Yantras in Jainism

Dr Uday Dokras
Tantra in Jainism has two distinctive features: it is largely centered around the use
of verbal spells or mantra, and Jain Tantric practices are aimed at improving one's
condition within the realm of rebirth rather than liberating one from rebirth. 35.
Jain Tantra: Divinatory and Meditative Practices in the Twelfth-Century Yogasâstra
of Hemacandra
From the book Tantra in Practice

Olle Qvarnstrôm points out in The study of Jain medieval Sanskrit texts reveals
a Tantric influence on the two main traditions of Jainism—Digambara and
Svetàmbara—both in the sense of ideas and practices and in the sense of a
literary class. This influence was restricted neither geographically nor
confessionally, and manifested itself within different literary genres and
contexts. Its impression is also visible in iconography and art. The questions
of the precise extent to which Tantra penetrated into Jainism, the historical
development of Jain Tantra, and its indebtedness to Hindu and Buddhist
Tantra are at the present stage of research not entirely clear, even though their
outlines have been sketched by scholars such as John Cort and Paul Dundas.
Many Tantric texts are still only available in manuscript form. Few have
been critically edited. For various reasons Jain Tantra has not caught the
attention of Indologists. This has in its turn made it difficult to integrate Jain
Tantra into a broader religious, cultural, and historical framework, as well as
to define its distinctive character.

Jainism also seems to have developed a substantial Tantra corpus based on

the Saura tradition, with rituals based on yakshas and yakshinis. Saura is a religion
and denomination of Hinduism, originating as a Vedic tradition. Followers of Saura
worship Surya as the Saguna Brahman. At present the Sauras are a very small
movement, much smaller than other larger denominations such
as Vaishnavism or Shaivism. There was a rapid decline of the Sauras in the 12th
and 13th century CE, due to the Muslim conquests.

Yogasâstra by Hemacandra (1089-1172 CE. not a Tantric text nor an historical

work that might provide a description of the gradual infusion of Tantra into
Svetàmbara Jainism underlines a historical process during which the
incorporation of Tantric ideas and practices was naturally infused into Jainism.

The Vaishnavas in the meantime developed another tradition of Hindu Tantra

among them , this was called the Pāñcarātra Agama tradition. This tradition
avoided the transgressive and sexual elements that were embraced by the Saivas
and the Buddhists. There is also a smaller tantric tradition associated with Surya,
the sun god. ( See my paper on Pancaratra in Angkor)
The sun has been worshipped in various forms since the time of the Rig
Veda in India. The prominence of the Saura sect is expounded by the
supremacy of the Gayatri mantra in the Vedic prayers. The theology of the
sect appears in a number of documents like
the Mahabharata, Ramayana, Markandeya Purana and a fifth century
inscription. Jain temples in Khajuraho bear witness toTantric display and
esoteric representations in the sculptures. There are 31 (Thirty one) Jain
Temples in total. But from architectural point of view the Parsvanath, the
Adinath and the Shantinath temples are relatively more important and
noteworthy.
YANTRAS
In Worship of Bell-Ears the Great Hero, a Jain Tantric Deity John E.
Cort reveals that Tantra in Jainism has two distinctive features: it is
largely centered around the use of verbal spells or mantra, and Jain
Tantric practices are aimed at improving one's condition within the
realm of rebirth rather than liberating one from rebirth. Although Jain
Tantric rites, also involve the use of diagrams known as yantras,
these play a subsidiary role compared to the mantras, and most
yantras have the ritual mantra written on them.

Jaipur Jain Ghantakarna Mahavir temple display

Mantras are used directly to effect desired results, and to call on
nonliberated deities to effect those results. Jain Tantric rites rarely
involve any elaborate form of meditation or visualization; usually the
simple repetition of the mantra suffices. Some Tantric rituals invoke the
central cultic figures of the tradition, the twenty-four Jinas or
tïrthahkaras, the enlightened and liberated souls who showed the
path to liberation. More often, though, the rituals invoke other
figures, such as the wonder-working monk Gautama in the
Svetàmbara ("White-Robed") tradition, various goddesses in both the
Svetàmbara and Digambara ("Sky-Clad") traditions, and male figures
such as Ghantâkarna Mahâvîra and Nâkodâ Bhairava in the
Svetàmbara tradition.

According to Jain theology, however, none of these beings has the

power to grant liberation. The Jinas are inactive icons of the liberated
state; the other deities, although active in the world, are themselves
unliberated, and so cannot give what they themselves have not
attained. As a result, most Jain Tantric rituals are aimed at
accomplishing a variety of goals in this world, such as health,
wealth, and power. Many Jain Tantric texts and rituals categorize these
goals within the framework of the "six actions" (satkarmânï) of pan-
Indian Tantra. What is not found in Jain Tantra is the development of a
full-scale alternative Tantric path to liberation such as is found in some
Hindu and Buddhist Tantric schools. The cult of Ghantâkarna Mahâvîra,
"Bell-Ears the Great Hero," exemplifies these.
Jainism stresses the need for strict asceticism and non-violence to all living
beings in order to achieve liberation from the continuous cycle of life and
death,” she explains. The ideal Jain lifestyle requires vegetarianism, fasting,
celibacy, and the renunciation of all possessions. It is a minority tradition in
India, with about 4.8 million followers out of a total population of over 1.22
billion. Despite being outnumbered by Hindus and Buddhists, Jains, often
because of their significant wealth, have exerted a disproportionate
influence on the art, literature, and philosophy of India for well over
2,000 years.

In stark opposition to the traditional Jain lifestyle, Tantra is a (problematic)

term for a variety of beliefs and practices that allow for, and often
encourage, the rejection of these orthodox teachings in order to achieve
liberation. Tantra, which was adopted by followers of all the classical
religious traditions on the subcontinent from the early medieval period
onward, is known for its promotion of meat-eating, wine-drinking, illicit sex,
initiation into esoteric cults, and the use of “magical’ invocations (mantra)
and diagrams (mand’’ala, yantra).”
A lay practitioner of the Jain religion offers a coconut while standing above a Jain
Tantric diagram made of colored powder.

