: he gave me a lift and he hands me his telephone number and says when you go
back you call me and he gives me a leer
A to B: thanks, of course
G to F: youre laughing at the truth
C to D: well at last were breaking down the barriers then and well be on familiar terms
all the time!! [i.e. they will address each other using the pronoun ] and i
havent heard a thing about K.!! [the town that D has named]
F to G: no, i love the truth:))
[At this point A asks B about the implications of her screen name.]
37
2 Passages illustrating register
C to E: im going to burst into tears, such a sweet delicate little thing and all on her
own!! im the one who can relieve your loneliness!
[B now replies to As enquiry about her screen name.]
D to C: its a great shame you havent . . . weve got the reputation of a town full of
girls who want to get married . . . theyve run out of them in I. [D names a
neighbouring Russian town], but its quite the opposite here:))
I to H: nothing special, its just that wen i was standing freezing at the bus stop this
morning all over again, and no minibuses were running, this guy drives up again
H to I: And thats all there is to it?!?!
E to C: im not alone ive got a minder
G to B: ive got a dud zip le, i wanted to call a taxi, they sent a girl
B to A: Theres another scenario that people ask about: conquest))))
C to D: wow, wow!! how modest of you! and the big question! are you married!?
A to B: not yet, it would be better for you to get to know me
C to E: oh, so thats how it is!!! well we could sort of come to an agreement with the
minder, and then get to be on our own!!!!
I to H: hm. . . i didnt put it too well
D to C: If not, will you propose?:)
E to C: youll nd im more difcult to come to an agreement with [i.e. more difcult
than the minder]
C to D: well todays a holiday, so why not, but i think it would be worth our while to
get to know each other a bit better!!
H to I: OK! Lets drink to mutual understanding!
Of the participants in this conversation A, C, F, G and H are male and
B, D, E and I are female (as is clear from grammatical forms used in the
Russian, as well as from the content of the conversation).
The passage reects the chaotic reality of the internet chatroom
where numerous concurrent conversations go on in public, most of
them quite independently of one another but within view of the other
participants, and some of them not easily intelligible to outsiders who
do not know what has been said before.
From the linguistic point of view the passage illustrates the extreme
informality of speech in this medium. The participants, even those
who are apparently communicating with one another for the rst time,
express themselves with a greater freedom (exemplied by frequent
sexual innuendo) than would be usual among strangers if they were
suddenly brought physically together in a social situation.
The normal conventions of written language, which tends towards a
standard and is subject to editing, correction and revision, are not
observed in this cybertext. Consequently usage is extremely lax. For
instance, letters are omitted (thus for (7), for
e (31), a for a (38)). Words are misspelt, owing to careless
keying of characters or possibly to ignorance of correct usage, e.g.
aa (14) for aa, ee (27) for eee,
aaaa (49) for aaaa. Words are incorrectly joined together
(e (26) for e). Punctuation is often omitted, e.g. full stops at the
end of sentences, the comma or full stop required after e (26),
and the hyphen required in ae- (31). Incorrect punctuation
marks may be used, e.g. exclamation marks instead of a question mark
38
2.2 R1: internet chatroom conversation
(4, 14). Participants frequently insert emoticons into the text (6, 16,
33, 37, 44), that is to say they use a new form of punctuation that has
developed in the language of the internet. Rules relating to the use of
capitals are also broken. Thus a lower-case form is generally used for
the rst letter of the rst word of a sentence.
We try in our translation to preserve the avour of the original
cybertext by imitating the typing errors and lax usage of the
participants in the chatroom, omitting or misusing certain marks of
punctuation, and using lower-case letters instead of capitals where the
participants themselves have done so.
Participants spelling of words in this text, besides containing
mistakes, sometimes also reects pronunciation in rapid speech, e.g.
ae for e (11), for (12), a for (12),
a for ae (15), for (27). Participant Ds
spelling of the word a as aa (17) reects the
phenomenon of akan
a a e ?
aa ea. e ee ee, e ee
ee.
a, e? 5
a e , e aaa. He
aa ee e.
40
2.3 R2: magazine interview with a popular actor
, ae e ae ee
e, e e.
ae, e -a e, e . a e e 10
15
20
25
30
35
40
ae, e a a e a
e. Hee ae e e, e
. Me a , e a, e
e. A e e. ,
. Me ea a . Oe e e
a, ae, ae ee aae
e, a. X a e e e e.
O e a, ee
e.
A a a a a aa?
a, e a e. A
a. e e a eae . . . B e, a,
aa e. E e ae a, e
e . . .
a eae eea ae a.
e a e a. e ea
ee eea , a eee. Oa
: H, a a , ae? ea a
eeaa . . . H ea. C , e
e a ! Mea e a- e e ea
a e e .
a a e a e ea. He
aa a , a- e a.
B ae a .
H aae-, aee, aa, a
ae . . .
B aae a e ae.
1994 . , e e e. H a PTP,
e a aa, aa e .
M ea a a. ee a a e
e aa, e a THT. O e e ea. a
e e ae.
From the Russian edition of Cosmopolitan, December 2002
Q: In one interview you said that youre able to be contented with very little. Is
that a formula for the right attitude to life?
A: Its my defence reex. The less you have the less you lose.
Q: So youre afraid of losing things?
A: Well its not so much that Im afraid as that I dont like being disillusioned. I
dont like making problems for myself.
Q: People say that fame has brought you more embarrassment than pleasure.
A: You know, actually Ive found it easier than others do. I never strove for fame and
so I dont feel at all uplifted or dizzy as a result of it. Some people just dont
believe that popularity can be a burden. People say to me What do you mean,
youre an actor, arent you, you must have wanted this. And I feel uncomfortable.
So now I go round staring at the ground. I nd it hard to be on show all the time.
Especially in the image of the guy I play, whos always drinking and swearing
41
2 Passages illustrating register
and at the same time defending people and the law. Although my Larins far
from a positive hero. Hes your normal Petersburg layabout, but hes got things
he believes in and views of his own.
Q: And how close are you to this character, and how far away from him?
A: A long way away in that Ive got a different job. But close in all other respects.
Im not acting in the series . . . Travelling, relaxing, swimming, thats what I like
doing. In fact there are walks of life where all one has to do is travel round the
world . . .
Q: Thats how Dmitrii Krylov makes programmes about various countries.
A: Im green with envy. Id happily make a family lm about us travelling. Id mix
with people and ask them how theyre doing and how much cigarettes cost. Itd be
a down-to-earth lm. . . But its just a dream. On the other hand it could come
true. After all, there was a time when I dreamt of doing nothing and making
money and I ended up managing that. God heard my prayers and sent me our
police series. I dont make any effort to put myself forward. Things just happen.
Q: But I expect you had to try hard to start with, to gain authority . . .
A: To start with we approached it as hack-work. It was 1994. They shot the rst
eight episodes, I recall. But at RTR, where things were only just beginning,
nobody wanted it as it turned out. We happily forgot about the series. A year
and a half later they suddenly decided to show it, on TNT by this time. It was
broadcast without being advertised beforehand. And the next day we woke up
famous.
Although this extract is an example of the written language it is at the
lower end of R2 and tends towards R1, since it is based on an
interview. We may assume that it has been somewhat edited and
therefore tidied up for the purposes of publication in written form,
but the conversational origin of the piece is still very much in
evidence.
The familiar form of address () is used by the interviewer. Syntax
is simple, with little subordination. Sentences tend to be short (over 80
per cent are of ten words or less). There is frequent recourse to as a
subject, e.g.
a a e ? (2),
e e a, e e
aa aa , , e
e e a e, aa
ae . E
e e ae a
aa, a , aee?
E
a aa e. B aee,
a a e a , ae,
a a O aa aa
. a a a
e a- ea a. B
aa, e a e. e e a
O a aa aa e aa, e
e , e aa a a, a.
ee a e, eae . a aa
ee a e ee aa a,
a e.
e e e. aaa
e e ee a aa aae
, e e eea,
ae aa a ee ae. E
a, a, ea. e ee
, eae ea. H ae, ae e
ee , , a ee,
ee , ee e, ee
ee e e, e ee a.
ea
.
Published on the website www.Putin2004.ru
V. Kalashnikov, Tiumen
e
e e (29); e ee (33); ee
(35);
ea (378);
r
sentences built around an impersonal form + innitive: a
(8); aa (16); a (18); e e a
(24);
r
the colloquial construction B aa (234);
r
the colloquial form a (13) and the expression a (35);
r
engagement with the listener: aee? (18), B aee (19).
At the same time the importance of the Presidents ofce and the
serious political subject-matter tend to raise the language above the
very informal, colloquial levels illustrated in the passages at 2.1 and 2.2,
as indicated by the following features:
44
2.5 R3a: academic style (historiography)
r
the copula aae , (301);
r
past active participial form a (16);
r
imperfective gerunds: a (8), e (15);
r
the use of the formal mode of address, B (2, 3, etc.).
There are also a few examples of the terminology and phrasing of the
professional politician, some of them perhaps characteristic of President
Putin in particular, e.g. e (6);
ae (17); aa (19) as a noun meaning component;
(23) aa e aa, e e , e
aa a a, a (256);
ea
(378).
2.5 R3a: academic style (modern historiography)
Taa aa aea eea. E
, . A ? aa a
e eaea? ae eeee a a
e a? aa ee, e a
e. ee ee , 5
10
15
20
25
30
35
aa ee , ae a
. Xaae, e a
ae eee, e a , e a
aae ea (ea e e
ee, e ea Be). Pe-e aaae e a
a a eea, a e e
a eeae, ae ea . . . A
eea, e ae e e, P ee
ae aea ae, ee, . . .
aa e ee eee
a e ae-ae, a ae
. e, Aee aea A
e ae
T a aa ea. ee e
e aae e-a e ee.
a a e a e a
ee, ee ae, a
, -aee, a
e e e e a
a, ee, eee a,
aa a e a
. H eea ea e, a
e-, e e ae. B.B.Pa, a
e e`ee ee ee,
e eaa e , e: . . . a
aa e a e, ae ee ee, ee
e, e, , , e e,
ee e aa . . .. a a P
M ae ae a ee ee
ae ae e Tea. Oae
e aa a eea e a
e. B ae , a, e
45
2 Passages illustrating register
a . ee e aa
ea e a eae,
ee .
From a chapter by S. V. Sergeev in Bee aee ee
P, ed. A. F. Kiseliov (Moscow: aa ae
e BA
OC, 1996)
Such is Pobedonostsevs curriculum vitae. His service record, his uniform.
But what lies beneath the uniform? What is the biography of the soul of the great
reactionary? What human feelings governed his actions? It is easier to pose these
questions than to answer them. Pobedonostsev was a man whose inner life was
complex and in many respects enigmatic and who carefully concealed that life from
the gaze of others. It is typical of him that unlike the majority of statesmen when
they went into retirement he did not trouble to write any memoirs (which would
certainly have been of no less interest than those of Witte). Just occasionally his
soul bursts open in letters to the correspondents with whom he is most intimate
and in a few of the entries in his unsystematic diary, of which there are various
bits, as well . . . But in Russia a man who does not cry on other peoples shoulders
is inevitably enveloped in an atmosphere of mystery, gossip and conjecture . . .
There is a quite widespread view of Pobedonostsev as a soulless, dry-as-dust
bureaucrat, a tedious monastic elder with a croaky voice. It is well known that it
was on Konstantin Petrovich that Tolstoi modelled Aleksei Karenin in Anna
Karenina. Archpriest Georgii Florovskii always calls the Chief Procurator an
ice man. When you look at the photographs of the grand inquisitor of Russian
public opinion [that were] taken towards the end of his life it does indeed seem
that it was as a matter of principle out of the question that a smile should play
on this sternly ascetic face, which lacked the usual Russian genial rotundity,
and that the bloodless, lifeless lips of this man who was half ofcial, half monk
were capable of enunciating nothing but the words of commands or prayers.
And yet the testimony of many people who met the Chief Procurator paints
quite a different picture of him. V. V. Rozanov, recalling an encounter with the
sixty-eight-year-old Pobedonostsev at a social gathering at which young people
predominated, was astonished to nd that this old man seemed younger than
any of us, or at least more vivacious, more animated by virtue of his movements,
speech, gentle, graceful humour and the indisputable intellect that shone in his
eyes . . . The French minister in Russia, Maurice Pal eologue, also remembered
the utter simplicity of the Russian Torquemada and the great charm of his
manners and speech. The usual image of Pobedonostsev is utterly destroyed by
his letters and diaries, in which you sense a vivacious, passionate soul that has
a capacity for profound and delicate feeling. In fact you could sooner reproach
Konstantin Petrovich for an excess of emotion and impressionability than for
coldness.
This is an extract from a piece of historical scholarship on the late
nineteenth-century conservative statesman Pobedonostsev who in the
1880s occupied the position of Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod
and acted as mentor to the emperor, Alexander III.
The passage is characterised by grammatical correctness, linguistic
precision, and the smooth ow of the argument. The author displays
his erudition by his wide range of reference and occasional quotation.
He strives to achieve literary effect by such means as use of rhetorical
questions (A ? etc.), marks of omission (o; see
46
2.6 R3a: scientic style
11.15) and the rhetorical device of anaphora (a e
ae-ae, a ae (16) and the two clauses
beginning with in the same sentence (216)).
At the same time the passage is not without more informal
features (e.g. the rather colloquial word a (16) and the
dearth of specialised vocabulary). It is as if the author is attempting
to show that post-Soviet scholarship, like post-Soviet political and
cultural life in general, is becoming lighter and more widely
accessible.
Syntactic features which do place the passage in a relatively formal
register include use of the following:
r
a gerund: a (27);
r
present active participles: ae (13), e (36);
r
past active participles: e (8), ea (9),
a (26), ee (32, in a quotation);
r
complex adjectival phrases preceding nouns: ,
aa ee , (56) and a ,
-aee, a
e (213);
r
the verb (15);
r
the somewhat archaic conjunction ee, than (39), which has a
rather literary avour, instead of the usual modern form e.
2.6 R3a: academic style (scientic writing)
Ce ee eae ee
`ae e , e
e e eee e a ae
e ea eea. B e
a e a e,
e . B 1999 Me,
5
10
15
20
P a ee a aa
a e
ae e a 2,5 B ( e
e e e P a a
ae Me, He Te) . . .
B aee e e ee (C) e
ae e a ee a, e ae
aee ea e ee. Ba
C e eee
ea ea ea aeee
ee . ae a
C a ea ae
a e. eae e
ee a a e a e
e e a. eae e
e C e a
47
2 Passages illustrating register
ea a a e
ea. e ee C , a,
ee ` ea `e, 25
30
35
40
ee , eee
ee ee aeee.
Ha e ee C a
ea, e a, e ae ae
aee, a, ee a.
C ae e ea aa
e a aea aa, `
e a e aeaee. Peee
aae C ee eeae,
` e ee aa a a
eea ee ea. B eee
C aa e aa-e
ea. B eee e aae e ae a
ee C ae, ee, a e
C ee e e.
From an article published by Moscow University in 2001
Synchrotron radiation (the electro-magnetic radiation of ultra-relativistic electrons
or positrons which are speeded up in cyclical accelerators) has recently become a
crucial tool for the investigation of the properties of matter. All over the world
centres for the use of synchrotron radiation are being set up and costly sources
are being constructed. A synchrotron radiation source started functioning in the
Kurchatov Institute in Moscow in 1999. This is a 2.5 gigavolt electron storage
facility. (It is in addition to six sources already operating in Russia, synchrotrons
and storage facilities in Moscow, Novosibirsk and Tomsk) . . .
Synchrotron radiation is now used in virtually all elds of modern science
where the interaction of electromagnetic radiation and matter is studied. The high
brightness of sources of SR enables one to carry out spectroscopic investigations
with an extremely high spectral resolution with shorter exposures than previously.
Use of the polarisation properties of SR makes it possible to investigate the
spatial anisotropy of objects. Investigation of the absorption and uorescence of
gases and vapours produces information about the structure of the inner shells
of atoms. Investigation of molecular spectra with the aid of SR enables one to
obtain information about the processes of photoionisation and photodissociation
in molecular systems. SR is being successfully applied in biology, in particular
for X-ray ne-structure investigation of biopolymers, for X-ray microscopy, and
for spectro-photometric measurements with time resolution.
Alongside the numerous applications of SR in scientic research there is a
whole body of work that is of great practical importance, in particular in the eld
of X-ray microlithography. SR is also used for research into the effect of radiation
on materials and instruments under vacuum conditions, which is very important
for our knowledge of materials in space. Monochromatic SR [generated from]
X-rays is used in radiological diagnostics, which makes it possible substantially
to reduce the amount of radiation to which a person is exposed when undergoing
X-ray investigation. It may be possible to use SR in radiation technology and
radiation-chemical processes. Recent years have seen work connected with the
application of SR in science and technology move forward rapidly and new third-
and fourth-generation sources of SR are being developed.
48
2.6 R3a: scientic style
This passage is distinguished by precision and by the careful, logical
development of ideas. Words are used unambiguously and in an
impersonal way. There is no emotional content and such linguistic
features as modal particles, interjections and diminutives are therefore
altogether lacking. Features characteristic of the formal scientic
register include the following.
r
Specialised vocabulary, much of which is of Western origin. This vocabulary
vocabulary is either in the form of calques (e.g. e (3),
aeee (16)), or in the form of loanwords: (1),
ea (1), e (2), (2), e (3),
ee (15), ea (16), ea (16),
a (17), a (19), ee (20),
e (21), a (23), a (23),
a (22), e (25), ee (26),
a (30), a (32), etc.
r
Abundance of verbal nouns, especially with the sufx -e: ee
(1), eae (4), ae (5), aeee (16),
ee (19), ee (20), eee (27), eee (28),
aee (30), ee (32), eae (36).
r
Abbreviations: B (9), C (12, etc.).
r
Set phrases and formulaic phrasing: eee e (3, 38); phrasing
aee e (12); e (15); a
(18); e a (20); e (22); a
(30); e ae ae aee (2930).
r
Participles of various sorts, viz: present active, e (10), grammatical
forms
e (29); present passive, e (2).
r
Frequent use of reexive imperfectives in a passive sense, giving an
syntax
objective, impersonal air to the passage, e.g. a (5, 39),
(6), e (12, 31), ae (13), ee
(24, 34), aae (38).
r
Verbal nouns combined with : ee
(17), ee ea (36).
r
Combination of with nouns in the sense of in the eld of, in
connection with: a (5), ee
a (30), ee (39).
r
Complex adjectival phrase preceding noun: e e
e P a (910).
r
Parenthetical explanation to support assertions: e`ae
ee . . . e e (13).
r
Use of ` to refer to all the matter in the preceding clause (32, 35).
49
2 Passages illustrating register
2.7 R3b: ofcial/business style (legal)
1. Peaa a aaaea e ea a
e ee ee e e a eaa
eee e ee eae ea
e ea aae.
ae a`-, e `e-, `e-, a`- `, 5
10
a ae ea eea aaea
eeaae ae a eee ea a
e a (e, a) aa a e,
e, aa a ea eea
e aeae eae e
( a, e a aa ea) e ae.
E
ee eaae e ea,
eae aa e e, a ae 35
aeae aa, ae e.
4. Peaa a, ea ae ea,
a a e e ae
ea.
5. ae eae e e a 40
(eea e) ae e,
ee aae P eea.
6. Peaa e a a aa a, ae,
a a, a ae a a e,
50
2.7 R3b: ofcial/business style (legal)
ae e e a 45
ea.
From a law on advertising
1. An advertisement must be recognisable as such at the moment when it is
displayed, without any specialist knowledge or resort to technical resources, [and]
irrespective of its form or the means of dissemination being used.
It is not permitted in a radio, television, video, audio, or cinematographic output,
or in a printed work which is not of an advertising nature, to purposely draw
the attention of the consumer of the advertisement to a specic brand (model,
article) of a product or to a manufacturer, performer, or seller for the purpose of
creating and maintaining interest in them without proper preliminary notication
to this effect (in particular by means of the sign this has been authorised as an
advertisement).
If a radio, television, video, audio, or cinematographic output or a printed work
is disseminated in parts (series) the notication that it is an advertisement must
also be repeated as many times as there are parts (series).
Mass media organisations are prohibited from making a charge for carrying an
advertisement under the guise of news, editorial or authorial material.
2. Within the territory of the Russian Federation advertisements shall be in
Russian and, at the discretion of the advertisers, additionally in the state lan-
guages of the republics and the native languages of the peoples of the Russian
Federation. This provision shall not extend to radio broadcasting, television
broadcasting and printed works that are exclusively in the state languages of
the republics, the native languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation, or
foreign languages, or to registered trade marks (service marks).
3. It is not permitted to advertise products or to advertise the advertiser himself if
the activity in which he is engaged requires special permission (a licence) and that
permission (the licence) has not been obtained, or to advertise products which it
is prohibited to produce or sell under the laws of the Russian Federation.
If the activity of the advertiser is subject to licensing the number of the licence and
the name of the body which issued the licence must be shown in the advertisement.
4. The advertisement of products which are liable to compulsory certication must
be accompanied by the sign liable to compulsory certication.
5. The use in an advertisement of things to which there are exclusive rights
(intellectual property) is permitted in accordance with the provisions laid down
by the laws of the Russian Federation.
6. An advertisement must not provoke citizens to violence or aggression or cause
panic or incite dangerous actions which might damage the health of physical
persons or threaten their safety.
This text is drawn from a recent law passed by the Russian parliament
on advertising. It is the rst of two texts presented here to illustrate the
formal, written register that is used in ofcial, legal and business
documents. It exemplies language used in a dry, unemotional way for
the purpose of setting out laws, regulations, codes of practice, duties,
51
2 Passages illustrating register
obligations and rights, or for recording binding treaties, agreements,
understandings, contracts and so forth. The great precision for which
authors of texts written in this register must strive (exemplied in this
document by the frequent recourse to parenthetical denitions (8, 11,
13, 15, 27, 30, 41) necessitates grammatical accuracy. At the same
time the requirement that ideas be expressed in such a way that
misunderstandings or differences of interpretation cannot arise tends to
produce inelegant sentences which are intended to be read rather than
heard and whose sense may not be clear until the reader reaches the
end of them (see the second sentence in clause 1 and the rst sentence
in clause 3).
Authors of this sort of document generally follow a well-established
pattern (e.g., in this text, the division of the statute into articles and
the sub-division of articles into clauses). They observe certain
conventions and utilise certain formulae. They eschew those resources
of the language which convey emotional nuance (e.g. modal particles,
interjections and diminutives) and which are deployed in social
intercourse (or even in the high register that is used for persuasive
purposes (see 2.10 below)). They also eschew the non-literal use of
language and the rhetorical or stylistic devices (e.g. metaphor, simile)
which may characterise texts produced by imaginative writers who are
striving for aesthetic impact (devices which may also be encountered
in the academic register (see 2.5 above)).
Leaving aside linguistic features that are notable by their absence, we
may say that the principal positive feature characteristic of the high
register in general that is found in this text is the free use of participles
of all descriptions, especially present and past active participles and
present passive participles, all of which are sparingly used in lower
registers, e.g.
r
present active participles: ea (37), a (45);
r
past active participle: ae (36);
r
present passive participles: aaaea (1), e (4),
eee (24);
r
past passive participles (which, however, do not belong so exclusively
in the high register): e (30), ae (31), aa (35).
Features of high register evident in this text that are particularly
associated with those sub-divisions of high register which have
informative rather than persuasive purpose (i.e. the sub-divisions
classied here as R3a and R3b) include the following.
r
Predilection for verbal nouns, especially with the sufx -e: word-formation
eee (2), eaee (3), aaee (4),
ae (5), aee (6), ae (9), eae
(9), ee (10), aeee (17), eaa (31),
eae (34).
52
2.8 R3b: ofcial/business style (commercial)
r
Use of reexive imperfectives in a passive sense, giving the text an
syntax
impersonal avour: e ae (11), aa (13; see
also 19, 22), (14), aeae (16), a
(38).
r
Threading of nouns in the genitive case: eea aaea
eeaae ae a eee ea
(7), in which there are no fewer than ve nouns in succession in the
genitive case. The sequence is made even more cumbersome than a
sequence of this length normally would be by the fact that the rst
noun in the genitive (aaea) relates to the noun but
the last four nouns (ae, a, eee, ea)
relate to the noun ae with which the sentence begins.
r
Use of the prepositional phrase e (32), which also has a
very formal avour.
There are various other formal words or turns of phrase in the text that
are characteristic of the ofcial sub-division of the high register, e.g.
ea (3), aea (10), ee (14),
e (20), e (20), e . . . ea
(37), e, ee. . . (412).
2.8 R3b: ofcial/business style (commercial)
OOBO
P -1290
-a eee
Ca-ee 5 2004 .
1. PEME
T OOBO
PA
1.1. POABE
OOBO
PA
2.1. AH eae ee, aae . 1.2. ee
10
25 007 000,00 (aa e e).
2.2. Ca eee a a POABA
25 007 000,00 (aa e e).
3. O
AHHOCT CTOPO
H
3.1. POABE
H eee a ea a
ae a a ae.
3.2. AH a eee a a
ae ae a ee POAB
, 20
53
2 Passages illustrating register
aa . 2.2. ae a, e aee e
POABO
M ae, ee . 3.1.
3.3. POABE
aae, ee e ,
ee eea A
Haa e a ee,
e eee a a aa e 25
30
, ee eea POABO
M A
H ee
e aa, aee.
3.4. B ae ee A
HOM a eee
ee e, ee . 3.2. ae a,
POABE
aae A
He aee 0,3 (T e)
ea e aea eee a a e .
4. CPO E
CTBOOBO
PA
4.1. ae ea e a Ca
ee e Ca ae,
35 ee a .
4.2. ee ae a e eae
a a C.
5. OPC-MAO
P
5.1. H a e e ee ae
40 ee, eeee eaeae e
e a- aea ae , e
aae eee, eeeee eaeaee
ee e e aee /
ee e ee (-a
45 e).
5.2. aa -a ea a e
ee, e ee e ee 3 () a
e ae -a e e
e e ea
50 e ae e e e e
aa a aee e, ae
aa -a ea.
6. OCO
E CO
B
6.1. Be ee e ae
55 a a C
e ae .
6.2. ae ea, e a
e .
6.3. Be , eae ee a
60 ae a, ea ae Aa e
Ca-eea ea a.
AGREEMENT No. PK 1290
Purchase and Sale of Bills of Exchange
St Petersburg 5 November 2004
54
2.8 R3b: ofcial/business style (commercial)
1. The subject of the agreement
1.1 The VENDOR shall sell the Bills of Exchange specied in clause 1.2
of this Agreement, the said Bills being his own property which has not been
mortgaged or sequestered, whereas the BANK shall assume ownership of them
and shall undertake to pay their cost.
1.2 The following Bills of Exchange are the object of this sale and purchase . . .
2. The value of the agreement
2.1 The BANK shall acquire the Bills of Exchange specied in clause 1.2 to
the value of 25,007,000.00 (twenty-ve million seven thousand roubles).
2.2 The sum to be transferred to the account of the VENDOR is
25,007,000.00 (twenty-ve million seven thousand roubles).
3. Obligations of the parties [to the agreement]
3.1 The VENDOR shall surrender the Bills of Exchange specied in clause
1.2 to the BANK with a Form of Endorsement within one banking day of the
signing of this Agreement.
3.2 The BANK shall transfer to the VENDOR the sum specied in clause
2.2 of this Agreement within one banking day of the date on which this Agree-
ment was made but not prior to the fullment by the VENDOR of the obliga-
tions stipulated in clause 3.1.
3.3 The VENDOR guarantees that he has full authority to transfer rights of
ownership of the Bills of Exchange to the BANK [and that this authority] is
unencumbered by any mortgage or other rights possessed by third parties and that
the Bills of Exchange are being transferred to the BANK by the VENDOR
together with any rights associated with them.
3.4 In the event that the BANKfails to transfer funds by the deadline stipulated
in clause 3.2 of this Agreement the BANK shall pay the VENDOR a ne
amounting to 0.3 (three tenths) of one per cent of the sum that is overdue for
each day that it is overdue.
4. Operative period of this agreement
4.1 The Agreement shall come into force from the moment it is signed by the
Parties and shall remain in force until the Parties have fully discharged the
obligations stipulated in this Agreement.
4.2 This Agreement may be terminated by mutual consent of the [two] Parties.
5. Force majeure
5.1 Neither Party is responsible in the event that it fails to full any obligation
imposed [upon it] by this Agreement, or fails to full any obligation on time or
in the proper way, if the failure to full the obligation or the failure to full it
on time or in the proper way is due exclusively to the onset and/or operation of
circumstances outside its control (force majeure).
5.2 The Party affected by force majeure shall inform the other Party of these
circumstances and their consequences in writing without delay and no later than
3 (three) banking days after the onset of the circumstances [in question] and shall
take all possible steps to limit as far as possible the adverse consequences of the
specied circumstances outside its control.
55
2 Passages illustrating register
6. Special conditions
6.1 Changes and additions may be made to this Agreement on condition that
both Parties consent to them and they must be formally recorded in Addenda to
this Agreement.
6.2 The Agreement is made in two copies, which have equal legal force.
6.3 All disputes arising out of the application and interpretation of this Agree-
ment shall be dealt with by the Court of Arbitration of St Petersburg and
Leningrad Province.
This text, being drawn from a contractual document about sale and
purchase, exemplies language used for the sole purpose of providing
an unambiguous record of a binding agreement between two parties.
Like the legislative text presented in 2.7 above, it is therefore devoid of
linguistic features that convey emotional nuance. It also resembles the
legislative text, and the academic and scientic texts at 2.5 and 2.6
respectively, by virtue of its grammatical accuracy, syntactic complexity
and great precision. At the same time it has certain distinctive features
that are characteristic of legal usage, besides specialised terminology,
e.g.:
r
numbered clauses;
r
repeated cross-referencing;
r
use of capital letters and bold type to highlight headings and key terms;
r
use (albeit sparing) of initial capital letters (as in English legalese) in
nouns denoting certain documents or persons, e.g. , Ca;
r
the use of conventional abbreviations, e.g. . for , point
(translated in this context as clause);
r
rendering of monetary sums both with numerals and in full written
form in brackets. (Note the absence of commas where
English-speakers would expect them, to indicate units of thousands or
millions, and the use of the comma instead of the full stop to indicate a
decimal point (12, 14). See 6.3 for further examples.)
We have tried to adhere in our translation of this text to usage in the
equivalent English register. Note in particular that in English the
modal verb shall is used (e.g. in this passage shall sell, shall assume, shall
come) in order to express contractual obligation that is conveyed in
Russian by a verb in the present tense (a, eae,
ae) or, in some instances, by some part of the verb a, to
bind, oblige (e, a).
Other points of note, including features indicative of high register:
r
specialised nancial or legal terminology, much of it of Western origin, vocabulary
e.g. ee (2, etc.), a (13), a e (17),
a ae (18);
56
2.9 R3c: political journalism (reporting)
r
other ofcial parlance: ee (22, 29), eaea
(40, 42), (54);
r
abundance of verbal nouns, especially with the sufx -e:
eeee (13), ae (17, 33), aee (20),
ee (21, 34), ee (40, 42), aee (43, 47),
eee (46), eee (53), ee (53), eee
(58), ae (58), aee (59). Some of these verbal nouns
are negated forms, e.g. eee (28), eee (39, 42);
r
formulaic phrases, especially certain combinations of verb + noun, e.g. phraseology
ea e (7), e e (23),
a (33), a a (356), e
ee (39), e e (478), a e
e e (49), e a e (567),
ea ae (59);
r
formal prepositional phrases, e.g. ae ee (28),
e (49), (54);
r
present active participles, which lend the text a very formal avour, grammatical
forms
e.g. e (6), ae (6), e (7), e (56),
eae (58);
r
numerous past passive participles: aae (5, 11, 16),
ee (22), eee (25), aee (27),
eae (36), e (43), aa (45), ae
(50), ae (56);
r
use of reexive imperfectives in a passive sense, e.g. e (8),
syntax
eea (26), (54);
r
complex adjectival phrase preceding noun: aa -
a ea a (45);
r
use of as copula (9).
2.9 R3c: political journalism (reporting)
B MOCBE
OTPBA
ETCCA
MMT POCC
-EC
Ha e e BTO
ee P Ba e ee e
a Ea e M
e. Ta a P-EC, 5
10
a , a a e e.
ea ea
a e e e ae Ea.
a aa e ae e
e aa aa. Ha ee
M a eae a a,
eeaee e EC, a ae aa E.
B aa aa P-EC, ae e
Me, ae ae e ae
e P Be aa (BTO).
57
2 Passages illustrating register
a Ma, aee ae 15
20
25
30
35
e eee aaa ee P Ea
ee e ea aa.
Haae aa Ma (MPT) ea e
aa, , ae a,
e aa.
B e ee aa ee ae
a e eee e a Ea e
, a eaa, ee ea
a a ea, a ee a a
a P, a ae e ea
a e. B ee, e e, E
ae a a . e e
ee e e a e aa a
ee ee e a. E
ea P ee e, ae
e, ea e, a e,
a ee a a ee
e.
Bee P BTO e a ea a
e a. Oae, E e
e e. Ha e e ea e
aa 147 a, eea TAP-TACC.
Izvestiia, Friday 21 May 2004
RUSSIAEU SUMMIT OPENS IN MOSCOW
The question of entry to the WTO will be decided at it
The Russian President, Vladimir Putin, will discuss relations between Moscow
and Brussels with leaders of the EU in the Kremlin today. This time the
traditional twice-yearly RussiaEU summit will be out of the ordinary. This
is the rst top-level meeting since enlargement of the European Union.
There are no plans for separate bilateral talks between the head of the Russian
state and the participants at the summit. Two representatives of Ireland, the
country holding the EU presidency, have come to Moscow for the talks together
with the head of the European Commission.
It is expected that a bilateral agreement on the entry of the Russian Federation
into the World Trade Organisation (WTO) will be signed within the framework
of the RussiaEU summit which opens in Moscow today. The Ministry of
Economic Development has said in a statement that this agreement will be the
nish of a six-year marathon of talks between Russia and the European Union
on joining this inuential international organisation. On the eve of the summit
the head of the Ministry of Economic Development (MED), German Gref,
told journalists that most of the matters being discussed by the [two] sides [had]
already been resolved.
During the previous round of bilateral talks in Paris last week [Mr] Gref and
the European Union Commissioner for Trade made substantive progress, in the
words of the Eurocommissioner, on important questions such as internal Russian
energy prices as well as access to the Russian market for European companies. Mr
Gref in turn conrmed that the European Commission understands our position
and is making compromises. For a long time internal Russian energy prices had
been the main point on which the two sides differed when it came to foreign trade.
58
2.9 R3c: political journalism (reporting)
The European Commission was demanding that Russia substantially increase
these prices on the grounds that cheap energy for industry [was] creating an
advantage for Russian goods in the European marketplace.
Russias entry into the WTO has already been ofcially supported by some
ten countries. It is expected that the European Union will join it as early as
today. As of today 147 countries are members of this inuential organisation,
ITAR-TASS reports.
This is the rst of two passages that illustrate the register of political
journalism. Unlike the following text (2.10), this report of a political
summit is intended to inform rather than to persuade. It is therefore
written in a dry, impersonal register very close to that of R3a and R3b,
but with an admixture of distinctive political terminology and idiom.
Features of R3 in general, or the political variety of it in particular,
include the following.
r
Present active participles: (5), eeaee grammatical
forms
(11), ae (12), a (31).
r
Present passive participles: ae (19).
r
Imperfective gerund: ae (30).
r
Reexive verbs used in a passive sense: ae (1), e (2),
ae (8), ae (13, 35).
r
The slightly inated adjective in the phrase a e vocabulary
eee (22), instead of the neutral .
r
Ofcial turns of phrase (sometimes in quotations of politicians words): phraseology
aa aa (12), aee e (1314), a
(27), a ee (32).
r
Use of as copula (37).
syntax
r
Occasional complex sentence structure, e.g. a ee
a a a P, a ae e
ea a e (256); E ea
P ee e, ae e,
. . . (2931). On the whole, though, syntax is uncomplicated, as
bets a text with informative purpose for the general reader.
r
EC (1, etc.), P (14, 25, 34), BTO (2, 14, 34), MPT (18), abbreviation
TA
P-TACC (37).
r
E (4, etc.), E (11), Ma (15,
stump-
compounds
18), ea (23).
r
a (1, etc.), ea a e e (67), e political
terminology
e (9), ee aee (13), e ee
aa ee (21).
r
aee ae e. . . aaa (1516), modish phrases
ee e (23).
59
2 Passages illustrating register
2.10 R3c: political journalism (comment)
The following passage is from a political commentary prompted by the
rst trial of an American soldier charged with abusing Iraqi detainees.
APA
CATPE
MHACA
A
, e, aeae e a a
aae e e e. Aea a e
ae a aae a , ee
a a a. Ca a 5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
a e, a, a , a
a e e aee e a
e a aa a a a
e.
, e, e aea ea e
CM. e ee a e ae
a aa a a ae.
, e a e e
, a e e. H ae e a aa
a , a ae,
, ea, e aa ,
aea. He, aa a e a
eaa eaea. , e, ee ae
a , , aeae a ae aee
aaa-aa, a a eee e
aa ea ea. Oa
e- e . Be aa aaa a
ae e a e.
B ee e e
ee e ea, aee
e e e , e a
a`a aae. B ee
a aeae, , e
aee a a aa, ea
e a aa ea e e, a
ae, a eaa ee
a a aa . B Bae, e, a, a
a ea a Caaa Xea a , a
a a , a a aa a
e eaa e ee ea e. Beee,
Bae a , aea a,
a eae ee aa aa,
aa a, a ea,
a e a e e ae. Tee e eaae
e e ee ae a. He e! C
e e ee ee e, e, e
aa ee a.
, e, ae a
aea e, eae a
ee aee ae e
a, , e ae ae
e . Oa Aee a e, e
a e a: , aa C ae a Paea
60
2.10 R3c: political journalism (comment)
ee ae aa. He e , a
e a e a aea a, a
ae e a ea a e ee a e
a. 50
Izvestiia, Friday 21 May 2004
Bushs Arabian prison tale
And this is really where a great mineeld begins for the Americans and specically
for Bushs team. The Americans are trying in Iraq to wage a so-called civilised
war that turns into a civilised occupation and back again. In particular it was
at one time an integral part of this policy to leave weapons in the hands of the
local populace of the occupied territory without any checks as to the reliability of
the populace. To all appearances the local mass media have not been censored.
At the same time all previous structures like the former ruling Baath Party
or the Iraqi army have been prematurely dismantled. People who had become
accustomed to submitting to the will of a dictator and marching under arms
found themselves with no role. Nobody even tried to ask themselves: supposing
we could come to an understanding with them, in the cynical oriental manner,
and make them obedient puppets, if one again puts it cynically. No, the gamble
that was taken in the Iraq war was quite idealistic. And it looks as if it was taken
in the sincere belief that the Iraqi people, having come to love the Americans for
rescuing them from a barbaric dictator, would enthusiastically set about building
the institutions of civil society and democracy. And yet for some reason that
hasnt happened. Instead of gratitude there is a guerrilla war with an extremely
unpleasant Islamicist complexion.
In the context of the oriental outlook and political philosophy the perception of
such trials both by commentators and among ordinary people will most probably
be quite different from what people with an Anglo-Saxon legal consciousness
expect. They will see in this a sign of shameful American weakness, they will
see an encouragement to people to ght more actively against occupiers who have
given [the Iraqis] a bit of rope and to resort among other things to the most
barbaric methods kidnapping people, online executions, well-publicised acts
of terrorism against peaceful inhabitants in various countries, and so forth. It
looks as if they have forgotten in Washington how they themselves were recently
condemning Saddam Hussein for gassing Kurdish insurgents and how the Iraqi
army in general would slaughter whole villages of Shiite insurgents including
women and children. More likely still they have forgotten in Washington that
the Americans have come to a country which until recently had been controlled
and governed, and controlled absolutely, only by methods of this sort and which
knows no other methods. Now it is being suggested to it [Iraq] that it should
prize all the delights of a fair trial. They wont prize them!
