UNIT II

a. STATE, POLITY AND GOVERNANCE:

THE AGE OF MAURYAS

Maurya Dynasty Chronology

1. Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321–297 BCE)
o Founder of the Maurya Empire.
o Established the empire after overthrowing the Nanda dynasty.
2. Bindusara (c. 297–273 BCE)
o Son of Chandragupta Maurya.
o Expanded the empire further, primarily in the Deccan region.
3. Ashoka the Great (c. 268–232 BCE)
o Grandson of Chandragupta Maurya.
o Known for his conversion to Buddhism and the promotion of dharma.
 o Famous for the Edicts of Ashoka and the establishment of a vast network of
roads and communication.
4. Dasaratha (c. 232–224 BCE)
o Son of Ashoka.
o His reign is less documented, but it is known that he maintained the empire.
5. Samprati (c. 224–215 BCE)
o Grandson of Ashoka.
o Continued Ashoka's policies of promoting Buddhism.
6. Salisuka (c. 215–202 BCE)
o Less is known about his reign, and it is often considered a period of decline.
7. Devavarman (c. 202–195 BCE)
o Son of Salisuka.
o His reign marked the final years of the Maurya Empire.
8. Brihadratha (c. 195–185 BCE)
o Last ruler of the Maurya dynasty.
o The Maurya Empire fell after his assassination by his general, Pushyamitra
Shunga, leading to the establishment of the Shunga dynasty.
Key Notes:
 The Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires in ancient India, known for its
administrative efficiency and promotion of trade and culture.
 Ashoka is particularly noted for his role in spreading Buddhism and his efforts
towards non-violence and moral governance.

SAPTANG THEORY
The Arthashastra is the earliest Indian text to systematically define the concept of the state.
Its formulation of the saptanga rajya presents the state as a composite entity comprised of
seven interrelated and interdependent elements (angas or prakritis): svami (the lord or king),
amatya (ministers), janapada (territory and its people), durga (fortified capital), kosha
(treasury), danda (justice or force), and mitra (ally). This holistic model of governance,
introduced by Kautilya, was embraced, albeit with some modifications, in later texts such as
the Dharmashastras, Puranas, and the Mahabharata. However, the Arthashastra is largely
pragmatic in its focus, dealing more with the practical aspects of statecraft than with abstract
theoretical issues.
 Svami (King): Monarchy is regarded as the norm in the Arthashastra, and all its teachings
are directed toward the king. Ashoka's inscriptions reflect a sense of kingship close to
Kautilya's prescriptions. He took on the modest title of raja of Magadha, contrasting with
grander titles used later, such as maharaja or maharajadhiraja. Ashoka also laid the
foundations of a new, paternalistic form of kingship, famously stating, "All men are my
children" in his Rock Edicts I and II. He committed himself to ensuring the welfare of all
beings and his subjects in this life and the next.
 Amatya (Ministers): The term amatya refers to high-ranking officials, counselors, and
executive heads of departments. The Arthashastra describes two types of consultative bodies:
the small mantra-parishad (council of ministers) and the larger mantri-parishad (executive
heads of departments). Kautilya also emphasizes the importance of the priest (purohita) in
the administration, stating that the priest should be well-versed in the Vedas, omens, and the
science of politics.
 Janapada (Territory and People): The janapada (territory and people) is a key source of
income for the state. The Arthashastra discusses various investments and strategies to
maximize agricultural production and revenue collection through taxes. The prosperity of the
people directly supports the state's economy and its ability to sustain itself.
 Durga (Fortified Capital): Fortresses play a critical role in defending the state. The
Arthashastra recommends constructing multiple fortresses for different purposes and
geographical settings. These fortifications not only protect key border regions and serve as
sanctuaries during attacks but also house important economic and administrative centers.
Kautilya suggests stationing troops at strategic locations near the forts. Even though Ashoka
advocated for dhamma-vijaya (victory through dharma) rather than war, he did not disband
the army.
 Danda (Justice or Force): The Arthashastra outlines a detailed judicial system, with
dharmasthas (judges) and pradeshtris (officers responsible for suppressing criminals)
managing justice. Punishments varied depending on the severity of the crime and the varna
(social class) of the offender. During Ashoka's reign, judicial duties were handled by
mahamatas (high officials), and his edicts urged them to be impartial and ensure that people
were not punished without proper evidence. Some interpretations suggest that Ashoka
abolished varna-based distinctions in punishments, establishing a uniform rule of law.
 Mitra (Ally): Kautilya outlines several strategies for dealing with foreign powers,
including peace treaties (sandhi), hostility (vigraha), and alliances. Ashoka sent diplomatic
missions to Hellenistic kingdoms in the northwest to enhance trade and dispatched special
ministers on dhamma missions to neighboring regions, spreading the teachings of the Buddha
and promoting his vision of a peaceful and prosperous society.
 Kosha (Treasury): A prosperous treasury is vital for the state's stability and success.
Kautilya emphasized the importance of earning wealth through legitimate and righteous
means. Sources of income included land taxes, duties on market commodities, taxes on
imports and exports, and other miscellaneous taxes. The Arthashastra cautions kings to avoid
unjust or immoral methods of increasing the state's wealth.
 THE CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
The administrative structure of the Mauryan Empire was comprehensive and organized, with
multiple tiers of governance extending from the central authority to regional and local levels,
including down to the village units. While each administrative division had its setup, they all
ultimately operated under the central authority of the empire. The central administration of
the Mauryan Empire can be broadly classified into the following key areas:
i) The King
ii) The Council of Ministers
iii) City Administration
iv) The Army
v) Espionage Network
vi) Law and Justice
vii) Public Welfare