Historical development and contemporary uses of one of these Jain

invocations that has been inscribed on a variety of ritual diagrams since the
thirteenth century. Composed in Prakrit, the sacred language of Jainism, the
mantra praises Jain ascetics who gained supernatural powers through
meditation and self denial. These diagrams are at the center of a variety of
rituals, including mendicant initia- tions, image consecrations, and lay
festivalsn it is thought that practitioners who recite these praises can obtain
the supernatural powers such as flight and clairvoyance honored in this
mantra. Many Tantric diagrams look like a board gameand many of the Jain
Tantric texts remain unpublished and its rituals undocumented. One canl
observe rituals in which Tantric diagrams are used, such as festivals at
which lay people form the diagrams out of colored powder and “make
offerings to ensure wealth and prosperity in this life and eventual liberation.

“Tantra in the Temple: Jain Supernatural Powers in History, Ritual, and

Visual Culture,”

The Yantra is the graphic, mathematics and magic representation of

the divine one. It is an ancient tradition that get lost in the night of the
times; we can find graphic representations of God in the prehistoric
mural paintings, games of numbers and magic squares in a lot of
ancient cultures. But it is in the tantric tradition that
the Yantras assume a bigger spectrum of uses.

The Yantras therefore should not be confused with magic or

superstition, but they are a real tool of worship. The meaning of the
word in Sanskrit is in fact instrument, support, machine, device.

Many Yantras are contained in a square (bhupur) with four gates. The
square represents the material world while the gates are the points of
access into the Yantra. Geometric shapes, symbols, numbers inside are
like parts of this mechanism. They lead us gradually towards its center
representing the Supreme Consciousness. A yantra is an instrument
that allows us to make an inner journey to the discovery of the
Supreme Self.

Apart from invoking the divine, the Yantra is used by the Aghoris as
object of meditation. It is painted in the walls of the temples or next to
the dhuni (sacred fire). It is engraved on small copper plates and
usually positioned in the mandir (temple). Or It is written within small
squares of paper inside a silver or copper container as amulets
(kavacha); for every application there is a specify Yantra.

The study of the Yantras is an important footstep in the particular

sadhana (spiritual path) of the Aghoris.

The main temples of the Jain group of temples in khajuraho are: The
Parshavnath Temple, Shantinath Temple and Adinath Temple. These
temples bear witness to the Tantric and Esoteric aspects that Jainism
followed. The main Jain temples includes the Parshvanath Temple around
954 AD, the Ghantai Temple around 960 AD, and the Adinath Temple
around 1027 AD. As many as eighty other temples of both religions were
also constructed in Khajuraho at this time. Khajuraho was a major Jain
center throughout the period of Chandela rule.
In the Mahabharata, On one occasion, when leaving his chambers in the
morning, Yudhisthira encounters one thousand Saurite brahmins with eight
thousand followers.
SUN WORSHIP
The priests of the saura sect were called magas, bhojakas, or sakadivipiya
Brahmins. In the Saura sect, the god Surya is the lord of the Trimurti, the
eternal Brahman and the supreme spirit, the soul of all creatures, self
existent, unborn, the cause of all things and the foundation of the world.
Saura followers worship Surya as the Saguna Brahman.
The most important text of the Saura sect is the Saura Samhita. Its only
extant copy is currently in Nepal and has been dated to 941 A.D. but is
considered to be older. Another text of importance is the Surya Satakam, a
Sanskrit poem of a hundred stanzas. The poem was composed in the
sragdhara meter and written in the gaudi style by Mayurbhatta, a poet in
the court of Harshavardhana and a rival of Banabhatta. Surya as the
bestower of moksha (release) is emphasized in this text. The Samba Purana,
a Saurite upapurana, is a text entirely dedicated to Surya.
Yaksha

"Parkham Yaksha" Manibhadra, 150 BCE/"Mudgarpani Yaksha", 100 BC\ Remains of the colossal statues of
the Parkham Yaksha (150 BCE) and the Mudgarpani ("Mace-holder") Yaksha (100 BCE), Mathura. These
colossal statues stand around two metres tall. The Mudgarpani Yaksha holds a mudgar mace in the right
hand, and the left hand used to support a small standing devotee or child joining hands in prayer
Art of Mathura, Mathura Museum

The yakshas are a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, but

sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the
forest, treasure and wilderness. They appear in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, as
well as ancient and medieval era temples of South Asia and Southeast Asia as
guardian deities. The feminine form of the word is yakṣī or yakshini .
In Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, the yakṣa has a dual personality. On the one
hand, a yakṣa may be an inoffensive nature-fairy, associated with woods and
mountains; but there is also a darker version of the yakṣa, which is a kind of ghost
(bhuta) that haunts the wilderness and waylays and devours travellers, similar to
the rakṣasas.
The Yakshas are also the Dvarapala or Dvarapalaka "door guard"; a
door or gate guardian often portrayed as a warrior or fearsome giant, usually armed
with a weapon - the most common being the gada (mace). The dvarapala statue is a
widespread architectural element throughout Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina cultures, as
well as in areas influenced by them like Java.
Jaya-Vijaya - the Dvarapalas of the god Vishnu's abode Vaikuntha are often depicted
his temples, guarding the doors. Here they are guarding the sanctum of the Vishnu
temple, Chennakesava Temple.
 Dwaarpalas at a Jain temple
In most Southeast Asian languages
(including Thai, Burmese, Vietnamese, Khmer and Javanese), these protective figures
are referred to as dvarapala. Sanskrit dvāra means "gate" or "door", and pāla means
"guard" or "protector".
The related name in Indonesian and Malaysia is dwarapala. Equivalent door guardians
in northern Asian languages are Kongōrikishi or Niō in Japanese, Heng Ha Er
Jiang in Chinese, and Narayeongeumgang in Korean.
Dvarapalas as an architectural feature have their origin in tutelary deities,
like Yaksha and warrior figures, such as Acala, of the local popular religion. Today
some dvarapalas are even figures of policemen or soldiers standing guard.
These statues were traditionally placed outside Buddhist or Hindu temples, as well as
other structures like royal palaces, to protect the holy places inside. A dvarapala is
usually portrayed as an armed fearsome guardian looking like a demon, but at the
gates of Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka, dvarapalas often display
average human features. In other instances a fierce-looking nāga snake figure may
perform the same function.
The sculptures in Java and Bali, usually carved from andesite, portray dvarapalas as
fearsome giants with a rather bulky physique in semi kneeling position and holding
a club. The largest dvarapala stone statue in Java, a dvarapala of
the Singhasari period, is 3.7 metres (12 ft) tall. The traditional dvarapalas of Cambodia
and Thailand, on the other hand, are leaner and portrayed in a standing position
holding the club downward in the center.
The ancient sculpture of dvarapala in Thailand is made of a high-
fired stoneware clay covered with a pale, almost milky celadon glaze. Ceramic
sculptures of this type were produced in Thailand, during the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya
periods, between the 14th and 16th centuries, at several kiln complexes located
in northern Thailand.
Depending on the size and wealth of the temple, the guardians could be placed singly,
in pairs or in larger groups. Smaller structures may have had only one dvarapala.
Often there was a pair placed on either side of the threshold to the shrine. Some larger
sites may have had four (lokapālas, guardians of the four cardinal directions), eight, or
12. In some cases only the fierce face or head of the guardian is represented, a figure
very common in the kratons in Java.
Dvarapala in Elephanta India./ largest dvarapala stone statue of Java, Singhasari period./
Dvarapala at Banteay Kdei in Angkor, Cambodia RIGHT PIC is from Vietnam- Late 9th or early 10th
century dvarapala from Indrapura (Dong Duong), Champa, Vietnam.