From the point of view of domestic consumption the effect [of the trial]
may of course be more favourable. It will undoubtedly be a sop to American
political correctness, democratic traditions and the deep-rooted respect specically
for the army, which people see as an institution that carries out the most noble
missions all over the world. However, even in America there are those who will
be grumbling: Corporal Sivits, theyll say, is carrying the can for Rumsfeld and
other Washington chiefs. Not to mention the fact that he himself might become
a sort of American Budanov [a Russian ofcer accused of shooting a Chechen
girl], provoking a reaction to his condemnation to satisfy the Iraqis that will
not be straightforward by any means.
61
2 Passages illustrating register
Like the previous passage, this text contains various features of high
register, including the use of active participles and in particular the
prolic use of gerunds. However, its purpose is not merely to inform
but also to put a point of view and to this end the author deploys a
sprinkling of colloquial expressions, often with a hint of irony. The
passage is also notable for the care that the author takes to sustain his
argument, especially by means of frequent use of transitional words
(see 5.2), and for his maintenance of a sense of contact with the reader
by means of various conversational devices. Features of R3 in general
and of the political variety of it in particular include the following.
r
Present active participles: ee (4), a (28), e grammatical
forms
(44).
r
Past active participles: e (12), a (33),
ee (43).
r
Imperfective gerunds: (9; in a set expression), aa (15),
ea (28).
r
Perfective gerunds: ea (15), (18), a (48).
r
Use of a as copula: Ca a a . . . a
syntax
, (56).
r
Occasional complex sentence structure, especially involving use of
some variant of the phrase , , viz. a , (18), a ,
(32), , (35, 47), , (27).
r
Modish expressions: e (2), aae e e phraseology
e (3), e in the sense of among other things (389).
r
Colloquial expressions, used with a hint of incredulity or mockery: a
(14), ae a (46).
r
Phrases that appear to be quotations, or that are placed in quotation
marks to highlight them, perhaps with ironic intent: a
, (4), a a (5), e
(1213), ae a (39), ee
ee (40), aea a (48), a e
(49).
r
Transitional words and phrases which maintain the ow of an
argument: (10), Oa (20, 45), B ee (23), B
(26), Beee (34), C e e (3940), He e (47).
r
Devices suggestive of engagement with the reader: (2), He
(16), e (17, 31), the exclamation He e! (39), e (40),
e (41) and the particle indicating reported speech (46).
2.11 Classical poetry
It should not be forgotten, even in a book on contemporary usage,
that a magnicent literature has been created in Russian over the last
62
2.11 Classical poetry
two hundred and fty years and that this literature has greatly enriched
the Russian language and continues to inform the consciousness of
educated Russians. It is generally agreed among Russians that the
outstanding representative of their literature is the poet Alexander
Pushkin (17991837), who helped to fashion the modern literary
language and exercised a seminal inuence on many of the great
classical and twentieth-century writers. Pushkins poetry is not
well-known to western readers, partly because of the near impossibility
of translating it successfully. However, it continues to have a vitality
and resonance for educated Russians that it is hard to understand in
societies where poetry is generally of narrower appeal. It is therefore by
no means a purely academic exercise for the contemporary foreign
student of the modern language to emulate educated Russians by
learning passages of Pushkin by heart.
We therefore offer here the opening lines of Pushkins narrative
poem Me a (The Bronze Horseman), written in 1833.
(The reference is to the statue of Peter the Great (ruled 16961725)
erected on the bank of the River Neva in St Petersburg by the
eighteenth-century French sculptor Falconet at the behest of
Catherine the Great (ruled 176296).) Pushkin begins his poem by
imagining Peter contemplating the foundation of his northern capital
in the marshy wasteland near the mouth of the Neva. He then paints a
sparkling picture of St Petersburg, the city that by Pushkins lifetime
had sprung up there. The extract ends with Pushkin comparing
St Petersburg, the window that Peter had cut into Europe, to the
older, more conservative and inward-looking capital Moscow, which
was associated with traditional Russian institutions such as autocracy
and the Orthodox Church.
Ha ee
C O, e ,
a e. e
Pea ea; e
e e . 5
10
, eea
ee e a,
a;
e, ee a
B ae a a
e.
a O:
Oe e e.
e e a
Ha ae e. 15
20
e a e
B E ,
H a e.
Ca a
Be a a
ae a e.
63
2 Passages illustrating register
e, a,
a aa ,
e, a
B , e; 25
30
35
40
e ee ,
ea a ,
O ee
a eee
C e e, e a
eea
a e e
ae; a
T e e
a a e;
B a ea Hea;
M a a;
Tee aa
E a,
ee ae e
ea aa Ma,
a ee ae
a a.
On a deserted wave-swept shore, He stood, lled with lofty thoughts, and gazed
into the distance. Before him the river sped on its wide course; a humble, lonely
skiff moved fast on its surface. On the mossy and swampy banks black huts were
dotted here and there the homes of miserable Finns; and the forest, impenetrable
to the rays of the sun shrouded in mist, murmured all around.
And thus He thought: From here we shall threaten the Swede; here a city
shall be founded, to spite our arrogant neighbour. Here we are destined by Nature
to cut a window into Europe; and to gain a rm foothold by the sea. Here, over
waters new to them, ships of every ag will come to visit us, and, unconstrained,
we shall make merry.
A hundred years passed, and the young city, the ornament and marvel of
the northern climes, rose, resplendent and stately, from the dark forests and the
swamps.Where once the Finnish sherman, Natures wretched stepson, alone
on the low-lying banks, cast his ancient net into unknown waters, now along the
banks astir with life tall and graceful palaces and towers cluster; ships from all
the ends of the earth hasten in throngs to the rich quays; the Neva has clothed
herself in granite; bridges hang above the waters; her islands have become covered
with dark-green gardens; and old Moscow has paled before the younger capital,
like a dowager clad in purple before a new empress.
Prose translation from The Penguin Book of Russian Verse, introduced and
edited by Dimi tri Obolensky
It is impossible in a brief description of Pushkins language and style to
capture the beauty of this passage. Pushkins verse derives dignity,
coherence and harmony from its diction, rhyme (aababccdcdefefgghcch,
etc.), and rhythm. (The metre is iambic tetrameter with an additional
(ninth) syllable in lines with feminine rhyme (i.e. rhyme in which the
64
2.12 Literary prose
stress is on the penultimate syllable).) Linguistic features that
distinguish this passage from the modern spoken language include:
r
Slavonicisms, which give the passage a lofty tone, as bets the subject
of national destiny that P ushkin is addressing: e (3), a (21),
a (23), (22);
r
other examples of poetic diction: the elevated verb e (24)
and the now obsolete adverb Oe (12);
r
feminine instrumental singular forms, in both nouns and adjectives, in
-: H (17), ae (39), (41). These forms are more
common in poetry and literary registers than in prose and ordinary
speech;
r
the forms ea (4) and ea (35), in which the reexive particle
retains its full form in spite of the preceding vowel. These forms too
are poetic.
Stylistic features that enhance the dignity of P ushkins verse, or
lend it elegance or charm, or help the poet to develop his themes,
include:
r
inversions, some of which convey the gravity of the subject-matter:
e (2): H (17), a
aa (22), a e (31);
r
symmetry: e, a (23); the sustained contrast
between the deserted wasteland that Peter has surveyed (e
ee . . . (25)) and the magnicent city that has subsequently been
built there (e a. . . (29)); the comparison of Moscow to a
widow, which is achieved by two pairs of lines (3940 and 412) that
are perfectly balanced: ee ae e/ea
aa Ma,/a ee ae/a a;
r
the quasi-deication of Peter the Great, the awesome presence akin to
the God of Genesis who is denoted by the pronoun O (spelt with a
capital letter; 2, 11). In both lines the pronoun derives additional
weight from its position after the verb;
r
personication of the River Neva, which is clothed in granite (35),
and of Moscow (402);
r
an alliterative quality that enhances the musicality of the verse:
ea a (26); C e e, e a
(29); ee ae e/ea aa Ma (3942).
2.12 Literary prose
The passage offered here as an illustration of modern literary prose is
from Nka, a short story by Vktor Pelevin. In clear, precise, simple
65
2 Passages illustrating register
prose Pel evins narrator describes his relationship with Nka (a
diminutive form of the female name Veronka). Nka is a rather simple
creature who is never seen with a book and likes eating, sleeping and
gazing out of the window. The narrator, who seems to be an artistic
intellectual and would like to conde in and share his views with a
partner, is disconcerted by Nkas air of indifference and independence,
but is attracted by her grace, charm and natural spirituality. As the
relationship culminates in betrayal the readers normal expectations are
subverted when it turns out that Nka is not a woman but a cat.
He Ha a aa a a
ae aaa a ee,
a e e e, ee ea e,
a a aa, a ea. Haee,
e e ae e e; a a, 5
10
15
20
25
30
e a a e e,
e e , a e e ea . C
a a e aa, e -a e aa
aaea, a , a e aaa ea
. a a a aa a aa
e aa, a a, ee a e
ea e a e , Ha e a,
a e a, a a , a ,
a ea ee. H aaa a
e ee aeaa, a aa;
e e- e , e a ae a
aaea ea : aa a
e ee a ee, a
e ; e ea e; aea
a e eae ae ee. Me
ee H, a ; e a,
ea, ea a:
Ha, e e. Xa ee a ee a a.
B ae- ee aae a,
e , e , aea a a , ,
a e ae, aa ee, ae aae
e . . . Ha, e e aa . . . O
a e e, a e e
ee, e , e , a
, . . .
- a a e e, a a eae.
ae, a aa, a e a e ae
a a e e a,
a a ea.
Vktor Pel evin, Nka, Generation : Paa (Moscow:
Vagrius, 2001)
Its not that Nika was indifferent to comfort with pathological permanency
she turned up in the very chair I wanted to sit in but things existed for her
only while she was using them, and then disappeared. Thats probably why she
had practically nothing of her own; I sometimes thought that this was exactly
66
2.12 Literary prose
the type that the communists of old had tried to breed, having no idea what the
outcome of their efforts would look like. She did not take account of the feelings
of others, and not because her character was bad but because she often did not
suspect that they existed. When she accidentally broke an antique sugar-bowl
made of Kuznetsov china which used to stand on the dresser, and an hour later
I slapped her face without knowing I was going to do it, Nika simply did not
understand what she was being hit for she just rushed out and when I came to
say I was sorry, she silently turned her face to the wall. To Nika the sugar-bowl
was just a truncated cone made of shiny material and lled with pieces of paper;
to me it was a sort of money-box, where the proofs of the reality of being that
I had gathered throughout my life were stored: a little page from a note-book
that had long ago ceased to exist with a telephone number that I did not ring;
a cinema ticket with a stub that had not been torn off; a little photograph and
several blank prescriptions. I was ashamed of myself but felt it was stupid to
apologise; I did not know what to do and so I spoke in a rhetorical and muddled
way:
Dont be angry, Nika. Old things have strange power over you. To throw
away a pair of cracked spectacles is to admit that the whole world that you have
viewed through them is left in the past forever, or vice versa, its ahead of you, in
the realm of impending non-being, which is the same thing . . . Nika, if only you
could understand me . . . Fragments of the past take on the likeness of moorings
that tie us to things that no longer exist, from which you can see that what people
usually understand as the soul doesnt exist either, because . . .
I looked at her from under the palm of my hand and saw her yawn. God
knows what she was thinking about, but my words did not penetrate her beautiful
little head I might have had the same effect if I had been speaking to the sofa
on which she was sitting.
This is an example of the modern written language in its most highly
crafted form. The passage has an elegant, polished quality. It is the
antithesis of the spontaneous, broken utterances of colloquial speech
and the informal variety of the language of the internet, as exemplied
in 2.1 and 2.2 above. The purpose of the user differs too from that of
the authors of other texts presented in this section: it is not to inform,
as in the formal registers illustrated in 2.58 inclusive, but to produce
an aesthetic impact on readers.
The passage contains a number of features characteristic of higher
registers, especially a gerund and participles of various sorts, viz.:
r
imperfective gerund: e (7);
r
present active participles: ee (18; see also 29),
a (28);
r
past active participles: (11), ee (24);
r
past passive participle: e (25); this is not a commonly used
form and is less likely to be encountered in R1 and R2 than many
participles of this type;
r
adjectival phrases before nouns: ae a
aaea ea (1617); a e
ee a (1718);
67
2 Passages illustrating register
r
complex syntax with much subordination: a . . . (4);
a a, . . . (56); e e , a . . . (7); a a
a aa . . . (10); a . . . (13);
ee, a e . . . (1819); a
a ea . . . (34); and the avowedly rhetorical e
, e , a ,
. . . (2930).
On the other hand there are none of the impersonal reexive verbs
used in a passive sense that are common in R3a and R3b. Nor are
there any examples of threading of cases or any of the prepositional
phrases, formulae and conventions that characterise R3b in particular.
It should be emphasised that although there are no colloquial
features in this passage their absence is not a necessary attribute of
literary prose, which may of course encompass colloquial and even
demotic forms, especially within the direct speech of characters. It is
not a prevalence of formal or informal features that distinguishes this
register but its aesthetic purpose. In the passage given here this purpose
is evident not only in the careful construction of sentences, as
illustrated by the use of active participles (which have an especially
literary avour) and by the examples of complex syntax given above,
but also in:
r
occasional alliterative patterns: ae (12),
-a e aa (8), a aa e
aa, a a (1011);
r
syntactic balance and symmetry: He Ha a
aa a. . . ee ea e
(13); e -a e aa aaea, a , . . . (89);
ea a (22).
r
implicit intertextual reference, to Nab okov, whose sense of the reality
of things that have not happened informs details such as the page from
the narrators diary with a telephone number that has never been called
and the cinema ticket that has not been used. (Elsewhere in the story
there is also explicit and implicit reference to the early
twentieth-century writer B unin, whose presence is felt in the storys
subtle eroticism.)
2.13 Language of the internet
A
:
aa :
a ae?
B eee e eee a ae
ee, Ba ee e e a e a 5
ea:)
68
2.13 Language of the internet
Ha , a ee aaa
ae e eee
a ee.
e e e a a a, 10
, aee ee aa
a a . . . e aa
aae, e e eaa . . .
-e e ae aeae ae e ,
15 a . . . ae a-aa, a-aa
T e ee a ae e,
aa aa eee, e
a, a a:) a ea-a e
e:)
H a e e, e a ae www. . . e , 20
a a B a e aea:)) A ee
e a:)
H e a ee e , a a
aa a eee, a
e a :) eee P 25
e a e ee:)
P.S. a ee e e e, e
eee, ee , a:)
e e e , . a a e e
ee e e ae a ae. 30
From: . . .
Date: . . .
What a load of crap youre talking.
Peoples language naturally changes a great deal on the internet, and your
unhealthy ideas about linguistic purity cant stop it changing:)
I think it would be much more instructive to analyse the changes that have
taken place under the inuence of the internet and to bring out the reasons
for them. I dont mean words like online or virtual, what Im saying is
that the vast majority of people change their spelling and write it like they
hear it . . . thats what people do in chatrooms in particular, where they have
to type a lot . . . For instance I think its really cool to replace , with
. . . for example a-aa [to socialise with], a-
aa [to meet] Full stops are very rarely put at the end of sentences,
people usually try to say their whole thought in a single sentence, and bung in a
smiley at the end, just like me now [a]:) Incidentally ea-a [i.e. how
the word for now is spelt], thats another thing:)
And as for the whole culture centred on site www. . . com [a pornographic web-
site], Im not going to say anything about it because Im sure youre just not
ready for it:)) But thats where the futures at:)
Well there are lots of things like that and one really shouldnt dismiss that sort
of approach to language on the internet out of hand, when it would be really
69
2 Passages illustrating register
worthwhile to bring them out into the open:) And this hasnt got anything to
do with being like a yokel out of the depths of Russia either:)
P.S. there are of course also kids on the net for whom a complex sentence is three
simple ones without a single comma:) Thats not what Ive been talking about
of course. What Ive got in mind is changes in language without distorting the
sense and comprehensibility [of it].
This text is a message sent as an email to an ofcially funded Russian
website devoted to maintenance of linguistic standards. The author
(who is a male, as the masculine form of the verb in the second
sentence of the post scriptum indicates) is addressing the subject of
linguistic usage on the internet. At the same time he self-consciously
uses his message to illustrate distinctive features of the email register.
Layout, punctuation, vocabulary, syntax and style, and to a lesser extent
orthography, all impart to the message a characteristically informal
tone which, given the nature of the site to which the message is
addressed, is challenging and slightly subversive.
r
As an email, the text is preceded by an indication of the subject, layout
author and date. It closes, as a letter also might, with a post
scriptum.
r
The author strives to accommodate each idea within a single sentence,
as he says people try to do when communicating on the internet
(1617). This habit may lend sentences a rather rambling nature (see
especially the fourth and sixth sentences; compare the participants in
the chatroom conversation at 2.2 above). Moreover, a sentence may
itself constitute a separate paragraph. This is the case with the rst ve
sentences of the message, and in the next three paragraphs too the
material which follows the opening sentence is not much more than
an appended afterthought.
r
The author relies mainly on commas or e (three dots) to punctuation
indicate pauses in his train of thought, avoiding the use of colons and
semi-colons.
r
More often than not he omits the full stop, thus adhering to what he
says is normal practice on the internet (16).
r
In lieu of full stops he very frequently uses the expressive device of
the emoticon, or smiley (6, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28), another habit
characteristic of informal language on the internet to which he draws
attention (1718).
r
Internet terminology: ee (4), a (10), a (10), vocabulary
a (12), a (18), a (20) and the abbreviated form ee (27).
r
Colloquial forms: -e (14), e (14), (18),
aea (21), aa (24).
r
Diminutive forms: e (10), a (25).
70
2.13 Language of the internet
r
Particles (see 5.4): (20, 23); a (20); post-positive - (but not
preceded in the text by the standard hyphen; 21); e (27, 29).
r
The demotic form (i.e. ) and the slang word in the
opening question (3).
r
The interjection: (25).
r
Syntax is simple. Only one simple subordinating conjunction, a a
syntax
(21), is used in the message. Links between ideas are established, if they
are explicitly established at all, by use of the coordinating conjunctions
(e.g. 5, 17) and a (24).
r
The dominant syntactic technique is use of a simple copula, stated or
understood, e.g. Ba ee e . . . e a (5);
ee aaa (7);
aae, (1213); e e (1819); ee
e a (212);
. . . e . . . (289).
r
Ellipsis (see 11.13): , in which some verb such as is
understood (1011; it should be noted that the preposition is
colloquial as well).
r
Other colloquial expressions, e.g. a a (18), a a (29),
and the colloquial transition word a (18).
r
The author follows the casual practices of ordinary speech. For style
instance, he makes no attempt to avoid repetition, resorting more than
once to the same or similar words or expressions: ae (4, 16); (e)
e (10, 29); e (14), ae (15); e (20),
e (23); (23), (25); e e (27, 29).
r
He seems also wilfully to cultivate an unpolished style. The phrases H
a e e (20) and e a (25) seem
particularly inelegant on account of the ugly succession of vowel
sounds (u, a, o) in the rst and the grotesque combination of ikh and
okh in the second.
r
The author refers to the practice of spelling words in a way that reects orthography
actual pronunciation as a fact of linguistic life on the internet (1113).
He also commends this practice himself (1415) and demonstrates it
by his spelling of ea as a (1819). All the same, the authors
innovations in spelling are actually very limited. In general his
orthography is careful and correct (cf. the careless and casual
orthography of the passage from a chatroom in 2.2 above).
r
Nor is the use of capitals in this message unconventional. After all,
each new sentence begins with a capital letter (except the rst sentence
of the post scriptum, which in any case the author may deem to have
begun with the abbreviation P.S.). Capitals are even used for the rst
letter of possessive and personal pronouns (Ba, B) denoting the
addressee(s) of the message, as is conventional in formal
correspondence (5, 21; see 7.17).
71
2 Passages illustrating register
r
Features of the higher formal registers are not altogether absent. There absence of
formal features
is, for instance, a present active participle, ee (28), and a
reexive verb used in passive sense, a (16). However, there is a
notable dearth of such features, there being no examples of gerunds,
present passive participles, threading of cases, subordinating
conjunctions or complex prepositional phrases.
72
3 Problems of meaning: Russian words
This chapter lists some of the Russian words that give difculty to the
English-speaking student. The difculty may arise for any one of
several reasons. For example, the Russian word may have a wide range
of meaning. It may be easily confused with some other Russian word
or words. It may be deceptively similar to some English word. It may
occur in a plural form whereas its English equivalent occurs in a
singular form or vice versa. Or it may denote some phenomenon or
concept that is unfamiliar to an English-speaker.
3.1 Homonyms
Homonyms arise in several ways. Firstly, as a result of phonological
change a word may come to coincide in sound and form with another
word of different origin (as is the case with the pair ). Secondly,
identical forms may develop as a result of the processes of
word-formation, by the addition of distinct sufxes to a root
(e.g. a). Thirdly, it very often happens that an existing word
takes on quite a new meaning (e.g. e).
We also include here a few words (e.g. a) which strictly speaking
are not homonyms but which have a range of meaning that is
unexpected to English-speakers.
Many of the examples given here are full homonyms (i.e. they have
identical pronunciation and paradigms, e.g. in its different
meanings), while others are partial homonyms (i.e. they do not share
all the forms which each word possesses, e.g. , which does not
have plural forms in its sense of peace).
3.1.1 Examples of homonyms
bloc (esp pol)
pulley
a matrimony
defective goods, rejects
air, appearance
shape, form, state
view (e.g. from room)
species
aspect (gram term)
73
3 Problems of meaning: Russian words
e time
tense (gram term)
a to tie
to knit
a/a to stroke (e.g. animal)
to iron (clothes; pf also a)
a to chase, drive, pursue
to distil
voice
vote
(m) pigeon
dove
throat
neck of bottle (though as a rule the dimin form is used in
this sense, except in the phrase a (D), to drink straight
from the bottle)
furnace, forge
bugle
a lip
bay, inlet (in northern Russia)
tree fungus
ee country (i.e. not town)
village
duty
debt
a (, ) to press, squeeze
(, ) to reap
ea victim
sacrice
e Earth
e land, soil
a caviar
calf (part of leg)
history
story
affair
aa map
playing card
74
3.1 Homonyms
club (society)
puff, cloud (e.g. of dust)
key (to door); also g, clue
spring, source (of water)
a skin
leather
a block (of wood)
pack of cards
a plait
scythe
spit (of land)
door-post
shoal (of sh)
herd (of mares with one stallion)
a st
strike force (mil)
wealthy peasant
course (programme of study; path along which sth moves)
year (of course in educational institution)
rate of exchange (n)
aa caress, kindness
weasel (gen pl a)
light
easy
ea (pl; gen e) forests
scaffolding
ea staircase
ladder
aa shovel
shoulder-blade
onion
bow (for shooting arrows)
aa to mass (mil)
to massage
ae matter (as opposed to spirit; phil)
cloth
aa machine
car
75
3 Problems of meaning: Russian words
peace
world
peasant commune (in pre-revolutionary Russia)
e moment
factor
aa science
learning
a scientic
academic
aa beginning
premiss (i.e. postulate)
e sky
heaven
a leg
foot
to carry
to wear (clothes)
experience
experiment
a steam
fallow
e loop
stitch
buttonhole
noose
a slab (e.g. paving-stone)
stove (for cooking)
oor
sex
e eld
(pl) margin (of page)
brim (of hat)
a policy
politics
a shelf
weeding
a Polish woman
polka (dance)
76
3.1 Homonyms
to thrash (pf )
to unstitch (pf a)
ee subject (e.g. of study)
object (thing, topic)
aa programme
channel (on TV)
schedule; ea aa, curriculum
a novel
rmane
a arm
hand
(f ) trot
lynx
e light
world
society (i.e. the fashionable world)
e bright, radiant
light (of colours)
(f ) speed
gear (of engine)
word
speech, e.g. a a, freedom of speech; ea -
, to call on sb to speak
e advice
soviet (i.e. council)
ea Wednesday (acc sg e)
milieu, environment (acc sg e)
table
bureau, ofce (e.g. a , passport bureau)
board, cuisine (e.g. e , Sm org asbord, lit Swedish table)
e (f ) shadow
shade
a titanium (chemical element)
Titan (in Greek mythology)
boiler (old-fashioned bathroom water heater)
aa grass
herb
to extinguish, put out (pf )
to braise, stew
77
3 Problems of meaning: Russian words
heavy
difcult
a member of strike force (mil); shock-worker
ring-pin (of gun)
drummer (in pop group; R1)
scientist
scholar, learned person
aa draught (in boardgame); a a, to play draughts
sabre
tongue
language
3.1.2 Homonyms with different plural forms
In a number of nouns the different meanings that the noun may have
are distinguished by use of different nominative plural forms (and, if
the noun denotes an inanimate object, this form is identical with the
accusative plural form).
r
In many such instances one plural form has the usual ending for
masculine nouns in - or - and the other has the stressed ending -a
or - (see 9.1.6), e.g.
nom pl in -/- nom pl in -a/-
hogs, fat men a ues
torsos, hulls a corps, blocks (buildings)
ae (political) camps ae holiday/prison camps
e (pl only) bellows ea furs
a images aa icons
e monastic orders ea medals
geographical belts a belts (clothing)
send-off (no sg) a (electrical) leads
omissions a passes, permits
sables (animals) sables (furs)
abacus (no sg) ea bills, accounts
(electric) currents a threshing-oors; also birds
mating-places
tones (sound) a tones (colour)
impediments a brakes (of vehicle)
e loaves ea crops
e owers ea
colours
(good-natured)
eae
(benevolent)
(pleasant)
a (likeable,
nice)
a (m) (military) hospital hospital a
a humane human eee
eaa ten-day period decade eee
instructional instructive e (edifying)
e (useful)
aea chamber, cell, video
camera (R1)
camera aaa
aa capital (n) capital a (city)
aa main, fundamental,
e.g. aa
e, major repair
capital a a (letter)
Note: ea a,
capital punishment
a cardboard carton a
e fruit-cake cake
composer compositor a
ea conservatoire conservatory aee,
eaa
(m) supervision control (management)
a (f; power)
e (inuence)
embarrassment confusion e (disorder)
aa (muddle)
88
3.5 Faux amis
eaea (R1;
muddle)
(R1; pushing)
e polite, proper correct a
cross-country race cross e
a sleep-walker lunatic ae
a
aa shop magazine a
a major mayor
aea demonstration manifestation ee
ea instantaneous momentous aeae
mechanic motorist a
exercise (physical) motion ee
e lens (of camera) objective e (f )
aee having passion, pathos pathetic ae (touching)
ea (sad)
a (pitiable)
eea
(see also e)
perspective (in art),
also outlook, prospect
perspective eea (in art only)
a e (point of
view)
a narrative poem poem (short) ee
ee claim, complaint,
charge, as well as
pretension
pretension ee (claim)
ae (claim)
ee
(f; pretentiousness)
a of principle, principled,
e.g. a
ee, person of
integrity
principal a (main)
e (leading)
a test, model (i.e.
prototype), sample
probe (med, geol)
eae
(exploration)
e avenue; also prospectus,
summary
prospect eea
ee rehearsal repetition ee
ea rejoinder, cue (theat) replica a
ee prescription (med),
recipe
receipt ee (receiving)
aa, a
(written
acknowledgement)
a nice (of person) sympathetic
(compassionate)
(responsive)
(approving)
89
3 Problems of meaning: Russian words
e small public garden
in town
square a (f; place)
aa (shape)
a length of service,
probation
stage ea (theat)
a (of process)
chair; also stool (med) stool aea
ea diagram, outline, plan,
(electrical) circuit;
eae may
mean oversimplied, e.g.
eae
, simplistic
approach; ea,
microchip
scheme a (plan)
aa (plan)
e (plan)
ae (plot)
aa (intrigue)
e ee, in the
scheme of things
e, colour
scheme, lit choice of colours
e argument, point, e.g.
e e,
main points, as well
as thesis
thesis ea
(dissertation)
e (only in sense of
contention, proposition)
eeae spirited temperamental a (capricious)
c (obstinate,
awkward)
a transmission, relay translation ee
aa factory fabric a (f )
a overfamiliar, offhand familiar a (known)
e (well-known)
(customary)
a faction fraction aa (small part)
(f; math)
aaea reference
(testimonial)
characteristic aaea ea
ea (expert) examination,
analysis, study, test,
e.g. ea a
C, AIDS test
expertise ae (knowledge)
ee
(f; competence)
(experience)
ea may correspond to
Eng electorate, i.e. all
voters, or may have
narrower meaning, i.e.
group of like-minded
voters, constituency, e.g.
e
ea, communist
voters
electorate ae (pl; electors)
90
3.6 Problems of number
3.6 Problems of number
3.6.1 Nouns with plural form only
Many nouns exist which in English have a singular form but in
Russian have only a plural form, at least when they have certain
meanings. The word for a clock, for example, is a (gen a). Such
nouns may belong to any of the declension types. In the lists below
genitive forms (which cannot be deduced from the nominative forms)
are given in brackets.
a (p) gate
() election
a (ae) rake
e (ee) money
(e) jungle
a () rewood
() scent, perfume
() stretcher
(e) wallpaper
ea (e) handrail
() funeral
() send-off, i.e. farewell gathering
a (ae) sledge
() cream
e (ee) twilight
() day (24-hour period)
(e) gangway, gangplank
() abacus
ea (e) ink
aa (aa) chess
(e) cabbage soup
(e; in R1 also e) cr` eche
Many Russian nouns which are generally used only in a plural form do
correspond to English nouns which also have a plural form, e.g.
() trousers
e (e) scales
a (a) light frosts
a (ae) quotation marks
a (a) holidays
() skates
91
3 Problems of meaning: Russian words
(e) curls
(e) rags
(e) people
() scissors
() spectacles
ee (ee) talks, negotiations
() verses
() efforts, trouble
(e) snowakes, cornakes
3.6.2 Nouns with singular form only
Some Russian nouns denoting fruits or vegetables give particular
difculty to the English-speaking student because they are used
collectively and, in R2-3 at least, have only a singular form, e.g.
a red whortleberries, cowberries
cherries
x peas
eea blackberries
ea (wild) strawberries
aa cabbage
ae (m) potatoes
a (cultivated) strawberries
a cranberries
gooseberries
onions
aa raspberries
(f ) carrots
aa a redcurrants
a a blackcurrants
If it is necessary to refer to one particular unit of the thing in question
then one may in some instances use a related word with the sufx -a
(e.g. a, aea), or one may insert the word a,
which refers to an individual unit, e.g. , ve of the thing to
which reference is being made.
Note 1 In R1 plural forms of some of these nouns may be encountered, e.g.
e, ve cherries; e ee, ten blackberries.
2 There are also of course many nouns denoting fruit and vegetables that do
have plural forms, e.g. ae, orange; e, cucumber; , tomato;
, apple (nom/acc pl ae, , ,
respectively).
92
3.7 Russian words difcult to render in English
3.7 Russian words difcult to render in English
This section deals with a number of common Russian words that are
not easy to translate into English because they do not obviously have
direct English equivalents. Many of these words without equivalents
(eaee a) are culture-specic. That is to say they
denote phenomena, values, preoccupations or a way of viewing the
world that are unfamiliar to English-speakers. Their meaning and
nuances may in some cases be fully understood only by reference to
certain historic or cultural factors that cannot be properly explored
here. In addition to such words that are clearly culture-specic we
include a few others whose meaning cannot be conveyed by a single
English word, so that they have to be rendered in English by a phrase
or descriptive paraphrase. We offer various possible translations of the
words given, for use in different contexts. In some instances we also
provide a brief gloss.
aa adventurous, animated, passionate; describes sb who
gets carried away with sth (see also ea
below) or is prepared to stake a lot on sth, e.g.
aa ee=gambler (g); also aae
: games of chance, gambling
ee absence of roads; bad condition of roads; season
when roads are impassable
ea lit person with white hands, i.e. sb who shirks
rough or dirty work; softie
lit weekdays, working days; g humdrum life,
colourless existence, the everyday; antonym of
a (see below in this section)
way of life; everyday life, daily routine, habitual pattern
of life; drudgery. The word (which is derived from
the verb ) evokes the material world and a
static conservative form of existence.
freedom, liberty, free will. The word implies lack of
constraint, natural freedom, even a state close to
anarchy.
a/
a
ea e e a, I
like this play very much.
NAME
(n) in various senses, incl given
name
e patronymic
a surname
a nickname, name of pet
e nickname, sobriquet
aae designation, appellation
ea reputation
NEED
a need, necessity, want
e (f ) necessity, inevitability
e (f ) requirement
ea poverty, indigence
NICE
pleasant, agreeable
a likeable (of person)
kind, good
e kind, courteous
sweet, lovable
ae charming (of person)
ee delightful, charming (of thing)
comfortable, cosy
of food, tasty
NIGHT
(f ) general word
126
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian
ee evening, time of day up until
bedtime, e.g. e ee,
tonight
NOTE
aa written message or memorandum
aea a mark, e.g. ae a ,
notes in the margin
ea sth jotted down
aeae observation, remark
eae additional observation, footnote
a musical note
aa (a also
possible)
bank-note
NOW
ea at the present moment; just now (in
the past); presently, soon (in the
future)
ee now, nowadays, today (esp in contrast
to the past)
e (R3, obs) nowadays
. . . now . . . now, e.g. ,
e, now rain, now snow
NUMBER
in various senses; also date
e of bus, journal, etc.; also hotel
room
ee telephone number
a gure, numeral
e quantity
OLD
a in various senses
middle-aged (showing signs of
ageing)
e previous
former, ex-, e.g. ee,
the ex-President
a ancient, e.g. a , an
old city
e ancient (even older than
a), e.g. e ,
ancient history
e dilapidated; also in phrase Be
ae, the Old Testament
127
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
ae obsolete, out-of-date
ORDER
aaa/aaa to book, reserve, e.g. aaa
eae, to reserve a table in a
restaurant
aa/aa +
dat + inn or
to order (sb to do sth)
ee (impf and pf; R3) +
dat + inn or
to order (sb to do sth), e.g. ee
e , I ordered him to leave.
PART
a (f ) portion, component
share
ae participation, e.g. a/
ae -, to
take part in sth
(f ) role, e.g. in play; a , to
play a part (also g); /
, to take a part
(in play)
a musical part
a of country, region
PAY
a/aa - a
-
to pay sb for sth
aa/a - to pay for sth, e.g. a
a, , to pay the expenses,
the bill
Note: Russians themselves may say a a -, but this usage is
considered incorrect.
aa/
a -
to repay sb, pay sb back
aa/a to pay out, e.g. a
aa, to pay wages
aa/a - to pay sth (which is due), e.g.
a , a, to pay a
subscription, tax
aaa/
aa + instr
to settle accounts with
a (pf ) a
-
to pay with ones life for sth
eea/
aeea
ee (R3b)
to pay ones respects
128
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian
aa/a ae
a + a
to pay attention to
aea/ae - to pay a visit to sb
PAY(MENT)
a in various senses; a
a, payment in instalments;
a a, cash payment
aa for amenities, services, e.g. aa
a a, ee, payment for gas,
tuition
aa of costs, e.g. aa a,
a, ea, payment for a at,
food, travel
aa of sum due, e.g. aa ,
payment of duty
aaa wages, salary
a (R1) =aaa
aae salary
subscription
PEOPLE
individuals, persons
a a people (ethnic group)
POUR
(trans and intrans) basic verb
aa/a (trans) e.g. a a, to pour a
drink
aa/a to pour out (to several people)
a (impf; trans) basic verb, of solids, e.g. a
, to pour rice
a (impf; intrans) of solids, e.g. e e
ea, Sand is pouring from the sack.
a (impf ) g, e.g. a a,
Smoke was pouring from the house.
(pf; intrans) to gush (of blood, water); also g,
e.g. Ha a a,
A crowd poured into the street.
POWER
a (f ) authority
a strength, force; aa a,
horse power
e energy, e.g. ea e,
nuclear power
(f ) might
129
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
(f ) esp tech, e.g. ae,
the power of an engine
eaa an inuential state; eeaa,
a superpower
(f ) ability, capacity
ee (f ) math term
PRESENT (adj)
a now existing; aee e,
the present time or the present tense
ee modern, contemporary
e todays, e.g. eee
ae, the present
government
in attendance, in the place in
question
PREVENT
ea/ea + dat +
inn
to hinder, impede, stop (sb from
doing sth)
eaa/ea to avert, stave off, forestall
ea/
ea + dat
to obstruct, impede
PUT
a/ into lying position
a/a into standing position
aa/a into sitting position. Note also:
a - , to put
sb in prison
aa/ to lay, e.g. ea
e, to put a child to bed
a/a to insert, e.g., a
a, to put a key in a lock
ea/e to hang, e.g. e e a
e, to put washing on a line
ea/e to place, accommodate, e.g. e
e a, to
put guests in a spare room; e
e ea,
to put money in a savings bank
ea/e (in past tense
ea=e)
to do with, e.g. a ea/e
? Where have you put the
book?
aa/a to shove in, e.g. a
aa, to put ones hand in ones
pocket
130
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian
a/ to stick out, e.g. , to
put ones tongue out
aaa/aa in the phrase aa , to put
a question
a/ to put forward, e.g.
e, to put forward a theory
aea/ae to put on, e.g. ae , to put
on a hat
aa/ to put off, defer
a/a to put away, clear up
QUEEN
ea monarch
aa playing card
e (m) chess piece
aa of insect, e.g. bee, ant
ea homosexual
(subst adj; R1) gay
QUIET
not loud, tranquil, calm
e noiseless, e.g. ea aa, a
quiet car
tranquil, calm, peaceful
a taciturn
REACH
/ + gen to get as far as (on foot)
ea/ea + gen to get as far as (by transport)
a/a
+ gen
=/ and
ea/ea, but implies
some difculty
/e
+ gen
to carry (of e.g. news, sounds,
smells), e.g. e ,
A rumour reached her.
a/
+ gen
by touching, e.g.
a, I an reach
the ceiling.
aa/a + gen to stretch as far as (of things and
people)
a/ + gen to attain, e.g. e, to
reach a goal
REALISE
a/ to understand
aa/a to acknowledge, e.g. a
, to realise ones mistake
131
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
aa/a ee
- (R3)
to be/become aware of sth (esp a
difculty)
e/e to bring into being, accomplish
eaa (impf and pf ) to convert into money; also to
implement, e.g. eaa a,
to realise a plan
REMEMBER
(impf ) basic verb
a/ to recall, recollect
aa/a to memorise
a in phrase He a(e) e
, Remember me kindly.
Note also the phrase eea(e) e + dat, remember (me) to, i.e. give my
regards to.
RESPONSIBILITY
ee (f )
a (f )
answerability, obligation, e.g.
a a, the
ministers responsibilities
RICH
a in various senses
a well-to-do, prosperous
eee well provided-for
luxurious, sumptuous
+ instr abounding in, e.g. a
ea, a region rich in natural
resources
fertile, e.g. a a, rich
soil
fatty (of food)
spicy (of food)
a sweet (of food)
RISE
/ to mount, ascend, e.g. Ce
e a, The
sun rises at six oclock.
aa/a to get up
a/ to go up
a/ to get higher, e.g. e
a, Prices are rising.
ea/e to increase
aa/a to grow
132
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian
a/
a + instr
to tower over
a/ to be promoted, gain advancement
aa/a a +
a
to rebel against
ea/e to be resurrected, e.g. X
e , Christ rose
from the dead.