1. THE KING
The Mauryan state, as depicted in the Arthashastra, was centered around a powerful
monarchy. The king (svami) was the linchpin of the political system, and monarchy was
assumed to be the natural form of governance. The text elevates the status of the king,
positioning him above all other Prakriti and vesting in him the ultimate authority over the
state. Ashoka's reign offers an illustrative example of this centralization of power. His
inscriptions leave no ambiguity about his position as the sovereign authority within his
empire. Though he modestly referred to himself as the raja of Magadha in one of his minor
rock edicts, his inscriptions more commonly use the epithets Devanampiya ("Beloved of the
Gods") and Piyadasi ("One who looks with kindness"). These titles indicate a deliberate
effort to associate the king with divine favor, thus reinforcing his supreme status. The
Arthashastra underscores the precariousness of the king’s position, highlighting the constant
threats to his life and rule. Kautilya offers a wealth of instructions on how the king should
maintain vigilance and protect himself from internal and external dangers. The palace,
according to the text, must be equipped with secret emergency exits, and strict surveillance
should be maintained over all items entering or leaving the royal compound. Every food and
drink consumed by the king must first be tested for safety. To further secure his life, the king
should be surrounded by a trusted personal guard, including female archers. Even his closest
ministers were not exempt from suspicion; Kautilya advised that their loyalty be continually
tested. Elaborate measures were recommended to guard the king against poison, fire, and
assassination attempts, with disguised spies dispersed throughout the kingdom to detect any
signs of sedition. The Arthashastra warns of the ever-present danger of betrayal, particularly
from those closest to the king—his wives, sons, and brothers—citing historical instances of
kings being murdered by their kin. In this regard, the Arthashastra presents a vision of
kingship where power is both absolute and perilous, requiring constant vigilance and strategic
safeguards to maintain authority and avoid treachery.
While the Arthashastra is primarily a treatise on acquiring, maintaining, and enhancing
political power, it also emphasizes the moral responsibilities of kingship by outlining the
king's duties and obligations. These include protecting (rakshana, palana) the lives and
property of his subjects and ensuring their welfare and prosperity (yoga-kshema). The
Arthashastra stresses that "in the happiness of his subjects lies the happiness of the king, and
what is beneficial to the subjects is his benefit. He shall not consider as good only that which
pleases him, but treat as beneficial to himself whatever pleases his subjects" (Arthashastra
1.19.34). This reflects the idea of a paternalistic rule, where the king acts as a benevolent
guardian of his people.
The paternalistic ideal is further elaborated in Arthashastra 2.1.18, which advises the king to
show favor to those whose exemptions have expired, treating them with a fatherly approach.
The Kanta-kashodhana (Removal of Thorns) section of the text discusses the king's duty to
protect his people from dishonest artisans, traders, thieves, murderers, and natural calamities.
Additionally, Arthashastra 2.1.26 emphasizes the king's obligation to support helpless
children, the elderly, childless women, and other distressed individuals. Protecting the social
order, particularly through the maintenance of varnashrama dharma (the system of social
duties based on varna and ashrama), is also a key duty of the king.
the Arthasastra also mentions certain necessary virtues for the King like:
 birth in a high family (uchchakula)
 capability to keep under control, various small kings and officials
 sharp intellect
 Truthfulness
 upholder of Dharma, etc.
Ashoka's ideals of kingship, while partially aligning with the principles of the Arthashastra,
reflect his vision of rule, which places a strong emphasis on the welfare of all beings,
including his subjects in both this world and the next. His paternalistic approach is clearly
expressed in Rock Edicts 1 and 2, where he declares: "All men are my children. Just as about
my own children, I desire that they may be provided with all kinds of welfare and happiness
in this world and the next, I desire the same for all men." Ashoka also speaks of the "debt" he
owes to all living beings (Rock Edict 6) and expresses concern for people living beyond the
borders of his kingdom (Separate Rock Edict 2).
Ashoka's paternalism extended to practical measures for the welfare of his people, such as
planting trees along roads, digging wells, providing medical care for humans and animals,
and promoting dhamma (righteous conduct), which he believed would bring happiness both
in this life and the next. However, this paternalism was not devoid of authority and sternness.
For instance, in Rock Edict 2, Ashoka warned unconquered people living on the borders that
only forgivable offenses would be pardoned, indicating that his rule also involved firm
control alongside his concern for their well-being.

2. THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

The Arthashastra and Ashoka's inscriptions provide significant insight into the role of the
Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad) in Mauriyan governance. The second prakriti in
Kautilya's Arthashastra is amatya. This umbrella term included all high-ranking officials,
counsellors, and executive heads of departments. Mantrin (minister) seems to have been a
more specific term, referring to the king's advisors or counsellors. There seem to have been
two consultative bodies, one small, the other larger. The Arthashastra mentions a small
consultative body of mantrins called the mantra-parishad. It also refers to a larger body of
variable numbers called the Mantri-parishad, which included executive heads of departments.
The Arthashastra highlights the necessity of assistance for the king in governing the state,
emphasizing that "a chariot cannot move on one wheel," and thus, the king must appoint
ministers to advise him. Similarly, Ashoka's Girnar Rock Edict III describes how the
Council was responsible for ensuring that new administrative measures were implemented by
various officials. Rock Edict VI further mentions that the ministers were entrusted with
discussing state policies in the king's absence, suggesting amendments, and making important
decisions, though they were required to report their conclusions to the king promptly.
The Council of Ministers primarily functioned as an advisory body, as ultimate authority
resided with the king. While the power of the Council varied over time, its main role
remained to advise the king on critical matters. There was no fixed number of ministers, and
Kautilya suggested that the size of the council should be determined based on the state's
needs, though he advocated for a larger council as more beneficial to the king. He outlined
several issues for consultation with ministers, such as:
 Determining how to initiate the works the state planned to undertake.
 Assessing the manpower and finances required.
 Identifying the areas where the work needed to be carried out.
 Addressing solutions for calamities and emergencies.
While the king was expected to follow the majority verdict (Bhuvyist) of the council,
Kautilya allowed the king to override this if he believed the majority decision would not
achieve the desired outcome. However, the council was responsible for ensuring that the
king's orders were properly executed.
An important aspect of the Arthashastra is the emphasis on the qualifications of ministers.
Kautilya proposed that ministers should be individuals of the highest integrity, not swayed by
wealth or pressure, referred to as Sarvopdashudha (purest of all). There is also reference to an
Inner Council (Mantrins), a smaller group of trusted ministers, who were consulted on
urgent matters requiring immediate attention.
The Arthashastra also provides information about the eighteen departments (Tirthas) of the
central government. Each department had a specific function; for example, the Karmantika
oversaw industries. These departments helped in maintaining the smooth functioning of the
administration, supporting the Council of Ministers and the king in governance. It also
mentions the samahartri (chief collector of revenue, who was in charge of maintaining
accounts) and samnidhatri (treasurer, also in charge of the royal stores). It also mentions
officers such as the dauvarika (chief of the palace attendants), the antaravamshika (chief of
the palace guard), and a large number of adhyakshas (departmental heads). The akshapatala
office in the capital was the records-cum-audit office.