Dvarapala Sukhothai and Ayutthaya, 14th and 16th centuries Thailand.

A pair of male and female dvarapalas guarding gate of a Hindu temple

in Bali, Indonesia.
 Dvarapalaka, 11th

century (Chola dynasty), Tamil Nadu, India

Dvarapala at the entrance of Hatadage, Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka

Dvarapala at the Kraton of Surakarta, Indonesia
 Guardian statue at a Hindu temple in Sri Lanka.

Painting of Āṭavaka, a yaksha who challenged the Buddha/ The yaksha are nature spirits who are
benevolent, sometimes mischievous or capricious. Left: Yaksi, Right: Yaksha from Bharhut and Pitalkhora,
c. 2nd century CE.

Several monumental yakshas are known from the time of the Maurya
Empire period. They are variously dated from around the 3rd century BCE to
the 1st century BCE. These statues are monumental (usually around 2
metres tall), and often bear inscriptions related to their identification as
yakshas. They are considered as the first known monumental stone
sculptures in India. Two of these monumental yakshas are known
from Patna, one from Vidisha and one from Parkham, as well as one
yakshini from Vidisha. The yakṣas may have originally been the tutelary
deity of forests and villages, and were later viewed as the steward deities of
the earth and the wealth buried beneath.
In early Indian art, male yakṣas are portrayed either as fearsome warriors or
as portly, stout and dwarf-like. Yakṣiṇīs are portrayed as beautiful young
women with happy round faces and full breasts and hips.
 Yakshas (Thai: ยักษ์, RTGS: Yak) are an
important element in Thai temple art
and architecture. They are common as
guardians of the gates in Buddhist
temples throughout the country since at
least the 14th century. Ceramic
sculptures of guardian yakshas were
produced in Thailand, during
the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya periods,
between the 14th and 16th centuries, at
several kiln complexes in northern
Thailand. They are mostly depicted with
a characteristic face, having big round
bulging eyes and protruding fangs, as
well as a green complexion. Yakshas
and their female counterparts are
Face of the common in the Buddhist literature of
yakṣa Thotsakhirithon (ทศคีรีธร) at Wat Phra Thailand, such as in The Twelve
Sisters and Phra Aphai Mani. As ogres,
Kaew, Bangkok
giants, and ogresses, yakshas are
present as well in Thai folklore.
"ย ยักษ์" (yo yak) is also used as an
illustration in order to name the letter ย,
the 34th consonant of the Thai
alphabet, according to the traditional
letter symbols Thai children use to
memorise the alphabet.

Kubera

In Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Religion, Kubera, the god of wealth and
prosperity, is considered the king of the yakshas. He is regarded as the
regent of the North (Dikapāla) and a protector of the world (Lokapāla).
His many epithets extol him as the overlord of numerous semi-divine
species and the owner of the treasures of the world. Kubera is often
depicted with a plump body, adorned with jewels, carrying a money-pot and
a club. His vahana (vehicle) is the mongoose. He is often seen with Lakshmi,
the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity.
In Buddhism, he is equated with Vaiśravaṇa.
In Buddhist literature, the yakṣa are the attendants of Vaiśravaṇa, the
guardian of the northern quarter, a beneficent god who protects the
righteous. The term also refers to the Twelve Heavenly Generals who
guard Bhaiṣajyaguru, the Medicine Buddha. The yakshas of many Buddhist
stories are ugly ogres, reborn in that form because of sins committed during
their past lives as humans.
One such malevolent yaksha, Silesaloma, appears in the Jataka tales of
the Pali Buddhist canon. The tale is similar to other folktales from a far-flung
variety of places, including Iran, South Africa, the Philippines, and Jamaica,
though its exact origins are uncertain. In the story "Prince Five-Weapons
and the Sticky-Haired Demon", Silesaloma is described as being the height
of a palm tree, with sharp teeth and two yellow tusks,and a coat of thick,
matted fur. A bodhisattva named Prince Panchayudha (Five-Weapons)
attempted to kill Silesaloma, but all his attacks, from both his weapons and
his bare hands, were thwarted by Silesaloma's sticky hair. Ultimately, Prince
Panchayudha impressed Silesaloma with his bravery, and the yaksha decided to let
him go. Panchayudha explained that Silesaloma's monstrous state was caused by
wicked deeds from his past lives, and he taught the yaksha the five precepts, after
which Silesaloma renounced violence and transformed into a friendly forest spirit.
The Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñī Sūtra, a text that dates back to fourth century or earlier
(translated from the Sanskrit by Kumarajiva), gives a large list of yakshas that
reside in the classical cities of ancient India who are invoked to seek the protection
of the BuddhaDharma:
"The deity Krakucchanda resides in Pataliputra.
Aparajita resides in Sthuno.
The great yaksha Bhadra resides in Saila.
The great deity Manava resides in Uttara.
The great sage Vajrapani though lives in Rajagrha
Often dwells in Mount Grdhrakuta.
The deity Garuda resides in the Vipula mountain.
Citragupta resides in Citemukha.
The yaksha Vakula resides in Rajagrha.
...
The yaksha king Mahagiri resides in Girinagara.
The yaksha Vasava resides in Vaidisa.
The yaksha Karttikeya resides in Rohitaka.
This yaksha Kumara is renowned in the great city.
...
Vaisravana who resides in the city Alakavati,
Located along the jewelled stairway of the Buddha’s descent,
Is surrounded by billions of gods and goddesses.
Such yakshas command huge and powerful contingents of troops
To subjugate adversaries and enemies,
Conquering all.
They are famous throughout all directions.
Imbued with great dignity and virtue,
They come to aid
In the battles between the heavens and asuras.