ROOM
aa general word
e hotel room
a auditorium, classroom
a hall, assembly room; a a,
waiting-room
e space
RUBBISH
refuse
litter, dust
(f ) trash
(f ) junk (old and broken things)
a junk (things no longer needed)
ea nonsense
ea =ea
(more bookish) nonsense
e ae (R1) to talk rubbish
SAVE
aa/a to rescue
ee (impf ) to put by, preserve, e.g. ee
, to save ones strength
eea/ee to put money by
a/a to put aside (for future use), e.g.
a a a
aa, to save a bottle of milk for
tomorrow
a/a -
e-
to spare sb sth, e.g.
a
e , This saved
me a lot of trouble.
/ (a +
e)
to use sparingly, economise (on), e.g.
e, , to save
time, labour
aa/aa to gain, e.g. aa e, to
save time
133
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
SCENE
ea in various senses
ee spectacle
ee part of drama
ea set, decor
aa scandalous event, row
ea landscape
e place, e.g. e ee, the
scene of the crime
SERIOUS
e in various senses
grave, e.g. a e, a
serious illness
acute, e.g. a ea, a
serious problem
SERVICE
a in various senses
a assistance, good turn, e.g.
aa/aa y- ,
to do sb a service; also facility, e.g.
ae , public
services
ee (R3) act, process of serving, e.g.
ee e, serving ones muse
ae attention, e.g. in shop, restaurant;
also servicing, maintenance, e.g.
ae a, of a car
aae self-service
e attention (from waiter, etc.)
e set of crockery
rite, ceremony
aa at tennis, etc.
SHAKE
(impf; trans) basic verb
(impf; intrans) basic verb
a/ (trans) to rock, stagger (g), e.g. Oa a
ea e, She was
shaken by this event.
a/ to shake up, rouse; ,
to shake dice
a/ to shake oneself
a/ to shake out, e.g.
ae, to shake out the table-cloth
134
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian
a/ to shake off
a (impf; intrans) to tremble, shiver, e.g. Oa
a, She is shaking with cold.
a/a to undermine, e.g. a -
e, to shake sbs faith
/ + instr to make a threatening gesture with, e.g.
- a, ae,
to shake ones st, nger at sb
aa/aa to shake ones head
a/a -
a aa e
aa, This hat is too small for me.
ee not numerous, e.g.
eea a, a small
group
e petty, unimportant, trivial, of small
calibre, status or denomination,
etc., e.g. e , small print;
ea a, small fry; ee
e, small change
e small-minded
eae insignicant, e.g. a
eae , to play a
small part
137
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
ee second-rate
bad, poor, e.g. ae,
a, a small appetite, harvest
modest, e.g. , a
small income
SMELL (verb)
a (intrans; impers) +
instr
to have the odour (of ), e.g. e
ae a, aa, It smells of
burning, tobacco here.
aa (intrans; impers;
R1) + instr
to smell slightly of
a (intrans) to emit a bad smell
(impf; intrans) + instr to stink, reek (of ), e.g. B e
e , It smells of sh in the
kitchen.
/ (trans) of animals, to perceive by smelling,
e.g. B aa, The
wolf smelt a hare.
a/a of humans, to perceive by smelling
a/a (aa) =a
a/a to sniff
a/a to smell out, get wind of (also g)
(impf ) to have a sense of smell
SMELL (noun)
aa odour
e sense of smell
aa aroma
aae fragrance
(f ) stink, stench
SOUND
general word
noise, e.g. ea, , ,
the sound of the wind, rain, sea
scream, squeal, yelp, screech
hubbub (not harmonious)
crash, din, thunder
rumble, hum, e.g. e, the
sound of trafc
ae buzz, drone, humming, e.g.
ae , the sound of bees
ae babbling, e.g. ae , the
sound of water
138
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian
chinking, clinking, e.g. e,
aa, the sound of coins, glasses
ring (sound of bell)
ee babble, e.g. ee aea, the
sound of a baby
aa roll, peal, e.g. aa a, the
sound of thunder
whistling, warbling, hissing
squeak, scraping
knock, thump, thud, tap
treading, tramping; ,
the sound of hoofs
e crackle, e.g. e a, the sound
of a bonre
a clap (e.g. of thunder)
ee rustle (e.g. of papers, rushes)
rustle (soft, indistinct, perhaps of
animal)
SPEND
a/a to pay out, e.g. a e, to
spend mone
aa/aa
(R3b)
to expend, e.g. aa
e, to spend money
/e to pass, e.g. e e, to
spend time
STAND
to be standing
aa/ to stand (for a specied time); to
stand idle, e.g. Ca
aa, The machines stand
idle.
a/a to put into standing position
a/a to move into certain positions, e.g.
a a , to stand on tiptoe
aa/a to get up
/e to endure
ee/ee to endure
ea/ea to withstand, stand up to, e.g. E
a e e , Her
book will not stand up to criticism.
aa/a e to remain in force, e.g. Peee
a e, The decision stands.
139
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
(impf ) in expression a e,
How do things stand?
STATE
e condition
ee position, state of affairs
aee mood, state of mind
a body politic
STATION
a general word, e.g. aa,
radio station; ea, power
station; also small railway station,
underground station
a railway terminus, mainline station
a in phrases ae a,
polling station, and e
a, police station
aa /
aaa a
lling station
STEP
a ae
e (f ) on ight of stairs
ea =e; also step on ladder
ea ladder, staircase
ea step-ladder
a footboard (of vehicle)
steps into building, porch
(f ) tread, e.g. a , heavy
step
a gait, way of walking
ea measure, e.g. a/
e, to take steps
a (n, indecl) dance step
a in phrase - a,
to follow in sbs footsteps
Note the expression + instr, to be in step with.
STOP (verb)
aaa/a
(trans)
to bring to a halt
aaa/a
(intrans)
to come to a halt
aaa/
a (trans)
to suspend, e.g. a
ae, to stop payments
140
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian
eaa/ea (trans) to arrest progress, e.g. ea
ee a, to stop nuclear
tests
eaa/ea
(intrans)
to come to an end
eeaa/eea + impf
inn
to cease (doing sth), e.g. O
eea a, He stopped writing.
a/ + impf inn to give up (doing sth), e.g. Oa
a , She has stopped
smoking.
ea/ea + dat +
inn
to prevent sb from doing sth, e.g.
Pa eae e aa, The
radio is stopping me working.
ea/ea to interrupt, i.e. stop (sb) talking
aea/aea to detain, e.g. O aea
e, He was stopped by a
policeman.
ea/ea +
gen of verbal noun
to restrain (sb from doing sth)
aa/a to plug, seal
STORM
rainstorm, tempest
a thunderstorm
ee (f ) snowstorm
a blizzard (snow swirling)
a =a
a snowstorm (in steppes)
aa hurricane
a squall (at sea); also barrage (mil and
g)
gale (at sea)
(m) whirlwind; also g, e.g.
e , the
revolutionary storm
a hail; also g, e.g. a ,
e, a hail of bullets, insults
military assault
STORY
aa tale
e (f ) novella
aa fairy tale
series of events
141
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
ae anecdote, joke
aa plot (literary term)
a fabrication, invention
ea cock-and-bull story
a in newspaper
STRING
ea cord, rope
ea twine
a thread, e.g. a ea, a string
of pearls
a of musical instrument
row, series
eea line of people, animals or vehicles
e (f ) chain
STRONG
in various senses
e sturdy, robust, e.g. e a,
strong tea; ee , strong wine
stout, durable, e.g.
ae, a strong foundation
rm, e.g. a ea, strong faith
ee convincing, e.g. ee
, a strong argument
TEACH
/a - + dat
of subject taught or + inn
to give instruction, e.g. e
a , I am teaching
him Spanish; Oa aa e
a a e, She taught
me to play the violin.
a/ =/a
a/ -
(R1)
to give sb a good lesson
eaa (impf ) to give instruction in higher
educational institution
TEACHER
e(a) schoolteacher
eaae(a) in higher education
ae(a) sb responsible for general
upbringing, including moral
upbringing
aa mentor
142
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian
THEN
a at that time; also in that case in
conditional sentences (see 11.9)
afterwards, next
ae afterwards, next
THICK
fat, e.g. , a thick
slice
dense, e.g. a, a thick fog;
, thick soup
(R1) dull-witted
THIN
not fat or thick, e.g.
, a thin slice
slender, e.g. e , a thin face
a lean
a emaciated
a =a
of liquid, e.g. , thin
soup
e sparse, e.g. ee , thin hair
eee unconvincing, e.g. eee
, a thin argument
THINK
a/a basic verb
a/a to think up, invent, fabricate
a/a to think over, ponder, e.g. O
a a, He thought over the
plan.
a/a to think up, devise, e.g. O
a , They
thought up an excuse.
a/a =a/a
to engage in thinking, e.g. Oa
, She thinks clearly.
a/e + a + instr to consider, e.g. a e
e, I think my
sister is a capable woman
e/ee/a ae I/you/we think
e/ee/a ae =e/ee/a ae
e//
e -
to think well/highly/badly of sb
TIME
e in various senses; also tense
143
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
a occasion
a epoch
e period
e age, century
xed period, term
e moment, e.g.
e, at the right time
e season
a instance, e.g. e a
e, nine times out of ten
a hour, time of day, e.g. a?
What time is it? B a? At
what time?
a mus term, e.g. a/
a, to keep time
a + inn it is time (to do sth)
spare time, leisure, e.g. a e, in
ones spare time
a a (R1) in no time, in a jiffy
Note also -e, on time; ee, for the rst time; aaee
(R3), in good time.
TOP
e in various senses
ea summit, e.g. ea , the top
of a mountain
ea apex, e.g. ea eea, the top
of a tree
aa top of the head
e (f ) surface
a of a pen
a lid, e.g. a , the top
of a box
aa beginning, e.g. aa a,
the top of the page
ee e rst place, pre-eminence
e at the top of ones voice
a e ee on top of the world (lit in seventh
heaven)
ae on top
e from the top
144
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian
TOUCH
a/ basic verb, e.g. -
a, to touch sth with ones hands;
also g, e.g. E a
e, Her words touched me
deeply.
aa/
+ gen
to make contact with, e.g. He
e a,
Dont touch the hot iron.
aaa/a to affect, touch on, e.g. a
e, to touch on a theme
aa/ + gen to make contact with, e.g.
a, to touch the ball; to touch on,
e.g. a,
to touch on a difcult question
aa/
+ dat
to touch lightly, brush against
aa/a + gen to reach, e.g. a a, to
touch the bottom
a/
+ gen
to stretch as far as, e.g. O
a, He touched the ceiling.
a/a +
instr
to compare in quality with, e.g. B
aeae e e
a e, No one can touch
her in mathematics.
e (R1) to cadge, e.g. O e e
, He touched me for a ver.
e e not to touch food
e not to touch alcohol
Note the expression aea/ae - a e, to touch sb to
the quick.
TRY (verb)
a/a to attempt
a/a =a in R1/2; also to
sample, taste (food)
aa/aa to attempt (more effort than
a)
e (impf ) + inn to strive (to do sth)
e/e to try on (shoes, clothing)
TURN (verb)
oaa/e (trans) basic verb, e.g. e ,
, , to turn a key, steering
wheel, ones head
aa/e
(intrans)
basic verb
145
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
aa/e to turn (inside) out, e.g. e
aa, to turn out ones pocket
aaa/ae to turn (a corner), e.g. ae a
, to turn a corner; also to tighten
or to shut off by turning, e.g.
ae a, a, to tighten a
nut, turn off a tap
aa/e to turn ones head; to turn out, e.g.
C e ae, Events
turned out differently.
eeaa/eee to turn over, invert, e.g. eee
a, to turn a page
aa/e to turn up, appear, crop up
aaa/ae
(intrans)
to swing round, do a U-turn
aa/e to turn off (in a new direction), e.g.
e , to turn off the road
/ to twist, wind, e.g. ,
to turn a handle
ee (impf; trans) + acc
or instr
to rotate, twirl, e.g. O e
, He is twirling his umbrella.
ee (intrans) to rotate, revolve
aa (trans) to rotate, revolve
aa (intrans) to rotate, revolve, e.g. e
ee aae, The wheel is
slowly turning.
/a to whirl, spin round
aa/aa -
a + acc
to direct sth at/towards, e.g.
aa ae a
ee aa, to turn ones
attention to the next task
eaa/ea -
+ acc
to change sth into (sth)
eaa/ea
+ acc (intrans)
to change into (sth)
a/a + instr to turn into, become, e.g. O a
e, He has turned into a
drunkard.
aa/a
-
to address oneself to sb
ee/ee + dat to switch over to, e.g. Oa eea
, She turned to
another question.
146
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian
a/ to turn on (switch, tap)
a/ to turn off (switch, tap)
a/a to turn out, extinguish, e.g. a
e, to turn out the light
/a to turn out, drive out, e.g. Oe
a a , The father
turned his son out of the house.
/a to turn away, banish
aa/a +
gen
to turn against, e.g. Ta aa
, The crowd turned
against the police.
aa/aa + instr to turn out/prove to be, e.g. Oa
aaa ea aa,
She turned out to be an excellent lawyer.
aa/a aa a
+ acc
to turn a blind eye to
ee/ee to turn pale
ae/ae to turn red, blush
USE (verb)
e/e + a in various senses
a/a
+ instr
to make use of, e.g. a
a, to make use of services
a (impf and pf )
+ acc
to utilise
e/e to apply, e.g. e e
e, to use nuclear energy
aa to exploit
ea/e + dat to resort to
VIEW
what can be seen, e.g. a
e, view of the lake;
e a, birds-eye view
opinion, e.g. a ,
in my view
ee opinion
eee conviction
a e point of view
VILLAGE
e community with a church
ee smaller community than e; also
means country(side)
settlement
147
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
VISIT (verb)
ea/e to call on, go to, esp places
aea/ae to call on, esp people
a/ae (R3b) to pay a visit
y - to be a guest at sbs place
/ + dat to go to (as a guest)
/ + gen to stay with (as a guest)
a/a + dat to call on
a/a + prep to spend some time in (town, country)
aa/e to inspect, e.g. e
eae, to visit the
sights
ea/ea
+ instr
to consult (e.g. doctor)
WAY
(m) road, path, esp in abstract sense, e.g.
a a , n the way back;
a , halfway
a road
aaee direction
means, method
e means, method
a manner, fashion, e.g. a a,
in this way
way in
way out
ee wa across
ae distance, way off
Note: way is often not directly translated in adverbial phrases, e.g.
-e, in a friendly way.
WIN
a/a to be the victor, also trans, e.g.
a , to win a prize
ea/e to triumph, prevail, e.g. Oa
ea ee, She won the race.
aa/aea (trans) to gain, secure, e.g. aea
ea, to win a gold
medal
ea (pf ) e (R3) to triumph
WINDOW
general word; also free period for
teacher
dimin of ; e.g. of ticket-ofce
148
4.1 English words difcult to render in Russian
a small window within window
which can be opened for ventilation
a shop window
a stained-glass window
WORK
aa in various senses
labour
a ofcial/professional service
e position at work
a (pl; gen a) studies, classes (at school, university)
aaa task
ee (f ) activity
eee creation produced by artist
ee =eee; ae
e a, collection of
Pushkins works
e corpus of works by writer, uvre
WORKER
a sb who does work
a white-collar worker
a manual worker
=a, but more respectful
ea proletarian
e (R3, rhet) toiler
aa (m and f; R1
slightly pej)
hard worker
WORLD
in most senses, esp abstract,
including e.g. spheres of existence
or activity, civilisations
e all over the world
the animal world
ae the vegetable world
a the scientic world
e the ancient world
e narrower use, tends to be more
concrete, e.g. Ca e, the Old
World; H e, the New World;
eee ea, journey
round the world
e a the Earth, globe
eea universe
149
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
e society
(pl; gen ) circles
(f ) life
WRONG
e /a/ not the right thing
e a not at the right time
e a not in the right place
e a not to the right place
e ae to the wrong address
ea of person, e.g. O ea, He is wrong.
ea incorrect, e.g. eae eee,
wrong decision
mistaken, erroneous
a/ to be mistaken
a false, e.g. aa a, wrong note
e unsuitable
e a
=e a
e ee
=e a
e aae is not functioning
aae (R1) plays up from time to time, e.g. of
mechanism
a a a.
It was a short war.
Note: on use of case in the complement of see 11.1.10.
150
4.2 Translation of the verb to be
r
a=to be in habitual or frequentative meaning, e.g.
E aae Me, ae a a e a.
Her husband works in Moscow but is home for all holidays.
E ae a e a.
His foreign friends often came to see him.
r
/ may be used when the complement denes the
subject, e.g.
O a e eaa a e
eaa eae
ee .
The products of corrosion of the metallic surfaces of the pipes are the
fundamental sources of the irradiation of personnel at nuclear reactors.
Ce aae ee ee
a aae eee a ae.
The talks which took place in Damascus were the latest attempt to nd an
Arab solution to the Gulf conict.
Note 1 As is clear from the avour of the above examples, / belongs
mainly in R3.
2 The complement of / must be in the instrumental case. The
complement is the noun that denotes the broader of the two concepts, whilst
the subject, which is in the nominative case, denotes the more specic
concept, the precise thing on which the speaker or writer wishes to
concentrate.
3 It follows from what is said in note 2 that such relatively vague words as
, source; eea, prospect; a, attempt; a, cause;
ea, problem; ea, result; ee, consequence; a, part, will
usually be found in the instrumental case when / is used.
4 In practice the subject (i.e. the noun in the nominative) often follows
/ (see the rst example above) because the phrase at the end
of the sentence carries special weight and it is on this phrase that the speaker
or writer wishes to concentrate (see 11.14 on word order). However, the
choice as to which noun should be put in which case does not actually hinge
on word order.
r
ea (impf ) is much less common than
/ but fulls the same function of bookish substitute
for , e.g.
aea ea e e e
ee a.
These materials are the usual admixtures in the alloying elements of steel.
Note: the complement of ea is in the accusative case.
r
a (pf ) is now frequently used as an apparent synonym for
/, e.g.
aa a eee ea.
Technical malfunctions were the cause of the disaster.
151
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
ae a a a ae a
ae aa a .
The closure of the base was one of the components of a programme of defence
cuts.
Note: all the points made in notes 14 on / will apply also to a
when it has this function.
r
aa + prep is frequently used in R2/R3 in the sense to
consist in, e.g.
Oa a ea e aae
, ee .
One of the main causes of the lycee pupils discontent is that they are worried
about their future.
r
+ prep=aa in this sense, e.g.
ee e ee eea
, e.
The advantage of CFCs over other substances is that they are not toxic.
r
a/a=to constitute, to amount to; this verb is followed
by the accusative case and is particularly common in statistical contexts,
e.g.
B ae ae a e.
Armenians are a minority in this region.
Teeaa eaa e e aa
ee a.
The temperature of the reactor at the moment the submarine was destroyed was
70 degrees.
Note: this verb is particularly common in the phrases a/a a, to
be a part (of ) and a/a ee, to be an exception.
r
a (impf ) may be used when to be denes the position or
location of people, places or things, and also when state or condition is
being described, e.g.
ee a a e.
The President was on holiday in the Crimea.
e a a ea.
Chernobyl is close to the border with Belarus.
A a e ae.
The airport is under the control of the rebels.
Oae a .
The equipment is in excellent condition.
r
ae (f aea, n ae, pl ae) may
also be used when location is being described, e.g.
ae ea ee T.
Cyprus is about 60 kilometres south of Turkey.
152
4.2 Translation of the verb to be
r
, ea, e=to stand, to lie, to be sitting, respectively, e.g.
O e.
Hes in the foyer.
e a e.
The letter is on the desk.
O ae a.
Theyre in the waiting room.
r
=to be worth, to cost, e.g.
C e ee?
How much is a colour television set?
r
a=to be present, e.g.
Oa aa a aea.
She was at the meeting.
r
aa=to work (as), e.g.
O aae a.
Hes a cook.
r
, to serve, is more or less synonymous with aa but
slightly more formal, e.g.
O a.
Hes in the army.
r
=to fall (of dates), to stand in a certain relationship to, e.g.
aae Pe a ee a.
The Orthodox Christmas is on 7 January.
O e ae.
He is my great-grandfather.
r
e is the copula when the subject and complement are the same, e.g.
aa aa, e .
I am beginning to nd out who is who.
Oa e a.
A mistake is a mistake.
Note: e also occurs in R3, in the scientic/academic or ofcial/business styles, in
denitions, e.g. aa e , e
a, A square is a rectangle all of whose sides are equal.
r
ea, to exist, may translate there is/there are, e.g.
e, ee .
I believe there is a God.
B a a ee e .
There is a risk of war breaking out in such situations.
153
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
r
e may also translate there is/there are in the sense of to be available,
e.g.
B e ee e.
There is a museum in the town.
e eee ae .
There is interesting information about this.
r
(pf ) may translate there was/will be in the sense of to take
place, e.g.
B e a e-ee.
There will be a press conference at ten oclock.
Note: the verb to be may be used in English purely for emphasis, e.g. It was only then
that he realised what had happened. When it has this purely emphatic function to
be is not rendered in Russian by any verbal equivalent or substitute. The
emphasis is conveyed instead by word order, by the manner of the speakers
delivery, or by use of some adverb such as e, namely, precisely, or ,
only, or by some particle such as e or (see 5.4 below). Thus the above
sentence might be translated: O a , .
4.3 Translation of English modal auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs express the mood or attitude of the speaker towards an
action. The English modals give rise to much difculty for the
English-speaking student trying to render their meaning in a foreign
language, as they do for the foreign student of English, because each
modal is used in various ways and is more or less interchangeable with
one or more other modals in some meanings (e.g. can/could, can/may,
may/might). Moreover, the differences of meaning between certain
modals (e.g. must, should, ought, may, might) may be so subtle that
English-speakers themselves will not agree on the verbs precise
nuances.
Not all the possible translations of each English modal are given in
this section, but most of their important functions are covered.
CAN (a) expressing ability or possibility: , , or (in the sense to know
how to do sth) e, e.g.
This can be done at once.
ea a.
I cant lift this box. He .
He an swim. O ee aa.
(b) expressing request r permission (can is synonymous in this sense with
may except in very formal English): , , e.g.
Can/May I come in? M ?
Can I go to the park, mum? Ma, a? (R1)
You can/may smoke. B ee .
154
4.3 Translation of English modal auxiliary verbs
(c) expressing right, entitlement: , e a, e.g.
We can vote at eighteen. M ee a a
eaa e.
(d) with verbs of perception, when can bears little meaning: auxiliary
omitted, e.g.
I can see a dog. a.
Can u hear? C?
(e) expressing doubt: ee, e.g.
Can this be right? Hee aa?
(f ) in negative (cannot), synonymous with may not, must not, expressing
prohibition: e + impf inn; e + 3rd pers pl verb; also e
aeae, eae (R3; formal, e.g. in notices):
You cant go in. He .
You cant smoke here. e e .
e e aeae.
(R3)
You cant run up and down the
escalators.
ea aaa
eae.
(g) cannot help: e e + inn, e.g.
I cant help laughing. e e e.
COULD
(a) past tense of can, i.e.=was/were able to: use past-tense forms of the
translations given under can above;
(b) polite request: e ee ; e ; aa, e.g.
Could u help me? He ee e?
He e?
Could you pass the salt? eeae, aa, .
(c) could have (also might have), expressing unfullled possibility in past:
/a// , e.g.
She could/might have done it
[but did not].
Oa a ea.
(d) could have (also may have, might have), expressing uncertainty as to
whether action took place: e , e.g.
She could/might have done it
[and may have done].
Me a eaa .
(e) expressing emotion, wish: various translations, e.g.
She could have wept for joy. Oa a a aaa
a.
I could have killed him. Me e e.
155
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
MAY
(a) expressing request or permission: see can (b);
(b) expressing possibility: , e , e (=e in
R1), a (perhaps), , e.g.
He may lose his way. O e a.
They may have gone home. O, e (), .
She may be right. Oa, a, aa.
It may be snowing there. B, a e.
(c) after verbs of hoping and fearing and in concessive clauses (see 11.10)
may is not directly translated, a future or subjunctive form of the
Russian verb being used instead, e.g.
I hope he may recover. Hae, ee.
I fear he may die. , a e e.
I shall nd you wherever u
ma be.
a a, e .
(d) expressing wish in certain phrases:
May the best man win. a e e!
May he rest in peace. M a e!
(e) may not, expressing prohibition: see can (f ).
MIGHT
(a) expressing possibility: synonymous with may (b) (though might is
perhaps more colloquial);
(b) might have in the sense could have, may have: see could (c) and (d);
(c) after verbs of hoping and fearing and in concessive clauses:
synonymous with may (c);
(d) expressing formal polite request in interrogative sentences: various
formulae, e.g.
Might I suggest that . . . e e e,
. . .
Might I discuss this matter with
you tomorrow?
Me , aa aee
e e a?
(e) might have, expressing reproach: /a// , e.g.
You might have told me that. B e aa .
MUST
(a) expressing obligation, necessity: e/a/, a,
, ee (see also note on wrong in 4.1), e.g.
She must work. Oa a aa.
We must get up early. M a a.
You must come at once. Tee a a e.
(We) must hurry. H .
One must observe the rules. Cee a aa.
156
4.3 Translation of English modal auxiliary verbs
(b) expressing certainty: , surrounded in the written
language by commas, e.g.
She must have gone. Oa, , a.
He must know this. O, , ae .
(c) must not, expressing prohibition: see can (f ).
OUGHT
(a) expressing advisability, recommendation, obligation (more or less
synonymous with should): ea , e/a/,
e.g.
He ought to drink less. E ea ee .
She ought [is obliged] to be at
work today.
Oa a a ae
e.
(b) ought not, expressing inadvisability, prohibition: e ea ,
e.g.
You ought not to laugh at him. (Ba) e ea e
a .
(c) ought to have, expressing reproach, regret at omission: ea ,
e /a a/ , e.g.
She ought to have passed her
examination.
Oa a a a
ae.
You ought to have helped us. Ba ea a.
(d) expressing probability (less certain than must (b) but more certain than
may (b) and might (a)): ae(e), e, e.g.
They ought to win. O aee a.
She ought to be [probably is]
home by now.
Oa e e a.
SHALL
(a) expressing rst person singular and rst person plural of future tense:
future tense, e.g.
I shall write to him. a e.
(b) expressing promise or threat (synonymous with will): perfective future,
e.g.
You shall receive the money
tomorrow.
e aa.
You shall pay for this. T a aa.
(c) in questions asking whether sth is desirable or obligatory: impersonal
construction with dative subject (or with no subject stated) and
innitive, e.g.
Shall I call in tomorrow? Me a aa?
Shall I bring you some more
vodka?
e a e ?
157
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
(d) in R3b, in legal and diplomatic parlance, expressing obligation
(synonymous with will ): present tense, e.g.
The Russian side shall meet all
these costs.
Pa a e a e
e a.
SHOULD
(a) synonymous in ordinary English speech with would (a), (b) and (c);
(b) expressing advisability, recommendation, obligation: more or less
synonymous with ought (a);
(c) should have, expressing reproach or regret at omission: more or less
synonymous with ought (c);
(d) expressing probability: more or less synonymous with ought (d);
(e) expressing modest assertion: various formulae, e.g.
I should think that . . . Me ae, . . .
I should say that . . . aa(a), . . .
(f ) expressing surprise, indignation: various formulae, e.g.
Why should you suspect me? C a a e
eaee?
How should I know? Oa e a?
You should see him! e a e!
(g) as a subjunctive form in certain subordinate clauses: + past
tense, e.g.
Everybody demanded that he
should be punished.
Bce ea,
aaa.
I proposed that they should return
the money.
e(a),
a e.
WILL
(a) as auxiliary forming second and third person singular and plural of
future tense (and in ordinary English speech also rst person singular
and plural forms): future tense, e.g.
She will arrive tomorrow. Oa ee aa.
(b) expressing probability, e.g. Shell be home by now: more or less
synonymous with ought (d).
(c) expressing habitual action: imperfective verb, e.g.
Hell sit for hours in front of the
television.
O e aa ee
ee.
Note: Boys will be boys, Ma a aa.
(d) expressing polite invitation, exhortation or proposal in the form of a
question: see would (d);
(e) will not, expressing refusal or disinclination: various renderings, e.g.
158
4.4 Transitive and intransitive verbs
I will not do it.
e ea.
e aee(a) ea.
e ea.
WOULD
(a) as second and third person singular and plural auxiliary (and in
ordinary speech also rst person singular and plural), expressing
conditional mood: past-tense form + , e.g.
They would go out if it stopped
raining.
O , e
ea .
(b) as second and third person singular and plural auxiliary (and in
ordinary speech also rst person singular and plural) indicating future
in indirect speech (see 11.6(a)): perfective future, e.g.
I told you I would come. ee aa, .
He said he would ring me. O aa, e.
(c) with like, expressing wish: e/ea/e , e ,
e.g.
They would like to leave. O e .
I would like to thank you
warmly.
Me e e
aa a.
(d) expressing polite invitation, exhortation or proposal in the form of a
question (more or less synonymous with will ): various formulae or a
modied imperative, e.g.
Would you close the window,
please?
Ba e a ? or
Bac e a a ?
Would you wait a moment? e ,
aa.
(e) expressing frequent action in the past: imperfective past, possibly with
a suitable adverb or adverbial phrase, e.g.
They would often pick mushrooms
in the wood.
O, a, a
e.
As a rule she would read in the
evenings.
Oa, a a, aa
eea.
4.4 Transitive and intransitive verbs
A particular problem that confronts the English-speaking student of
Russian is the morphological or lexical distinction which Russian
makes more widely and clearly than English between transitive and
intransitive verbs. Many English verbs which may function as either
transitive or intransitive forms (e.g. to improve, to hang) must be
rendered in different ways in Russian depending on whether or not
they have a direct object. The student needs to be aware of two types
of distinction.
159
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
r
The distinction between transitive and intransitive usage may be made
by the use of non-reexive and reexive forms respectively, e.g.
a
ea a, This measure will improve [trans] the situation
and Ca , The situation will improve [intrans]. This
type of distinction applies to a very large number of common verbs
(see 11.8).
r
Other English verbs must be rendered in Russian by different verbs
depending on whether they are used transitively or intransitively, e.g.
Oa eae a a e, She is hanging [trans] a picture on the wall,
but aa a ee, A picture is hanging [intrans] on the wall.
Common English verbs which must be rendered in Russian by distinct
transitive or intransitive forms include the following:
trans intrans
to boil / e/e
to burn e/e e/e
to drown / /
to grow aa/a a/a
to hang ea/e e
to hurt / e
to rot / /
to sink / or
a/a
/ (R1)
/a
to sit (down) aa/a a/e
to smell a aa or
a/a
a
to stand a/a
Note: in some cases the Russian transitive and intransitive verbs contain the same root,
but in others they are derived from quite distinct roots (e.g. e/e
and e/e).
4.5 Translation of English forms ending in -ing
This English form has many functions, and Russian renders these
functions in various ways.
(a) English progressive tenses: an imperfective verb, e.g.
I am going home. .
She was writing a letter. Oa aa .
Theyll be watching TV tonight. O e ee
e ee.
160
4.5 Translation of English forms ending in -ing
(b) attendant action: a separate clause, which in R3 might contain a
gerund (see 9.7.19.7.2, 11.11.1), e.g.
He broke his leg while playing football. a a/a ,
a ee .
(c) action prior to that denoted by the main verb: a subordinate clause,
which in R3 may contain a perfective gerund, e.g.
I telephoned him on nding out
about this.
a , (a)
e.
After discussing the matter they came
to a decision.
O e,
ee.
(d) in an English phrase describing a noun (equivalent to a relative clause):
either a relative clause with or, in R3, an active participle
(see 9.7.39.7.4, 11.11.2), e.g.
a factory producing lorries a, /
for a rm specialising in trade with
Russia
, a
eae/
eae
e Pe
(e) English verbal noun describing some action or process, result or place
of action, material, inner state or abstract concept: a Russian verbal
noun (possibly with the sufx -e, see 8.7.1), e.g.
reading ee
teaching ee
building ae
lodging e
lining aa
feeling
hearing
(f ) English gerund, denoting some activity: verbal noun or innitive, e.g.
His favourite subject is drawing. E ee
ae.
I like playing chess. a aa.
(g) after verbs of perception: subordinate clause introduced by a, e.g.
I heard you singing. a(a), a ea.
We saw him getting on a bus. M e, a a
a.
(h) after the verb to keep: + imperfective verb or e eeaa +
imperfective innitive, e.g.
She kept (on) repeating the same words.
Oa a e e a/Oa e eeaaa e e
a.
161
4 Problems of translation from English into Russian
(i) after from used with verbs such as prevent, stop: Russian innitive, e.g.
You are preventing/stopping me from working.
T eae e aa.
(j) often a construction containing in the case appropriate in the
context followed by + innitive may be used, e.g.
We all have an interest in taking the best decisions.
Bce aeea , ae ee.
4.6 Translation of too, also, as well
The distinction between ae and e gives rise to problems for
English-speakers. Tae may be used in most circumstances, but e
is more restricted in its use. The following distinction can be made:
r
e may be used when an additional subject is performing an action,
e.g.
T ? e .
Are you going to the cinema? Ill come too.
. ea e .
I like music. My wife likes music too.
r
ae (often in the phrase a ae) is used when a single subject is
performing an additional action or performing an action that affects an
additional object, e.g.
e (a) a ae, a ae aa(a).
I went to an exhibition today and did a bit of work too.
ee ea, a ae ea.
Im interested in literature and also in the theatre.
It should be noted that is very often used in the sense of also, too, as
well, e.g.
e e eae. B
ae e.
The economic crisis will lead to unemployment. Social problems will also arise.
Ha Aa aea a a. Haae
eee a ae
aa ae.
A huge hole has been discovered over Antarctica. A reduction in the ozone layer
is being observed over many densely populated regions of the planet as well.
Note: in clauses with a negative verb may have the meaning either, e.g.
ee- e , e a a
. B e e e a ea e e e, The prime
minister did not explain why ination had risen to such a [high] level. Other serious
problems found no place either in his speech.
162
5 Vocabulary and idiom
5.1 Neologisms
The radical changes in Russian life since the mid-1980s, the sudden
greatly increased exposure to Western inuence, and the introduction
of large numbers of new institutions, habits and concepts have led to
the ooding of the Russian language with neologisms. These
neologisms relate to almost every area of life, but are especially
numerous in such elds as politics, economics, social problems, law and
order, science and technology, education, culture, sport and fashion.
Many of the neologisms are loanwords from other languages,
nowadays mainly from English. Neologisms of this type may require
slight phonetic adaptation, especially when the English word contains
the letter c followed by e or i, e.g. e, genocide. The majority of
them are absorbed into Russian without morphological adaptation, if
they are nouns (e.g. , brieng), although some (especially those
ending in -) will be indeclinable (e.g. a (n) publicity).
However, the adjectives and verbs among loanwords, and also many
borrowed nouns, require the addition of Russian afxes to the foreign
root (e.g. ea, top-down (of management); a, to
take part in meetings (R1, pej); a`aae, self-nancing).
Many other neologisms are derived from existing Russian resources
by various means, including composition of acronyms (e.g. ,
vagrant), afxation (e.g. ee, person who operates in the shadow
economy) and polysemanticisation (e.g. a/, to launder
(money)), perhaps on the basis of some foreign model (e.g. e,
hawk, used in a gurative sense).
The following section very briey indicates the main waves of
Russian lexical borrowing. In 5.1.2 and 5.1.3 we provide a small
number of examples of very recent loanwords from English and of
neologisms derived wholly or partly from existing Russian words or
roots. These words belong in R2, and may therefore be used in most
contexts, unless otherwise indicated. In 5.1.4 we deal with slang of
various sorts. Section 5.1.5 looks at the large body of new terminology
that relates to computing.
5.1.1 Western loanwords in Russian
A large number of words have entered Russian from non-Slavonic
peoples and languages at various times in its history, for instance: from
the Varangians who established the Riurikid dynasty in the ninth
century (e.g. (m), anchor); from the Turkic nomads who
inhabited the southern steppes in the early Middle Ages (e.g. a
163
5 Vocabulary and idiom
(f ), horse); from Greek around the time of the conversion of Russia to
Christianity in the tenth century (e.g. ae, angel; eaee, the
Gospels); from the Tatars who ruled over Russia from the thirteenth to
the fteenth centuries (e.g. e (pl), money; a, customs;
, label ); from German, from the time of Peter the Great at the
beginning of the eighteenth century (e.g. a, bank; ee,
university; e, weather-vane); from French, from the middle of the
eighteenth century on (e.g. e, waistcoat; e, orchestra; ea,
play).
In the twentieth century a huge number of words of foreign,
especially English, origin entered Russian, e.g. aaa, motorway;
e, grapefruit; a, jazz; e (m), cocktail; a,
combine (harvester); ae, tanker ; ae, trawler; e,
trolleybus (all borrowed in the 1930s); aaa, aqualung; a,
badminton; (n, indecl), bikini; (n, indecl), hobby (all in the
post-Stalinist period when Zhdanovism abated and attitudes towards
things Western relaxed).
The inux of borrowings from English has been particularly rapid
since the introduction of glasnost
commands and
control buttons
(a
ae)
Start
O Open
aa Edit
B View
Ha Find
Haa Back
Be Forward
Ca Create
Bea Cut
Ba Insert
. a Delete
173
5 Vocabulary and idiom
a Copy
Ca (a) Save (as)
Oea Cancel
Ba Restore
Ce Minimise (lit Roll up)
Pae Maximise (lit Unroll )
ea (f ) Print
a Pause
B Exit
a Close
Oa a a ee. M
a a.
She was at the conference. Thats
where we met.
M ae. B
eae, aaa a.
We approached a cafe. This is where
were going to eat, she said.
(b) may correspond to ae, even, e.g.
ae, aa aa
aa, a e a(a)
.
Apparently our side won, and I
didnt even hear about it.
(c) may correspond to , although, e.g.
e a e, a e
.
I dont want to go out, although its
warm outside.
(d) may increase uncertainty, e.g.
Me , a
?
You may have read this book.
Me , a(a). I may have done.
(e) with an interjection, may intensify an exclamation, e.g.
Ox, ! God, youre scruffy!
O ee a a e.
Ox ae!
He an play the violin. Oh, and
how he plays!
(a) attached to imperative forms, produces gentle informal exhortation or
friendly advice, e.g.
-a
ea, -a a a
.
Lenochka, come out here for a
moment would you.
e-a, a a
ea.
Just look how pretty shes become.
e-a a. B
aaa.
Go and have a rest. Youve worn
yourself out with work.
(b) attached to an imperative used in a conditional sense (see 11.9,
note 3), expresses a challenge to sb to do sth perceived as difcult,
e.g.
e-a ae
e, a .
You try speaking to this lad and
youll see how difcult he is.
183
5 Vocabulary and idiom
-a a e e
ea!
You just try standing out in the frost
without gloves on.
(c) attached to the rst-person-singular form of a perfective verb, indicates
irresolution in the speaker, e.g.
A -a a a e. I think I might walk to work.
-a e . Perhaps Ill buy my daughter a new
skirt.
(a) with a perfective innitive, expresses vague intention or hesitancy on
the part of the speaker, e.g.
a aa ,
e ae.
lit If you run after two hares you will catch neither.
K
He e;
a.
lit Dont spit in the well, you may need to drink
out of it, i.e. Do not antagonise people whose help
you may need later.
a a a. Make hay while the sun shines.
He aea,
e .
lit Its not all Shrove-tide for the cat, Lent will come
too, i.e. After the dinner comes the reckoning.
B a. lit Every sandpiper praises its own bog,
i.e. people praise what is dear to them.
He a ae , a e
a.
The devil is not so terrible as he is painted.
B e e . lit In a quiet whirlpool devils are found, i.e. Still waters
run deep.
ea e. lit Your tongue will get you to Kiev, i.e. Dont hesitate
to ask people.
201
5 Vocabulary and idiom
5.9 Similes
A simile is an explicit likening of one thing to another. Languages have
a stock of such comparisons, some of which are distinctive to that
language. While the foreign student should take care not to use similes
excessively or ostentatiously, their occasional use in the right context
adds colour and authenticity to ones language, both spoken and
written. The following list gives some of the commonest Russian
similes. It is arranged in alphabetical order of the key word in the
comparison.