 3. CITY ADMINISTRATION
The city administration during the Mauryan period, as described by Megasthenes and
corroborated by the Arthashastra, was highly organized and systematic. Megasthenes, in his
account of Palibothra (Patliputra), gives a detailed description of a city council divided into
six sub-committees, each consisting of five members. These committees were responsible for
overseeing various aspects of city life:
First Committee: Managed industry and crafts. Its responsibilities included inspecting
industrial centers and setting wages.
Second Committee: Took care of foreigners, ensuring their food, accommodation, comfort,
and security.
Third Committee: Oversaw the registration of births and deaths.
Fourth Committee: Managed trade and commerce. It regulated weights and measures and
controlled the market.
Fifth Committee: Inspected manufactured goods, ensured proper sale provisions, and
maintained a strict watch on distinguishing new goods from second-hand ones.
Sixth Committee: Collected taxes on goods. The rate being 1/10th.
Interestingly, the Arthashastra does not explicitly mention these committees but outlines
almost all the functions described by Megasthenes. For instance, the Panyadhyaksha was
responsible for regulating trade and commerce (similar to the fourth committee), the
Sulkadhyaksha oversaw the collection of taxes (similar to the sixth committee), and the Gopa
was in charge of registering births and deaths (similar to the third committee). The Nagariaka
was the head of urban administration, supported by two subordinate officials—the Gopa and
Sthanika—who handled various administrative tasks.
In addition to these roles, the Arthashastra identifies a range of officials, each with specific
duties. For example, the Bandhanagaradhyaksha managed jails, while the Rakshi (police)
maintained law and order. Superintendents like the Lohadhyaksha (superintendent of iron)
and Sauvarnika (superintendent of gold) oversaw work in manufacturing centers. The
Arthashastra also details the administration's responsibilities in maintaining city infrastructure
and safety, such as ensuring sanitation, managing water sources, preventing adulteration of
goods, overseeing inns, and implementing fire precautions. It also emphasizes that law
enforcement officers were subject to the law. For instance, if a Rakshina (policeman)
mistreated a woman, he faced severe punishment. Citizens, too, were subject to penalties for
breaking regulations, such as violating curfew without a valid reason, which resulted in heavy
fines.

4. THE ARMY
The military organization during the Mauryan period, particularly under the Nanda and
Maurya kings, was marked by strength and efficiency. The Nanda kings boasted a formidable
army, which later served as a foundation for the forces that Kautilya and Chandragupta
Maurya employed to overthrow the Nanda dynasty. Notably, this army was primarily
composed of mercenary soldiers, a fact corroborated by both Greek and Indian literary
sources.
As Chandragupta established his rule, the size and organization of his army expanded
significantly. Historical accounts, such as those by Pliny, suggest that his army included
approximately 6,000 elephants, 30,000 cavalry, and 60,000 infantries. Moreover, Plutarch’s
records indicate even larger numbers, describing a force of 6,000 elephants, 80,000 horses,
20,000-foot soldiers, and 8,000 war chariots. While these numbers may be exaggerated, they
underscore the well-organized and formidable military structure that existed under the
Mauryan Empire, especially considering the challenges posed during the Kalinga War, which
further showcased the military's capabilities.