These deities of virtues and great yaksha generals are located everywhere
in Jambudvipa. They uphold and protect the Buddhadharma, generating
compassion."

Yakshas In Jainism

A yaksha as a gate guardian (dvarapala) at Plaosan temple in Indonesia/ 'Digambara Yaksha Sarvahna', Norton
Simon Museum, c. 900 CE

Jains mainly maintain cult images of Arihants and Tirthankaras, who have
conquered the inner passions and attained
moksha. Yakshas and yakshinis are found in pair around the cult images of
Jinas, serving as guardian deities. The yaksha is generally on the right-hand
side of the Jina image while the yakshini is on the left-hand side. They are
regarded mainly as devotees of the Jina and have supernatural powers.
They are also wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like
the worldly souls, but have supernatural powers.
The Harivamsapurana (783 CE) refers to them as Shasandevatas. Initially
among the yakshas, Manibhadra and Purnabadra yakshas and Bahuputrika
yakshini were popular. The yaksha Manibhadra is worshipped by the Jains
affiliated with the Tapa Gachchha. During tenth and thirteenth centuries
yaksha Saarvanubhuti, or Sarvahna and
yakshinis Chakreshvari, Ambika, Padmavati, and Jwalamalini became so
popular that independent temples devoted to them were erected.
Yakshas and yakshinis are common among the Murtipujaka Śvētāmbara and
Bispanthi Digambara Jains. The Digambara Terapanth movement opposes
their worship. Among the Murtipujaka Śvētāmbaras, the Tristutik
Gaccha sect (both historical founded by Silagana and Devabhadra, and the
modern sect organised by Rajendrasuri) object to the worship of shruta-
devatas.
Shasan devatas in Jainism
 Yaksha and yakshini couple Sarvānubhūti and Kuṣmāṇḍinī, with the Tirthankaras

In Jainism, there are twenty-four yakshas and twenty-four yakshis that serve
as śāsanadevatās for the twenty-four tirthankaras: These yakshas are as
follows:

 Gomukha
 Mahayaksha
 Trimukha
 Yaksheshvara or Yakshanayaka
 Tumbaru
 Kusuma
 Varanandi or Matanga
 Vijaya or Shyama
 Ajita
 Brahma or Brahmeshvara
 Ishvara or Yakset
 Kumara
 Dandapani
 Patala
 Kinnara
 Kimpurusha or Garuda
 Gandharva
 Kendra or Yakshendra
 Kubera
 Varuna
 Bhrikuti
 Gomedha or Sarvahna
 Dharanendra or Parshvayaksha
 Matanga
In Kālidāsa's poem Meghadūta, for instance, the yakṣa narrator is a
romantic figure, pining with love for his missing beloved. By contrast, in the
didactic Hindu dialogue of the Yakṣapraśnāḥ "Questions of the Yakṣa", it is
a tutelary spirit of a lake that challenges Yudhiṣṭhira.
In Mahavamsa poem of Sri Lanka, a local population is given the term
Yakkhas. Prince Vijaya encountered the royalty of the yakkhas'
queen, Kuveni, in her capital of Lanka pura and conquered them. The
Yakkhas served as loyal subjects with the House of Vijaya and the yakkha
chieftain sat on equal height to the Sri Lankan leaders on festival days.

1. Yaksha couple standing on lotus leaves, the male (sic) holding a lotus bud and posed
in shalabhanjika/
2. Dvarapala Yaksha made of basalt. Statue found in Buddhist cave (Pitalkhora) and
dates to 2nd century CE. On display in the Prince of Wales Museum.
3. Vidisha Yaksha, 2nd century BCE, Vidisha Museum/Gomedh and Ambika at Maharaja
Chhatrasal Museum, 11th century

However, this Jain tantrism was mainly used for pragmatic purposes like
protection, and was not used to attain liberation. Complete manuscripts of
these Jain tantras have not survived. The Jains also seem to have adopted some
of the subtle body practices of tantra, but not sexual yoga.
The Svetambara thinker Hemacandra (c. 1089–1172) discusses tantric
practices extensively, such as internal meditations on chakras, which betray
Kaula and Nath influences.

Tantricism and Esoterism portrayed in the The Jain Temples at Khajuraho

These are part of the Khajuraho group of monuments and hence to understand
them, their design, and genesis, it is but fitting to delve a little into the realms of
Khajuraho temple history. Most of the Khajuraho temples were built within the
span of a century, between the end of the 10th century and the beginning of the
11th century. The temples sprouted with remarkable prolificity during this time
under the rule of the Chandela Kings. The Chandelas who traced their ancestry to
the Moon and were part of the Lunar dynasty or Chandravanshis who ruled over
the Bundelkhand region of Central India, then known as Jejakabhukti. The
Chandelas reigned between the 10th and 13th centuries and had their capital at
Mahoba.

The Chandelas were connoisseurs of art and architecture and their reign saw the
mushrooming of many temples, forts, palaces, and other structures. In many ways,
they can be compared to the great kings of the Khmer Empire in Cambodia like
Suryavarman II and Jayavarman VII during whose reign the great temples of Siem
Reap like Angkor Wat, Bayon Temple, Ta Prohm, and others rose to the skies. It is
interesting to note that the temples of Khajuraho and some of the majestic temples
of Siem Reap must have been built around the same time. It is now known that by
the 12th century there were around 85 temples in the region which was known as
Kalinjar near present-day Khajuraho. However, the Chandela dynasty declined in
the 13th century and the temples of Khajuraho too fell on bad days. Many of them
were destroyed by invaders from the Delhi Sultanate and others slowly were
swallowed by the jungles. It was only in the early part of the 19th century, that the
temples were rediscovered.