() a ea ee (to whirl around) like a squirrel in a wheel (said of sb
frantically busy)
a ea. lit Its raining as out of a bucket, i.e. Its raining cats and
dogs.
a a lit like water off a goose, i.e. like water off a ducks back
a e downcast, crestfallen
a e like a pea against a wall (said of action that is futile)
a e ea lit like thunder in the middle of a clear sky, i.e. like a
bolt from the blue
(, e) a a a (to be) on thorns/tenterhooks
a e a lit like two drops of water, i.e. alike as two peas
() a a a (to live) a cat and dog life
a cold as ice
a - a ae lit to know sth like ones ve ngers, i.e. like the back of
ones hand
a a e like a sh in water, like a duck to water, in ones element
() a a (to ght) like a sh against ice (said about futile
struggle)
a e a lit like snow on ones head, i.e. like a bolt from the blue
a aa a ee like a dog in the manger
a lit naked like a falcon, i.e. poor as a church mouse
a a aa as on hot coals
a aaa like the devil from incense (said of sb shunning sth)
Note
1. The word a (f ) is itself an example of the much smaller number
of Russian words that have been borrowed by English and other Western
European languages; a, ee, eea, ,
aa, are others.
202
6 Language and everyday life
6.1 Measurement
The metric system has been used in Russia since it was introduced on
an obligatory basis by the Bolshevik government in 1918. The British
imperial system will not be understood by Russians, although some of
the words denoting units of measure in that system may be familiar to
them. Comparisons of units of different systems in the following
sections are approximate.
6.1.1 Length, distance, height
Approximate metric equivalents of imperial units of measure of length:
1 inch = 25 millimetres
1 foot = 0.3 metres
1 yard = 0.9 metres
1 mile = 1.6 kilometres
The Russian words for the imperial units are , , , ,
respectively.
The Russian words for the basic metric units of measure of length are:
e millimetre
ae centimetre
e metre
e kilometre
Some rough equivalents:
10 ae 4 inches
1 e just over a yard
100 e 110 yards
1 e ve-eighths of a mile
100 e 62 miles
a () e
ee (1,83)
a man 6
tall
a () e
ee (1,75)
a man 5
tall
a () e
ee e (1,68)
a man 5
tall
ea () e
ae (0,90)
a girl nearly 3
tall
203
6 Language and everyday life
Note: the versions of the above phrases without the preposition are more
colloquial.
A plane might y at an altitude of 30,000 feet, i.e. a e e
[R3: e] e.
The highest mountain in the world, Everest (ee or
a), has a height of roughly 29,000 feet, i.e. e
e e e.
6.1.2 Area
Approximate metric equivalents of imperial units of measure of area:
1 square inch = 6.45 square centimetres
1 square foot = 0.09 square metres
1 square yard = 0.84 square metres
1 acre = 0.4 hectares
1 square mile = 259 hectares
The Russian adjective for square is aa. The metric unit of
measure for large areas is the hectare, ea (= 10,000 square metres).
Some rough equivalents with imperial measurements:
aa e just over 1 square yard
10 aa e just under 12 square yards
a eaa nearly 5 acres (about the size
of 3 football pitches)
250 ea about 615 acres (roughly the
area of Hyde Park)
20,000 aa e nearly 8,000 square miles
(roughly the area of Wales)
6.1.3 Weight
Approximate metric equivalents of avoirdupois units of measure of
weight:
1 ounce = 28.35 grams
1 pound = 0.45 kilograms
1 stone = 6.36 kilograms
1 hundredweight = 50.8 kilograms
1 ton = 1,016 kilograms
The Russian words for these avoirdupois units are , , ,
aee, a, respectively.
The Russian words for the basic metric units of weight are:
a milligram
a gram
a kilogram
204
6.1 Measurement
ee 100 kilograms
a (metric) tonne (1,000 kg)
Some rough equivalents with avoirdupois weights:
200 a aa about 7 oz of butter
a just over 1 lb of meat
a e () 65 a man of just over 10 stone
a e () 100 /
ee
a man of about 15
1
/
2
stone
aa e () 1000 /
a car weighing just under a ton
Note: the versions of the above phrases without the preposition are more
colloquial.
6.1.4 Volume
Approximate metric equivalents of imperial units of measure of
volume:
1 cubic inch = 16 cubic centimetres
1 cubic foot = 0.03 cubic metres
1 cubic yard = 0.8 cubic metres
1 pint = 0.57 litres
1 gallon = 4.55 litres
The Russian words for the last two imperial units are a and
a, respectively. The Russian adjective for cubic is e; litre
is . Some rough equivalents:
a a about a pint of beer
a about 1
3
/
4
pints of milk
ea 50
or 4.4 cm
length
a = 28
or 71 cm
ae (f ) = 7
or 2.13 metres
ea =
2
/
3
mile or 1.07 km
205
6 Language and everyday life
Note: e - a a, to measure sth by ones own standards
e , to travel a long way
aa e e-, to get a smattering of sth
ea = 2.7 acres or 1.09 hectares area
= 36 lbs or 16.38 kg weight
= 2 pints or 1.23 litres liquid measure
ee (f ) = 5 pints or 3 litres
e = 21 pints or 12.3 litres (10 , 4 ee)
6.1.6 Speed
Some rough equivalents:
60 e a 37 miles an hour
100 e a 62 miles an hour
160 e a 100 miles an hour
300 e
e
186,000 feet per second (the speed
of light)
6.1.7 Temperature
The centigrade scale constructed by Celsius is used, and the Fahrenheit
scale will not be generally understood. The formulae for conversion
are:
C = (F 32)
5
9
, e.g. 77
F = 25
C
F =
C
9
5
+32, e.g. 15
C = 59
F
Some equivalents:
e aee
a (100
, a e , i.e.
boiling point of water)
212
a a (ea) (30
above zero) 86
aa a (ea) (20
above zero) 68
e a (ea) (10
above zero) 50
ee paa (ea) (4
above zero) 39
(m; 0
, a aea ,
i.e. freezing point of water)
32
a e / a
a (5
)
23
aa a e /aa
a a (20
)
4
a e / a
a (40
)
40
206
6.4 Time
The normal temperature of the human body (98.4
F) is just under
37
eaa eaea
Pea
German Democratic Republic, i.e. former
East Germany
ae e
ea e
Committee responsible for putsch in
USSR in August 1991
P
ae aeaee
aee
Soviet military intelligence
B aee aee
e e
Ministry of Internal Affairs
C `ea hydroelectric power-station
T -ae ee road accident
EC Eee e/
Ee
European Community (EC)/European
Union (EU)
X -ae communal housing service
AC (e) a a aa
register ofce
- - Iliushin (Russian aircraft)
M ea Institute of World Literature
(in Moscow)
e ae
ea
Committee of State Security (KGB)
HP ea
Ha-eaea
ea
North Korea
P ea a
P eea
Communist Party of the Russian
Federation
CC
ea a
Ce Ca
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
(CPSU)
214
6.10 Acronyms and alphabetisms
ea ae
ee
Leningrad State University
MAAT Meae ae
a e
International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA)
MPP Mea a
e a
International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development
M M ae
ee
Moscow State University
MHP Ma Haa Pea Mongolian Peoples Republic
MO Me Ministry of Defence
MC Me e e Ministry of Communications
MXAT M ee
aaee ea
Moscow Arts Theatre
HATO Ce`eaae North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(NATO)
H a-eae scientic research institute
HB
Ha aa e
e
Peoples Commissariat of Internal Affairs
(Soviet police agency, 193443)
H
C Ce Cae
Pe
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR)
CA Cee a Ae United States of America (USA)
CB
Ce e
a
Council for Mutual Economic Aid
(COMECON)
215
6 Language and everyday life
TACC
Teeae ae Ce
Ca
TASS, i.e. the Soviet news agency
TB eeee TV
TH a`aae a multinational corporations
T - Te- Tupolev (Russian aircraft)
P eeae aea Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
P
Aa)
country adjective man/woman
Algeria A a ae/aa
Angola Aa a ae/aa
Benin e e ee/ea
Botswana aa a e a
Burundi
e
Cameroon ae ae aee/aea
Chad a a e aa
Egypt Ee ee e/ea
Ethiopia /a
Ghana aa a ae/aa
Ivory Coast ee C
e eea
C
Kenya e e ee/ea
Libya e/a
Mauritania Maa aa aae/
aaa
Morocco Ma
aa aae/
aaa
Mozambique Ma a e Maa
Namibia Ha a e Ha
Nigeria He e ee/ea
Rwanda Paa a ae/aa
Senegal Ceea eea eeae/eeaa
Somalia Ca
a ae/aa
South Africa
-Aaa
Pea (A
P)
`aa e A
P
Sudan Ca a ae/aa
Tanzania Taa aa aae/aaa
Togo T e ee/ea
Tunisia T e/a
Uganda aa a ae/aa
Zaire a a ae/aa
Zambia a a ae/aa
Zimbabwe ae
a ae/
aa
220
6.11 Names of countries and nationalities
6.11.5 America (Aea)
country adjective man/woman
Argentina Aea ae aee/aea
Bolivia e/a
Brazil a a ae/aa
Canada aaa aa aae/aaa
Chile
e/a
Colombia e/a
Costa Rica a-Pa aa aae/
aaa
Ecuador a a ae/aa
El Salvador Caa aa aae/aaa
Guatemala aeaa () aea aeae/aeaa
Guyana aaa aa aae/aaa
Honduras a a ae/aa
Mexico Mea ea eae/eaa
Nicaragua Haaa aaa aaae/
aaaa
Panama aaa aa e aa
Paraguay aaa aaa aaae/aaaa
Peru e
ea eae/eaa
United States of
America
Cee
a Ae
aea aeae/aeaa
Uruguay a a ae/aa
Venezuela Beea ee eee/eea
6.11.6 Asia (
A)
country adjective man/woman
Afghanistan Aaa aa aae/aaa
Bangladesh aae aae aaee/aaea
Burma a a ae/aa
Cambodia aa/
a
a/
a
ae/aa r
ae/aa
China a a ae/aa
Note: aa cannot be used for Chinese woman; it used to mean nankeen (type
of cloth).
221
6 Language and everyday life
India
e/aa
Note 1 The forms /a, originally Hindu, are often used instead of
e/aa.
2 The adjective e and the noun ee refer to American Indians.
The feminine form aa may refer to an Indian woman of either
race. The noun ea means turkey.
Indonesia e e ee/ea
Iran a a ae/aa
Note: the forms e, e, and e/ea also occur, but like
their English equivalents (Persia, Persian, Persian man/woman) they are not
used with reference to the modern state of Iran.
Japan e/a
Korea e e ee/ea
Note: ea cannot be used for Korean woman; it means brisket (meat).
Laos a a a/aa
Malaya Maa aa aae/aaa
Malaysia Maa aa aae/aaa
Mongolia M /a
Nepal Hea ea eae/eaa
Pakistan aa aa aae/aaa
Singapore Ca a ae/aa
Sri Lanka -aa a e -a or
()a
Thailand Taa aa/
a
aae/aaa r (in pl)
a
Tibet Te e ee/ea
Vietnam Bea ea eae/eaa
6.11.7 The Middle East ( B)
country adjective man/woman
Iraq a a e aa or a
Israel a (m) a a/aa
Jordan a a ae/aa
Kuwait e e e ea or
ee
Lebanon a a ae/aa
222
6.12 Inhabitants of Russian cities
Palestine aea ae aee/aea
Saudi Arabia Caa Aa a e Ca Aa
Syria C e/a
Turkey T e /aa
Note: gen pl , though may be heard in R1.
Yemen ee () ee eee/eea
6.11.8 Australia and New Zealand
country adjective man/woman
Australia Aa aa aae/aaa
New Zealand Ha ea ea eae/eaa
6.12 Words denoting inhabitants of Russian and former
Soviet cities
Nouns denoting natives or inhabitants of certain cities (e.g. Bristolian,
Glaswegian, Londoner, Parisian) are rather more widely used in Russian
than in English (at least in relation to natives or inhabitants of Russian
cities). Moreover a wider range of sufxes (both masculine and
feminine) is in common use for this purpose than in English, e.g.
-e/-a, -a/-aa, -/-a, -/-a, -/-a. However,
it is not easy for the foreigner to predict which sufx should be applied
to the name of a particular Russian city. A list is therefore given below
of the nouns denoting natives or inhabitants of the major Russian
cities, and of some cities of other former republics of the USSR.
Several major cities (like the names of many streets, squares and
other public places) have been renamed in the post-Soviet period.
(Usually the pre-revolutionary name has been resurrected.) In such
cases the former Soviet name is given in brackets.
Note: in the case of some of the less important cities the nouns denoting their
inhabitants may rarely be used or may have only local currency.
city adjective inhabitant
Aae aae aaee/aaea
a e/a
a (m) a ae
Note: a noun of a similar sort to those denoting inhabitants of certain cities is
derived from e, land, earth, i.e. e/ea, which means person from
the same region.
6.13 Jokes (ae) and puns (aa)
Ae, by which Russians mean a joke or little story that captures
some aspect of the everyday world or a political situation in an
amusing way, have for a long time played an important role in Russian
life. They express peoples reactions to ofcial stupidity or to the
absurdity of their situation or offer a generalised representation of
topical political, economic or cultural events. They are also a useful
source of linguistic material for the foreign learner.
Ae had a particularly important function in Soviet times,
providing people with a verbal outlet for their frustration at the
mistakes or inefciency of party ofcials. The low educational level of
many party workers, for example, gave rise to the following popular
joke: aee, e a e a ?
e a a a ee, Do you
know why Wednesday is the day for Communist Party meetings? Because they
cant spell Tuesday or Thursday (In Russian ea is slightly easier to
spell than or ee.)
The period of perestr oika, especially
El
, a
a e
aa .
The other replies: You didnt do too
well, you can get one round the corner
for 220.
Animosity towards the nouveaux riches who aunt their wealth is
reected in a spate of popular jokes based on a tale from folklore (and
perpetuated in a fairy-tale by P ushkin). In the tale an old man catches
a golden sh and lets it swim back into the sea without asking anything
in return. To thank the old man for this act of generosity the sh tells
him it will grant the old man any wish that he might have. In the
current joke the roles of man and sh are reversed:
H a
e:
e ee a, a a?
A new Russian catches a golden
sh and says to it: Well, what
is it you want, golden sh?
It should be emphasised, nally, that many jokes ourish because of
their topicality and that their appeal, like that of slang (5.1.4 above), is
therefore ephemeral. At the same time it is useful for the foreign
student to know that as a conversational genre the joke remains very
popular and that it often depends for its success on linguistic subtlety,
especially exploitation of the opportunities that Russian offers for
punning, as well as on the verbal dexterity of the speaker.
227
7 Verbal etiquette
7.1 Introductory remarks
Every language has conventional formulae to which its speakers resort in
certain situations that constantly occur in everyday life: addressing others,
attracting their attention, making acquaintance, greeting and parting,
conveying congratulations, wishes, gratitude and apologies, making
requests and invitations, giving advice, offering condolences and paying
compliments. Telephone conversations take place and letters are written
within established frameworks that vary according to the relationship
between those communicating and the nature of the exchange.
Ignorance of the formulae in use for these purposes among speakers
of a language may make dealings with them on any level difcult and
unsuccessful or may even cause offence. Or to look at it from a more
positive point of view, the speaker who has mastered a limited number
of these formulae will make her or his intentions and attitudes clear, set
a tone appropriate to the situation and thereby greatly facilitate
communication and win social or professional acceptance.
One may say that there are particular advantages for the foreign
student of Russian in deploying the correct formulae in a given
situation. In the rst place, Russians are aware of the difculty of their
language for the foreign student and have little expectation that a
foreigner will speak it well, let alone that a foreigner should be
sympathetic to their customs, of which they are inured to criticism.
They therefore tend to be more impressed by and favourably disposed
towards the foreigner who has mastered the intricacies of their
language and is prepared to observe at least their linguistic customs
than are perhaps the British towards foreign English-speakers. And in
the second place, it would be true to say that Russian society has
remained, at least until very recently, in many respects conservative and
traditional and has adhered quite rigidly to conventional procedures,
including linguistic usage, at least in the public sphere.
The following sections give some of the most common
conventional formulae that are of use to the foreign student of
Russian. Many of the formulae may occur in very numerous
combinations of their parts, only a few of which can be given here.
One may introduce many formulae, for example, with any one of the
following phrases meaning I want or I should like to. (The phrases are
arranged with the most direct rst and the least direct last.)
e(a)
Me e
Me e
228
7.2 Use of and
Often the grammatical forms used in the formula (in particular
choice of or forms) are determined by the context. A formula
used exclusively in a formal situation, for example, is likely to contain
only forms.
The formulae given in this chapter may be taken to be stylistically
neutral and therefore of broad application unless an indication is
given that they belong predominantly to R1 or R3. In general,
formulae in the lower register are characterised by ellipsis (see 11.13)
while those in the higher register are more periphrastic and often
contain the imperative forms e or aee (allow [me]/
permit [me] ).
Translations of the formulae given here are often inexact in a literal
sense; an attempt has been made instead to render the spirit of the
original by the most appropriate English formula.
7.2 Use of and
English-speaking students, having only one second-person form of
address (you) at their disposal, must take particular care with the
second-person pronouns in Russian. To use them incorrectly is at best
to strike a false note and at worst to cause offence.
If one is addressing more than one person, then only may be
used. If on the other hand one is addressing only one person, then
either or may be used. As a general rule one may say that is
more respectful and formal than , but a fuller list of factors that
determine choice of pronoun would include the following
considerations.
degree of intimacy to adults on rst meeting
to adults not well known to the
speaker
to people well known or close to
the speaker
to ones partner, parents, children
children to other children
Note: one may switch from to as one comes to know the addressee better.
This switch may take place almost immediately between people of the same
age, especially young people, or it may be delayed until some closeness
develops. Even when one knows a person well and feels close to them one
may remain on terms; this is particularly the case among educated older
people who wish to preserve the sense of mutual respect connoted by .
relative status to seniors in age or rank to juniors in age or rank
Note: one may address ones seniors as if one knows them well enough; con-
versely, to address a junior as appears condescending unless there is some
closeness and mutual trust between the speakers.
formality of
situation
in formal or ofcial contexts in informal or unofcial contexts
229
7 Verbal etiquette
Note: even if one normally addresses a person as one should switch to in a
formal or ofcial situation.
state of relations cool, stiff, strained, excessively
polite
disrespectful, over-familiar
The point here is that subversion of the normal rules indicates that the
relationship is not as it should be, given the degree of intimacy, relative
status and formality or informality of the situation. The speaker
therefore chooses the pronoun which in normal circumstances would
seem inappropriate.
7.3 Personal names
All Russians have three names: a rst or given name (), chosen by
ones parents; a patronymic (e), derived from ones fathers
name; and a surname (a).
7.3.1 First names (ea)
Use of a persons rst name only is an informal mode of address. The
foreigner may use the rst name, in its full form ( e) or in its
shortened form ( ae), if one exists, in addressing
children and students. However, it might seem impolite if one were to
use the rst name on its own on rst acquaintance to an adult
(particularly ones seniors in age or status) unless invited to do so
(therefore see also 7.3.2).
The majority of Russian rst names have shortened forms and
diminutive forms. The foreigner must be aware of these forms, which
may be confusing in their abundance and variety, because they will be
frequently encountered in informal conversation and in imaginative
literature. However, great care must be taken both to use them only in
the right circumstances and to distinguish the nuances of the various
forms. Three principal forms must be distinguished apart from the
shortened forms that can be derived from most rst names, viz:
r
a truncated version of the shortened form which amounts to a form in
the vocative case for use when a person is being called or addressed;
r
a diminutive form which is a term of special endearment
(hypocoristic). Such forms are usually derived from the shortened
form, if one exists, by using one of the sufxes -ea and
-a/-ea for men and women alike, e.g. C
aea, Baea,
aea, ea, Haaea, Taea. These forms are used
by parents or relations in talking to their children. Among older people
they are used only when addressing those to whom one is very close;
r
a further diminutive form derived from the shortened form by using
the sufx -a (e.g. Ba, a, ea, ea, Haaa,
Taa). Such forms may be used by young children addressing one
230
7.3 Personal names
another. When used of adults about children or about other adults
these forms may express disapproval or even verge on coarseness, but
equally they may express affection in a jocular way towards people to
whom one is very close.
The following lists give the most common mens and womens rst
names and some, but by no means all, of the shortened or diminutive
forms that may be derived from them. Fashions vary over time and in
different sections of the population, but the majority of the names
given here have been widespread since pre-revolutionary times and
now occur in most strata of the population.
Mens rst names
full form shortened vocative of hypocoristic pejorative
of name form short form diminutive diminutive
Aea Caa, a Ca, Caea,
a
Caa, a
Aee Aa, a , A Aea,
ea
Aa, a
Aa T T Tea, T Ta
Ae Aa A Aea Aa
Aa Aaa Aa Aaea Aaa
ea a
Ba Ba Ba Baea Baa
Bae Ba Ba Baea Baa
Bae Baea Bae Baea Baea
Ba Ba Ba Baea Baa
B B, Ba B Bea Ba
Ba B B Bea Ba
Bea Caa Ca Caa Caa
ea ea e ea ea
a ea a
a, M , M a,
Mea
a, Ma
Ee e e eea ea
a Ba Ba Baea Baa
a a
a ea,
a
e ea a
Ma Ma M Mea Ma
231
7 Verbal etiquette
Ha ea a
Oe Oee,
Oeea
Oea
ae aa a aea aa
e e eea ea
Pa P
Cee Cea Ce Ceea Cea
Caa Caa, Ca Ca, Ca Caea,
Caea
Caa
Cea Ca C Ca Ca
ea
a
Womens rst names
full form shortened vocative of hypocoristic pejorative
of name form short form diminutive diminutive
Aeaa Caa, a Ca, Caea,
a
Caa, a
Aa A
Aa
Aa
Aa
A, Ha A, H
Aea, Ha
Aa, Hpa
Bea Be Bea, Bea Bea
B Ba B Ba
aa a a aa aa
Ee e e eea ea
Eaea a a aea aa
Eea ea, Aa e ea,
Aa
ea, Aa
ea, ea a
a,
a
a
a
aa aa a aa aa
ea a
a a, , a a, a,
Ma M Ma Ma
Maaa Pa P Pa Pa
Maa Ma Maa Maa
Ma Maa Ma Maea Maa
Haea Ha Ha Haea Haa
232
7.3 Personal names
Haa Haaa Haa Haa,
Haaa,
Haaea
Haaa
Ha H Ha Ha
O
a
O O O
ea
Oa
Paa Pa Pa Paea Paa
Ceaa Cea Ce Cea Cea
C/C C C Cea Ca
Taaa Ta Taa Taaa Taaa, Ta
Taa Ta Ta Taea, Taa Taa
a
a, a
ea,
ea
a
7.3.2 Patronymics (ea)
A patronymic is a name derived from the name of ones father. Russian
patronymics are based on the full form of the rst name and are
obtained by the addition of one of the following sufxes:
in mens names in womens names
following hard consonants - -a
following soft consonants or
replacing -e -ea
replacing a or - -a
In colloquial speech the patronymics are shortened, and their normal
pronunciation is given in the right-hand column of the table below.
When the patronymic is combined with a rst name, as it almost
always is, then the two words in effect merge into one and only the
ending of the patronymic is inected.
colloquial pronunciation
rst name patronymic of patronymic
Aea Aea Aea
Aee Aeee Aee
Aa Aae Aa
Ae Aee Ae
Aa Aae Aa
Ba Ba Ba
233
7 Verbal etiquette
Bae Bae Bae
Bae Bae()e Bae
Ba Bae Ba
B B B
Ba Ba Ba
Bea Bea Bea
ea eae ea
e
e
Ee Eee Ee
a a a
e
a a a
e e e
Ma Ma Ma
Ha Hae Ha
Oe Oe Oe
ae a a()
e e()
Pa Pa Pa
Cee Ceee Cee
Caa Caa Caa
Cea Cea Cea
Note: the forms in the right-hand column above are not necessarily the only possible
truncated forms, nor are all patronymics truncated in pronunciation.
Patronymics should as a rule be used in the following circumstances:
(a) when a persons full name is being given (e.g. in introductions or in
answer to an ofcial question);
(b) together with the rst name, as a polite form of address to an adult
with whom one is not on intimate terms. In this latter use it
combines with the full form of the rst name (e.g. a e,
Eea ea), not a shortened or diminutive form. This polite
form of address corresponds to an English form with title and surname
(e.g. Mr Smith, Mrs Johnson, Dr Collins).
Note: the patronymic on its own may be encountered as a form of address among
older people in the countryside, e.g. e! aa!
234
7.4 Attracting attention
7.4 Attracting attention (eee a)
The following formulae are commonly used to attract the attention of
a stranger. With the exceptions indicated all are polite if not very
polite. Some include part of the request that they generally introduce,
e.g. for information of some sort.
e (aa)! a seeking directions,
help, or
information
e?
e (aa)! a
e?
Cae, aa, a
e?
Excuse me, how do I get
to the underground?
B e ee aa . . . ?
He ee
aa . . . ?
B e aee . . . ?
He aa . . . ?
Ba e a
aa . . . ?
Ba e aa . . . ?
Could you tell me . . .
e , ae,
a?
e e, ae,
a ?
Could you tell me the time please ?
Note: because the above formulae are all polite and suitable for use to strangers it
would not be appropriate to couch any of them in the form.
M e/a a ? Could I speak to you for a moment ?
Note: this expression is more familiar, may be used to acquaintances, and is
commonly couched in the form.
The initial response to an approach which does not itself include a
responses to
requests for
information
request may be as follows:
a. Yes.
a, aa. Yes, please.
? What ?
Ca (a). Im listening (to you).
e ee/ea? (R3b) How can I be of help?
a a. (R3b or iron) At your service.
Hy? (R1) Well ?
ee? (R1) What do you want ?
(Hy) e ee? (R1) (Well) what do you want ?
If the addressee is not sure that it is he or she who is being addressed,
an elliptical response might be:
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7 Verbal etiquette
B e?
B e?
Are you talking to me ?
If the addressee has not heard or understood the request, the response
may be:
-? (R1) What was that ?
e, aa. Could you say that again?
e, e aa(a). Im sorry, I didnt catch what you said.
aa? What did you say?
If the addressee cannot answer the question, the response may be:
He a. I dont know.
He aa. I cant say.
He a. (R1) I cant say.
The widespread forms of address for calling people unknown to the calling for
attention
speaker, both of them stylistically neutral, are:
M ee! (to males) Young man!
ea! (to females) Young lady!
Note: these forms of address are used, despite the literal meanings of the terms
(young man and girl respectively), to call not just young people but also
people up to middle age.
At a higher stylistic level an educated person might use:
a! Youth!
At a lower stylistic level, one might use one of the following familiar
forms of address, perhaps preceded by the coarse particle !
ae! (R1) Lad!
! (R1) Friend!
e! (R1) Friend!
The pronoun would be appropriate, indeed expected, with
these forms of address (which should, however, be avoided by the
foreign student), e.g.
, ae, e e
a? (R1)
He mate, have you got a light ?
At this level, one might provocatively use some attribute of the
addressee as the form of address, e.g.
, a! (D) Hey, you with the beard!
, a! (D) Hey, you with the specs !
In familiar speech, older people, especially in the country, may be
addressed as:
ea! Grandfather !
aa! Grandmother !
236
7.5 Introductions
Young children might address older strangers as:
! lit Uncle ! (cf. Eng mister ! )
ea! lit Little uncle !
T! Auntie ! (cf. Eng missis ! )
Tea! lit Little auntie !
Children speaking to their grandparents might use the words
e, grandad, and a, granny, nan.
Foreigners may be addressed as (Mr) r a (Mrs ) +
their surname, e.g.
C! Mr Smith!
a a! Mrs Brown!
!
other forms of
address
Doctor !
Cea! Nurse !
e! Professor !
! Friends !
e! Colleagues !
Pea! Lads !
Ma! Boys !
e! Girls !
e! (Young) girls !
e! Pupils !
a a! Ladies and gentlemen!
7.5 Introductions (a)
a a.
introducing
oneself
e(a) a
a.
Me e a
a.
Me e a
a.
lit I want/should like to meet
you/make your acquaintance.
aa(e) a!
aa(e) a!
lit Lets meet/get to know one
another.
e ( a)
a. (R3)
Paee ( a)
a. (R3)
e ea. (R3)
Paee ea. (R3)
Allow me to introduce myself
to you.
All the above formulae precede naming of oneself. The form of ones
name that one gives depends on the degree of formality of the
237
7 Verbal etiquette
situation. Young people meeting in an informal situation would give
only their rst name, perhaps even in a diminutive form, e.g.
(Me ) Ba. My name is Vladimir.
(Me ) B. My name is Volodia.
(Me ) Taa. My name is Tat
iana.
(Me ) Ta. My name is Tania.
In a formal situation one would give ones rst name and
patronymic, e.g.
Me Ha e. My name is Nikolai Petrovich.
Me O
a Ceeea. My name is Ol
ga Sergeevna.
or even all three names (rst name, patronymic and surname), often
with the surname rst, e.g.
Ee Evgenii Borisovich Popov
a aa Taaa Irina Pavlovna Tarasova
a, Cee e Goncharov, Sergei Petrovich
Note 1 The nominative case is preferred after the verb form when people
are being named (see the examples above), although the instrumental is also
grammatically possible after a, e.g.
, a e
e (R1), My name is Igor, but people call me Gosha.
2 The formula e tends to be omitted if the surname is included.
In a formal situation connected with ones work one might give
ones position and surname, e.g.
e M
eea e
Moscow University Professor
Kuznetsov
e e
aa
Director of the City Museum
Goncharova
Having named oneself one may proceed in the following way to ask
for the same information from the other person:
A a a ? And what is your name ?
A a ae ? And what is your rst name ?
A a ae e? And what is your rst name and
patronymic ?
A a aa a? And what is your surname ?
O
e ! responses to
introductions
Very pleased to meet you.
Me e a
a.
I am very pleased to meet you.
O
ea a + a
e a a
+ instr (R3)
Paee ea
a + a (R3)
Allow me to introduce you to
? Is it you?
T ? Is it you?
a e e. We havent seen each other for a
long time.
C e e e.
e e e e.
C e, !
We havent seen each other
for ages.
B /a.
meeting by
arrangement
Here I am.
T a /B a e ? Have you been waiting long ?
e a(a) ? Am I late ?
e aa(a) a a? I havent kept you waiting,
have I ?
e/a. responses at
meeting by
arrangement
Ive been waiting for you.
T /a -e/ Youre on time.
B -e.
A, . (R1) So here you are.
e , e a. Better late than never.
240
7.7 Farewells
7.7 Farewells (ae)
a. Goodbye. (lit until [the next]
meeting; cf. Fr au revoir)
e! Lets meet (again) soon.
eea! Till this evening.
aa! Till tomorrow.
eea! Till Monday.
a(e) ! = a or may
suggest parting for ever (cf. Fr
adieu as opposed to au revoir)
Be e!
Be ! All the best.
Be! (R1)
a! (R1) So long.
Ca! (R1) Good luck.
C ! Good night.
M e . Well see each other again.
He aa(e) a.
phrases associated
with parting
Dont forget us.
(e). Come again.
a(e). Drop in again.
(e). Give us a ring.
ea(e). Come again. (to sb travelling
from afar)
(e). Write (to us).
a(e) ee a. lit Let us know about you.
M , a e
a.
= Youre always welcome to come
again.
eea(e) e + dat Give my regards to
()e(e) ee/
/a.
Give your children/daughter/son
a kiss from me.
He ae . Remember me kindly. (to sb
going away for good)
It might be appropriate as one is preparing to part to use one of the formulae
preceding parting
following phrases:
e . Its late.
Me a . Its time I was leaving.
Me a
.
Its been nice talking to you.
At the end of a business meeting it might be appropriate to use one of
the following formulae:
M . Weve agreed about everything.
M a . Weve found a common language.
e, aea(a) a. Im sorry Ive kept you.
e, (a) a
ee.
Im sorry Ive taken up so much of
your time.
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7 Verbal etiquette
7.8 Congratulation (aee)
Congratulations are generally couched in a construction in which the
verb a/a, to congratulate, which is followed by c
+ instr, is used, or more often simply understood, e.g.
a a ee
ea!
Congratulations on the birth
of your child.
C Pe! Happy Christmas.
C H ! Happy New Year.
C e! Happy birthday.
C a! Happy wedding anniversary.
C a! said to sb emerging from bath
or shower (literally expressing a
wish that a person has been
refreshed by the right sort of
steam in the apa or steam
room of the a)
The phrase might end with e or a as a direct object of the verb,
but the inclusion of this pronoun is not essential. Examples:
C ee a e! Congratulations on your silver
wedding anniversary.
C ae eea a ! Congratulations on graduating.
For more formal congratulations one of the following formulae may
be used:
e a a
+ instr (R3)
Allow me to congratulate you on
e
ee/eee/e/
e ae c +
instr (R3)
(Please) accept my
sincere/heartfelt/warmest/warm
congratulations on
O e a/eea
a a c + instr (R3)
On behalf of the company/
university I congratulate you on
Congratulations might be accompanied by the giving of presents, giving presents
in which case one of the following formulae might be used:
B ee a. (R1) Heres a present for you.
E a e + imp
If its no trouble to you
E a e a + imp
Oe a + inn
e(a) a +
acc
He a +
inn
I (do) ask you to
I should like to ask you for
Could I ask you to
(a) a e .
(polite prohibition)
I would ask you not to smoke.
Me , ee a? Would you take your boots off ?
B e ae ae? Would you put out your cigarette?
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7 Verbal etiquette
In R1 a request might be couched as a question in the second person
singular of the perfective verb, e.g.
aa e a? Will you make me a cup of tea?
A request might also be introduced by one of the following formulae,
all of which mean Can you or Could you, and all of which are followed
by an innitive:
B ee
B e ee
B e
Mee
He ee
He
Permission may be sought by means of one of the following phrases,
all of which mean May (I), and all of which are followed by an
innitive:
M (e)
He (e)
M
He
e e
Paee e
Accession to a request may be indicated by one of the following
agreement
responses:
aa. By all means.
X. All right.
a. (R1) OK.
Cea. At once.
C . Straightaway.
Ha(e). (R1; said when sth is
being handed over)
Here you are.
Ha, . (R1) Here you are, take it.
The following responses indicate permission:
permission
a, e. Yes, of course.
a, aa. Yes, by all means.
Paee. Of course.
e. It goes without saying.
The following phrases might be used to indicate refusal:
He .
refusal
I dont want to.
He . I cant.
a, e . Im sorry, but I cant.
e a + inn (R3b) I am not able to
246
7.14 Reassurance and condolence
Prohibition might be expressed by one of the following formulae:
prohibition
He. No, one/you cant.
K ae, e
ae a + inn
Unfortunately I cant allow you to
H e ae. No way.
H a . Not for anything.
H a ea. In no circumstances.
O e e e. There can be no question of it.
7.13 Invitation (aee)
aa e/a a a
e.
I invite you for a u of coffee.
X a e/a ee. I want to invite you to my place.
(e) a. Come to our place.
/e e? (R1) Will you come and see me?
ea(e). Drive over to us.
a(e) a. Call on us.
aa(e). (R1) Drop in.
B(e). Come in.
(e) a a. Make yourself at home.
Ca, e!
acceptance of
invitation
Thank you, with pleasure.
C a! Gladly.
O! Willingly.
ae . I shall denitely come.
7.14 Reassurance and condolence (eee,
eae)
/ye. Calm down.
He e/ee. Dont worry.
He /e. Dont get agitated.
He a/ae. Cheer up.
He aaa/
aaae.
Dont be upset.
He aa(e) . Dont lose heart.
He a(e)
e.
Dont take this to heart.
He aa(e) a a. Dont pay any attention to this.
B(e) . Put it out of your mind.
B . Itll all end up all right.
B e e! Everything will be all right.
B ! Itll all pass.
B ! (R1) Things will sort themselves out.
ee/a . I sympathise with you.
Me a e/a. Im sorry for you.
247
7 Verbal etiquette
He e eae. It cant be helped.
ga Petrovna
please?
(e) ee
Baa Haea.
May I speak to Vladimir
Nikolaevich?
M a? (R1) Can I speak to Katia?
Me aa. (R1) I need Ivan.
Me Cee, aa. (R1) I want Sergei.
Ta a? (R1) Is Tania in?
The person who answers the telephone may call the person whom the
caller is asking for in one of the following ways:
a Aeeea, a
ee.
Irina Alekseevna, youre wanted n
the telephone.
a ee! Its for you, Lara.
Haa, e! (R1) Natasha, its for you.
In a place of work a person might be more formally called to the
telephone in one of the following ways:
B Ma, a
ea.
Viktor Mikhailovich, theres a call
for you from the ministry.
Ce Cea, a
aa.
Semion Stepanovich, someone from
the bank wants to talk to you.
Ha ea, a
aa eea.
Nina Dmitrievna, someone from
the university wants to talk to you.
The person who has answered the telephone and is summoning the
person whom the caller wants to speak to may say to the caller:
Cea . Ill get him/her.
Cea (a) . Hes/Shes coming.
(e) (). Just a moment.
O . Just a minute.
O e. Just a second.
e. Wait (please).
He a(e) . Dont put the receiver down.
If the person sought by the caller is not available, the person who
answers the telephone may say:
249
7 Verbal etiquette
E ea e. Hes not here at the moment.
(e) e. Ring a bit later.
Ba e e a? Could you ring again?
If the person sought is not available the caller may say:
eea(e) e/e,
Aea.
Tell him/her that Aleksandr
rang.
(e) e/e
Ae. Ask him/her to ring Alla.
/ee ee a. Ill call again in an hour.
In the event of problems with the telephone one might say:
. ee. Its a bad line. Ill call back.
Ha ea. We got cut off.
The conversation may end thus:
Hy, . lit Well, thats all.
a. (R1) So long.
C. (R1) Well talk again.
e. (among people close to one
another, esp women)
lit I kiss (you).
e(a) a a.
(R3)
I must nish.
7.17 Letter writing (eea)
Letters may be begun with the following formulae, which range from
the intimate (R1) to the formal type of address used in ofcial
correspondence (R3b).
Ma Ta! Darling Tania,
ae! Dear Pavel,
aae Ma e! Dear Mikhail Petrovich,
Maae a Ceee! Dear Ivan Sergeevich,
`aae Ae a! Dear Andrei Pavlovich,
Note: the form of address may be affected by the form of rst name (full form or
diminutive) which the writer uses to the addressee and which, like the form of
address itself, indicates the degree of intimacy, distance, respect between the
writer and addressee.
The following formulae, again arranged in ascending order of
formality, may be used at the end of a letter immediately before the
signature:
Oa e, lit I embrace you,
e e, lit I kiss you,
a, (R1) So long,
Be e, (R1) All the best,
a, Goodbye,
Be /e, All the best,
250
7.17 Letter writing
C , With love,
C ee e, lit With heartfelt greetings,
C a ea, With best wishes,
C e aee, With sincere respect,
Note: Russians tend to express themselves more effusively and in more emotional
terms than the English, and such formulae reect that fact.
In the formal ofcial/business style of R3b formulae of the following
sort may be employed:
B e a Bae 1- aa . . .
In reply to your letter of 1 March . . .
eae ee Bae a 2- ae.
We conrm receipt of your letter of 2 April.
a eaee e Ba a.
A contract will be forwarded to you without delay.
M ee ae Bae ea.
We look forward to receiving your reply.
aae ee e:
We append the following documents:
Note: it is conventional in letters in this style to begin the second-person-plural
forms of address with a capital letter (B, Ba, etc.).
251
8 Word-formation
8.1 Principles of word-formation
The stock of words in a language is increased over time by various
procedures. In Russian the main procedures have been borrowing (see
5.1.15.1.2), afxation (with which this chapter is mainly concerned)
and composition (see 8.12).
Knowledge of the main principles of Russian afxation helps a
student to extend her or his vocabulary, because it enables the student
in many cases to understand the precise sense of a word and to
recognise the words relationship with other words derived from the
same root.
The student needs to be able to identify the basic components of a
Russian verb, noun, or adjective, i.e. its prex (if it contains one), root
and sufx (again, if it contains one), e.g.
prex root sufx
, to enter
aa, to untie a a
aa, a glass aa
aa, glass-holder aa
ae, description ae
ae, reader ae
, kitten
, tasty
e, homeless e
Similar principles apply in English, but they are in evidence in words
of Greek or Latin origin (e.g. psycho/logy, trans/late, in/scrip/tion) rather
than in the words of Germanic origin which constitute the bulk of the
most common, everyday vocabulary of English. Some of the English
prexes and sufxes derived from Latin that are equivalent to Russian
prexes and sufxes are noted in the following sections.
It should be emphasised that while an understanding of Russian
afxation and of the meanings of a words components aids recognition
of words and retention of vocabulary, the principles of word-formation
cannot be applied in a wholly predictable way. The foreign student
must therefore check that a word whose form may be inferred from
the principles given here does actually exist.
252
8.2 Types of consonant
The lists which follow are intended to illustrate the main principles
of Russian afxation and in particular to give the student some
knowledge of the main verbal prexes and noun sufxes. However, the
lists of afxes are not exhaustive, nor does the chapter describe all the
functions that a given afx may have.
8.2 Types of consonant, spelling rules and
consonant changes
It is helpful when studying Russian afxation (and grammatical
inection; see Chapter 9) to bear in mind the following factors relating
to pronunciation, orthography and the transformation or insertion of
certain consonants in particular circumstances.
8.2.1 Hard and soft consonants
Russian has ten letters which represent vowel sounds: a, e, , , , y,
, , , . These letters may be divided into two categories, viz:
col 1 col 2
a
o
y
e
The vowels represented by the letters in col 1 follow hard consonants,
whereas those represented by the letters in col 2 follow soft consonants.
Therefore letters in col 1, such as a, y and , which frequently occur
in the standard endings of Russian nouns, are replaced by letters in
col 2 (, and respectively) in endings which follow a soft
consonant. Compare, for example, acc/gen/instr sg endings of a,
saw, which has a hard , with those of e, which has a soft :
e
e
e
8.2.2 Use of the hard sign
The sole function of this letter in the modern language is as a
separative sign between the consonant with which a prex ends and a
root beginning with a vowel that would in other circumstances soften
the preceding consonant (i.e. one of the vowels in col 2 in 8.2.1 above;
in practice this vowel is usually e, sometimes r ). Thus ea, to
drive in; ee, dishevelled; e, to travel all over;
ea, to travel away; aea, to drive off in various directions;
e, congress.
253
8 Word-formation
8.2.3 Devoicing of consonants
The consonants in col 1 below are voiced, whilst those in col 2 are
their unvoiced equivalents. Col 2 also contains unvoiced consonants
which have no voiced equivalent.
col 1 col 2
to call in on/drop in on
a/a
(c) used as a prex to render simple verbs perfective, a- may indicate
the beginning of an action; this usage is particularly common in
verbs describing some sound:
aee to start to ring
ae to burst out laughing
a to start pacing around/up and down
(d) may indicate that a space is lled or that sth is covered or closed by
the action:
aaa/aa to block up, obstruct, pile up with
a/a to ll in (form, questionnaire)
257
8 Word-formation
(e) used as a perfective prex a- may indicate that an action,
particularly a harmful one, has been carried to an extreme degree;
the prex occurs with this meaning in only a few verbs:
a to og to death
ae to shoot (and kill)
(f ) + -: may indicate that action has gone on for longer than one
might expect or that the agent has been more than normally
engrossed in it:
aaa/aa to be/get engrossed in conversation
aa/aa to be/get engrossed in reading
- (- before
unvoiced
consonants)
(a) in many verbs has original directional meaning out of, though now
this meaning may not be obvious; cf. Eng ex- (abridged form e-):
a/a to elect
ea/e to extract, derive
a/ to exclude, rule out
(b) action affecting the entire surface of sth; occurs with this meaning
in only a few verbs:
a/ to gnaw to shreds
ea/ea to cut to pieces/cut in many places
(c) exhaustion of a supply of sth; occurs with this meaning in only a
few verbs:
a/a to use up all of (some writing
material, e.g. paper, ink)
(d) action carried out to the fullest possible extent:
a/ (intrans) to dry up altogether
(e) + -, and in perfective forms only: to do or suffer sth unpleasant
to the extent that it becomes habitual:
a to become an inveterate liar
a- (a) movement onto or into (in the sense of collision):
aea/aee to swoop on, run into (of vehicles)
aaa/aa to attack, fall upon
(b) in some verbs, predominantly perfectives, to denote action affecting
a certain quantity of an object; the direct object is generally in the
genitive case, indicating partitive meaning:
aa to boil a certain quantity of
a to buy up a certain quantity of
(c) + -: in verbs (predominantly perfectives) denoting action carried
out to satiety or even to excess:
258
8.3 Verbal prexes
ae to eat ones ll
a to drink as much as one wants; to
get drunk
e- insufciency; attached to very few verbs:
eaa/ea + gen to be insufcient
eea/ee to underestimate
- (-, -) (a) movement round in various senses, viz comprehensive coverage,
bypassing or overtaking, encircling or surrounding:
/ to go all round, get round
/a to overtake
a/a to frame
(b) thorough action covering the whole surface of sth:
ea/e to paste over
aa/e to look over, inspect
(c) in verbs derived from a different part of speech, especially an
adjective; the prex is very common in this function:
aa/a to enrich (from a)
a/ to liberate, free (from )
(d) + -: in verbs indicating that an action is mistaken:
a/a to make a mistake (in counting)
aa/ to make a slip (in speaking)
e- (e-
before unvoiced
consonants)
(= verbal prex o- + adjectival prex e-/e-): loss or
deprivation of the thing denoted by the root of the word; used with
only a small number of verbs in this meaning:
ea/e to dehydrate (i.e. take away water)
eea/ee to render harmless, neutralise,
defuse
ea/e to weaken (i.e. take away strength)
- (-) (a) movement away from, or off (cf. y- below); the prex is very
common in this meaning:
ea/ee to y away, y off, rebound
/ to go away, go off, depart (of
transport), come away from
a/ to take away
(b) in verbs with gurative meaning, may carry the sense of back (cf.
Eng re-); the prex is common in this meaning:
a/ to beat back, repel
aa/a to reect
259
8 Word-formation
(c) in perfective verbs, to emphasise that action is at an end or has been
carried out to its required limit; the prex is not widely used with
this meaning:
e to come off duty
aa to nish ones work
epe- (a) movement across or transference from one place to another (cf. Eng
trans-):
ee/ee to cross (on foot)
eeaa/eea to pass (across), transfer, transmit
eeaa/eee to change (transport)
(b) to do sth again (cf. Eng re-); the prex occurs in many verbs in this
meaning:
eeaa/eee to look at again, review
eeaa/ee to rebuild, reconstruct
(c) to do sth too much (cf. Eng over-):
eeea/eee to overheat
eeea/eee to overestimate
(d) + -: reciprocal action:
eea/ee to exchange glances
eea (impf only) to correspond (i.e. exchange letters)
o- (a) in many perfective verbs, to indicate action of short duration or
limited extent; it may be attached to indeterminate verbs of
motion; the prex is very common in this meaning:
to have a talk, talk for a bit
to take a stroll
e to have a bite to eat
aa to do a bit of work
to walk about for a bit
(b) + inx -a- r -a-, to form imperfective verbs with iterative
meaning (i.e. action repeated off and on for some time):
a to look at from time to time
aa to gossip, talk about every so often
aa to cough from time to time
a to whistle off and on
- (-) (a) action below or from below:
ea/ea to support
a/a to sign (i.e. write underneath)
a/e to stress, emphasise (i.e. underline)
260
8.3 Verbal prexes
(b) movement towards; this is the commonest directional meaning of
this prex when it is used with verbs of motion:
/ to approach, go towards/up to
a/a to call up, beckon
(c) movement upwards:
aa/ to throw/toss up
a/ to lift, raise
(d) action that is not far-reaching:
aa/a to tint, touch up
ea/ea to clip, trim
(e) action that adds sth:
aaa/aa to earn some additional money
(f ) underhand action:
a/e to set re to (criminally), commit
arson
a/ to bribe, suborn
a (impf only) to eavesdrop
e- (e-) action that precedes or anticipates sth (cf. Eng fore-); mainly in
bookish words characteristic of R3:
ee (impf; no pf ) to foresee
eaa/ea to avert, prevent, stave off
eaa/eaa to foretell, prophesy
- (a) movement to a destination:
ea/ea to come, arrive (by transport)
/e to bring (by hand)
/ to come, arrive (on foot)
(b) attachment or fastening of an object to sth else:
a/a to tie/attach/fasten to
aa/ to pin to
(c) action that is not fully carried out:
aaa/a to halt
a/ to half-open
a/ to lower a little
- (a) movement by or past:
ea/ea to run past
/ to go past (on foot)
261
8 Word-formation
(b) movement through:
ea/e to eat through, corrode
a/ to let through, admit, omit
(c) as a perfective prex, in many simple verbs when the duration of
the action or the distance covered by it is dened:
e a aa to sit for two hours
ea e e to run ten kilometres
(d) thorough action:
a/a to think over
aa/a to roast thoroughly
(e) oversight (only in a few verbs):
a/e to overlook
(f ) loss:
a/a to lose (game, at cards)
(g) + -: unintentional revelation:
aa/ to let the cat out of the bag
a- (a-); a-
before unvoiced
consonants
(a) movement in various directions or distribution (cf. Eng dis-); verbs
of motion bearing this prex become reexive:
aea/aea to run off (in various directions)
aea/aee to y off, scatter, be shattered
aea/ae to accommodate, place (in various
places)
(b) action that uncovers or undoes sth (cf. Eng un-); the prex is used
in many verbs with this meaning:
aa/aa to untie
aa/a to unload
- (-) (a) movement off or down from:
ea/ea to run down
ea/e to climb down/off
a/ to take off
/ to come down
(b) convergence (cf. Eng con-); verbs bearing the prex in this sense
may become reexive:
ea/ea to run and come together
/ to come together, meet, gather, tally
(of gures)
a/ to ow together, blend, mingle
262
8.4 Noun prexes
(c) joining, linking:
a/a to tie together, connect, link, unite
e/e to unite, join
(d) + indeterminate verbs of motion to form perfective verbs which
indicate that the subject moved in one direction and then back
again; contrast homonyms or homographs which are imperfective
verbs of motion indicating movement down or off (see (a) above):
ea to run somewhere and back again
to go somewhere and back again
(on foot)
y- (a) movement away from; this prex differs from - in that it suggests
that the subject moves right off, whereas - describes the
progressive separation of the subject from the point of departure:
ea/ea to go away (by transport)
/ to go away
a/a to remove, take away, clear away
(b) in verbs with comparative meaning derived from an adjectival root:
a()/() to improve (from )
ea()/e() to diminish (from e)
a()/() to make worse (non-re)/get
worse (re) (from )
Note: the non-reexive forms of the above verbs are transitive, the
reexive forms intransitive.
(c) removal or diminution:
ea/ea to cut, reduce
a/ to take in (clothes)
(d) achievement in spite of opposition; uncommon in this meaning:
to stand ones ground
(e) abundance:
a/a to strew with
8.4 Noun prexes
Although the main function of the prexes listed in 8.3 above is to
modify the meaning of verbs, they do also occur, with similar
meaning, in many nouns. Some idea of their function and its extent in
the formation of nouns may be gained from the following list of nouns
which consist of prex + the root (indicating going, motion,
movement on foot) + (in some cases) a noun sufx.
263
8 Word-formation
(a) sunrise
ee ascent
entrance, entry
exit, departure
income
a (a) sunset
aa a nd
round (of doctor), beat (of policeman);
bypass
waste-products
ee crossing, transition
approach
arrival
passage
a() expense, outgoings
aae expenditure
(pl; gen e) gangplank
similarity
departure, withdrawal
Adjectives may also be derived from some of these nouns, e.g.
(e) rest-day
protable, lucrative
a resourceful
roundabout, circuitous
not harbouring resentment (see 3.7)
ee transitional
similar
8.5 Adjectival prexes
A number of prexes, some of them of foreign origin and
international currency, may be attached to adjectives, e.g.
a/a amoral
a/a anti-fascist
e/ all-powerful
a/ (bookish) best
e/ small
e/ not stupid
e/e/ae not without foundation
e/ (R1) really stupid
/aea pro-American
e/ (tech) extra-high-powered
a/e ultraviolet
Other prexes, of Russian provenance, combine with the sufxes -
and - to form adjectives, e.g.
264
8.6 The verbal inxes -a-/-a-
e/e harmless
e/e innite
e/a extramarital
/e intravenous
/e pre-war
a/e foreign (lit over the border)
e/ae interplanetary
e/a international
a/ table (e.g. a e, table
tennis)
a/ superlinear
/ (according to) income (e.g.
a, income tax)
/e posthumous
/ underwater
/ near Moscow
e/e post-revolutionary
e/ pre-election (i.e. just before)
/a relating to the Baltic region
e/eee supernatural
8.6 The verbal inxes -a-/-a-
These inxes have two functions:
(a) used in combination with the prex - they form iterative verbs (see
8.3, o- (b));
(b) they form secondary imperfectives (e.g. a, to sign), i.e.
forms derived from a simple verb (e.g. a, to write) to which some
prex has been added, thus creating a perfective verb (e.g. a)
whose meaning needs to be preserved in an imperfective form. Further
examples:
secondary impf pf with prex simple verb
aa, to untie aa a
eeea, to re-do eeea ea
a, to lose a a
a, to nd a a
aa, to puncture
aa, to undermine a a
aaa, to unwind aa a
eeaa, to review eee e
aa, to suck in a a
eeaa, to rebuild ee
265
8 Word-formation
Note 1 Unstressed o in the root of the simple verb, and sometimes stressed , change
to a in secondary imperfective forms.
2 Secondary imperfectives belong to the conjugation 1A (see 9.6.2) and are
characterised by stress on the syllable immediately before the inx.
8.7 Noun sufxes
The sufxes used in the formation of Russian nouns are very
numerous. They may be used to indicate:
(a) people by reference to, for example, their qualities, characteristics,
occupations or places of origin;
(b) types of animal;
(c) objects;
(d) abstract concepts;
(e) female representatives of a group;
(f) an attitude, ranging from affection to loathing, on the part of the
speaker towards the object in question.
Note 1 Many sufxes are used within more than one of the above categories.
2 Properly speaking some of the sufxes included in this section and almost all
those in 8.9 might be treated as combinations of more than one sufx, e.g.
--e; --; --; --.
8.7.1 The principal noun sufxes
The following list of noun sufxes is arranged in alphabetical order.
The sufxes -a, -ee, -e, -, -, -e are particularly
common. The sufxes relating to categories (e) and (f ) above are dealt
with separately in 8.7.2 and 8.8 respectively.
-a/- sufxes dening people by reference to their place of origin
(see also 6.12), to some characteristic, or to the object with
which their occupation is associated, e.g.
a sherman
e poor man
seaman
bachelor
-aa/-a very expressive sufxes used mainly in R1 to dene people by
reference to a particular action. The nouns formed with these
sufxes are of common gender.
a bigwig
aa bouncer
266
8.7 Noun sufxes
a thug
aaa boss
a fast liver, hard drinker
-a/ - used to form nouns that indicate a persons social status, religion,
ethnicity, or place of origin (see also 6.116.12), e.g.
nobleman
e peasant
aa Martian
a Moslem
a Slav
a southerner
Note: in some words the sufx used is -, e.g. a, Bulgarian;
, boyar ; , Georgian; aa, Tatar.
-a/-e sufxes of foreign origin dening people in relation to some action
or object, e.g.
a musician
a emigre
e opponent
-a/- used in very numerous verbal nouns of international currency (cf.
Eng -ation), e.g.
aa administration
eaa declaration
a consultation
ea modernisation
aa organisation
aa privatisation
Note 1 In words with a stem ending in a soft consonant the sufx used is -,
e.g. , inf lation; e, correlation.
2 The sufxes - and - also occur, e.g. , instruction;
e, expedition.
-a a relatively uncommon sufx dening people by reference to their
occupational activity or salient characteristic, e.g.
a rich man
a hunchback
a violinist
- used to form nouns which denote the young of living creatures, e.g.
ee foal, colt
kitten
lion-cub
267
8 Word-formation
piglet
lamb
Note 1 After hushing consonants the sufx is -, e.g. , wolf-cub;
, baby mouse.
2 The plural forms of nouns with this sufx are not formed in the usual way
(see 9.1.9).
- e used in some words of international currency which dene people
by reference to their eld of activity (cf. Eng -er, -or), e.g.
boxer
conductor (of orchestra)
e producer (of play, lm)
-e a very widespread sufx denoting a person by reference to (a) some
action or occupation; (b) a certain quality; or (c) place of origin or
residence (in which case the forms -ae/-e (see also 6.116.12)
are common), e.g.
(a) eee refugee
ee rower, oarsman
e merchant
ee singer
e trader
(b) aae handsome man
e miser, skinint
(c) aae African
ae person from Baku
e Japanese
-e/-e with adjectival roots, in neuter abstract nouns which tend to be
bookish and are therefore prevalent in R3, and which denote a
quality, e.g.
ee greatness
ae indifference
ae sang-froid
e health
- of foreign origin, in nouns denoting a doctrine or system and also
activities or tendencies (cf. Eng -ism), e.g.
ae atheism
aa capitalism
optimism
a romanticism
a socialism
tourism
aa fanaticism
268
8.7 Noun sufxes
- used in words of international currency which dene a persons
eld of activity, e.g.
historian
e technician
chemist (not dispensing
chemist: aea (m))
-a a sufx of foreign origin indicating a eld of knowledge, a
discipline (cf. Eng -ics), e.g.
aeaa mathematics
a physics
a economics
-a miscellaneous functions, including:
(a) with verbal roots, to indicate the result of actions, e.g.
aa cavity
aaa scratch
(b) with noun roots, to denote an individual specimen of an object
usually referred to collectively, e.g.
a (collect ) a raisin
aea (collect ae, m) a potato
(c) to denote the meat of an animal or sh, e.g.
aaa mutton
a salmon
(d) to denote dimensions, and in some other abstract nouns:
a depth
a length
a silence
a width
-e used in words of international currency to dene people by
reference to their activity or outlook, e.g.
ee collector (e.g. of stamps)
ee revolutionary
- a sufx of foreign origin which denes people by reference to
some doctrine they hold or art or skill they practise (cf. Eng -ist; see
also -), e.g.
ae atheist
ee cyclist
a journalist
269
8 Word-formation
- the sufx used to form male patronymics; it may also indicate place
of origin (see also 6.12), e.g.
Cee son of Sergei
person from Omsk
-a (a) with verbal roots, in nouns denoting a process, an instrument, or
the result of an action, e.g.
aa note
aaa refuelling, seasoning
a grater
a cleaning, purge
(b) in R1 predominantly, with adjectival roots, to denote objects which
in R2 are described by the adjective in question + a noun, e.g.
ea = e a ve-year plan
Tea = Tea
aee
Tret
iakv Gallery
-a often in R1, with verbal roots, to denote an instrument or place
associated with an action, e.g.
eaa clothes-hanger
aaa cigarette-lighter
a (R1) smoking room
aeaa (R1) cloakroom
- a sufx of foreign origin denoting a specialist or person of learning
in a particular eld (cf. Eng -logist; see also -), e.g.
biologist
ee meteorologist
- a sufx of foreign origin denoting a science (cf. Eng -logy; see also
-), e.g.
biology
ee meteorology
psychology
sociology
-e extremely common, in verbal nouns (cf. Eng -ing, -ment, -sion,
-tion), e.g.
aee expression
ee achievement
aee pollution
ee announcement, declaration
ee approval
ee liberation
270
8.7 Noun sufxes
ee singing
ee continuation
aee widening, expansion, extension
eee increase
ee improvement
ee worsening, deterioration
Note: consonant changes affecting the rst person singular of second-
conjugation verbs (9.6.8) are also in evidence in nouns of this type, e.g.
aee.
- several uses, including:
(a) with noun roots, dening people by reference to their character,
occupation or activity, e.g.
a envious person
a defender (including sportsman)
helper
(b) with verbal roots, dening people by reference to their actions, e.g.
e traitor
e nomad
(c) denotation of objects which contain sth or accommodate some
creature, e.g.
cowshed
e coffee-pot
mine
- with verbal roots, to indicate:
(a) a person who performs an action, e.g.
e eater, mouth to feed
player, gambler
(b) the action itself or its result (perhaps what is left over after it), e.g.
a throw, also spurt
e a yawn
fragment
e (pl; gen e) leftovers (of food)
core (of fruit after eating)
cigarette-end
a a jump, leap
list
Note: the o in this sufx as used in (b) is a mobile vowel, hence gen sg
a, etc.
271
8 Word-formation
- a sufx of foreign origin denoting an agent (cf. Eng -or; see also
-), e.g.
e professor
a tractor
- this sufx, and related sufxes (e.g. -, -, -), are
the most widespread sufxes used in the formation of abstract
nouns. They are particularly prevalent in R3. With adjectival roots,
- is used to form feminine nouns denoting a quality (cf. Eng
-ness, -ery, -ity, etc.), e.g.
e gaiety
possibility
stupidity
youth
wisdom
a bravery, courage
e honesty
clarity
Note: after hushing consonants this unstressed sufx becomes -e, e.g.
ee, freshness (see 8.2.4(c)).
Added to the roots of present active participles, or to the roots of
adjectives derived from them, the sufx - may be used to form
nouns denoting a capacity or potentiality (cf. Eng -ity), e.g.
visibility
aeae sickness rate
e necessity, inevitability
Added to the roots of past passive participles, the sufx - may
be used to form feminine nouns denoting a condition resulting
from an action, e.g.
agreement, understanding
a isolation
aa wear and tear
-a with adjectival roots, to form abstract nouns denoting quality or
condition (cf. Eng -ness), e.g.
a speed
a deafness
aa beauty
a sharpness
a emptiness
ea blindness
a cleanness, purity
272
8.7 Noun sufxes
- (a) with roots of nouns referring to people, in nouns denoting
position, quality, branch of activity (cf. Eng -ship), e.g.
a authorship
e peasantry
e membership
(b) With adjectival roots, in nouns denoting a quality or condition, e.g.
a richness, wealth
e solitude, loneliness
e superiority
-e (m) a sufx added to the root of transitive verbs to form masculine
nouns denoting an agent, usually a person, but also possibly a thing
(cf. Eng -er, -or), e.g.
ae engine
e spectator, viewer
ae elector, voter
eae inventor
ee ghter (aircraft)
e amateur
ee re-extinguisher
ae writer
ae buyer, purchaser
eaae teacher (in higher education)
ye teacher (in school)
ae reader
- a sufx of foreign origin used to denote persons who do or things
which carry out some activity denoted by a word with the sufx
-a or related sufxes (see -a; cf. Eng -(a)tor), e.g.
aa aviator
a incubator
instructor
aa organiser
- mainly in R1, a sufx applied to verbal roots to form nouns which
dene persons by reference to some action which they perform or
to which they are prone, e.g.
chatterbox
liar
talker
a braggart
-/- sufxes dening persons by reference to some object or institution
associated with their occupation; also denoting some objects by
reference to their function, e.g.
273
8 Word-formation
aaa drummer
a bomber, bomber pilot
ae stone-mason, bricklayer
counter (person, i.e. teller, or
instrument, i.e. meter)
-a a sufx added mainly, but not exclusively, to proper nouns, to
indicate a syndrome or set of circumstances associated with a
person or place, e.g.
ea political terror associated with
Ezhov (chief of Stalins secret
police 19368)
aa red tape
a behaviour associated with
Oblomov (eponymous hero of
Goncharovs novel)
-e with noun roots and a spatial prex, to form nouns denoting
region, e.g.
ae polar region
eee coast, littoral
ee foothills
e seaside
Note: the sufx -e may also have this function, e.g. e, foot (e.g.
of mountain).
8.7.2 Noun sufxes denoting females
Several sufxes denote females of a type. These sufxes may
correspond to sufxes denoting males of the same type (e.g.
aa/a, female equivalent of aae), or they may be
added to a masculine noun in order to transform it into a feminine
one (e.g. /a, tigress). Sometimes the masculine noun to which
the female sufx is added already bears a sufx itself (as in
e/a, female teacher, where the sufx -a is added to
/e).
Some of the commonest female sufxes are listed below, together
with a note on their relation to masculine nouns denoting people of
the same type and with a few examples.
-aa/-a feminine equivalents of -ae/-e and -a/- (see 8.7.1;
also 6.116.12), e.g.
aeaa American woman (m aeae)
aaa English woman (m aa)
aa Italian woman (m ae)
274
8.7 Noun sufxes
ea woman from Kiev (m e)
Note: the sufxes -aa/-a may correspond simply to the masculine
sufx -e, e.g. aa, Chinese woman (m ae).
-/- a nble lady (m a)
e heroine (m e)
a nun (m a)
-a/-ea sufxes of foreign origin, used in nouns of foreign origin, e.g.
aa actress (m a)
ea poetess (m )
-a added to masculine nouns denoting persons and also to some nouns
denoting animals, e.g.
aa cook (m a)
a she-elephant (m )
a cowardess (m )
Note: the root of the masculine noun may undergo some change before the
sufx is added, e.g. aa, doe-hare (m a).
-a added to some masculine nouns without a sufx; also feminine
equivalent of -e (see 8.7.1), e.g.
aaa beautiful woman (m aae)
ea singer (m ee)
aa tsarina (m a)
-a also a feminine equivalent of -e; added to nouns in -, -
(see 8.7.1), e.g.
aa artiste (m a)
a Muscovite woman (m )
a Japanese woman (m e)
-a feminine equivalent of - and also added to nouns in -e
(see 8.7.1), e.g.
aa worker (m a)
ea teacher (m e)
-a added to masculine nouns to denote female of the type; also (in
R1, but nowadays rare) to denote wife of the male, e.g.
eeaa (woman) secretary (m eea)
eeaa generals wife (m eea)
- added to nouns in -, e.g.
chatterbox (m )
275
8 Word-formation
8.7.3 Miscellaneous noun sufxes
Although the commonest noun sufxes have been dealt with in the
preceding sections, there are also many others, as briey exemplied in
the following list. (Sufxes, or groups of related sufxes, are arranged
in alphabetical order.)
/a voltage
a/a sabotage
/aa (R1, pej) hack
/a tramp, vagrant
/a bedspread
/a (R1, pej) intriguer
/ (R1, pej) rufan
e/a (m) librarian
/a (m) dictionary
a/aa (R1, pej) old man
/a struggle
/a friendship
a/a complaint
/a tuition
a/e cemetery
e/e refuge
/e college
e/ea heart(land)
/a travel permit, pass (to sanatorium)
a/ payment
a/a person with a sweet tooth
e/e rst place, championship
e/ (f ) illness
/ (f ) fear
/ (f ) life
/ fuel
/a expensiveness
/a novelty
/ bronchitis
ea/a unemployment
/a hospital
ee/a ashtray
ae/e owner
/ alarm clock
/ refrigerator
e/ fan, supporter
/ belfry
a/ ploughed land
/ stamping
/ whisper
e/ scurrying
276
8.8 Diminutive, augmentative and expressive sufxes
a/e government
a/e closure
/ shaving
a/ shepherd
e/ (R1) idler
aa/a postgraduate study, postgraduate student body
ea/a literature
e/a grandad
ee/a (R1) cheerful person
a/ (R1) kid
/ (R1) ragamufn
/ (R1) little nest
e/a veal
8.8 Diminutive, augmentative and expressive sufxes
Russian is rich in sufxes which either indicate the size, especially
smallness, of an object or are indicative of the speakers attitude (which
may be affectionate, tender, attentive or scornful, ironic, disparaging)
towards it. Many sufxes may serve both a diminutive and an
affectionate (hypocoristic) purpose. Note though that in certain nouns,
or in some nouns when sufxes are used in certain meanings, the sufx
has lost its original diminutive or hypocoristic function (e.g. when the
noun a means the handle of a door).
As a rule diminutives and augmentatives are of the same gender as
the noun to which the sufx is attached, even when the sufx ends
with a vowel normally associated with another gender. For example,
the noun , god-forsaken town, is masculine like even
though nouns in -o are generally neuter.
Because they are highly expressive colloquial forms diminutives
belong primarily to R1, although they are widely used in the literary
variety of the written language and in folk poetry. They are less likely
to be encountered in the neutral R2 and are generally altogether
absent in the more formal varieties of R3, especially R3a and R3b.
The following lists of diminutive, augmentative and expressive
sufxes are not exhaustive; they contain only some of the more
productive sufxes.
8.8.1 Diminutive and hypocoristic sufxes
-ea a diminutive of heightened expressiveness, used mainly with nouns
denoting people and with proper names that are already in a
diminutive form, e.g. Caa:
ea darling
Caea Sasha dear
277
8 Word-formation
- added to masculine nouns; may also convey scorn, e.g.
little nail, tack
shower
little house, cottage
spout (of jug, teapot)
little table
e so-called student
-a diminutive form of sufx -a when it denotes single specimens of
an object, e.g.
ea grain of sand
ea snowake
a piece of straw
aa tea leaf
-a the most widespread diminutive sufx; added to feminine nouns;
may also convey scorn, e.g.
a little head (e.g. of pin)
a daughter
a little r-tree
ea a silly idea
a lid
a little leg, leg (e.g. of chair)
eea a (nice) song
a little hand, handle (e.g. of door),
arm (e.g. of chair)
ea little arrow, hand (e.g. of
clock)
aa cup
-/- added to masculine nouns, which may have to undergo a nal
consonant change to accommodate the sufx (see 8.2.5); may also
convey scorn, e.g.
ee breeze
small town
a idiot, clot
hobby-horse
-e (-e)/- (-e) added to neuter nouns, e.g.
eae little mirror (e.g. in car)
ae little dress
ee small tree
- added to masculine nouns ending in , , , , , , e.g.
aaa little drum
pancake
278
8.8 Diminutive, augmentative and expressive sufxes
little bell
a novel (pej)
8.8.2 Double diminutive sufxes
Some sufxes are really double diminutive sufxes. They may help to
form nouns denoting particularly small objects or they may serve as
terms of special endearment.
-e added to masculine nouns, e.g.
e tiny little leaf
ee little ower
-e added to neuter nouns, e.g.
ee little place
e little word
-a/-ea/-a added to feminine nouns, e.g.
a tiny little star, asterisk
ea tiny little arrow, little hand
(e.g. on watch)
a nice little (bottle/drink of ) water
ea dear little sister
8.8.3 The augmentative sufx -e/-a
-e is added to masculine and neuter nouns, -a to feminine
nouns, e.g.
e a very large town
a a massive beard
8.8.4 Pejorative sufxes
The basic function of pejorative sufxes is to indicate scorn or
contempt on the part of the speaker or writer towards the person or
object in question. At the same time these sufxes may also have a
quite different function, i.e. they may express affection in an ironic
tone (cf. the possible affectionate nuance of diminutive forms of rst
names in -a (7.3.1)). The main pejorative sufxes are:
-a/- The sufx -a may be added to masculine animate and feminine
nouns; - may be added to masculine inanimate and neuter
nouns, e.g.
279
8 Word-formation
a (m) a wretched liar
(m) an awful town
(n) letter (pej)
Note: the form aa, brother, on the other hand, is affectionate.
-a/-a This sufx is applied mainly to feminine nouns. The form -a
follows hushing consonants, which may result from a consonant
change in the root of the noun when the sufx is added.
Examples:
aa foul old hag (or dear old woman!)
aa wretched nag
a dreadful book
aa cur (or a dog one is fond of !)
8.9 The principal adjectival sufxes
In this section some of the more common adjectival sufxes are given.
Closely related sufxes are treated together.
Note: - is used when the ending is stressed.
-a/-
-a/-a
-/ -
variations on the same sufx, used in many adjectives indicating the
material or thing from which sth is made, e.g.
ee wooden
e glass
a leather
a rye
e woollen
Note: there are also many adjectives denoting material which do not have
one of these sufxes, e.g. ee, iron, , silk.
-a a sufx indicating that the thing denoted by the noun from which
the adjective is derived is characteristic of or conspicuous in the
subject, e.g.
a bearded
a winged
a striped
Note: ea, married (of man to woman, i.e. having a wife), belongs in
this category.
-e/- diminutive sufxes which carry a nuance of smallness, tenderness or
sometimes disparagement; - is used after the velars , , x:
ee little white
e dear, sweet
280
8.9 The principal adjectival sufxes
e pretty
quiet little
-, -,
-
sufxes which may be applied to noun or verbal roots and which
indicate that the subject is inclined or prone to some conduct, e.g.
ae eloquent
e lazy
a taciturn
ee patient, tolerant
e trustful, credulous
a pensive
- in R1, indicating possession; applied to roots of nouns in -a/-
denoting people, including diminutive forms of rst names, e.g.
a mums
a dads
e Petes
Ta Tanias
Note: these adjectives are similar in meaning to adjectives from the same
roots in - and adjectives in -/-e, e.g. ae,
ae (see section (c) under the sufx - below). However,
whereas adjectives in - tend to indicate possession by a particular indi-
vidual, the forms in -, etc. denote general association with a person
or type of person.
- used in a number of common adjectives indicating place or time,
sometimes with the help of a further letter or morpheme between
root and ending. These adjectives are important because their
exions cannot be explained by the spelling rules which normally
dictate variations from the standard type of adjectival ending (see
9.3.1), and they therefore need to be studied carefully.
late
a early
ee spring
e summer
e autumn(al)
winter
e morning
ee evening
ea yesterdays
e todays
aa tomorrows
e present-day
a of long standing
e ancient
e former, previous
281
8 Word-formation
e last
near, neighbouring
a far, distant
e upper
lower
ee front
a back
e outer, external
e inner, internal
e middle, medium, average
a extreme
extraneous
a domestic
superuous
-/- the most common adjectival ending applied to inanimate nouns,
including nouns of foreign origin, with the meanings relating to or
consisting of, or denoting possession of the quality to which the
noun refers, e.g.
(relating to) water
e harmful
ee transitional
debatable
a transit
noisy
a eye
head
tooth, dental
e forest
There are many further sufxes that are developed on the basis of
this sufx, including sufxes of foreign origin which are applied to
foreign roots, e.g.
/e judicial
a/e state
e/e heavenly
/ secondary
a/ bathing
e/ supreme
/e heartfelt
ye/e convincing
ea/a theatrical
ee/a elementary
e/ progressive
-a/-ea used to indicate that a quality is possessed in some degree (cf. Eng
-ish); especially common with adjectives of colour, e.g.
ea whitish
282
8.9 The principal adjectival sufxes
a a bit sour
ea bluish
-/-
-e/-e
used with inanimate nouns. (English may make no distinction
between the equivalent adjective and the noun which possesses the
quality denoted by the adjective.) Examples:
a bamboo
e birch
side
e combat
-/- (a) An extremely widespread sufx that is applied to the roots of
nouns, mainly masculine, to form adjectives indicating relationship
to the thing denoted by the root. Many adjectives denoting
nationality or describing place of origin (see 6.116.12) or a
persons designation contain this sufx, e.g.
a authors, authorial
e childs, infantile
e wifes, female
a May
town, urban
(relating to the River) Don
(b) There is a very large number of adjectives, formed from roots of
international currency, which end in -e (cf. Eng -ic/-ical ),
e.g.
eae geographical
ae climatic
eae realistic
There are also many other adjectives in -e, formed from
nouns of international currency in -a (see 8.7.1). (Strictly
speaking the sufx in these adjectives is -e.) Examples:
aeae mathematical
e economic
(c) Numerous other adjectival sufxes are developed on the basis of
-, e.g.
a/a African
ee/a Venetian
a/ Italian
/ee Christmas
a/ Alpine
ae/ maternal
/ paternal
a/ March
a/e (relating to Tsar) Nicholas
283
8 Word-formation
8.10 Sufxes of participial origin
Many words of participial origin which bear one of the following
sufxes have become established in the language as adjectives.
-a/-e/
-
sufxes indicating that some process has been carried out. Many of
the adjectives with this sufx are culinary terms. Examples:
a torn, lacerated
ae roast(ed)
ae wounded, injured
dried
-a/-
-/-
adjectives derived from Old Russian participial forms which stand
alongside active participles in - from the same verbal roots. (In
cases where the use of a form of this type is restricted the adjective
is given in a phrase in which it commonly occurs.) Examples:
ea lying, recumbent
hot (cf. , burning)
sedentary
a a stagnant (i.e. standing) water
ea bat (i.e. ying mouse)
prickly
- adjectives derived from the roots of some intransitive verbs and
describing a condition that is the result of some process, e.g.
a worldly-wise
limp
e mature
a backward
a tired
-/-e used in the formation of present passive participles (see 9.7.5; cf.
Eng -able, -ible), many of which have become established as
adjectives and which occur most commonly in R3. Participles of
this type have also given rise to many adjectives with the prex e-
(cf. Eng -in/un-), e.g.
ae tangible
admissible
eae reproof
e invulnerable
-/-e/
-
sufxes used to form the past passive participles of many verbs
(see 9.7.6; cf. Eng -ed), e.g.
a agitated
ee moderate
exhausted (i.e. used up)
284
8.11 The verbal sufxes -a and -a
- used to form the past passive participle of verbs of certain types
(see 9.7.6; cf. Eng -ed ), some of which have become established as
adjectives, e.g.
a occupied
beaten; also hackneyed
crumpled
- used to form past active participles (see 9.7.4), a few of which have
become established as adjectives, e.g.
former
e past
ae mad
- used to form present active participles (see 9.7.3), many of which
have become established as adjectives, e.g.
e brilliant
suitable
e following
8.11 The verbal sufxes -a and -a
There are many sufxes that are used in the formation of the innitive
and stems of verbs. As a rule verbal sufxes do not bear specic
meaning, but it is worth noting here two sufxes which do indicate
certain types of action and which are characteristic of R1 and D
respectively.
(a) -a: used in R1 to form imperfectives, often with a jocular tone,
which describe a certain pattern of behaviour, e.g.
a to be a tramp (from a)
a to take liberties
ea to be malicious, go in for innuendo
eaa to behave in an affected way
eea to be secretive
a to be over-modest
a to behave like a miser
(b) -a: used freely in D, to form highly expressive semelfactive
perfectives indicating that an action was carried out suddenly on one
occasion, e.g.
ea to cut
aa to blurt out
a to shake
ea to scratch
aa to step
285
8 Word-formation
8.12 Composition
8.12.1 Compound nouns
Russian has many nouns which have been formed by the various types
of composition or abbreviation illustrated below.
a-aa (m)
compound
hyphenated nouns
bow tie
a-ea (f ) boarding-school
a-aa (f ) headquarters
Note: the gender of such nouns is that of the key noun of the pair, which
is generally the rst noun (as in the rst two examples above), but may also
be the second noun (as in the third example).
stump compounds This type of word-formation was rarely used in pre-revolutionary
times but became common in the 1920s, particularly in relation to
political and administrative innovations in the early Soviet period.
Examples:
aa/aa air base
a/a road transport
/ea (f ) state security
/a (aea a) State Duma (Russian
parliament)
E/ (Ee ) European Union, EU
a/ae (R1/2; ae
ae)
head of department
a/aa wages, pay, salary
/ (ee ) collective farm
/ (e a) battleship
a/e (illegal) drugs business
/ trade union
a/ (n, indecl; a/a e
)
unarmed combat
e/ (ee ) secret agent
e/aea (ea aea) wall newspaper
e/a (ee a) terrorist act
/a (ea a) physical training
/e (ae e) destroyer (naval)
Note: nouns of this type fall within the normal declensional pattern (see
9.1.2) and their gender is determined by their ending in the usual way.
abbreviated
nouns
e (ee) underground (railway system)
e (R1; ee) St Petersburg
acronyms (ee ee aeee) higher educational institution
C ( e
ea)
AIDS
286
8.12 Composition
See also e.g. , AC (6.10).