Today what remains of the legacy of the Chandela dynasty is around 25 temples
that stun the world with their sheer beauty.

Visiting The Jain Temples Of Khajuraho

Adinath &Parasnath idols

The exterior walls of the temple have three bands of sculptures
featuring surasundaris (graceful women),
flying vidyadhara couples, vyalas (mythical lion-like being), and a dancer
with musicians. Despite the shrine's Jain affiliation, the external walls also
feature carvings of the Hindu deitiesThe niches feature sculptures of the
Jain Yakshinis: Ambika, Chakreshvari, and Padmavati.

Close-up of a sculpture/ Chandela-era statue of Adinatha in the sanctum

One sculpture found at the temple shows a sitting Adinatha with
an ushnisha on his head. It features a dharmachakra with a small bull
figure. The right side of the seat has the figure of a pot-bellied yaksha with a
cup and a moneybag in his hands. The left side has the figure of
the yakshini Chakreshvari sitting on a Garuda. She has four arms; each of the two
upper arms hold a chakra.
Another sculpture with similar iconography also features a yaksha, a yakshini, and
a bull with a dharmachakra. The Adinatha is shown sitting in padmasana pose on a
cushioned seat with lotuses and diamond motifs. The plan and design of the
Adinatha temple is similar to that of the Vamana temple. There are only a few
differences between the two temples. For example, the top row of the outer wall of
the Adinatha temple depicts a flying vidyadhara, while that of the Vamana temple
shows diamond-shaped decorations. The curvilinear tower of the Adinatha temple
is of better proportions than that of the Vamana temple. This, combined with a
somewhat more evolved sculptural style, suggests that the Adinatha temple was
constructed after the Vamana temple.
Only two major parts of the temple now survive: the vestibule and the sanctum.
The roof of the vestibule is particularly remarkable for its elegant design
The Jain Temples of Khajuraho are enclosed within a contemporary enclosure and
has about 16 different temples. The most important of these are the Adinath
Temple and the Parshvanath Temple. Both these temples are the oldest too, dating
back about a thousand years. During those times the eastern part of Khajuraho
was inhabited by Jain merchants and hence the Jain temples are concentrated in
this particular area. The secular character of the Chandela dynasty and the co-
existence of Hinduism and Jainism in that period is amplified by the existence of
the Jain temples of Khajuraho.

Parshvanatha temple (IAST: Pārśvanātha Mandir) is a 10th-century Jain temple

at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India. It is now dedicated to Parshvanatha,
although it was probably built as an Adinatha shrine during the Chandela period.
Despite the temple's Jain affiliation, its exterior walls feature Vaishnavaite themes.
The entrance has an inscription with a most-perfect magic square. It is part of
a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with other temples in the Khajuraho Group of
Monuments. The Parshvanatha temple is the largest among the Jain temples of
Khajuraho. It has an entrance porch, a small hall, a large hall
(mandapa), a vestibule, and a sanctum. The temple structure has an oblong
architectural plan with projections at two ends. The front (eastern) projection forms
the entrance porch, the back (western) projection is a shrine attached to the
sanctum.
The ceiling of the entrance porch features chain and floral patterns, and a pair of
intertwined flying vidyadharas. The door-lintel of the mandapa has the sculpture of
Adinatha's attendant: a ten-armed Chakreshvari riding a Garuda. The sanctum
features sculptures of the Jinas.
The temple is believed to have been constructed by a prominent Jain
family between 950 and 970 CE, during the reign of the Chandela king Dhanga. A
954 CE (1011 VS) inscription on the left door jamb of the temple records gifts and
endowments of gardens by one Pahila. The gardens are named Pahila-vatika,
Chandra-vatika, Laghuchandra-vatika, Shankara-vatika, Panchaitala-vatika, Amra-
vatika and Dhanga-vadi. The inscription describes Pahila as a devotee of Jinanatha
and states that he was held in great esteem by the king Dhanga.
The earliest idol enshrined in the temple appears to have been that of Adinatha.
When the British archaeological surveyor Alexander Cunningham visited in 1852,
he found the main sanctum deserted. He described it as "Jinanatha temple" and
wrote that it had been repaired by a Jain banker in 1847. In 1860, a Parshvanatha
idol was installed in the main sanctum. An Adinatha statue was placed in a
secondary shrine attached to the rear of the temple.
The temple has been classified as a Monument of National Importance by
the Archaeological Survey of India.
ADINATH to left and PARASVANATH to Right

The outer walls have three bands of sculptures. [5] These sculptures
feature surasundaris (graceful women), flying couples, dancers, musicians, and
celestial beings. Despite the temple's Jain affiliation, the outer walls also
depict Vaishnavite themes including sculptures of Hindu gods and their
incarnations with their consorts. These include Vishnu-Lakshmi, Rama-
Sita, Balarama-Revati, Parashurama, Hanuman, Brahma and Yamalarjuna legend
of Krishna. These sculptures are similar to those of the Lakshmana Temple in
modeling, proportions and poise. Unlike the Lakshmana temple, the Parshvanatha
temple doesn't feature explicit erotic sculptures, although one particular image
appears to show a cross-legged apsara masturbating with an object.
A most-perfect magic square of order n is a magic square containing the
numbers 1 to n2 with two additional properties:

1. Each 2 × 2 subsquare sums to 2s, where s = n2 + 1.

2. All pairs of integers distant n/2 along a (major) diagonal sum to s.

Image of Sriramachakra as a most-perfect magic square given in

the Panchangam published by Sringeri Sharada Peetham.