Note: nouns of this type fall within the normal declensional pattern (see
9.1.2) and their gender is determined as a rule in the usual way.
8.12.2 Compound adjectives
The following list gives examples of the process of adjectival formation
through various types of composition.
eee/e root of compound noun + adj sufx agricultural
ee/ adj + adj derived from noun railway
/e adv + adj derived from noun numerous
/a adv + pres act part (growing) wild
e`-/e two adj roots light green
a`-/ two adj denoting equivalent concepts Anglo-Russian
/e numeral + adj derived from noun two-year, biennial
e/ pron + adj thorough
ee/ pron + adj annual
e/ adj derived from two noun roots reproof
287
9 Inection
Russian is a highly inected language. Meaning is much more
dependent on the ending of words and less dependent on word order
than is the case in English. Without a thorough knowledge of the many
exions used on Russian nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numerals and
verbs it is impossible not only to speak and write Russian correctly but
even to arrive at an accurate understanding of what one hears or reads.
However, the difculty of learning the numerous exions is not so
great as seems at rst to be the case if the learner keeps in mind the
distinction between hard and soft consonants and the spelling rules
listed in 8.2.1 and 8.2.4 and takes the trouble to study the basic
declensional and conjugational patterns set out in this chapter.
9.1 Declension of the noun
The Russian declensional system has six cases and distinguishes
between singular and plural. The six cases are nominative, accusative,
genitive, dative, instrumental and prepositional. There is a very small
number of relics of the vocative case and dual number (see Glossary).
Some nouns exist only in a plural form (e.g. ), at least in certain
meanings (e.g. a, clock; 3.6.1). Some nouns borrowed from other
languages are indeclinable (9.1.12).
9.1.1 Gender
The gender of most nouns is easily determined:
masculine (a) all nouns ending in a hard consonant, e.g. ;
(b) all nouns ending in -, e.g. e;
(c) a minority of nouns ending in -, especially:
i. all those denoting males, e.g. , son-in-law or brother-in-law;
ii. nouns ending in the sufx -e (see 8.7.1), e.g. ae, shopper;
(d) some nouns in -a and - which denote males or people who may be of
either sex, e.g. a, man; , uncle; a, servant.
neuter (a) most nouns in -o, e.g. , window;
(b) most nouns in -e, e.g. e, sea; aee, exercise; except
aee, apprentice (m);
(c) all nouns in - e, e.g. , gun.
Note: nouns derived from masculine nouns with the diminutive or pejorative sufx
- (8.8.4) are masculine.
288
9.1 Declension of the noun
feminine (a) most nouns ending in -a, e.g. ea, girl; a, book;
(b) most nouns ending in -, e.g. , aunt ; a, tower;
(c) the majority of nouns ending in -, especially:
i. nouns denoting females, e.g. a, mother;
ii. nouns in which the soft sign is preceded by one of the hushing
consonants , , , or , e.g. , rye; , night; , mouse;
e, thing;
iii. abstract nouns ending in - r -e, e.g. , youth;
ee, freshness.
Note: nouns derived from animate masculine nouns with the pejorative sufx -a
(see 8.8.4) are masculine.
A few nouns, e.g. a, orphan, are of common gender, i.e. they may
be either masculine or feminine depending on whether they denote a
male or female.
On the gender of indeclinable nouns see 9.1.12.
9.1.2 Basic declensional patterns of the noun
The main declensional types may be classied according to gender.
For the purposes of this book Russian nouns are treated as divisible
into ten basic declensional patterns (three masculine, three neuter and
four feminine). These patterns are illustrated below by the paradigms
of the nouns a, bus; aa, tram; , style; , word;
e, eld; ae, building; aea, newspaper; ee, week; a,
surname; and , bone. Groups of nouns, individual nouns, and
particular case endings which do not conform to these patterns are
dealt with in sections 9.1.3 to 9.1.12 inclusive.
Note: many of the nouns which have been chosen to illustrate the various
declensional types and whose paradigms are given below have xed stress.
However, the stress patterns of Russian nouns are complex, and in several of
the declensional categories nouns of various stress patterns are to be found.
On stress see Chapter 12.
Hard endings Soft endings
sg pl sg pl
masculine
a
nom a a
c
aa aa
acc a a aa aa
gen aa a
d
aa aae
dat a aa aa aa
instr a
b
aa aae aa
prep ae aa aae aa
e
e
e
289
9 Inection
neuter nom a
e
e
f
g
acc a e
gen a
e
g
e
dat a
instr a e
prep e a e
ae a
ae a
a a
a a
ae a
a a
feminine nom aea ae
i
ee ee
a ae
h
ae
i
ee ee
gen ae
i
ae ee ee
l
dat aee aea eee ee
instr ae
j
aea eee
k
ee
re aee aea eee ee
a a
a a
a a
a a
ae a
a a
e
m
a
All the examples of masculine nouns given here denote inanimate
objects. In nouns of the animate category the accusative form coincides
in both singular and plural with the genitive (see 11.1.3).
b
The instrumental singular form in unstressed endings after a hushing
consonant is -e, e.g. e, from , husband. However, the ending
- is retained after hushing consonants if stress is on the ending, e.g.
, from , knife.
c
Nouns with stems in , , , , , , have nominative/accusative
plural in -, e.g. a, enemies; , juices; , knives; aaa,
pencils.
d
Nouns in , , , have genitive plural in -e, e.g. e, aaae.
e
Many nouns in -o distinguish genitive singular from
nominative/accusative plural by means of stress, though the stress shift in
the plural forms may be forward (e.g. gen sg a but nom/acc pl a)
rather than back as is the case in . See also Chapter 12 on stress.
f
Nouns with stem in , , , , have endings with a for and y for
; thus ae, cemetery, has gen sg aa, dat sg a,
nom/acc pl aa, dat/instr/prep pl aa, aa,
aa, respectively.
290
9.1 Declension of the noun
g
The same considerations of stress apply here as to (see note e above).
h
Feminine nouns of the animate category have accusative forms that
coincide with the genitive in the plural only, e.g. acc pl e, but acc
sg e.
i
(a) Nouns with stems in , , , , , , have for , e.g. a, leg,
has gen sg , nom/acc pl . (b) Some nouns in -a distinguish
genitive singular from nominative/accusative plural by means of stress
shift, e.g. , (see notes e and g above).
j
(i) The instrumental singular form in unstressed endings after a hushing
consonant is -e, e.g. e, from a, hospital. However, the
ending - is retained after hushing consonants if stress is on the ending,
e.g. from a, soul. (ii) An instrumental singular form in - is
also found (e.g. ae), but in the modern language this form is used
mainly in literary contexts or in poetry where the metre requires an
additional syllable.
k
An instrumental singular ending in -e may also be found, in the same
circumstances as - (see note j (ii) above).
l
The zero ending which occurs in the genitive plural forms of nouns in
-a is in effect retained, the soft sign merely serving to indicate that the
consonant remains soft in this case just as it is when followed by any of
the vowels used in the other endings of this declension.
m
Nouns ending in -, -, -, - have a for , e.g. dat/instr/prep pl
forms a, a, a from , night; ea, ea, ea,
from e, thing.
9.1.3 Mobile vowels
Many masculine nouns have a mobile vowel, i.e. o or e or , which is
found in the last syllable of the nominative/accusative singular form
but which disappears in all other cases, e.g.
nom/acc sg gen sg
, piece a
, re
ee, wind ea
e, day
, goat a
a, tent aa
Note 1 When a mobile e follows the letter it must be replaced by in order to
indicate that the remains soft, e.g. e, lion, has gen sg a.
2 The feminine nouns , louse; , lie; , love, and , rye, lose
their o in all oblique cases except the instrumental singular. Thus has
gen/dat/prep sg , but instr sg .
9.1.4 Genitive singular forms in -/-
r
A small number of masculine nouns, including a few abstract nouns,
may have genitive singular forms in -y (or - if they have a soft stem).
These forms may be used when the genitive has partitive meaning (i.e.
when it denotes a quantity of sth), e.g.
, , to buy some peas, onions, rice
a , a a bottle of brandy, lemonade
291
9 Inection
aa a jar of honey
a e, e, e,
a, e,
to get some parafn, glue, chalk,
almonds, pepper,
a, turpentine, planks
a, a lot of people, noise
aa axapy a packet of sugar
p, e a kilo of cheese, garlic
aa a a glass of tea
Note 1 The normal genitive forms for such nouns must be used whenever a genitive
is used with any meaning other than partitive meaning (e.g. e a, the
colour of honey), or when the noun is qualied by an adjective, e.g. aa
e a, a glass of strong tea.
2 Even when the meaning is partitive the forms in -y and - are now
infrequently used in R2/R3, except in the established phrases a
and aa a. They are perhaps more widespread in R1 and among older
speakers.
r
Genitive endings in -y or - also occur in some set phrases including a
preposition which governs the genitive case. In this use they persist in
all registers, though many of the phrases tend to be colloquial. The
examples below are arranged in order according to the preposition
which governs the noun in question.
Note: the stress tends to be capricious in such phrases.
e ee (R1) only a few days
e , e ee without kith or kin
e to talk incessantly
ae needed urgently
e e in no mood for laughter
- to overlook sth
E e . She is ve years old.
c a a a eyeball-to-eyeball
ee to starve to death
to cry out from fright
to go to seed from drink
a/ - to confuse sb
9.1.5 Locative singular forms in -/-
Quite a large number of masculine nouns which denote inanimate
objects have a special prepositional singular ending (- after hard
consonants, - when the nominative ends in -) when they are used
after r a in a locative sense (i.e. when they indicate the place where
sth is situated or happening). In a few cases usage wavers between this
form and the normal ending for such nouns (-e), in which case the
irregular ending may seem more colloquial.
a (R1) at the airport
a a at a ball (dance)
a ee on the bank/shore
292
9.1 Declension of the noun
a on (ones) side
a on board (ship, plane)
in battle
e in a fever/delirium
a in the eye
in a year
a on the (River) Don
a in the heat
a a on the edge
in a circle
in the Crimea
a on (ones) forehead
e in the forest
a in the meadow
a on ice
e in honey
in the brain
a on the bridge
a on (ones) nose
(R1; e in R2/3) on leave
in a regiment
a on the oor
in port
e/ bathed in sweat
in the pool
a in paradise
in (ones) mouth
in a row (tier)
a in a garden/orchard
e in the snow
in service
in the corner
e in bloom
a in an hour
a in the cupboard
Note 1 The locative ending in - is also embodied in various set expressions, e.g.
e , to have in mind; , last year; B a? At
what time?
2 Not all the nouns in the list above invariably have locative singular in -/-;
in certain meanings or phraseological combinations they may have the regular
ending in -e, e.g. aa ae, in the Krasnodar region; e a,
by the sweat of ones brow; e e ae, in a whole series of instances.
3 The endings -/- are used only after and a, not after the other
prepositions, o, and , which may govern the prepositional case (thus
e/a but o ee/ae).
4 Even after and a the special locative endings are only used when the
meaning is literally locative, and not in such phrases as a ee, to be
knowledgeable about timber; B ae, in The Cherry Orchard (i.e.
Chekhovs play); T e, in Quiet Flows the Don (i.e. Shlokhovs
novel).
293
9 Inection
9.1.6 Masculine nouns with nominative plural in -a/-
Over the last two hundred years the endings -a (after hard consonants)
and - (after soft consonants) have been steadily extended to more and
more masculine nouns (both nouns of Russian origin and nouns of
foreign origin). Some such nouns denote objects which, when referred
to in the plural, usually occur in pairs and some are nouns of foreign
origin ending in - or -e. Many of the indigenous nouns have stress
on the rst syllable in the singular.
In many instances the plural in -a/- is now rmly established as the
only possible plural for the noun in question. In other instances both
the form in -a/- and a regular form in - (- after soft consonants,
velars and hushing consonants) are possible, in which case the form in
-a/- may have a colloquial or popular avour or may belong to the
professional jargon of a particular group.
Note: most of the nouns in the following lists (which are not exhaustive) are
inanimate and their accusative plural form is therefore the same as the
nominative plural form given here; animate nouns, on the other hand, have
accusative plural forms which coincide with the genitive plural form.
r
Nouns with rmly established plural in -a/-:
ae, address aea
e, rae ea
ee, shore, bank (of river) eea
, side (see 4.1) a
, side (of ship) a
e, buffer ea
ee, fan eea
e, century, age ea
Note: the obsolete form e persists in certain set expressions, e.g. - e,
once in a blue moon; e e, for all time.
ee, bill of exchange ee
ee, evening eea
a, ee aa
, voice, vote a
, town a
e, manager, headmaster ea
, doctor a
, house a
, gutter, trough ea
e, pearl ea
a, cornbin, granary (rhet) aa
e, inspector ea
ae, small boat aea
, bell a
a, edge, region a
, cupola, dome a
294
9.1 Declension of the noun
ee, ploughshare eea
e, forest ea
, meadow a
ae, craftsman aea
e, number, hotel room ea
a, cuff aa
, district a
e, order, warrant, writ ea
, island a
, (period of ) leave a
apyc, sail aa
a, passport aa
eee, quail eeea
a, cook aa
e, cellar ea
e, train ea
e, professor ea
po, horn a
a, sleeve aa
e, sweater ea
e, snow ea
, sort a
, stack, rick a
, watchman a
e, tenor (mus) ea
eee, black grouse eeea
, volume a
e, wing (of building) e
e, weather-vane ea
e, cattle-shed, pigsty ea
, cold spell a
, farmstead a
ee, skull eea
ae, best man (at wedding) aea
, silk ea
e, card-sharp, cheat ea
, anchor
r
Nouns whose standard nominative plural form may be felt to be -/-
but which may have -a/- in R1, D, or professional jargon. Forms
marked may be particularly frowned upon in the standard language.
e, bunker ea/e
ae, book-keeper, accountant aea/ae
, year a/
, treaty, pact a/
, designer, constructor a/
ee, cruiser (naval) eea/ee
, body (of carriage) a/
295
9 Inection
ea, baker ea/ea
e, searchlight ea/e
ea, editor eaa/ea
e, rector (head of higher
educational institution)
ea/e
e, sector ea/e
ea, metal-worker, locksmith ea/ea
, poplar tree /
a, tractor aa/a
e, workshop ea/e
, chauffeur ea/
, gale (nautical) a/
9.1.7 Irregularities in the genitive plural of nouns
There are more irregularities that affect this case than any other, viz:
insertion
of or e
(a) affects many feminine and neuter nouns in which loss of nal a or of
the nominative singular forms leaves a zero ending, e.g.
ea, squirrel e
a, fork
, window
ea, small girl ee
ee, village eee
ea, broom e
(b) e also occurs in the genitive plural forms of most neuter nouns in -e
and -, e.g.
ee, towel ee
ee, heart ee
, ring e
, porch e
Note: , egg, has .
(c) e also occurs in feminine and neuter nouns in which the rst of two
consonants preceding the nal a or o is soft, as indicated by a soft sign,
e.g.
, letter e
aa, wedding ae
a, prison e
Note: a, request, has .
change
of to e
affects feminine nouns ending in -a, e.g.
aaaa, balalaika aaae
aa, nut ae
a, bunk, berth e
ea, kopeck ee
296
9.1 Declension of the noun
aa, seagull ae
aa, gang ae
zero
ending
some masculine nouns ending in a hard consonant have a genitive
plural form that is the same as the nominative singular form, e.g.
a, time, occasion. Other nouns with this so-called zero ending
include:
(a) some nouns which, when used in the plural, refer to pairs of things,
e.g.
(ankle-high) boot
ae felt boot
a ee
(military) shoulder strap
ca boot
stocking
r
But (from , sock).
(b) the names of certain nationalities, including those formed with the
sufx - (see 6.116.12), e.g.
aa (a a) Englishman
a (a) Armenian
a Bashkir
a ( a) Bulgarian
Buriat
Georgian
Romanian
(r in R1) Turk
r
But:
e (e) Bedouin
() Kirgiz
() Mongol
a (a) Tadjik
e (e) Uzbek
a (a) Croat
() certain nouns denoting military personnel, e.g.
aa guerrilla
a soldier
(d) some units of measure, e.g.
ae ampere
a arshin (see 6.1.5)
a watt
volt
e hertz
ohm
297
9 Inection
Several other nouns have a variant with a zero ending in R1, but the
full ending in - is considered the norm, e.g.
ae orange
aaa aubergine
ea hectare
a gram
aa carat
a kilogram
aa mandarin
tomato
Note 1 ee, person, also has gen pl ee, which is used after certain numerals
(see 11.4.8), though in most contexts the genitive plural of , e, is
used instead.
2 , hair, has gen pl . This noun is always used in the plural form
(nom/acc ) in the sense of hair on ones head.
nouns in -e, - most have genitive plural forms in -, e.g.
ae, out-of-the-way place a
eee, seaboard ee
ee, gorge e
, spear
r
But:
ae, dress ae
aee (m), apprentice aee
e, mouth of river e
, gun e
nouns in -a, -a,
-a, -a
some have genitive plural forms in -e, e.g.
aa, sanctimonious person ae
a, youth e
nouns in - although most nouns in - have genitive plural in a soft consonant
(see 9.1.2), some have genitive plural forms in -e, e.g.
, uncle e
, nostril e
, aunt e
Note: , shoe (see 4.1), has gen pl e in R2 but the form e may be
encountered in R1.
nouns in - many nouns in - preceded by another consonant have a zero ending
with a hard consonant rather than the soft ending that is normal for
nouns in -, e.g.
a, tower ae
, cherry-tree e
e, song ee
a, bedroom ae
a, customs (at frontier post) ae
298
9.1 Declension of the noun
r
But:
ee, village eee
, kitchen
nouns in
-a, -e, -
have genitive plural forms in -a, -e, - respectively, e.g.
a, ock, shoal a
e, idea e
a, statue a
nouns in - have genitive plural forms in -e, e.g.
e, family ee
a, article ae
, judge, referee e
a (cloud ) has gen pl a, although in all other cases it conforms to the same
pattern as standard neuter nouns in -o (see 9.1.2).
9.1.8 Irregularities in dative/instrumental/prepositional plural forms
e (church) in R3 generally has dat/instr/prep pl ea, ea, ea,
even though it is a noun ending in a soft sign. However, in R1 and R2
soft endings are now more usual in these cases too (e,
e, e).
instr pl in - A very small number of nouns have (or may have) instrumental plural
in -, although with some of the nouns in question such usage is
restricted to certain registers or expressions:
e, children e (all registers)
a (f ), horse a (all registers)
, people (all registers)
e (f ), door e (R1) e (R23)
(f ), daughter e (R1) e (R23)
(f ), bone, in the expression e (R3, arch/rhet), to
lay down ones life (in battle)
9.1.9 Nouns which are irregular throughout the plural
(chair)
ee (tree)
A few masculine nouns which end in a hard consonant and a few
neuter nouns in -o have regular endings in the singular but have plural
forms of the following type:
nom/acc pl ee
gen pl e eee
dat pl ee
instr pl ee
prep pl ee
Like and ee are:
, stake , e, etc.
299
9 Inection
, lump , e, etc.
, twig , e, etc.
e, link (in chain) e, ee, etc.
, wing , e, etc.
e, feather e, ee, etc.
e, log e, ee, etc.
Note 1 a, brother, declines in exactly the same way, except that, being animate, it
has acc pl ae.
2 declines like when it means leaf (i.e. foliage), but it declines like a
regular masculine noun of the same type as a when it means sheet of
paper (, etc.).
3 , branch, bough, declines like , but undergoes a consonant change in its
stem: thus , e, , etc.
( friend)
(son)
These nouns are similar to and ee, but the stem for their
plural forms is not the same as that for their singular forms, and they
have accusative/genitive plural in -e:
nom pl
acc/gen pl e e
dat pl
instr pl
prep pl
Note 1 also has regular plural forms (, , a, a,
a) when it has a gurative sense, as in eea, sons of the
fatherland.
2 , prince, and , husband, have similar plural endings but no consonant
change in the stem:
nom pl
acc/gen pl e e
dat pl
instr pl
prep pl
e (knee)
nom/acc pl e
x (ear) gen pl ee e
dat pl e a
instr pl e a
prep pl e a
Note: e, shoulder, has nom/acc pl e, but regular forms in the oblique cases
(e, ea, ea, ea).
e (sky, heaven)
(miracle,
wonder)
These nouns have plural forms with a stem in c:
nom/acc pl eea ea
gen pl ee e
dat pl eea ea
instr pl eea ea
prep pl eea ea
300
9.1 Declension of the noun
e (neighbour)
(devil)
These nouns have soft endings in the plural:
nom pl e e
acc/gen pl ee ee
dat pl e e
instr pl e e
prep pl e e
nouns in - Nouns of this type (see also 6.116.12) are regular in the singular but
in the plural the last two letters (-) are removed to form the stem:
nom pl aae
acc/gen pl aa
dat pl aaa
instr pl aaa
prep pl aaa
Note 1 All these nouns are animate, hence the coincidence of accusative/genitive
forms.
2 a, Bulgarian, and aa, Tatar, also follow this pattern, except that
they have nom pl a and aa respectively.
3 a, gipsy, has plural forms ae, a, aa, etc. in the modern
language, but nom pl a in the nineteenth century (e.g. in the title of
P ushkins narrative poem).
4 , landlord, host, has plural forms ea, e, ea, ea,
ea.
5 , master, gentleman, Mr, has plural forms a, , a,
a, a.
nouns in - Nouns of this type (see also 8.7.1) are regular in the singular (except
that they have a mobile o), but in the plural have the following pattern:
nom pl ea
acc/gen pl e
dat pl ea
instr pl ea
prep pl ea
Note 1 All these nouns are animate, hence the coincidence of accusative/
genitive forms.
2 e, child, does have a plural of this type (ea, etc.), but this is a
more colloquial word for children than e, and it is also used in the sense of
lads.
9.1.10 Nouns with irregular declension throughout
neuters in - There is a small group of nouns ending in - which are neuter and
which have a stem in in all except nominative/accusative singular
forms, e.g. , name:
sg pl
nom ea
acc ea
301
9 Inection
gen e
dat e ea
instr ee ea
prep e ea
Like (but with some exceptions listed below) are:
e
a
burden
e time
a
udder
a
b
ag
a
c
ame
e tribe
e
d
seed
e
e
stirrup
e
a
crown of the head
a
No plural forms.
b
nom/acc pl aa, gen pl a, dat pl aa, etc.
c
For a plural form the expression ae, tongues of ame, is used;
is put in the case appropriate in the context.
d
gen pl e.
e
gen pl e.
a (mother)
(daughter)
These two nouns have a stem in in all oblique cases in the singular
and throughout the plural:
sg pl sg pl
nom a ae e
acc a aee ee
gen ae aee e ee
dat ae ae e e
instr ae ae e e
prep ae ae e e
in R1, instr pl e.
ae (ant) sg pl
nom ae a
acc/gen a a
dat a a
instr a a
prep ae a
Like ae are e, sparrow; e, nightingale; e, stream
(but e, being inanimate, has acc sg e).
(way, path) This is a masculine noun, but its genitive/dative/prepositional singular
forms are those of a feminine noun:
sg pl
nom/acc
gen e
302
9.1 Declension of the noun
dat
instr
prep
9.1.11 Declension of surnames
mens names in
-, -, -e,
-, -
These surnames decline like nouns ending in a hard consonant in the
accusative/genitive, dative and prepositional singular forms and in the
nominative plural, but in the remaining cases they have adjectival
endings:
sg pl sg pl
nom e e
acc/gen ea e a
dat e e
instr e e
re ee e e
Note: foreign surnames ending in -, however, follow the normal
declension pattern for nouns of this type, e.g. instr sg a.
womens names in
-a, -a, -ea,
-a, -a
These surnames have accusative singular in -y (e.g. a,
H) and the ending - in all the oblique cases in the singular
(e.g. a, H).
Note: surnames which end in a hard consonant (other than or in the above
sufxes), whether they are Russian or foreign, do not decline when a woman
is denoted, e.g. the forms e, Te (Mrs Thatcher) are used for all cases.
names in -,
-a
Surnames with these adjectival endings decline in exactly the same
way as adjectives of this type (9.3.1).
indeclinable
surnames
Surnames ending in -, -, -, -a (e.g. ,
ee, e, , X, a) are
indeclinable.
Surnames in - and -e (e.g. , Pee, Ee,
ee), which are of Ukrainian origin, are not normally declined,
especially in R3b in which it is essential to avoid the confusion that
may arise from the difculty of inferring the nominative form of a
name from an oblique case. However, some speakers may still decline
these names like feminine nouns in -a.
Also indeclinable are Georgian surnames in -ae, -e, -
(e.g. aaae, Oe, a (Stalins real
surname)), and foreign surnames ending in a vowel other than
unstressed -a or -, e.g. a, ae, , , (Dumas,
Dante, Hugo, Shaw, Zola).
Note 1 Most foreign surnames ending in unstressed -a or - do decline (e.g.
e ea, Petrarchs sonnets), but those in -a do not, e.g. aa,
Garcia.
2 Georgian names in -aa (e.g. Oaa) may decline like nouns in -a, but
are sometimes also treated as indeclinable.
303
9 Inection
9.1.12 Indeclinable nouns
Russian has quite a large number of common nouns that are
indeclinable, most of them fairly recent borrowings from other
languages that do not easily t into the Russian declensional pattern.
The gender of an indeclinable noun may be determined by the gender
of the person or creature that the noun denotes or by the gender of the
generic noun that describes the class of thing to which the object in
question belongs (generic nouns are given in brackets in the lists
below). Indeclinable nouns may be allocated to the following types.
(a) Nouns of foreign origin denoting inanimate objects: generally neuter,
e.g.
ofce
whisk(e)y
e ghetto
e depot
judges (of competition)
e interview
aa a
ae cafe
cinema
e communique
e compartment
e menu
e underground
a overcoat
a bet
a upright piano
a plateau
ee resume
a taxi
e highway
r
But:
e (m) coffee (inuenced by the older form e)
(m) sirocco (ee, wind )
(m) Hindi (, language)
e-e (f ) beri-beri (e, disease)
a (f ) kohlrabi (aa, cabbage)
a (f ) salami (aa, sausage)
(b) Nouns of foreign origin denoting people, including proper
nouns: masculine or feminine depending on whether the person is
male or female, e.g.
aae attache
Be Verdi
coolie
304
9.2 Declension of pronouns
(c) Nouns of foreign origin denoting animate beings other than people:
generally masculine, e.g.
e kangaroo
kiwi
humming-bird
pony
ae chimpanzee
Note: if the noun specically denotes the female of the species then it may be treated
as feminine, e.g. e a ea, The kangaroo was feeding its cub.
r
But:
a (f ) iwashi (small far-eastern sh; a, sh)
ee (f ) tsetse (a, y)
(d) Indeclinable Russian words which are not nouns but are used as such:
neuter, e.g.
e a a big thank you
ee ae a polite hello
aee the royal we
ee aa a bright tomorrow
9.2 Declension of pronouns
/// nom
(I/you/we/you) acc/gen e e a a
dat e ee a a
instr a a
() ()
prep e ee a a
m n f pl
//a/ nom a
acc/gen e e
(he/it/she/they) dat e e
instr e (e)
prep e
Note 1 The letter - must be added to the third-person pronouns when they occur
after the great majority of prepositions, e.g. e, e, , e e,
e, ee e, , , e , and all prepositions
governing the prepositional case. Prosthetic - is not required after e,
, aa, e, , a (see 10.1.310.1.4) or after
short comparative adjectives. Nor may it be used when e, e e, are
possessive pronouns, i.e. when they mean his/its, (belonging to) her, their,
respectively, as opposed to him, her, them.
2 The instrumental forms , , e are alternatives to , ,
e, respectively. They may be used in the written language for stylistic or
rhythmic reasons, especially with past passive participles, e.g. a
e, the document signed by me, and are particularly common when
the pronoun is not preceded by a preposition.
305
9 Inection
a (oneself/ m n f pl
myself/ nom a a aa a
yourself/ acc a/a a a a/a
himself/ gen a a a
herself/ dat a a a
ourselves/
themselves)
instr a a (a) a
prep a a a
all genders
e acc/gen e
(oneself/myself/ dat ee
yourself/himself/ instr ()
herself/ourselves/
themselves)
prep ee
all genders
a acc/gen a
(each other) dat
instr
prep () e
(, ) m n f pl
(my (your, nom
ones own)) acc /e /
gen e e
dat e e
instr e
prep e
a (a) m n f pl
(our (your)) nom a ae aa a
acc a/ae ae a a/a
gen ae ae a
dat ae ae a
instr a ae a
prep ae ae a
e, e,
(his, her, their)
These forms are invariable when they are used as possessive pronouns.
In D the adjectival form may be found instead of .
m n f pl
(this) nom a
acc / /
gen
dat
instr
prep
m n f pl
(that) nom a e
acc / a e/e
306
9.3 Adjectival forms
gen e
dat e
instr e e
prep e
e m n f pl
(all) nom e e
a e/e e/e
gen e e e
dat e e e
instr e e e
prep e e e
, , ee nom
(what, nothing, acc/gen e e ee
there is dat e e ee
nothing to) instr e e ee
prep () e () e
, , e nom
(who, no one, acc/gen e
there is no one to) dat e
instr e e ee
prep () e ()
Note: the elements of , ee, , e are usually split when
combined with a preposition, whatever the case governed by the preposition,
e.g. e, not with anybody.
e m n f pl
(whose) nom e
acc e
gen e e
dat e e
instr e (e)
prep e
9.3 Adjectival forms
9.3.1 Declension of adjectives
Accurate declension of adjectives should be taken for granted in the
advanced student. Although there are various types of adjectival
declension, the main differences are for the most part explained
entirely by the spelling rules given in 8.2.4.
standard type m n f pl
nom e a e
acc / e e/
gen
dat
307
9 Inection
instr
prep
Note: adjectives with stressed endings have masculine nominative/accusative singular
forms in -, e.g. .
stem in , , m n f pl
nom e a e
acc /
e e/
gen
dat
instr
re
Note: adjectives with stem in , , x and stressed endings have forms in - in
the masculine nominative/accusative singular, e.g. .
stem in m n f pl
, , , nom ee a e
a /
e
ee e/
gen e e
dat e e
instr e
prep e e
Note: adjectives with stressed endings have masculine nominative/accusative singular
forms in -, and in all endings that in have e, e.g.
m n f pl
nom e a e
acc /
e e/
gen
dat
instr
prep
adjectives in - m n f pl
nom ee e
acc /e ee e/
gen e e
dat e e
instr e
prep e e
For a list of adjectives like see 8.9.
adjectives m n f pl
like e nom e ee e e
acc e/
ee
ee e e/e
308
9.3 Adjectival forms
gen ee ee e
dat ee ee e
instr e ee e
prep ee ee e
Like e are a number of adjectives derived from the names
of living creatures, e.g. , wolf s; , cows, bovine; a,
cats, feline; , birds; a, dogs, canine.
9.3.2 Formation of short adjectives
r
Short adjectives have four indeclinable forms which distinguish gender
and number. The masculine form is found by removing the masculine
nominative singular ending (-, -, r -); the feminine, neuter
and plural forms are found by adding -a, -o (-e in unstressed endings
after hushing consonants) and - (- after velars and hushing
consonants) respectively to the masculine form, e.g.
, new: , a, ,
e, fresh: e, ea, e, e
e, brilliant: e, ea, ee, e
, strict: , a, ,
, young: , a, ,
Note 1 Some adjectives have short forms which may not be used in the whole range
of meanings of which the long form is capable, e.g. , a, ,
() may mean alive but not lively; a, aa, a, a
(a) may mean old in the sense not young and not new, but not in the
sense of long-standing.
2 a, aa, a, a, glad, has short forms only.
r
In many adjectives a vowel must be inserted between the last
two consonants of the masculine short form, e.g.
(a) common adjectives with o inserted, e.g. (, near):
, exible; a, smooth; e, bold; , long (of time);
e, strong; , light, easy; , agile; , soft, mild;
, low; e, rare; e, sharp, harsh; a, sweet; ,
thin; , narrow;
(b) common adjectives with e inserted, e.g. ee (e, poor):
e, pale; e, harmful; , sad; ee,
interesting; a, red; , pleasant; e, bright, radiant;
, boring; , exact, precise; , difcult; e,
honest; , clear;
(c) common adjectives with ( after hushing consonants) inserted:
(, intelligent), e (e, funny).
Note: , strong, has e or .
r
Many adjectives have no short form. These include all or most
adjectives of the following types:
309
9 Inection
(a) adjectives denoting material, many of which end in -a() or
-()/-, e.g. a, leather; ee, silver;
ee, wooden; e, woollen (see 8.9);
(b) adjectives of participial origin ending in - (see 8.10), e.g. a,
tired;
(c) adjectives ending in -, -, e.g. ee, spring; e,
last; a, domestic (see 8.9);
(d) adjectives ending in -/-, e.g. e, violet; e,
eld;
(e) adjectives ending in -/-, e.g. a, English; ,
male.
Note 1 e, weighty, does have short forms (e, ea, e, e) because
its sufx is not - but -, the -c- being part of the stem.
2 Many adjectives in -e have synonyms in - which do have short
forms, e.g. a (=ae), tragic: short forms ae,
aa, a, a.
9.3.3 Formation of short comparatives
r
Most adjectives have a short comparative form. This form, which
is indeclinable, is derived from the long form of the adjective in one of
the following ways:
(a) in most adjectives, by addition of -ee to the stem, e.g.
, new ee
ee, interesting eeee
e, useful eee
(b) in adjectives whose stem ends in , , , , or the combination , by
a consonant change (to , , , r , respectively) and the addition
of -e to the stem thus formed, e.g.
, strict e
, rm e
a, rich ae
, dry e
, clean e
Note: has eee.
(c) in many adjectives ending in -, by the consonant change ,
and the addition of -e to the stem thus formed, e.g.
, loud e
e, strong ee
, soft e
, bright e
Note: has ee.
310
9.3 Adjectival forms
(d) in many other common adjectives, including many which end
in -, by some other means, e.g.
, near e
, deep e
a, distant ae
e, cheap eee
, long (of time) e
, short e
e, shallow ee
, late e (r ee)
a, early ae (r aee)
e, rare ee
a, sweet ae
, thin e
, narrow e
, wide e
Note: , bitter, has e in its literal meaning, but when used guratively
has e.
r
The short comparative forms of the following eight adjectives, six of
which are themselves already comparatives, give particular difculty:
, bigger e
e, smaller ee
, better e
, worse e
a, older (of people), senior ae
a, junior ae
, high e
, low e
Note: the form e must be used as a comparative of a when it means
younger.
r
Outside R2 the sufx -e may be encountered, as an alternative to -ee,
e.g. e. This sufx may have an archaic or colloquial avour, or it
may be used in verse for metrical reasons.
r
The prex - is frequently attached to the short comparative,
especially in R1, to modify the meaning, e.g. e, a little bigger,
e, a bit better.
r
There are many adjectives from which short comparative forms cannot
be derived, especially:
(a) those in - or -, e.g. , Russian; , male;
(b) those in -/- or -e/-e, e.g. a, mass;
ee, advanced;
(c) those of verbal origin in -, e.g. a, tired;
(d) some in -, e.g. e, bold; , sticky; , timid;
, slippery;
311
9 Inection
(e) miscellaneous adjectives, e.g. , ill; e, decrepit; ,
proud; , superuous.
9.4 Formation of adverbs
Adverbs are formed in the following ways:
(a) from adjectives with a stem in a hard consonant and from present and
past passive participles (or adjectives derived from them), by addition
of -o to the stem, e.g.
, quick
e, inevitable e
a, agitated a
(b) from adjectives with a stem in a soft consonant and from
adjectives derived from present active participles, by addition of -e to
the stem, e.g.
a, extreme ae
e, brilliant ee
Note: some adjectives in - have adverbs in -o, e.g. a (a);
(); a (a); e has either e or
ee.
(c) from adjectives in -, -, -, by addition of - to the stem,
e.g.
e, amicable e
ae, masterly ae
e, spirited e
(d) by prexing - to a masculine/neuter dative form of the adjective or
an adverb of the type in (c) above, to form adverbs of manner, e.g.
- in a different way
-ee as before
-e in my opinion
- (in) Russian
-ee like a human being
(e) by a combination of preposition + short adjective or long adjective or
noun, e.g.
aa to the right
ea slightly
e fully
hard-boiled (of egg)
ae nally
in succession
aaa at rst
ae married (of woman)
aae n the eve
312
9.5 Declension of numerals
(f ) in miscellaneous other ways, such as by use of the instrumental form of
a noun or on the basis of a numeral, e.g.
in a whisper
e in spring
e on foot
as a pair
9.5 Declension of numerals
(1) m n f pl
nom a
a / /
gen
dat
instr
prep
a/e (2), m/n f all genders all genders
(3), nom a e ee
ee (4) acc a/ e/ / ee/e
gen e
dat e
instr e e
prep e
a/e m/n f
(both) nom a a
acc a/ e/e
gen e
dat e
instr e
prep e
Note: in R1 the distinctive feminine form may be lost in the oblique cases, e.g.
aa, in both rooms.
(5) nom/acc
gen/dat/prep
instr
Like are all cardinal numerals up to aa and a.
Note: the normal instrumental singular form of e is ; the form
e is obsolescent.
(40), nom/acc e
e (90),
(100)
gen/dat/instr/prep a ea a
e (50) nom/acc e
gen/dat/prep e
instr e
313
9 Inection
Like e are ee, 60, ee, 70, and ee,
80.
Note: the genitive/dative/prepositional form of ee is e and
the instrumental form is e.
e (200), nom/acc e a eea
a (300), gen e
eea (400) dat a a ea
instr a ea ea
prep a a ea
(500),
e (800)
nom/acc e
gen
dat a a
instr a a
prep a a
Like are e (600), e (700), e (900).
the collective nom e e ee
numerals e (2), acc e/ e/ ee/ee
e (3), ee (4) gen ee
dat ee
instr ee
prep ee
The collective noun , hundred, declines like a noun in
- (gen pl e).
other words
denoting number
The word a, thousand, declines like a noun in -a (instr
sg e), but may also be used as a numeral in which case it
has instr sg .
The words , million, and a, billion, are nouns
and decline like other nouns ending in a hard consonant.
Ordinal numbers e, , e, etc. decline like adjectives
of the type in question (see 9.3.1 above).
A few other quantitative words have adjectival plural forms for use
in the oblique cases, viz , many; e, not many, a few;
e, several; , so many; and ?, how many?, viz:
acc/gen e
dat e
instr e
re e
acc/gen e
dat e
instr e
prep e c
314
9.6 Verb forms
9.6 Verb forms
9.6.1 The system of conjugation
Russian verbs may be divided into two broad conjugations.
conjugation 1 Endings characterised by the vowel e (or under stress) in the second
and third persons singular and the rst and second persons plural (i.e.
, /a/, , forms). This conjugation may be subdivided
into two types, one of which has four sub-types:
1A stem of present/future tense is derived by removing nal - of
the innitive, e.g. aa/;
1B stem of present/future tense is derived in some other way (in
many instances because the innitive ends in some combination
other than vowel + , e.g. e, e, e, a, e,
). 1B may be further subdivided into the following
sub-types:
i. vowel stem + unstressed ending, e.g. (-);
ii. vowel stem + stressed ending, e.g. aa (a-);
iii. consonant stem + unstressed ending, e.g. ea (e-);
iv. consonant stem + stressed ending, e.g. (-).
conjugation 2 Endings characterised by the vowel in the second and third persons
singular and the rst and second persons plural (i.e. , /a/,
, forms). In this conjugation the rst person singular and the
third person plural (i.e. and forms) are modied in certain verbs
in accordance with basic spelling rules (see 8.2.4(b) above). Moreover,
in the rst person singular certain consonants at the end of the stem
have to be changed (8.2.5) or require the insertion after them of the
letter -- (8.2.6). The endings of verbs in the two conjugations
therefore are:
conjugation 1 conjugation 2
() - (- after consonant
) - (- after hushing
consonant)
() -e (- under stress) -
(/a) -e (- under stress) -
() -e (- under stress) -
() -ee (-e under stress) -e
() - (- after consonant
, to
wave (a, ae, etc.); a
, to splash; a
to go deaf
e
e
xe
ee
318
9.6 Verb forms
Like :
i. many other verbs which denote change of state, e.g. , to fade;
, to turn sour; , to freeze (intrans); , to get wet;
e, to go blind; , to get dry;
ii. many verbs derived from the following roots: -e-, -e-, --,
--, --, --, -e-, e.g. e, to resort (to);
e, to refute; e, to overthrow; , to get used
(to); , to arise; , to penetrate; , to
attain; a, to die down; e, to disappear;
iii. many semelfactive verbs, e.g. , to shout; , to jump;
iv. miscellaneous, e.g. , to ash, are up; , to move;
, to sink, drown (intrans); , to touch; , to pull.
Note: there are also many verbs in - that have stressed endings (see 9.6.7(c)
below).
(d) Miscellaneous verbs:
ea e
to be to go to sit down
e
e ee e
e ee e
e ee e
ee eee ee
e
Note: , etc., is the future tense of , there being no present tense of this verb
in modern Russian (except the form e in certain circumstances; see 4.2).
e e
to climb to lie down to be able
e
ee e e
ee e e
ee e e
eee ee ee
e
9.6.7 1B verbs with consonant stems and stressed endings
(a) Various verbs with stems in :
a a
to live to swim to call to tear
319
9 Inection
e e e e
Like : , to have a reputation for.
(b) Verbs with stem in r :
a
to understand to take to press
e e e
Like : a, to occupy, borrow; a, to rent, hire. (But see
9.6.6(b) above for verbs in - which have a stem in and
unstressed endings.)
aa a
to begin to crumple to reap to swear
a
a
a
a
ae e e e
a
(c) Verbs in -:
to bend
e e e e e
, to prick , a, ,
, to drink , a, ,
e, to cure e, ea, e, e
(b) verbs in -, -: the nal - r - is lost and the remaining stem
serves as the masculine form, e.g.
e, to take , ea, e, e
e, to climb e, ea, e, e
(c) verbs in - with stems in or c: the masculine form ends in the
consonant with which the present-/future-tense stem ends, e.g.
e, to row (e/) , ea, e, e
e, to carry (e/) , ea, e, e
(d) verbs in - or - with stems in r : the consonant with which
the present-/future-tense stem ends is replaced with - in the
masculine form, e.g.
e, to lead (e/) , ea, e, e
e, to sweep (e/) , ea, e, e
a, to put (a/) a, aa, a, a
a, to steal (a/) a, aa, a, a
325
9 Inection
(e) verbs in -: the nal - of the innitive is replaced with the velar
with which the stem of the rst-person-singular form of the
present-/future-tense ends, e.g.
ee, to be careful (ee/) e, eea, ee, ee
e, to lie down (/) , ea, e, e
, to cut (hair; /) , a, ,
, to be able (/) , a, ,
e, to bake (e/) , ea, e, e
Note: e, to burn (/), has , a, , .
(f ) : , a, ,
Note: stress in e is on the prex.
(g) verbs in -ee lose the nal -e in their masculine form, e.g.
ee, to die e, ea, e, e
aee, to lock ae, aea, ae, ae
ee, to rub off , a, ,
(h) some verbs in - with stress on stem, including verbs denoting
change of state (see 9.6.6(c)), lose this sufx in the masculine form, e.g.
, to arise , a, ,
, to attain , a, ,
a, to freeze a, aa, a,
a
e, to disappear e, ea, e, e
, to perish , a, ,
Note: the tendency is for verbs of this type to lose their sufx in the past tense, and
forms which preserve it have an archaic avour.
(i) , to be mistaken , a, ,
, to hurt oneself , a, ,
a
e a.
This happened 100 kilometres from here.
a e e e a day before his death
HA (a) on to, on, when movement is involved:
a/ - a to put sth on the oor
a/e a to sit down on the chair
(b) to, into with those nouns listed in 10.1.6 (a (b)) which require a +
prepositional case for the translation of in or at, e.g.
a a to the exhibition
a to the market
(c) for a period of time, when one is dening what period an action is
intended or expected to cover (cf. use of accusative without a
preposition; see 10.4 ( for) and 11.1.2):
O ee M a ee. He is going to Moscow for a week.
Oa eaa a a . She came to us for a year.
(d) for a certain purpose:
a a c (rationing) coupons for meat
e a ee dinner for ve people
(e) by a certain margin:
O a a a ae aa. He is two years older than his brother.
a a
e.
These products have become a thousand
per cent more expensive.
O against in the sense of in contact with:
a/ o
ae
to stumble against a stone
side by side
O up to a certain point in space or time:
e e
Ba eea
aae a.
to stand up to ones neck in water
The visa is valid up to 20 May inclusive.
O (a) under, when movement into a position is involved:
a aea a. The cat went under the bed.
(a) . I put the books under the table.
335
10 Prepositions
(b) towards, in a temporal sense, or just before:
ee towards evening
E e. He is getting on for forty.
(c) to the accompaniment of a sound:
aea to dance to music
a to write to dictation
(d) in imitation of:
an imitation gold ring
a to write in the style of Gogol
PO (a) about or concerning; more or less synonymous with o + prep, but
characteristic of R1; used only with the accusative:
Ma to speak about Masha
e to sing about love
(b) + e, to in certain phrases:
a e to think to oneself
a e to read to oneself
C with nouns denoting measurement, distance, time, etc., in the sense of
approximately, about:
e a to weigh about a kilogram
M c . We walked about a mile.
(a) a ee. I was there about a week.
CBO through, esp when passage through sth is difcult; used only with
the accusative:
a/a
to force ones way through a crowd
e laughter through tears
EPE (a) across, through, or over when this preposition means across; used only
with the accusative:
ee ee to cross (over) the road
eeea/eee ee
a
to climb over the fence
(b) in (a certain amount of time from the time of speaking):
ee ee e. In a week he returned.
Note: there is a similar spatial use in phrases such as ee e a, in two
stops (i.e. when one is going to get off a bus or train).
(c) via a place:
O ea a ee M. He went there via Moscow.
336
10.1 Valency of prepositions
(d) through an intermediary:
e- ee
eea
to speak to sb through an interpreter
(e) when an action affects alternate objects in a series:
aa ee e to work every other day
eaa/aeaa ee
round:
eee ea a journey round the world
BEPE
MO past:
/ a to go past the house
HAP
OTB opposite:
M e
a e.
We agreed to meet opposite the church.
HACT about, as regards:
a a ae aa? What about your report?
OCE after:
e a after supper
OCPE
among, amid:
e among the young
Ce eee a, Among the refugees are old men women,
e e. and children.
(a) by in the sense of near:
Oa a y a.
She was standing by the window.
a house by the sea
(b) at in the sense of Fr chez and related meanings:
M ae a. We shall have supper at your place.
O e ee. He still lives with his parents.
(c) + nouns and personal pronouns to indicate possession; in this sense
corresponds to the English verb to have (4.1):
a e a aa. Weve got a new car.
e a a a. Ive got a request to make of you.
(d) + personal pronouns, in R1, in lieu of possessive pronoun:
Caa e ee. My Sashas a good man.
(e) + nouns and personal pronouns in expressions indicating pain or
discomfort:
e . Ive got toothache.
e . Shes got a sore throat.
(f ) to denote dispossession or taking away:
aa/a e
-
to borrow money from sb
a . Theyve taken everything away
from us.
342
10.1 Valency of prepositions
10.1.4 Prepositions governing the dative
The commonest preposition governing the dative case is , which is
used much more widely with the dative than with the accusative or the
prepositional, and which has many meanings. K is also very common,
but the remaining prepositions which may govern the dative are
restricted in their use.
AOAP
thanks to:
aa e a thanks to her presence
of mind
BOPE
a aa e e
aa.
I cant afford this car.
Note: as pointed out by Wade (see Sources), has also made some progress in
the language at the expense of more precise prepositions in phrases such as
aa eae (=aa ea), programme of literature;
ee (= a e), prize for shooting.
344
10.1 Valency of prepositions
O
OHO like, similar to:
a aee to shout like a madman
CO
AO) over, above, on top of, used only with the instrumental:
Ha a. A chandelier hangs over the table.
a over me
EPE (
a aa
at 100 kilometres per hour e
a
at any price e
at ones own expense a
at rst sight a e
at home a
at last ae
at least ae ee
at leisure a e
at night
at once a
at the request of e
357
10 Prepositions
BECAUSE OF -a + gen (esp for negative reason); aa + dat (=thanks to);
ee + gen (=owing to; more formal, R2/3)
because of an earthquake -a eee
thanks to your foresight aa ae
ee
Owing to the rain the fair did not
take place.
Bee aa
e a.
BEFORE (a) in a temporal sense: + gen (=previous to, earlier than); ee + instr
(=[just] before):
before the revolution e
long before a
We changed before dinner. M eee ee e.
(b) when before is followed by an English gerund it may be translated by
ee + a verbal noun or by ee e + inn, e.g.
before leaving ee e
before replying ee e e
(c) indicating location: ee + instr:
You see before you a list. B e ee .
before the court ee
(d) in other expressions:
before long
before now ae
before witnesses ee
the day before yesterday aea
BEHIND (a) indicating motion behind: a + a:
The sun went behind a cloud. Ce a a a.
He put his hands behind his back. O a a .
(b) indicating location: a + instr:
She was walking behind me. Oa a a .
He was hiding behind a tree. O a a ee.
(c) in other senses and expressions:
She is behind the other girls
in her class.
Oa a ee
ae.
The team is behind the captain. aa eae aaa.
Whats behind this? a e?
BELOW/
BENEATH
(a) indicating motion below: + a:
The swimmer dived below
the water.
e .
358
10.4 Rendering of English prepositions in Russian
(b) indicating location: + instr:
below ground e e
below the surface e
(c) meaning lower than, inferior to: e + gen:
below average e ee
below a captain in rank e aaa a
beneath criticism e
beneath my dignity e e a
BEYOND =behind in the senses described in (a) and (b) above; also in certain
expressions, e.g.
beyond belief ee
beyond ones means e ea
beyond reach e ae
beyond ones understanding e a
BY (a) indicating agent or instrument or means of transport: instrumental
case with no preposition:
The play was written by Chekhov. ea a aaa e.
The building was destroyed by
a re.
ae e a.
by train e
Note: in phrases of the following sort, which lack a verb, the genitive may be used:
a play by Chekhov ea ea
a speech by the president e eea
(b) meaning in accordance with, and also indicating means of
communication: + dat:
by nature e
by this clock aa
by television eee
(c) meaning in the vicinity of : y + gen; + gen; e + gen;
c + instr (=next to); + gen (=alongside):
to sit by the window e / a
She was standing by the bus-stop. Oa a / a
a.
She was sitting by me. Oa ea e e.
The shop is by the theatre. Maa a
ea.
a track by the river a e
(d) meaning past: + gen:
She went by the bank. Oa a aa.
359
10 Prepositions
(e) meaning by way of: ee + acc:
She came in by the side entrance. Oa a ee .
(f ) meaning not after: + dat:
by Saturday e
It always snows by Christmas. Bea e Pe.
(g) indicating a margin of difference, and also expressing multiplication,
division or combination of dimensions: a + acc:
older by one week ae a ee
They increased my salary by a
thousand pounds.
e aa a
.
ten by ve e a
(h) after verbs meaning to take hold of : a + acc:
He took her by the hand. O e a .
I seized him by the neck. a(a) e a e.
(i) in miscellaneous other expressions:
by chance a
by means of e + gen; + gen
by no means e e; e (R3)
by mistake e
by the way e /a
to know sb by sight a -
to learn sth by heart - a
to pay by the month a/aa e
one by one a
step by step a a a
DOWN (a) meaning along: + dat:
down the corridor
He is going down the road. O e.
(b) meaning descending along: + dat; c + gen:
I am going downstairs. ( ee).
downstream ee
They came down the hill. O .
DURING (a) meaning at some point in: e + gen:
He died during the war. O e e .
I left during the interval. /a e aaa.
(b) meaning throughout, in the course of : eee + gen; a e
+ gen; these expressions are used mainly with nouns which have
temporal meaning:
During the 80s the USSR
was collapsing.
B eee e
CCCP aaa.
360
10.4 Rendering of English prepositions in Russian
During the last century Russian
literature ourished.
Ha e ea
eaa a eaa.
(c) meaning in the reign/rule/time of: + prep:
censorship during the reign
of Nicholas
ea Hae
the terror during Stalins rule e Cae
EXCEPT FOR e + gen; a ee + gen (=with the exception of );
a + acc (=excepting; R3):
Everybody left except me. Bce e e.
All the students passed the exam
except for one.
Bce e, a ee
, a ae.
All the conditions were agreed
except for one.
Be aa
a .
FOR (a) indicating benet, purpose, suitability or unsuitability: + gen:
a present for you a e
clothes for big people ea e
ae
The book is useful for foreigners. e ee ae.
Polluted air is bad for ones health. a ee
.
Note: with verbs, or when a verb is understood, the person beneting may be in
the dative, e.g.
She bought a tie for me. Oa a e a.
Theres a letter for you. Ba . (R1)
(b) expressing duration, time spent doing sth or distance covered:
accusative case with no preposition; eee + gen:
He lay for a week in hospital. O ea ee e.
I have been living here for a year. e .
I ran ( for) a mile. ea(a) .
for a month eee ea
(c) indicating the amount of time action is expected to last, or that sth is
arranged for a certain time or intended for a certain purpose: a +
acc:
He has gone to Moscow for a week. O ea M a ee.
closed for the winter a a
for a long time a
forever aea
a meeting arranged for two oclock ea, aaea a a aa
dinner for two e a
a house for sale a a
for example ae
361
10 Prepositions
(d) meaning in return for, and also indicating support for sb or sth: a +
a:
I paid the cashier for the book aa(a) ae a .
We thanked them for their
hospitality.
M aa a
e.
an eye for an eye a
He is voting for me. O e a e.
(e) meaning in search of: a + instr:
I sent for a doctor. a(a) a .
(f ) after many nouns indicating attitude: + dat:
love for ones country e
a passion for music a e
respect for foreigners aee aa
(g) in miscellaneous other expressions, e.g.
for and against a
for certain aea
for the rst time e a/ee
for hours on end e aa
for this reason e
for Gods sake a a
as for me aae e
known for e + instr
once for all a aea
There were no houses for miles
around.
Ha e e
.
to cry for joy aa a
to get married for love e
He is tall for his age. O e ea.
to ask for / + a or gen r
+ re
to long for a + dat
to look for a + a r gen
to be sorry for sb ae -
to wait for a/a + a
or gen
FROM (a) meaning out of (i.e. the opposite of + acc); originating from, made of :
+ gen:
We went from Moscow to
Minsk.
M ea M
M.
from afar aea
fruit from Spain a
sausages made from pork , eae
362
10.4 Rendering of English prepositions in Russian
(b) meaning away from (i.e. the opposite of r ); expressing distance
from; indicating person from whom sth originates; indicating
protection, freedom, concealment, separation, difference from;
meaning by reason of: + gen:
The train is drawing away from
the platform.
e a.
from here/there a/a
two minutes from the centre a ea
a present from my mother a e ae
protection from the gale aa aaa
exemption from taxation ee a
cut off from civilisation ea a
Russian architecture differs from
ours.
Pa aea ae
ae.
He collapsed from exhaustion. O a ee.
(c) meaning off, down from (i.e. the opposite of a + acc; therefore used to
mean from before nouns in 10.1.6, a (be)); meaning by reason of in
R1; and also since: c + gen:
The book fell from the shelf. a aa .
from east to west c a a aa
from the Urals c aa
from above/below e/
from boredom
from 1 April c e ae
from childhood c ea
(d) indicating removal of sth that belongs to sb else: y + gen:
She took the toy away from the
child.
Oa a ea .
He borrowed a mower from his
neighbour.
O a a ea.
(e) preceding a gerund: innitive form of verb:
You are preventing me from working. T eae e aa.
(f ) in many other expressions:
from bad to worse e e
from behind -a + gen
from generation to generation e ee
from time to time e ee
from under - + gen
change from a pound aa a
The town dates from the tenth
century.
e e.
a year from now ee
363
10 Prepositions
IN (a) indicating location; indicating a point in a month, decade, year,
century, time of life, or in the past, present or future; also describing
attire: + prep:
in the garden a
I read it in a newspaper. a(a) aee.
in March ae
in 1994 a e
e e
in the last decade of the century ee ee ea
in the twentieth century aa ee
in old age a
in the future e
in a blue shirt e ae
(b) indicating motion into or duration of an action or period: + acc:
She went in the canteen. Oa a .
in that age
(c) expressing in with periods of the day and seasons of the year;
expressing in in some adverbial phrases of manner; indicating material
used in some action; also indicating method of arranging people or
things: instrumental case with no preposition:
in the morning
in winter
in a loud voice
to write in ink a ea
in small groups e a
in rows a
(d) meaning in with certain nouns listed in 10.1.6, a (be); dening
time in relation to the beginning of a certain period; also in certain
set phrases: a + prep:
in the street a e
in Cuba a e
in the north a eee
in the war a e
in the kitchen (in order to cook) a e
in the rst minute of the second half a e e aa
in my lifetime a e
in old age a a e (R1)
(e) indicating time taken to complete an action or meaning over a period:
a + acc:
Five centimetres of rain fell in one
day.
a e a
ae .
(f ) indicating time after a certain interval: ee + acc:
Ill come back in a week. e ee ee.
364
10.4 Rendering of English prepositions in Russian
(g) meaning on the subject of: + dat:
an exam in geography ae ea
research in electronics ea ee
(h) meaning in the reign/time of, and in phrases indicating attendant
circumstances: + prep:
in Pushkins time e
in the Brezhnev era eee
in complete silence a
(i) in other expressions:
in advance aaee
in all respects e e
in answer to e a + a
in any case ae
in the circumstances
in custody ae
in the end e
in the evenings eea
in general e
in good time aaee (R3)
in honour of e + gen
in memory of a + gen
in a minute ea
in the name of e + gen
in my opinion e e/-e
(R1/2)
in respect of e + dat (R3)
in spite of e a + a
in succession
in turn ee
to believe in God e a
blind in one eye e/ea a a
deaf in one ear /a a
Im in my twenties. Me a aa.
an interest in politics ee e
just in case a a
to be in power a
The word ends in a soft sign. C ae a a.
INSIDE (a) indicating location: + re; + gen:
inside the house e
We do not know what is happening
inside the country.
M e ae, ` o
a.
(b) indicating motion: generally + acc:
to go inside the house /
365
10 Prepositions
INSTEAD OF e + gen:
Have some juice instead of water. Bee a e .
Note: this preposition should not be confused with ee, together.
INTO (a) generally + acc:
They went into the hall. O a.
to fall into a trap aa/a
The water turned into ice. Ba eaa .
(b) with some nouns denoting open spaces (see 10.1.6, a (bc)); after
certain verbs with the prex a-; indicating division: a + acc:
She came out into the street. Oa a a .
I cut the loaf into pieces. aea(a) e a .
OF (a) expressing possession or quantity and in other functions: genitive case
with no preposition:
the roof of the house a a
the end of the lecture e e
a slice of bread ea
a litre of beer a
a bunch of keys a e
the rector of the institute e a
(b) expressing identity or denition: noun in apposition, or use of
adjective:
the city of London
the Isle of Wight a
the month of May e a
the University of Oxford O ee
the Battle of Borodino e aee
the Sea of Azov Ae e
Lawrence of Arabia e Aa
(c) meaning out of or consisting of; also indicating material of which sth is
made: + gen:
one of the students /a e
some of them ee
a family of four e e ee
a table made of wood eea
(d) indicating amount, capacity, dimension: + acc:
an article of twenty pages a aa a
an army of 100,000 men a a
a building of ten stories ae e ae
a eld of three hectares e a
eaa
366
10.4 Rendering of English prepositions in Russian
(e) in other functions and expressions:
of course e
your letter of 2 May Bae a
the Battle of Stalingrad a Caa
capable of anything a
characteristic of aae + gen
typical of + gen
a charge of murder ee e
east of Moscow M
envy of (ones) neighbour a e
news of the accident e aa
a view of the forest a e
a of a document () ea
The room smells of smoke. B ae ae aa.
OFF (a) meaning off the surface of sth, down from: c + gen:
I took the saucepan off the stove. (a) a .
He fell off the ladder. O a e.
(b) meaning at a distance from: + gen:
two kilometres off the coast a a e
eea
not far off eae
ea
(c) indicating dispossession or removal: y + gen:
I borrowed a book off him. (a) e a.
(R1)
He broke the handle off the door. O e.
(d) in certain expressions:
off the beaten track e e
off colour (unwell) e/ea
(not in form) e e
off work e a ae
gds at ten per cent off a a e e e
e
Kee off the grass. He ae.
Shes off her food. e e aea.
Hes off his rocker. O a. (R1)
ON (a) indicating location: a + re:
Hes sitting on a stool. O a aee.
n board a
(b) indicating movement on to: a + a:
He climbed on the roof. O e a .
They got on the train. O e a e.
367
10 Prepositions
(c) n a day of the week: + acc:
on Wednesday e
on that day e
(d) repeatedly on a certain day: + dat pl:
on Saturdays a
on free days
(e) expressing a date: genitive case with no preposition:
on 1 March e aa
on 22 June aa
(f ) in certain other expressions of time: a + acc:
on the following day a e e
on the fourth day a e e
on this occasion a a
(g) meaning immediately after, on the expiry of: e + gen; + prep
(R3):
on arrival e ea
on expiry of the visa ee
On graduating she went abroad. a eea a
eaa a a.
(h) indicating means of transport; also in certain expressions of time:
instrumental case with no preposition:
on a bus a
on horseback e
on a spring evening ee ee
(i) meaning on the subject of: + dat; o + prep:
a lecture on geology e e
an article on Blok a e
( j) indicating a means of communication: + dat:
I heard about it on the radio. a(a) a.
(k) in other meanings and expressions:
on average ee
on no account e ae
n behalf of e + gen
on the contrary a
on leave e
on the left ea
on the right aa
on the occasion of a + gen
on the one hand
368
10.4 Rendering of English prepositions in Russian
on the other hand
on one condition
on purpose a
on the quiet (R1)
on time -e
on time (according to
timetable)
aa
on the way home e
cash on delivery a ae
The house is on re. .
I had no money on me. e e ee .
The workers are on strike. Pae a.
to work on sth aa a e-
OPPOSITE + gen; a + gen:
They were sitting opposite each
other.
O e a.
He is standing opposite the
Kremlin.
O a e.
Note: in the meaning of opposite and a are interchangeable, but only
may mean against.
OUT OF (a) in most meanings: + gen:
She came out of the shop. Oa a aaa.
He took a coin out of his pocket. O e aaa.
a chapter out of a novel aa aa
four out of ve students ee e
Its made out of iron. Cea eea.
(b) meaning outside: e + gen; a + instr (=beyond ):
out of control e
out of danger e a
out of earshot e ee
out of reach/range e ee ae
out of sight e e
out of turn e ee
out of town a
out of the country a ae
() indicating cause or motive: + gen; + gen; c + gen (R1):
out of respect for you ae a
out of pity / a
out of spite (R2)
(d) in certain other expressions:
out of breath aa (act part)
aa (gerund)
369
10 Prepositions
out of doors a e/a e
(in the open air) a e
out of fashion e e
out of order e e
(not working) ea/e aae
Out of my sight! a!
out of work e a
to get out of bed aa/a e
Were out of bread. a e.
Its out of the question. O e e e.
OUTSIDE (a) meaning in the vicinity of : + gen; y + gen; ee + instr (=in
front of ):
I met her outside the park. e e / aa.
The cars outside the house. Maa ee .
(b) meaning on the outside of, beyond: e + gen; a + instr; a eea +
gen (=beyond the bounds of ):
Its outside my competence.
e e ee.
There was a policeman outside the
window.
a e.
He is not known outside Russia. O eee a eea
P.
OVER (a) meaning across: ee + a; a + a:
a bridge over the river ee e
He crossed over the threshold. O ee a .
to throw overboard a/ a
Note: ee may be omitted when the verb bears the prex epe-, which may carry
the same meaning (see also 10.1.2).
(b) indicating location beyond, on the other side of : a + instr;
+ gen:
I heard a voice over the fence. a(a) a .
They live overseas. O a e.
the forest over the border e a
(c) meaning above: a + instr:
A chandelier hangs over the table. Ha a.
A threat hangs over us. Ha a a.
(d) meaning over the top of: e + gen:
to look over ones spectacles e e
(e) meaning on to: a + acc:
She drew a blanket over the child. Oa aa e a
ea.
370
10.4 Rendering of English prepositions in Russian
(f ) meaning across the surface of sth; also by a means of communication:
+ dat:
A boat sped over the water. ae a e.
all over the world e e
over the radio a
(g) meaning in the course of a certain period: eee + gen; a + acc:
The situation deteriorated over
many years.
Ca aa eee
e.
They have all fallen ill over
the last week.
O e ae a e
ee.
Note: eee emphasises duration and therefore occurs with an imperfective verb,
whilst a emphasises the completed nature of the event and therefore tends to
dictate the use of a perfective.
(h) meaning more than: e + gen; e + gen (used with
numerals); e + gen (=over and above, in excess of ):
He drank over a litre of wine. O e a a.
over a million voters e a aee
over (and above) the norm e
(i) in other expressions:
over a cup of tea a a a
Its over my head.
e e a.
to go head over heels ee
to stumble over sth a/ -
PAST (a) indicating motion alongside and beyond sth: + gen:
He ran past me. O ea e.
(b) indicating location beyond: a + instr:
The theatre is past the church. Tea a a e.
(c) meaning after: e + gen; a + acc; e + gen:
past midnight e /a
Shes past fty. E a e.
Its past ten oclock. e e.
(d) in expressions of time: no preposition:
ten past one e
at half past six e e
ROUND (a) indicating rotation and encirclement: + gen; (+ gen;
encirclement only):
All the guests were sitting round
the table.
Bce e a.
371
10 Prepositions
The earth revolves round
the sun.
e aae a.
(b) expressing approximation: + gen:
round (about) midnight
round a thousand dollars a
Note: the adverbs e, approximately, and e, roughly, may also
be used, with no preposition, to express approximation with numbers, e.g.
e , round a hundred pounds.
() expressing motion in various directions (often with indeterminate
verbs of motion): + dat:
Shes walking round the garden. Oa a.
His things are scattered round
the room.
E e aa ae.
(d) after verbs bearing the prex - round may have no prepositional
equivalent:
He walked round the puddle. O .
The nurse put pillows round him. Meea a e
a.
THROUGH (a) indicating passage through: ee + acc (also meaning via); +
acc (often implying difculty); + acc:
I went through France. ea(a) ee a.
We went to Moscow through
Minsk.
M ea M ee
M.
He squeezed through the crowd. O .
through a thick fog a
He was looking through the
window.
O e .
(b) meaning around, over, through an element: + dat:
He was walking through the streets. O a.
The ball was ying through the air. M ee .
(c) meaning for the duration of, throughout: accusative case with no
preposition:
It rained all through/throughout
the day.
Be e .
Work will continue through
the winter.
Paa e a
.
(d) meaning as a result of : aa + dat (=thanks to a favourable
cause); -a + gen (=because of some unfavourable cause); + dat
(=for some abstract reason):
through far-sightedness aa ee
372
10.4 Rendering of English prepositions in Russian
He had to leave work through
illness.
E a -a
e.
to know through experience a
(e) in other expressions:
to get through an exam a ae
to go through a fortune aa/a e
to see through sb e - a
TO (a) expressing indirect object: dative case without any preposition:
He gave his brother a book. O a a .
Tell us what to do. Cae a, ` o ea.
Greetings to you. e ee/a!
(b) indicating direction of movement: + acc; a + acc (with certain
nouns; see 10.1.6, a (be)); + dat (with persons and with sth
approached but not entered):
We are going to Russia. M ee P.
She is going to a concert. Oa a e.
to the left/right ae/aa
I am going to the rector. e.
Come to the table. (e) .
to the south of Voronezh Bea
(c) indicating distance, limit or extent: + gen; + acc (=up to and
including):
the distance from London to
Moscow
ae a
M
to the end a
to a certain extent e ee
He got soaked to the skin. O a e.
to 1 Ma ee a
He was standing (up) to his
knees in water.
O e e.
(d) indicating attachment, membership, proximity: + dat:
to add ve to ten a/a
e
to belong [expressing
membership] to a club
aea
a preface to a book ee e
shoulder to shoulder e e
(e) expressing time to the hour: a construction with e + gen:
ve to ten e e
(f ) meaning to the accompaniment of a sound: + acc:
to dance to a record aea a
373
10 Prepositions
(g) in miscellaneous expressions:
to my surprise e e
an answer to sth e a -
a tendency to + dat
a claim to sth ee a -
a right to sth a a -
an exception to a rule ee aa
the key to a door e
compared to ae + instr
harmful to e + gen
near to + gen
similar to a + a
a visit to (the) Ukraine eee a
I have been to Moscow. (a) Me.
TOWARDS (a) in most meanings: + dat:
They were travelling towards
the lake.
O ea e.
He was standing with his back
towards me.
O e .
attitude towards ee
(b) in other expressions:
towards evening ee
responsibility towards ee ee + instr
UNDER (a) indicating location: + instr:
to sit under the trees e ee
to be under suspicion ee
(b) indicating motion: + acc:
She shoved a note under the door. Oa a a e.
(c) meaning according to: + dat:
under Roman law a
(d) in other expressions:
under ve dollars ee a
children under ve e e
under those circumstances e ea
under Lenin ee
under ones arm
under repair ee
The matter is under consideration. e aaae. (R3b)
UNTIL (a) in most contexts: + gen:
until Wednesday e
until three oclock a
374
10.4 Rendering of English prepositions in Russian
(b) meaning up to and including: + acc:
The visa is valid until 1 March. Ba eea ee
aa.
() with negated verb: :
I shall not do it until tomorrow. aa ea .
UP (a) indicating location: a + re:
The cat is up the tree. a a eee.
(b) indicating motion: a + a; (e) + dat:
He went up the hill. O a .
The smoke goes up the chimney. ae e.
They sailed up the Volga. O e
Be.
WITH (a) in the majority of meanings, especially in the company of, together with:
c + instr:
I work with him. aa .
She went there with a friend. Oa a a .
a man with a red face a
with pleasure e
I agree with you. aa a.
(b) indicating instrument; also indicating what sth is covered or
surrounded by: instrumental case without a preposition:
She is eating with a spoon. Oa e .
I saw it with my own eyes. e(a) aa.
The lake is covered with ice.
Oe .
a house surrounded with owers ea
(c) indicating presence at sbs home, or entrustment of sth to sb: y + gen:
I lodge with them. a a .
I left my things with the concierge. a(a) e
aa.
(d) indicating source or cause: + gen:
He is trembling with cold. O a.
She is blushing with shame. Oa aee a.
(e) in miscellaneous other functions:
with all ones heart e
with the exception of a ee + gen
with regard to + instr
e + dat (R3)
aae + gen
with your consent ae a
375
10 Prepositions
with your permission ae aee
to go with/match + dat
satised with e/a + instr
to speak with a stutter aa
Down with the government! ae!
Whats it to do with me? ?
376
11 Syntax
11.1 Use of the cases
A sound understanding of the functions of the cases in Russian is
crucial to an ability to master the language, for grammatical
relationships in the sentence, and therefore meaning, depend on
inection. The sections which follow examine the basic function
or functions of each of the six cases of modern Russian and also the use
of those cases with verbs. The use of the case after prepositions, some
of which may invariably govern it and others of which govern it when
they have certain meanings, is examined thoroughly in 10.110.3.
11.1.1 Use of the nominative
(a) The nominative is the case used to indicate the subject of a clause:
a eaa a e. The book lay on the table.
B a ea a. A cat was sitting in the garden.
a aa. Ivan is calling his brother.
Note: in Russian the subject may follow the verb; it is inection, not word order (on
which see 11.14), that makes clear the grammatical relationships in the sentence.
(b) The complement of the verb to be may also stand in the nominative
when the verb to be is not actually stated, i.e. in the present tense, e.g.
M a a. My mother is a doctor.
O . He is a Georgian.
A nominative complement is also used when the verb form e is
used, in the sense of is, and the complement is the same as the
subject (see 4.2), e.g.
aa e aa. The truth is the truth.
When the verb to be occurs in the past tense a nominative complement
may be used (although the instrumental is now preferred; see
11.1.10(e)), e.g.
O a ae. He was an outstanding writer.
11.1.2 Use of the accusative
(a) The principal use of the accusative case is to express the direct object
of a transitive verb, e.g.
a . I am reading a book.
377
11 Syntax
O e . He is writing a letter.
Oa a. She loves her father.
Note 1 See 11.1.3 on the animate category of nouns.
2 No reexive verb, with the partial exception of a/a (see
11.1.5(b)), may govern the accusative.
(b) The accusative is also used, without any preposition, to express the
duration of an action, the distance covered, price, and weight. In
the rst two meanings it often follows a verb with the prex po-
(see 8.3, po- (c)).
Paa aa . Work continued all winter.
O ea
e.
They travelled a thousand kilometres.
a. The house costs a million dollars.
Maa e . The car weighs a tonne.
11.1.3 Use of case to denote animate direct object
Many animate nouns must be put in the genitive case when they are
used as direct objects. This usage arises from the fact that in most types
of noun the nominative and accusative forms have come to coincide.
Given the exibility of Russian word order, clauses in which both
subject and object are animate could be ambiguous were the
grammatical forms of subject and object to remain undifferentiated.
(Take, for example, the hypothetical statement a a.) By
marking the object by use of the genitive form, which in all categories
of noun is distinct from the accusative, a speaker avoids confusion as to
which noun is subject and which is object (cf. the similar function of
the preposition a to mark an animate direct object in Spanish, e.g.
El
mat a un toro, He killed a bull ).
Animate nouns include those denoting people, animals, birds,
reptiles, sh and insects, and embrace all three genders. The following
table shows which types of Russian animate noun have to be marked in
this way when they function as the direct object of a transitive verb.
accusative form preserved genitive form required
masculine singular
aa brother
a tiger
a eagle
a python
aa carp
aa spider
masculine plural
e sons
elephants
378
11.1 Use of the cases
falcons
crocodiles
e sturgeons
a ants
feminine singular and
masculine singular in -a/- feminine plural
e woman ee girls
a horse a dogs
a swallow magpies
e snake cobras
a shark pikes
a buttery bees
Ca Sasha
uncle
neuter singular neuter plural
ofcials
eaee mammal ea mammals
eaee reptile ea reptiles
aee insect ae insects
miscellaneous miscellaneous
crowd
a a people
a (n pl) troops
dead body,
corpse
eea dead man
a the deceased
a queen (cards) e queen (chess)
king (cards,
chess)
a ace (cards)
aea jack (cards)
() to y a kite
a e
Note 1 The words Mapc, Me, He, , a, e are treated as
inanimate when they denote planets in the solar system but as animate when
they denote the classical gods after whom the planets are named, e.g.
aa e, to observe Jupiter, but ea ea, to anger
Jupiter.
2 Usage is less clear-cut when the direct object denotes a low or as yet
unborn form of life, e.g. ae, bacterium; aa, bacillus; a,
foetus; a, larva, grub; , microbe; , embryo. In everyday
speech such objects tend to be treated as inanimate, e.g. a ae, to
study bacteria, but in scientic parlance they may be treated as animate
(ae).
379
11 Syntax
11.1.4 Basic uses of the genitive
(a) To express possession, origin, relationship of part to whole, the nature,
quality, measurement, or quantity of sth, e.g.
a e aa my brothers book
a Pushkins poetry
e a ea the rst coach of the train
a a a man of large stature
aa e the scent of owers
e a a metre of fabric
a a litre of wine
Note: the genitive case is not used in a number of contexts where English has of (see
10.4, of (b)).
(b) After words indicating quantity, e.g.
a ee little/not much time
e many/a lot of owers
e e not many/a few students
e ee a few/some/several songs
C a? How much wine?
C eae! How/So many impressions!
(c) To denote a certain quantity, some of a given object (cf. Fr du pain, de
leau, etc.), e.g.
a a to pour some milk
Oa e e ea,
a a.
She didnt eat anything, she just
drank some tea.
Note 1 The accusative case in such contexts would denote not some of the object but
the object, e.g. a , to pour the (i.e. some specic) milk, perhaps the
milk left in the bottle, the milk on the table.
2 A genitive form with partitive meaning is often found after verbs bearing the
prex a- in its meaning of a certain quantity of (see 8.3, a- (b)), e.g. a
, to buy up a number of books.
(d) To express lack or absence of sth or sb in constructions with e, there
is/are not; e , there was/were not; and e e, there will not be.
These three Russian expressions, when they have the meanings given
above, are invariable.
Xea e. There is no bread.
E e e e. He is not here today.
Cea e . There was no snow.
e e. There will not be any rain.
Note: in the past or future tense absence may also be expressed by using a
nominative form of the noun or personal pronoun: Oa e a a, She
wasnt at home; O a e , They wont be there.
(e) To express sufciency or insufciency after the impersonal verbs
aa/a, to sufce (+ y + gen of person who has enough/not
380
11.1 Use of the cases
enough of sth) and eaa/ea, to be insufcient/not to have
enough (+ dat of person who is short of sth):
a ee e aae. We dont have enough time.
E ea a. He doesnt have enough experience.
Note: the genitive has a similar meaning of sufciency after certain reexive verbs
bearing the prex a- which mean to do sth to satiety or to excess (see 8.3,
a- (c)), e.g. Oa aea , She ate a great deal of caviare; O a
, They drank a lot of water (as much as they wanted).
(f ) After short comparative adjectives, e.g.
e a more than a year
e below zero
(g) After cardinal numerals (provided that the numeral itself is in the
nominative or accusative case), except one and compound numbers in
which one is the last component (see 11.4.2).
(h) The genitive case of an ordinal numeral is used without a preposition
to express on a certain date, e.g.
ee aa n 3 August
aa e n 26 October
11.1.5 Verbs governing the genitive
(a) Many verbs which express fear, avoidance or apprehension, e.g.
(no pf as a rule) to fear, be afraid of
ea/ea to avoid
aa (no pf ) to fear, shun, avoid
a/a to be afraid of
e/e to be shy of
/ to be ashamed of
Note: in R1 these verbs may now be found with the accusative of animate nouns
(i.e. of those animate nouns that have a distinct accusative form), e.g. O
, Hes afraid of his aunt.
(b) Miscellaneous other verbs, e.g.
aa (impf only; R3) to hunger for, crave
ea (no pf in this sense) to keep to, hold on to
a
a
(impf ) to strive for
a
(pf ) to get, procure
a/ to attain, achieve
aa (impf ) to deserve
aa/ to touch, concern
a/ to deprive (sb of sth)
a/ to lose, be deprived of
a/a
b
to obey
c
(no pf ) to be worth
381
11 Syntax
a
The different aspects of this verb have different meanings when the verb
refers to a single instance.
b
In R1 this verb may now govern the accusative of an animate object, e.g.
Pe ae Be, The child obeys Vera.
c
But this verb governs the accusative when it means to cost (see 11.1.2).