Two 12 × 12 most-perfect magic squares can be obtained adding 1 to each

element of:

[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] [,6] [,7] [,8] [,9] [,10] [,11] [,12]
[1,] 64 92 81 94 48 77 67 63 50 61 83 78
[2,] 31 99 14 97 47 114 28 128 45 130 12 113
[3,] 24 132 41 134 8 117 27 103 10 101 43 118
[4,] 23 107 6 105 39 122 20 136 37 138 4 121
[5,] 16 140 33 142 0 125 19 111 2 109 35 126
[6,] 75 55 58 53 91 70 72 84 89 86 56 69
[7,] 76 80 93 82 60 65 79 51 62 49 95 66
[8,] 115 15 98 13 131 30 112 44 129 46 96 29
[9,] 116 40 133 42 100 25 119 11 102 9 135 26
[10,] 123 7 106 5 139 22 120 36 137 38 104 21
[11,] 124 32 141 34 108 17 127 3 110 1 143 18
[12,] 71 59 54 57 87 74 68 88 85 90 52 73
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] [,6] [,7] [,8] [,9] [,10] [,11] [,12]
[1,] 4 113 14 131 3 121 31 138 21 120 32 130
 [2,] 136 33 126 15 137 25 109 8 119 26 108 16
[3,] 73 44 83 62 72 52 100 69 90 51 101 61
[4,] 64 105 54 87 65 97 37 80 47 98 36 88
[5,] 1 116 11 134 0 124 28 141 18 123 29 133
[6,] 103 66 93 48 104 58 76 41 86 59 75 49
[7,] 112 5 122 23 111 13 139 30 129 12 140 22
[8,] 34 135 24 117 35 127 7 110 17 128 6 118
[9,] 43 74 53 92 42 82 70 99 60 81 71 91
[10,] 106 63 96 45 107 55 79 38 89 56 78 46
[11,] 115 2 125 20 114 10 142 27 132 9 143 19
[12,] 67 102 57 84 68 94 40 77 50 95 39 85

panmagicism of the squares.

All most-perfect magic squares are panmagic squares.
Apart from the trivial case of the first order square, most-perfect magic squares
are all of order 4n. In their book, Kathleen Ollerenshaw and David S. Brée give a
method of construction and enumeration of all most-perfect magic squares. They
also show that there is a one-to-one correspondence between reversible
squares and most-perfect magic squares.
For n = 36, there are about 2.7 × 10 essentially different most-perfect magic
squares.
Kama and Rati

The inscription containing the 4×4 most-perfect magic square

The temple has an inscription with a magic square, called the "Jaina square". This
is one of the oldest known 4×4 magic squares, as well as one of the oldest
known most-perfect magic squares.
This magic square contains all the numbers from 1 to 16. The sum of the numbers
in every horizontal row, every vertical column and the two diagonal rows is 34.

1 1
7 1
2 4
 1 1
2 8
3 1

1 1
3 5
6 0

1
9 6 4
5

1 1
7 1
2 4

1 1
2 8
3 1

1 1
3 5
6 0

1
9 6 4
5

1 1
7 1
2 4

1 1
2 8
3 1

1 1
3 5
6 0

1
9 6 4
5

7 1 1 1
 2 4

1 1
2 8
3 1

1 1
3 5
6 0

1
9 6 4
5

The sum of the numbers in the smaller 2x2 squares at the four corners, as well as
those in the central 2x2 square, is also 34.

1 1
7 1
2 4

1 1
2 8
3 1

1 1
3 5
6 0

1
9 6 4
5

1 1
7 1
2 4

1 1
2 8
3 1

1 1
3 5
6 0
 1
9 6 4
5

1 1
7 1
2 4

1 1
2 8
3 1

1 1
3 5
6 0

1
9 6 4
5

The magic square is pandiagonal, aka diabolic: the numbers in its broken diagonals
also sum up to 34. For example, 7 + (6 + 10 + 11) = 34.

1 1
7 1
2 4

1 1
2 8
3 1

1 1
3 5
6 0

1
9 6 4
5

1 1
7 1
2 4

1 1
2 8
3 1
1 1
3 5
6 0

1
9 6 4
5

1 1
7 1
2 4

1 1
2 8
3 1

1 1
3 5
6 0

1
9 6 4
5

1 1
7 1
2 4

1 1
2 8
3 1

1 1
3 5
6 0

1
9 6 4
5
17th Jaina Studies Symposium

Jaina Tantra Book of Abstracts

20 March 2015- SOAS, University of London

Tantric Elements in the Original Praśnavyākaraṇa‒ A Study

Jagat Ram Bhattacharyya (Shantiniketan, India)