(c) A number of verbs may govern either the genitive or the accusative,
e.g.
a/a to wait until
a/a to wait for, expect
a (various pf ) to look for, seek
a (no pf ) to expect
/ to ask for
ea/ea to require, need
e/ae to want
The reasons for choosing one case in preference to the other after
these verbs are not very clear-cut, and educated Russians may be
unable to explain them or even to agree on which case should be used
in certain contexts. One may say that the genitive tends to be used if
the object of the verb is general and abstract, whilst the accusative
tends to prevail if the object is particular and concrete, i.e. is a specic
thing or person. Thus:
r
genitive object
O a ea. He was waiting for an answer.
e. I beg (your) pardon.
Te aea eea. They are demanding the arrest of
the president.
r
accusative object
O . He is waiting for his uncle.
O e . He is looking for his aunt.
a e
P.
We are asking for a Russian entry visa.
Note: the genitive is understood in set phrases expressing wishes (see 7.9), e.g. Be
! All the best!
11.1.6 Case of direct object after a negated verb
The genitive may be used instead of the accusative to express the direct
object of a negated verb. The foreign student needs to know when one
case or the other is obligatory or strongly preferred, but should also be
aware that there are many instances where the question is nely
balanced and either case might be acceptable to a native-speaker.
Note: there is no question of a genitive object being used if the negated verb is one
which, when it is used afrmatively, governs the dative or instrumental case.
Thus in the statement I am not interested in music the noun music would be
rendered by an instrumental form ( e ee ) just as it would
382
11.1 Use of the cases
if the verb eea were not negated. Only verbs which, when
afrmative, govern the accusative case may govern a direct object in the
genitive when they are negated.
(a) The genitive is preferred in the following circumstances:
r
when the negation is intensive, i.e. if the negated verb is strengthened
by some form of a, or /, or . . . , e.g.
Ha ee e
.
They could not take any decisions
at all.
r
when the absence of sth or any part of sth is indicated. (The English
translation in such contexts may well contain the word any.) A genitive
object is therefore naturally to be expected after the verb e when
it is negated.
M e e e
e.
They have not yet acquired motor
boats here.
M e ee a
aaa a.
We dont have a sufcient supply of
fuel.
r
when the negated verb and its object combine to form a common
expression, a set phraseological combination, e.g.
a a ae e a, This
book belongs to my brother. When on the other hand it denotes membership it
must be followed by and the dative, e.g. O ae
e a, He belongs to the Labour Party.
c
Cea/ea is followed by the dative case only when it means
to follow in the sense of to emulate. When it means to go after it takes a + instr
(see 10.3.4).
d
After /a, to teach and /a, to learn, it is the
subject taught or the thing learnt that is denoted by a noun in the dative
case, e.g. O e a , He is teaching his sister
French; Oa a , She is learning French. However,
after the verb a/, which means to study, the thing learnt is
denoted by a noun in the accusative case, e.g. O ae aea, He is
studying mathematics.
(d) The adjective a, aa, a, glad, which may only be used
predicatively and which exists only in a short form, is also followed by
a noun or pronoun in the dative, e.g. Oa a aa e a,
She was glad at my good fortune.
387
11 Syntax
11.1.9 Basic uses of the instrumental
(a) To indicate the agent by whom or the instrument with which or by
means of which an action is carried out, e.g.
O a. He was killed by a soldier.
Oa e . She is eating with a fork.
(b) To denote the thing with which sth is supplied or endowed, e.g.
a eeae
e aa aae.
The state provides all citizens with
an education.
Aa ea
aae
ee.
The atomic power station supplies the
town with electricity.
(c) In many adverbial phrases of manner, including indication of means of
transport, e.g.
ae by car
a by plane
in a whisper
aa to walk with quick steps
(d) In certain expressions of time which dene the point at which sth
happens; cf. use of the accusative to indicate duration (see
11.1.2(b)), e.g.
ee in the evening
e in autumn
(e) In the literary variety of R3, to dene route taken and to indicate
likeness, e.g.
ea ee (i.e. ee) to travel along the bank
ea (i.e. a ea) like a mirror
(f ) In certain impersonal constructions indicating the agency of some
force of nature, e.g.
ae e. The road was covered in snow.
a a . The meadows were ooded with water.
e. The roof was blown off by the wind.
11.1.10 Verbs governing the instrumental
(a) Many verbs indicating control, command, government, direction or
use. Some of these verbs are by their nature not capable of having
perfective forms.
ae to command, master, own
a to conduct (orchestra)
aea to be in charge of, manage, run
aa to command (armed forces)
388
11.1 Use of the cases
aa to possess
a/a to use, make use of, enjoy (in sense
dispose of )
Note: the verb a (no pf ), to utilise, on the other hand, governs the
accusative case.
a to govern, rule, drive (vehicle)
aaa to have at ones disposal
aa/a to manage, deal with
to manage, direct
a to govern, rule, drive (vehicle)
(b) A number of verbs indicating attitude towards sth. Some of these too
exist only in an imperfective form.
a/ to admire (i.e. to be very impressed
by)
(no pf ) to be proud of
(no pf ) to value, prize
eea/
aeea
to be interested in
a/a to admire (i.e. to enjoy looking at;
see 3.7)
aaa/aa to enjoy
eeea/eee to ignore, neglect
ea/e to be fond of, be carried away by,
be obsessed with (see 3.7)
aa/aa to boast of
(c) A number of verbs which indicate movement of sth, especially of part
of the subjects body, or making a sound with sth, e.g.
a (no pf ) e to rattle, clank a chain
/ to wag (its) tail
a/ to move (ones) foot
ee (no pf ) ea to jingle money
aa/aa to shake (ones) head
a/ to nod (ones) head
aa/a to wave (ones) hand
a/ or
a/ a
to wink, blink (ones) eye
a/a ea to shrug (ones) shoulders
aaa (no pf ) e to brandish a sword
a/ to stamp (ones) foot
a/ e to slam a door
aa/a to shufe (ones) foot
Note: when the part of the body belongs to someone other than the subject then the
accusative is used, e.g. a/a - , to shake sbs [i.e. sb
elses] hand.
389
11 Syntax
(d) Miscellaneous other verbs, e.g.
a (no pf ) to breathe
ea/ea to sacrice
aa/a to be engaged in, be occupied with,
study
e/e to abuse
a (impf only) to smell of (used impersonally)
a (no pf ) to risk, hazard
aa (no pf ) to suffer from
Note: used with the instrumental case aa implies chronic or permanent
predicament, e.g. aa ae, to suffer from diabetes; aa
implies more temporary suffering, e.g. aa , to suffer from
toothache.
(e) The instrumental is also used in nouns which function as the
complement of , to be. Modern usage is as follows.
r
The instrumental is used when the verb occurs in the innitive (),
future (, etc.), conditional (/a// ),
imperative ( r e) or as a gerund (), e.g.
O e ee. He wants to be an engineer.
O e a. He will be a diplomat.
e a. Be a doctor.
a, e . Being a fool, he didnt understand.
r
The instrumental is also normally used nowadays with the past tense
(, etc.), e.g.
B
a e.
In his youth he was an outstanding
sportsman.
T e
aee.
Tolstoi was a great writer.
Note: grammarians make a distinction between temporary state (in which case the
instrumental is obligatory) and permanent state (as in the second example
above, in which case the nominative may be used, giving e ae).
However, the choice is not one the student needs to agonise over, and one
is now on safe ground if one always uses an instrumental complement with
. (On identication of subject and complement see 4.2, ,
note 2.)
r
When on the other hand the verb to be is in the present tense, and is
therefore understood but not actually stated in the Russian, a
nominative complement must be used, e.g.
Oa e. She is a professor.
M a ee. M brother is an engineer.
Departures from this rule are rare, unless the complement is a,
fault, blame, or a, cause, e.g. T, e, e
eeee , Here, of course, television alone is not to blame.
390
11.2 Use of pronouns
Note: the noun which in English functions as the complement is not in the
instrumental in the following type of Russian construction:
a. It was Ivan.
iana.
e, He is an intelligent student; Oa a e,
She was a sad girl.
395
11 Syntax
Even when the adjective is predicative the short form is not
invariably used. Often the long form is preferred or possible, and when
some form of is used an instrumental form of the adjective is also
possible. The following guidance can be given, although this is an area
of grammar in which usage is relatively uid.
r
Many common adjectives are found only in the short form when used
predicatively, e.g.
a, aa, a, a guilty
, a, , ready
a, aea, ae, ae far, distant
e, a, , satised with
e, a, , bound to (i.e. must)
, a, , worthy of
aee, aeea, aee, aee intending to
e, a, , necessary
, a, e, like, similar
a, aa, a, a right
e, a, , free
e, a, , inclined to
ae, aa, a, a agreeable to
e, a, , capable of
r
Short forms are preferred, provided that the adjective is predicative, in
the following circumstances:
(a) when the adjective is followed by some sort of complement (as many
of those in the above list almost invariably are), e.g. (with nature of
complement dened in brackets):
O ae e. (preposition + noun)
He is indifferent to music.
Caa Aa aa e. (noun in oblique case)
Saudi Arabia is rich in oil.
(b) when the subject of the statement is one of the words , that; , this,
it; , in the sense of which or what; , everything; e, another
thing; , one thing; ee, the rst thing, e.g.
B . Everything was peaceful.
O . One thing is clear.
(c) when the subject is qualied by some word or phrase such as ,
an; a, every; , an; , such; a, such, which
serves to generalise it, e.g.
ae ae e. Every word in the novel is apt.
e aa . Such tasks are simple.
396
11.3 Use of short adjectives
(d) if the adjective is derived from a present active participle (ending in
-); a present passive participle (ending in -); r a past passive
participle (ending in - r -), e.g.
Bae eee eee. Your conduct is
unacceptable.
O ea. He is married.
(e) with some adjectives when they denote excessive possession of a
quality, especially:
: e, ea, e, e too big
ae: a, aa, a, a too small
: , a, , too dear
e: e, eea, e, e too cheap
: , a, , too wide
: , a, , too narrow
e.g.
E aee , e.
You will understand everything if you read this book.
a , .
We shall talk about this when he arrives.
Note: the present tense is used, as in English, with verbs of motion indicating that an
action is to take place in the near future, e.g. e ee, I
am going to the cinema tonight.
11.7 Use of verbs of motion
There are fourteen pairs of imperfective verbs of motion which give
particular difculty to the foreign student. There is perhaps no entirely
satisfactory term to dene the two categories: the terms abstract,
indeterminate and multidirectional are all applied to the category
including , whilst the terms concrete, determinate and
unidirectional are applied to the category which includes . The
fourteen pairs are as follows:
to walk, go on foot
e ea to travel, go by transport
ea ea to run
ea ee to y
aa to swim, oat, sail
a to crawl
e to take (by hand), carry
e to take, lead
e to take (by transport), convey
a e to climb
a to drive, pursue
aa a to roll, push
aa a to pull
e to wander, amble
Note: the verb e may convey a sense of slowness or difculty.
412
11.8 Use of reexive verbs
The easiest way to grasp the distinction between the verbs in the two Use of verbs like
categories is perhaps to treat those like as having quite specic
meaning and those like , on the contrary, as covering a broader
range of meanings outside the scope of those like (cf. the similar
distinction made in 11.5.1 between the perfective aspect of the verb
and the broader imperfective).
Verbs like indicate movement in one general direction. The
movement is not necessarily in a straight line, but progress is made
from point A towards point B, e.g.
Oa e. She is going down the street.
O e a. He is running towards the bus.
One may list a number of meanings outside the scope of verbs in the Use of verbs like
category of , and these meanings are all conveyed by verbs like
.
(a) Repeated or habitual action, e.g.
a . On Saturdays we go to the cinema.
(b) Round trip, e.g.
(a) ea. I went to the theatre (and came
back).
In this sense may be synonymous with , e.g. Oa a
ea, She went to the theatre =Oa a eae.
Note: it may be difcult to separate the sense of round trip from the sense of
repetition, e.g. a e e , Each day the children go to
school (and of course come home again).
(c) Movement in various directions, e.g.
e ea a. The little girls were running round
the garden.
(d) General movement, i.e. movement without reference to any specic
instance of it, e.g.
Pe aa . The child began to walk.
e e aa. I cant swim.
ea, e a. Birds y, snakes crawl.
11.8 Use of reexive verbs
r
Many common verbs exist only in a reexive form but have no
obvious reexive meaning, e.g.
(impf ) to fear, be afraid of
(impf ) to be proud of
a/a to attempt
e (impf ) to laugh
413
11 Syntax
aa/aa to try
a/ to smile
Note: in a few pairs the imperfective form is reexive but the perfective form is not:
/e to lie down
a/ to burst (intrans)
a/e to sit down
a/a to become
r
In a very large number of verbs the reexive particle renders a
transitive verb intransitive, in other words it fulls the function of a
direct object, e.g.
aa/a r
e to return (give back)
aa/a r
e to return (go back)
a/ to nish
(complete)
a/ to nish
(come to end)
aa/aa to begin (sth,
to do sth)
aa/aa to begin
(come into being)
ea/e to dress (sb) ea/e to dress, get
dressed
aaa/a to
stop (bring to halt)
aaa/a
to stop (come to halt)
a/ to lift a/ to go up
aea/ae to undress
(sb)
aea/ae to undress,
get undressed
ea/e to
increase (make bigger)
ea/e to
increase (get bigger)
/ to surprise / to be
surprised
a/ to improve
(make better)
a/ to
improve (get better)
ea/e to
decrease (make smaller)
ea/e to
decrease (get smaller)
a/ to make
worse
a/ to get
worse
r
reciprocal action, e.g.
ea/e to meet one another
a/ to embrace one another
ea/ea to kiss one another
r
characteristic action: some verbs which are normally transitive and
non-reexive take the reexive particle in contexts where they have
no specic object but denote action characteristic of the subject, e.g.
aa . Nettles sting.
Caa ae. The dog bites.
a ae. The horse kicks.
aaa. Cats scratch.
414
11.9 The conditional mood
r
impersonal verbs: with some common verbs a third-person reexive
form is used to indicate the physical condition or mood of a subject,
e.g.
Me e e/. I am hungry/thirsty.
E e . He cant get to sleep.
E e ae. She doesnt feel like reading.
r
with passive sense: many imperfective verbs are used in a reexive form
with an inanimate subject to mean that sth has been/is being/will be
done, e.g.
E a aa e, a a
a e.
If work had begun on time [but it did not], then the cost would have been
much lower.
a e , e a ee e
e a ee?
How would you react if your four-year-old child suddenly sang a song like
that?
Note 1 Conditional sentences of this type may relate to past, present or future time,
and only from the context will it be clear which meaning is intended.
2 In the clause containing the condition the particle generally follows e
(and it may be contracted to ). In the clause describing the consequence
generally follows the verb in the past tense. However, may also follow
some other word in the clause to which it is intended to give emphasis.
3 The clause containing the condition may also be rendered with the use of a
second-person singular imperative, e.g. a , e
e ea , Had she lived in other conditions, she would
have made a ne artist.
11.10 The subjunctive mood
As well as forming the conditional mood, the past tense of the verb +
the particle renders the subjunctive in Russian. There are no sets of
distinctive verbal endings or different subjunctive tenses of the sort
found in, for example, French, Italian and Spanish. As in these Western
European languages, though, the subjunctive in Russian is used in
concessive clauses and in subordinate clauses after verbs of wishing. It
may also be used, but tends in R1 and R2 to be avoided, in
subordinate clauses after verbs of ordering, permitting, fearing and
doubting and after various negative antecedents.
r
Concessive clauses: these are clauses introduced by whoever, whatever,
whichever, however, wherever, whenever, etc., and they may be translated
into Russian by the appropriate pronoun (, , a, a, e,
416
11.10 The subjunctive mood
a, a, etc.) in the form required by the context and followed by
the particle + + verb in past tense, e.g.
e a, a aa a
a e .
Whoever they may beme later on, the sense of gratitude to you will never
leave them.
a, e eee a ee, ae e
.
I think the past should denitely be preserved however bad it might have been.
Be aaa, a aa e
a, aaa ae aa
.
All citizens, of whatever nationality they may be and wherever they may reside,
are guaranteed equal rights and opportunities.
Note 1 As with conditional sentences in which is used, so in such concessive
clauses too a verb accompanied by this particle may refer to past, present or
future actions.
2 Concessive clauses may also be translated by the use of the appropriate
pronoun + + verb in the appropriate tense, e.g. e, a
e e eae, Whatever you say/Say what
you will, it is nice sometimes to encounter the unexpected.
3 Whatever, whenever, wherever, etc. do not invariably introduce concessive clauses;
they may merely impart emphasis, as in the question Wherever have you been?,
which might be translated thus: e e (a)? (See also 5.4, e (d).)
r
Exhortation: the particle may also be used, with a verb in the past
tense, to express an exhortation or gentle command or the desirability
of some action, e.g.
B e.
You should help him/should have helped him.
r
Wishing: after verbs of wishing the subordinate clause should be
introduced by (a coalescence of + ) and the verb in the
subordinate clause should be in the past tense, e.g.
, a e a a .
I want our children to know our native language.
r
Commanding, permitting: after verbs of this type the subjunctive may
also be used, e.g.
aa(a), aa ea aa .
I told the waitress to bring a glass of water.
Note: subjunctive constructions in such sentences are only alternatives to the use of
an object and verb in the innitive, and indeed the latter, simpler,
construction prevails in R1/R2. Thus the above English sentence might also
have been rendered thus: aa(a) ae e aa .
r
Fearing: verbs of fearing may be followed by (a) in R2/3, a negative
subjunctive (e.g. , [or a ] e ), or (b) in
R1/2 by a verb in the future tense in a clause introduced by (e.g.
417
11 Syntax
, ). Both sentences mean I am afraid he may come.
When it is feared that something may not happen, then only the
second construction is possible. Thus the sentence I was afraid he would
not come may only be rendered by , e .
r
Negative antecedent: and a verb in the past tense may also be used
in subordinate clauses after negated verbs such as a, to think, and
a, to know, e.g.
e a, - a e e.
I dont think anyone could behave like that.
11.11 Use of gerunds and participles
11.11.1 Use of gerunds
r
The imperfective gerund describes action which is taking place at the
same time as the action described by the main verb in the sentence
(though the main verb itself may be in the past, present or future
tense). It may translate English expressions such as while doing, by doing,
although they do, as well as simply doing, e.g.
Ba aa e ee e, ee
a a e.
The troops began a careful advance towards the centre, slowly suppressing
centres of resistance.
Ca a, aa (or a), ` o
e.
One can nd out what is going on in the world by listening to the radio.
Oea a, ae a ea e ,
aa a .
Although they heat the country, the power workers do not feel the country cares
about them.
r
The perfective gerund describes action that has taken place, and has
been completed, before the action described by the main verb (which
is not necessarily in the past). It translates an English expression of the
sort having done, or, if it is negated, without having done, e.g.
e e e e, ee.
Having been in prison for ten years, he had gone grey.
Cea a, a ea eae a .
Having given her report she is now answering questions.
He , e aa.
One mustnt go without paying [having paid].
Note 1 Gerunds may only be used when the subject performing the action in
question is the same as the subject of the main clause, as is the case in
all the above examples. A gerund cannot be used in a sentence of the type
While she reads the text I write out the words I dont know, in which the two
clauses have different subjects (she and I ). This sentence must be translated
thus: a a ae e, a eae a.
418
11.11 Use of gerunds and participles
2 Gerunds (mainly imperfective) have become established in certain set phrases,
e.g. a , to tell the truth; (+ dat), judging by; e a
, to sit idly (lit with arms folded). With the exception of such set phrases,
though, the use of gerunds is largely conned to R3.
11.11.2 Use of active participles
Active participles correspond exactly, from a semantic point of view, to
phrases containing + verb in the present tense (in the case of
the present participles) or in the past tense, of either aspect (in the case
of the past participles). The participle must agree in gender, case and
number with the noun to which it relates (cf. use of , 11.2.1),
e.g.
e, eae [=e ea]
a, ae aa.
Documents conrming this fact were found in archives.
aa, a [=e a]
a aaaa, e e .
Fares have also risen for passengers departing on the most popular air routes.
A, [= ] e a a, a a.
A bus [which was] carrying guests to a wedding fell off a bridge.
a aae ae, ea ea
[=e ea] P.
The company is employing foreigners who have come to Russia specially for the
purpose.
Note: active participles differ from semantically identical phrases with in
that their use is conned to R3, except insofar as some have become
established in the language in set phrases (e.g. a aa, typewriter)
or adjectives (e.g. e, brilliant; , former) or substantivised
adjectives (e.g. , smoker).
11.11.3 Use of present passive participles
These participles are rarely used predicatively, but used attributively
they occur quite frequently in the modern written language, especially
in R3a and R3b. They must agree in gender, case and number with
the noun to which they refer, e.g.
eaa aee e ae e
unemployment and the despair and anger generated by it
e a, eae e a,
among the hostages held by extremist groups . . .
11.11.4 Use of past passive participles
These participles correspond to English participles of the type read,
written, washed.
419
11 Syntax
r
Long forms of these participles decline like adjectives and must agree in
gender, case and number with the noun to which they refer, e.g.
Ma, eae , ae e.
Cars made in Japan are relatively cheap.
e a , ee e ea.
Food-stuffs made without preservatives are sold here.
a , aa a .
I am reading a book written by your father.
r
Short forms of these participles, like short forms of adjectives, cannot be
used unless the participle is used predicatively (i.e. unless some part of
the verb to be comes between the noun and the participle which relates
to it). However, when the participle is used predicatively then it must
be in the short form, e.g.
Ha ee a .
Our telephone was cut off a long time ago.
B e a eea aa ea.
A system of rationing has been introduced in some cities.
ae eaa.
The building has been sealed.
a e .
These houses were built last year.
Note 1 Past passive participles are widely used in speech but in R1/R2 there is a
tendency to avoid them by using instead a verb in the active voice (in the third
person plural without a pronoun; cf. the unspecied English they, French on,
German man). Thus the above examples might be more colloquially rendered
in the following way: Ha ee a ; B e a
e a e; ae eaa;
a
.
2 In many passive sentences the agent is named, e.g. O aaa,
He was killed by guerrillas; Oa a aeaa e, She was arrested by
the police. Such sentences too may be rendered with an active verb, although
Russian generally preserves the word order of the passive construction, with
the named agent following the verb, e.g. E aa; E
aeaa .
11.12 Conjunctions
11.12.1 Coordinating conjunctions
(a) The main coordinating conjunctions (, a, , ) may be used in all
registers. In R1, in which language tends to be spontaneous and less
well organised, coordinating conjunctions are the principal means of
linking the clauses of complex sentences and subordinating
conjunctions (11.12.2) play a lesser role. The following points about
the Russian coordinating conjunctions should be particularly noted by
the English-speaking student.
420
11.12 Conjunctions
r
Both a and may be translated as but. However, a normally suggests a
stronger opposition than : it excludes one factor in favour of
another, whereas has only a sense of limitation. Contrast:
Ce ee, a e
ea.
I suggest you go slowly, dont run.
Ce , e
ea.
I suggest you hurry, but dont run.
In the rst example going slowly and running are presented as
opposites and running is ruled out. In the second running is presented
not as an opposite of hurrying but as an unnecessary intensication
of it.
Note: a used in this contrastive sense may not be directly translated at all in English,
e.g. eee e ae, a e ea, Swan Lake is a ballet, not an opera
(see also the rst example above).
r
a may also translate English and, when that conjunction has contrastive
meaning, e.g.
Cae, a . You sit down and I shall stand.
O a, a . They stayed and we went home.
r
in lists, in which in English and is placed as a rule before the last
member, may be omitted in Russian, particularly in sedate narrative
style, e.g.
aa . T,
, a, ae.
They were selling footwear. Shoes,
trainers, boots and felt boots.
Inclusion of in a list might give the list an exhaustive air and is
therefore more probable in the precise language of R3a/b.
(b) There are in addition a few coordinating conjunctions which are not
stylistically neutral but belong to R1, especially:
r
a (esp in N dialects), e.g.
e a day and night
a a skin and bone
a/aa ,
a a .
Id willingly stay, but its time to go.
, a e . lit Ones elbow is near, but you cant
bite it, i.e. So near and yet so far.
r
a , and besides/and what is more, e.g.
X , a . It was cold, and besides, it was
raining.
r
a , otherwise/or else, e.g.
Oea eee, a
.
Put some more clothes on, otherwise
youll catch cold.
Ce, a ae. Hurry or well be late.
421
11 Syntax
r
, or, e.g.
a, a. lit Either a gentleman or Im done
for, i.e. All or nothing.
11.12.2 Subordinating conjunctions
The conjunctions given in the following examples are standard forms.
They may all be used in all registers. It should be noted though that
subordinating conjunctions tend to occur more in R3 (i.e. in formal
language, where a speaker or writer is perhaps concerned to establish
the logical connections which conjunctions indicate) than in R1,
where language is more expressive and spontaneous and ideas less
clearly organised, and where coordinating conjunctions therefore
prevail.
Note: some English subordinating conjunctions (e.g. after, before, since) may also
function as prepositions (see Chapter 10 above). When they are prepositions
they are followed by a noun, pronoun or verbal noun, e.g. after dinner, before us,
since graduating. When they are conjunctions they introduce a subordinate
clause, e.g. after I had had dinner. In Russian the two functions are distinguished.
Thus e is a preposition, but the conjunction is e , a.
causal ea aaa, aa.
The little girl was crying because she was tired.
e e e, a a e ae.
There wont be a lecture since the professor is ill.
temporal e a, a .
I dont know when Ill come.
O a a e , a a .
He arrived at the stop after the bus had gone.
Ha a , a .
We must have a word with him about that while hes here.
ee, a a e .
Lets watch television until she comes.
Note: a e is followed by a perfective verb.
ea e , a ee?
What had he been doing since he left university?
Oa aa , a a a.
She realised her mistake as soon as she left the room.
Ea a ee, a a ea.
No sooner had the plane taken off than the pilot detected a fault.
T e/a e , ee e ee.
You must eat up your sh before you have any ice-cream.
O ee e, a a.
He arrived just before the clock struck.
Oa aaa ee , a aa a.
She worked as a translator before she became a journalist.
Note: see 11.6(c) on use of tense after temporal and conditional conjunctions.
422
11.12 Conjunctions
purposive Oa a e, ea e - a .
She went up to him so that she could whisper something in his ear.
( ), ea ee e
a.
I am telling you this so that/in order that you may picture to yourself all the
dangers.
Note: + past tense is used when the subjects are different, as in the last
example above, but when the subject of the verb in the subordinate clause is
the same as that in the main clause then is followed by the innitive,
e.g. , a eae, I am saying this in order
to express my indignation.
resultative Maa aa, a a.
The car broke down so that we were late.
M a, a ae.
We got so tired that we fell asleep on the bus.
concessive a , , aee, a.
Ill be there, although I expect Ill be late.
Note: see also modal particle (5.4, ()).
Ha eee a , a a a e e.
Its cold in the north of the country in winter, whereas in the south its
warm.
conditional
E e aee, .
If you dont understand Ill explain.
e a, e e a.
Ill go on a business trip provided you approve my plan.
Note: see 11.9 on conditional sentences and also 11.6(c) on use of tense in them.
11.12.3 Subordinating conjunctions used in R1 or R3
Some subordinating conjunctions that are not standard in R2 may also
be encountered. These may be divided into (a) those which are still
used but which belong mainly in R1 or R3 (including, in R3, many
compound conjunctions), and (b) those which are considered obsolete
in the modern literary language (although they will be found in
classical literature and in some cases may persist in R1, especially in
dialect).
restricted use a (R1) if, e.g. Pa e ea,
ea, If youve decided to do it, get on
with it.
aa , (R3) thanks to the fact that
e, (R3) in connection with the fact that
, (R3) by virtue of the fact that
, (R3) in view of the fact that
ee , (R3) owing to the fact that
423
11 Syntax
(R3) for, e.g. B ae,
aaae eea, All labour
is important, for it ennobles a man.
(Tolstoi)
ea a , (R3) in spite of the fact that
ee , a (R3) in proportion as
, (R3) insofar as, to the extent that
, (R3) on condition that
e + inn (R3) with a view to (doing)
obsolete or e (N dialects)/a if, provided that =
colloquial e () as long as, until
ee =e (possible in R1)
if (possible in R1, esp dialect)
so long as (possible in R1)
ae =a (possible in R1)
11.13 Syntactic features of colloquial speech
The language of R1 is characterised by a number of other syntactic
features, as well as predominance of coordinating conjunctions over
subordinating conjunctions and the use of some coordinating
conjunctions not widely used in R2, e.g.
(a) ellipsis, which may be produced by omission of the verb (especially
but not exclusively of a verb of motion) or of some other part of
speech, e.g.
B e? Are you coming to see me?
B e ae aa. Suddenly dad was coming towards me.
Ma, a ! Mum, get the doctor!
Be. ee a. There was a shot and I leapt over the
fence.
a a e a. Two [tickets] for eight oclock.
Me a. Its time for me to go.
B e? Is it me youre asking?
a ea? How are things going?
Be e! All the best.
(b) combination of a verb denoting condition or motion with another
verb in the same form to indicate that the action is carried out in a
certain state, e.g.
Oa ea a.
Ee, ee.
She was sitting sewing.
We were travelling along in a doze.
(c) repetition of the verb to emphasise the protracted nature of an action,
e.g.
Ea, ea ae
ea.
We travelled and travelled, and
eventually we arrived.
424
11.14 Word order
(d) combination of two verbs from the same root, separated by e, to
indicate the fullness of an action, e.g.
Oa ae e aae
a a.
She just dotes on her son.
(e) a construction containing a form of (often the imperative) and
another verb in the same form, the two verbs being linked by a r
r a ; the construction expresses sudden volition on the part of the
subject, e.g.
O a ea.
Oa a
a a e.
He was up and off.
She suddenly went and got angry
with me.
(f ) the very colloquial construction eae, /
ae, , together with another verb in the same form, indicating a
single, exclusive action, e.g.
M a ea,
a aa.
M brother and I just played chess all
the time.
e-e ae,
ee.
He does nothing but/All he does is
watch TV all day long.
(g) use of a (ee) with a verb to indicate that the subject perseveres
with the action in question in spite of unfavourable circumstances or
obstacles, e.g.
e a. Maa a ee
ea eea.
The children were shouting. Mum just
went on watching the programme quite
unconcerned.
(h) use of (e) and a negative imperative in the sense of mind you
dont, e.g.
T e e! Mind you dont talk about me.
11.14 Word order
Word order is much more exible in Russian than in English, since it
is primarily inection that establishes the relationship between the
words in a Russian utterance. Whereas the order of words in the
English statement John loves Mary cannot be altered without a
consequential change of meaning, in Russian one may say,
depending on the context or emphasis, either a Ma
(Ivan loves Mariia) or Ma a (Its Ivan who loves
Mariia).
However, Russian word order, while being exible, is not random.
On the contrary, it conforms to certain principles and rules. Moreover,
it may be affected, like other aspects of language, by register. The
following guidance can be given.
425
11 Syntax
(a) Neutral word order: as a general rule the same sequence of subject +
verb + object/complement which characterises English statements is
observed in matter-of-fact statements in Russian too, e.g.
Maa e . Mums writing a letter.
O a a. The hunters caught a lion.
Caa ae ee. Sasha will become an engineer.
(b) New and known or given information (e ae): the point in
an utterance on which the speaker or writer wishes to focus attention,
i.e. the novel element in it, is placed at or towards the end of the
Russian utterance, since it carries more weight there. The earlier part
of the utterance, on the other hand, contains the information which
leads up to the novel point, i.e. information that is already familiar or
taken for granted or less important. Contrast e.g.
e . The train arrived.
e. A train arrived.
a ea a e. The cat was sitting on the stove.
Ha e ea a. A cat was sitting on the stove.
Note 1 What is new in a statement varies of course according to the point in a
conversation or narrative that has been reached.
2 If it is the subject of the statement that represents the new information then
the order of subject and verb will be inverted.
3 The distinctions achieved in Russian by variations of word order may be
achieved in English by choice between the denite article (the introduces
known information) and the indenite article (a introduces a new element).
(c) Other rules that obtain in specic circumstances: the following
guidance can be given (note differences from English usage).
r
Subject and verb are inverted in statements in which the verb denotes
natural event, existence, process, state, becoming or occurrence, e.g.
e. Its snowing.
Cee aa. Theres a risk of re.
. The years went by.
. e a. Ive got a headache.
Haa a. Winter came.
. There was an explosion.
Note: it will be seen that in all these sentences the word order is consistent with the
point made in (b) above about known and new information: in each instance
the weight of the utterance is contained in the subject, while the verb is a weak
word with relatively inconsequential meaning.
r
Inversion is also common when the place where an action occurred is
indicated at the beginning of the statement, e.g.
C aaa aa. Clouds were coming from the west.
r
The order of subject and verb is also inverted in questions introduced
by an interrogative word and after reported speech, e.g.
426
11.14 Word order
e a a? Wheres the station?
a aae ? When does the lm begin?
a, aa . Im tired, he said.
r
Object pronouns are frequently placed before the verb, e.g.
a a. Im listening to you.
M a aa, . . . We told you that . . .
T ,
a.
There were difculties, but we coped
with them.
O e e ae. He doesnt know anything.
r
Objects indicating the person in impersonal expressions also tend to be
placed before the predicate, e.g.
Me a . I must go.
. a e aae ee. We havent got enough money.
r
Innitives as a rule follow the verb or expression on which they are
dependent, e.g.
M ea a. We have come to rest.
Ca ea. Im about to go away.
H aa. Its necessary to work.
r
In the modern language attributive adjectives, as in English, normally
precede the noun they qualify, but they may follow the noun in menus
or catalogues, e.g.
a a ne weather
e a fast train
a aee soft drinks
aa capital-city salad
Note: predicative adjectives, on the other hand, generally follow the noun
irrespective of whether they are long or short, e.g. a eea, The book
is interesting; aaa a a, The task was a difcult one.
r
Adverbs tend immediately to precede the verb they modify, e.g.
Bea e e. The sun always shines.
O e . Hes still asleep.
Oa . She looks good.
, e, ee.
Hes a kind, cheerful, intelligent man.
B eee aa?
a, e.
Can you swim? Yes, I an.
However, use of the comma is also obligatory in Russian in the
following circumstances in which its use may be optional in English or
in which English usage tends to be lax:
(a) to separate clauses linked by coordinating conjunctions, e.g.
Caa a, a e a.
Sashas a gymnast and Petias a weight-lifter.
Note: when the conjunction is , a comma is not used if the subject of the verb in
the two clauses is the same, e.g. Oa ea a a aa, She lay down on
the sofa and went to sleep.
(b) to mark the division (or divisions) between a main clause and any
subordinate or relative clauses, e.g.
O aa, e ae.
He said he would not forget this.
e xxvi, 22
idioms xxvi, 11, 1938
ikan
e xxvi, 21
imperative:
denition, xxvi
formation, 3268
in conditional sense, 1834
in public notices, 210
488
General index
particles with, 183, 187
use of aspect in, 41011
imperfective:
basic function, 405
denition, xxvi
denoting annulled action, 407
expressing non-achievement, 408
expressing prohibition, 210, 409, 411
in future tense, 407
in past tense, 407
in present tense, 4067
in simple statement of fact, 407
indicating incomplete action, 160,
4067
indicating repeated action, 407
secondary imperfective forms, 2656
verbs requiring imperfective innitive,
4089
when verb is negated, 40910
see also aspect,
indeclinable nouns: see nouns
indirect speech:
denition, xxvii
see also tense, in reported speech,
inxes xxvii, 260, 2656
-ing, translation of English forms in 1602
instrumental:
denition, xxvii
expressing agency, instrument, 388
fem forms in -, 65, 291
in adverbial phrases of manner, 388
in complement of certain verbs, 391
in complement of verb to be, 390
in expressions of time, 388
in impersonal constructions, 388
indicating supply or endowment,
388
prepositions governing, 3456
verbs governing, 38891
verbs governing through preposition,
3523
interjections xxvii, 11, 12, 17, 40, 52, 71,
18890
internet, language of, 1718, 22, 30,
3640; see also chatroom,
computing terminology
intransitive verbs xxvii, 15960, 263, 330,
331
introductions 2379
inversion:
in approximation, 401
of subject and verb, 4267
invitations 247
jargon 17, 29, 40
jokes 2257
journalism, language of: see register
length 2034
letter writing 25051
linguistic groups 1
literary language: see standard language
loanwords 1636
locative case:
denition, xxvii
forms in - y/-, 2923
see also prepositional case,
Lomonosov 9
may, translation of 156
measurement:
area, 204
distance, 2034, 335, 356, 340, 346,
361, 367, 373, 4045
height, 2034, 405
length, 2034
pre-revolutionary units of, 2056
speed, 206
temperature, 2067
volume, 205
weight, 2045
see also, 2037, 334, 336
meeting 240
might, translation of 156
mobile vowels xxviii, 27191
modal particles, xxviii, 11, 12, 17,
40, 42, 52, 70, 17987; see also
particles
modal verbs (English) xxviii, 1549
morphology:
colloquial, 112, 285, 3278
denition, xxviii
demotic, 14, 285, 3278
regional, 234
see also adjectives, gerunds, nouns,
participles, pronouns, verbs,
Muscovite speech 201
must, translation of 1567
names: see personal names
nationalities, names of 21623
negative antecedent 418
neologisms xxviii, 16, 27, 30, 1636
Netspeak: see internet
nominative case:
denition, xxviii
in complement, 377, 3901
in subject, 377
prepositions governing, 333
non-equivalence 936
nouns:
basic declension patterns, 28991
compound, 2867
expressing number, 405
in apposition, 29
489
General index
indeclinable, 3045
with genitive singular in -y/-, 2912
with irregular forms in oblique cases in
plural, 299
with irregular forms in genitive plural,
2969
with irregular forms throughout, 3012
with irregular forms throughout plural,
299301
with locative singular in - y/-, 11,
2923
with nominative plural in - a/-, 11,
14, 24, 2946
with plural form only, 912
with singular form only, 92
with two nominative plural forms,
789
with zero ending in genitive plural,
xxxii, 11, 291, 297, 298
see also animacy,
numerals:
agreement of predicate with subject
containing, 401
collective, declension, 314
collective, use, 4001
declension of cardinals, 29, 3134
denitions, xxiv, xxviii, xxix
inversion of noun and, 401
presentation of, 207
use of cardinals, 3989
use of cardinals in oblique case, 399
with animate direct object,
399400
obscenities: see vulgar language
occlusives xxix, 10, 21, 22
okan
e xxxii, 22
varieties of language, 69; see also
register
velars xxxi, 254, 255, 291
verb:
basic system of conjugation, 31516
conjugation 1A, 316
conjugation 1B (consonant stem,
stressed ending), 31719, 322
conjugation 1B (consonant stem,
unstressed ending), 31719
conjugation 1B (stems in and p),
31617
conjugation 1B (vowel stem, stressed
ending), 317
conjugation 1B (vowel stem, unstressed
ending), 316
conjugation 2, 3224
conjugation 2 with consonant change,
3234
conjugation 2 with epenthetic , 324
denitions, xxiv, xxv
denoting change of state, 319, 326
irregular, 324
see also dative case, genitive case,
imperative, imperfective,
instrumental case, past tense,
perfective,
verb to be, translation of 15, 40, 44, 47,
57, 59, 62, 71, 1504
verbal etiquette 22851
verbal nouns 16, 49, 52, 57, 161; see also
sufxes, of nouns
verbs of motion:
forms, 329
use, 41213
492
General index
vocabulary:
colloquial, 1011, 40, 42, 44, 47, 70
demotic, 13, 30, 71
of language of internet, 18, 701
regional, 23
specialised, 49, 56
variation according to register, 1819
vocative xxxii, 12, 2303
volume: see measurement
vulgar language 8, 17, 30, 1902
weight: see measurement
will, translation of 1589
wishing 2424, 417
word-formation xxxii, 6, 13, 52,
25287
word order 378, 4258
would, translation of 159
written language 8, 9, 1718
years, translation after numerals 402
493