Praśnavyākaraṇa is known to be the tenth canon of the twelve fold aṅgas of the
Śvetāmbara sect. The available editions of Praśnavyākaraṇa are dealt with two
major aspects of nine categories in Jainism, the influx (of karman–āsrava) and
inhibition (of karman-saṃvara). These two aspects are the basis of the theory of
the karma in Jainism. Praśnavyākaraṇa is also known in two other terms -
Paṇhavāgaraṇadasā or Vāgaraṇadasā. Although the available text of the
Praśnavyākaraṇa is same in all the editions, there is no doubt that this (newly
edited) one is the new addition in the name of Praśnavyākaraṇa.
It is interesting to note that the subject matter of the Praśnavyākaraṇa was first
introduced in the Sthānāṅgasūtra of being ten sections of the text, such as,
Upamā, Saṃkhyā, Ṛṣibhāṣita, Ācāryabhāṣita, Mahāvīrabhāṣita, Kṣobhikapraśna,
Komalapraśna, Ādarśapraśna and Bāhupraśna. Samavāyaṃga, the fifth canon has
mentioned the Praśnavyākaraṇa in more elaborative manner. It has mentioned
that there are 108 praśnas, 108 apraśnas and 108 praśnāpraśnas in it. It also
mentions about the divine dialogue between Nāgas and Suparṇas. It also names
some chapters like, Ādarśa (addāga), Aṅguṭṭha, Bāhu, Asi, Maṣi, Kṣauma and
Āditya etc. Some typical names that hint to the tantric elements are also there,
such as, Mahāpraśnavidyā, Manapraśnavidyā and Devaprayoga etc. It also
mentions that the contents of the Praśnavyākaraṇa hold forty-five uddeśanas,
forty-five samuddeśanas and one lakh couplets and so on and these are based on
metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Nandīsūtra, on this point comments that
Praśnavyākaraṇa is the shorter
form of the Samavāyāṅga with minor difference in the name of the chapters.
The newly edited Praśnavyākaraṇa, which I name as the Original Praśnavyākaraṇa
has been lost for centuries. This text has a commentary named Darśanajyoti and
the commentator is Jīvabhogin, an unknown Jain mendicant (Ācārya?), a disciple of
Devanandin. One Devanandin is known to be a Digambara Ācārya of 7th/8th
century A.D. Considering the period of Devanandin this commentary should also be
placed in that period. Jain commentary literatures are acknowledged to be written
on or after 10th century A.D. On this point the Darśanajyoti may be the earliest
commentary so far if Jīvabhogin would be the disciple of that very Devanandin.
However, the present Praśnavyakaraṇa comprises 34 chapters with an appendix.
These are, 1. Vargaracanā, 2. Yoni-nirdeśa, 3. Śikṣā,
4. Saṃkaṭa-vikaṭa, 5. Uttarādhara, 6. Abhighāta, 7. Jīvasaṃjñā-bheda, 8. Jīvacintā
(manuṣya), 9. Jīvacintā, 10. Dhātucintā, 11.Mūlasaṃjñā, 12. Mūlacintā, 13.
Muṣṭijñāna, 14. Saṃkaṭa-vikaṭa (repetition of 04 with little change), 15.
Saṃsthāna- vibhāga, 16. Varṇa-vibhāga, 17. Ghanachidra, 18. Jñātakāṇḍa,
19.Saṃkhyā, 20. Kālānayana, 21. Nakṣatrānayana, 22. Dvika-yoga, 23.
Guṇakārakāṇḍa, 24. Mahākaraṇa-nandika parvan, 25.Gaja-vilulita, 26. Gajavilulita
saṃkhyā-karaṇa, 27. Mahākaraṇa-Gajavilulita, 28. Siṃhāvalokana, 29.
Sarvatobhadra, 30. Aśvamohita- karaṇa, 31. Sama-viṣama, 32. Guṇa, 33.
Akṣarotpādana kāṇḍa, 34. Antikṣapaṇa and 35. Pariśiṣṭa.
Beginning from the first chapter till the end this text covers some aspects of
grammar and at the same time it specifically deals with the nimittaśāstra, for
example, while dealing with the letters like k, g, c, j, t and d etc. are treated as
consonants as laghu akṣara, these are also called as jīvacintā; in terms of mātrā,
certain vowels are not only treated in hrasva, dīrgha and pluta, some other
terminologies are created as tiryak, adhaḥ and ūrdhva etc. Phonemes are termed
as, āliṅgita, abhidhūmita, abhighāta, dagdha, carama and so on. So in other
chapters, we come across some points that lead to the tantric ordinances. Dealing
with the whole text an overview of tantric elements would be highlighted in the
paper as this text holds good a new dimension of Indian tantric tradition.

The Five Great Elements (pañca mahābhūta) in Jaina Meditation

Manuals

Christopher Key Chapple (Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, USA)

Śubhacandra's Jñānārṇava, a Digambara text most likely composed in the 11th

century, includes a chapter on Piṇḍastha Dhyāna that correlates element, color,
geometric form, and mantra, leading to a meditation on lotuses. The text describes
a progressive entry into various states of concentration on the elements. Unlike
the ascent from earth to water, and then to fire, air, and space commonly found in
Hindu Tantra texts and in the Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa, the 29th chapter of
the Jñānarṇava outlines a different sequence, beginning with earth, proceeding to
water, but then using wind to generate the fire necessary to burn off karmas,
delivering one to a state of pure meditation or the final and fifth element of space.
Specifically, this chapter describes the four elements (earth, water, air, fire), four
corresponding geometric forms (square, crescent, sphere, triangle), four colors
(ochre, white, blue- black, yellow), and four mantras (lam, vam, yam, ram) to be
performed.
Several chapters later more explicit directions are given in terms of the technique
and results of this meditative sequence. In chapter 37, the order of concentration
on the elements is switched, with water rising to ascendancy as a culminating
practice that cools the burning fires generated by the breathing practices that
have eradicated karmas. One reconfigures the gaze upon the earth to visualize
the earth as taking the shape of a lotus. The “stuff” of the earth becomes
correlated with mountains seen in the distance at dusk. This meditation then
promotes fires to burn, scorching the eight downward petals of the lotus that
represent the eight Jaina karmas. The four negative karmas, to be purified and
expelled through this practice, are karmas that obstruct knowledge, that obstruct
intuition, that obstruct energy, and that cause delusional thinking and action. The
four remaining categories, which are also ultimately left behind, are karmas that
enable feeling, lifespan, physique, and social status. This fire then leads to the
practice of effortful, wind-like breathing that frees one from all constraints. The
final visualization on water leads one to a reflection on the presence of the
liberated soul and great teacher Mahāvīra, visualized externally on his Lion Throne
as well as internally within one‟s own body. This latter meditation is reproduced
nearly verbatim in the Yogaśāstra of Hemacandra (1089-1172).
This paper will compare and contrast these variant approaches to Tantric
visualization practices, examining the uniquely Jaina aspects found in these two
texts. Select new translations will be shared.
 Reading Gorakhnāth through a Jain Lens: Jain Receptions of the Nāths in
Pre- Colonial North India

John E. Cort (Denison University, USA)

Toward the end of the Banārsī Vilās, the “collected works” of Banārsīdās (1586-
1643) that was compiled by his colleague Jagjīvanrām in 1644, there is a curious
seven-caupāī composition entitled “Gorakhnāth ke Vacan,” or “The Sayings of
Gorakhnāth.” In it he gives a favourable overview of Gorakhnāth‟s teachings. To
the best of my knowledge, no scholarly attention has been focused on this text.
Scholars of Banārsīdās at best simply mention it in passing. Scholars of
Gorakhnāth, and the Nāths seem largely to be ignorant of the text.

A century later, in his Mokṣa-mārg Prakāśak, the Jaipur-based Terāpanth ideologue

Ṭoḍarmal (ca. 1719/20-1766/67) included a discussion of yogic practices. While
Ṭoḍarmal did not specify a source for his discussion, his comments were harshly
critical of these false practices. We thus see two different responses to the Tantric
Yoga of Gorakhnāth and the Nāths. In this paper, I analyse these two texts, to see
two Jain readings of and responses to Nāth Tantric Yoga. I speculate on what the
two sharply different receptions might tell us about the two authors, and also the
socio-religious situations of the Jains in seventeenth-century Agra and eighteenth-
century Jaipur. Finally, I look at other evidence of Jain readings and receptions of
Nāth Tantric Yoga in pre-colonial North India.

Tantra Without ‘Tantrism’: The Quotidian Jain Mantra According to

Somasena Bhaṭṭāraka

Paul Dundas (University of Edinburgh, Scotland)

This presentation will first draw attention to a range of references from

Śvetāmbara Jain sources which might be styled 'tantric' without fitting into any
overarching system of 'Jain Tantrism' and will then focus on the role of mantra in
daily life as described by the seventeenth century Digambara
Somasenabhaṭṭāraka.

Digambara Jaina Divination Rituals in Coastal Karṇāṭāka

Peter Flügel (SOAS, University of London)

The paper presents a comparative analysis of the divination rituals performed to

the yakṣīs Kūṣmāṇḍīnī, Jvālāmālinī and Padmāvatī at pilgrimage shrines related to
the maṭhas of the Digambara bhaṭṭārakas at Mūḍabidarī, Narasiṃharājapura and
Hūmchā in Coastal Karnataka and similar Hindu rituals in Central Karnataka to
discern the specific features of Jainisation of regional divinatory practice.
 The Mudrās of Jain Mantraśāstra

Ellen Gough (Yale University, USA)

Ritual gestures (mudrā) are among the many components of Jain ritual that
scholarship in non-Indic languages has completely overlooked. Jain ritual manuals,
however, catalogue a variety of mudrās, with the twentieth-century Digambara
compendium Laghuvidyānuvāda listing 45, and Nayacandrasāgara‟s Śvetāmbara
Vardhamāna Vidyā Kalpa picturing 24. While this paper cannot examine all of
these mudrās, it will focus on the eight used today in the daily worship of the
sūrimantra paṭa, the cloth ritual diagram gifted to Śvetāmbara mendicant heads
(ācārya) upon their promotions. Following the Gujarati manual ācāryas of the Tapā
Gaccha use today, this paper will historicize these eight mudrās, placing them
within the Indic use of mudrās more generally: (1) the saubhāgya mudrā, (2) the
parameṣṭhī mudrā, (3) the garuḍa mudrā (4) the surabhi mudrā, (5) the mudgar
mudrā, (6) the cakra mudrā,

(7) the pravacana mudrā, and (8) the añjali mudrā. While some of these gestures,
like the añjali mudrā, are omnipresent in Indic traditions, others are more
commonly associated with particular sects: the garuḍa mudrā, for example, is
associated with Vaiṣṇava traditions, while the pravacana mudrā perhaps is not
used outside of Jain traditions. Ultimately, examining how and why these mudrās
are used in the worship of the sūrimantra will help us more fully understand not
only components of
Śvetāmbara worship, but also those of the non-Śvetāmbara traditions – Vedic,
Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Buddhist and Digambara – that use these same gestures.

Jaina Meditation as depicted in Jñánárựava by Śubhacandra (1003-1068

A.D.)
Shugan C. Jain (ISJS) New Delhi, India)

The paper highlights the uniqueness of the eleventh century AD Jain text,
Jñānārụava written by Śubhacandra on Jaina meditation system. The peculiarity of
Jñānārụava lies in its treatment of knowledge (jñāna) and meditation (dhyāna) as
synonymous which is in conformity with Jain philosophical tradition. Śubhacandra
argues that meditation, like a ship in the ocean, is the enabler of not only right
knowledge but also of liberation (mokṣa, total annihilation of karmas). Jñānārụava
is a pioneering text with comprehensive details of concept and practice of Jaina
yoga and meditation. The author discusses the types and subtypes of meditation
based on the four types of puruṣārtha; their pre-requisites (control of mind,
renunciation, self- restraint of sensual inclinations); process of meditation including
body postures, seat/place for meditation, breathing, and retention for lay people,
self-study and meritorious meditation (dharmadhyāna) for auspicious results and
liberation ultimately. For successful practice of Jaina meditation, Śubhacandra in
Jñānārụava emphasized the need to acquire right knowledge about the soul and its
attributes, to develop renunciation (vairāgya), and equanimity of mind. To do so,
he detailed the twelve reflections and the trio of jewels (ratnatraya). Similarly he
said that the objective of dhyāna –yoga should be to enhance spiritual knowledge
that ultimately leads to the attainment of liberation rather than just for meritorious
results (puụya). Śubhacandra had adopted some of the techniques of other yogic
and meditation systems prevailing in India to explain the practice of Jaina
meditation. The paper also details as to how Śubhacandra draws on the writings
of his predecessors as
well his acquaintance with prevailing non-Jaina practices along with his own long
experience as a Jaina monk to explain the Jaina meditation systems. He also shows
limitations of techniques like use of mantra, tantra, body postures, breathing and
objects of concentration etc for meditation propagated by other traditions. Finally
the paper analyses the impact of Śubhacandra‟s writings on the practice of Jaina
meditation of later and contemporary Jainācāryas.

Tantric Elements in Prekṣa Meditation

Samaṇī Pratibhāprajñā (SOAS, Jain Viśva Bhāratī Ladnun)

This paper aims at understanding the role of tantric elements in the development of
the prekṣā-dhyāna developed by Ācārya Mahāprajña (1920-2010), an aspect of
prekṣā meditation which has not so far been explored. I argue that Mahāprajñā‟s
prekṣā meditation synthesises tantric “right hand practices” with elements of
modern science in a new model of meditation. It examines the incorporation of
tantric techniques such as visualisation, verbalisation, identification, models of the
body, practices of mantra „fixing‟, and the assignment of colours to various parts of
the body (nyāsa). The anthropomorphic representation as a site for the mapping of
these systems as well as a locus for these practices to take place is explored. It will
show how mainstream tantric elements are mirrored in the Jaina prekṣā system:
“coiled power” (kuụḍalinī) / internal journey (antara-yātrā), concentrated gaze
(trāṭaka) / fixed-gaze perception (animeśa-prekṣā), colour visualisation (rāga-
dhāraụā) / colour meditation (leśyā-dhyāna), element balancing (dhātu-saṁtulana) /
perception of the body (śaṛīra-prekṣā), and alphabet fixing (mantra-nyāsa). The
attempt to develop a new model of tantra which is compatible with modern science,
empirical, and free of superstition and religious dogma will be investigated. Finally,
the humanitarian and
„socially engaged‟ features of these tantric elements will be assessed.

31