Megasthenes provides a detailed description of the army's composition, categorizing it into

several branches: infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots, transport, and naval forces. Each
branch was managed by a committee of five members, indicating a structured approach to
military administration. Kautilya referred to the concept of Chaturangabala, comprising
infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants, with each component assigned to a commander,
reflecting the strategic military organization of the time.
The Mauryan army was financed through substantial state revenues, with soldiers and officers
receiving salaries in cash. The ranks of the army officers and their corresponding salaries
were as follows:
Senapati (Commander-in-Chief): 48,000 Panas
Nayaka (Leader): 12,000 Panas
Mukhyas (Chief Officers): 8,000 Panas
Adhyakshas (Superintendents): 4,000 Panas
To support the military infrastructure, a dedicated department was responsible for the
production and maintenance of various armaments, headed by an officer known as
Ayudhagaradhyaksha. Specific officers, such as the Rathadhyaksha, oversaw the construction
of chariots, while the Hiastyadhyaksha managed the elephant forces.
Kautilya's Arthashastra offers detailed insights into recruitment policies, war strategies,
fortifications, and other aspects crucial to military effectiveness. However, it is worth noting
that the significant financial burden of maintaining such a large and sophisticated army could
have adversely impacted the state treasury over time.
In summary, the Mauryan military was a complex and well-organized institution,
demonstrating advanced strategies and management practices. The extensive investment in
the army reflected the state’s commitment to maintaining power and security, while also
highlighting the challenges associated with sustaining such a force.
 5. ESPIONAGE SYSTEM
The Mauryan administration was characterized by a highly organized and effective system of
espionage. This network was crucial for maintaining state security and ensuring that the king
was well-informed about both internal and external affairs. The primary responsibilities of the
spies included:
1. Monitoring Officials: Espionage agents kept a close watch on the activities of ministers
and other high-ranking officials to prevent corruption and disloyalty.
2. Reporting on Government Personnel: Spies were tasked with gathering intelligence on
government officials to assess their loyalty and effectiveness.
3. Collecting Public Sentiments: They also gathered insights into the feelings and opinions
of the general populace, which could influence policy decisions and governance.
4. Infiltrating Foreign Courts: An essential part of their role involved obtaining secrets and
sensitive information about foreign rulers and their policies.
To execute these tasks, spies often utilized various tactics. They would enlist the help of
common individuals, such as cooks and barbers, who could provide valuable insights due to
their interactions with officials and the public. Additionally, spies frequently adopted
disguises, posing as ascetics or students, to blend into different social contexts and gather
information without raising suspicion. In some instances, spies directly reported significant
findings to the king, ensuring that he was informed about crucial developments that could
affect the state. The Arthashastra elaborates on this intricate system of espionage,
underscoring its importance in the governance of the Mauryan Empire. This comprehensive
network not only facilitated the surveillance of officials but also played a vital role in the
administration's ability to respond proactively to potential threats and challenges.

6. JUSTICE AND PUNISHMENT

To maintain social order, ensure the smooth functioning of the administrative system, and
facilitate the flow of revenue to the state, the Mauryan Empire established a comprehensive
legal framework. The Arthashastra contains extensive codes outlining punishments for a
wide range of offenses, including violations of marriage laws, divorce, murder, adulteration,
and the use of false weights. The judicial system was multi-tiered, featuring various courts
designed to address different levels of legal disputes.
King was Dharma Pravartaka: King was Dharma Pravartaka (Upholder of laws) and hence
a supreme judicial authority. Though the crimes were few, cases were decided by a 'body of
arbitrators' with a system of appeal to the king.
At the village level, the Gramika held judicial authority, while additional courts operated at
the Janapada (district) and central levels. Two distinct types of courts are described in the
Arthashastra:
1. Dharmasthiya Courts: These courts handled personal disputes, such as matters
related to Stridhana (wife's wealth) and marriage issues.
 2. Kankhamaba Courts: These courts dealt with cases concerning individuals and the
state, addressing issues such as workers' wages, conduct, and serious crimes like
murder.
The functioning of these courts was governed by specific regulations. Legal cases were
properly registered, allowing ample opportunity for the presentation of witnesses and for
individuals to plead their cases. Kautilya identified several sources of law, including:
1. Dharma: The ethical and moral code.
2. Vyavahara: Current legal codes and practices.
3. Charitra: Customs and traditions.
4. Rajashasana: Royal decrees and edicts.
As the supreme judicial authority, the king was seen as the upholder of Dharma, wielding
ultimate judicial power. According to Megasthenes, the incidence of crime in Mauryan India
was relatively low; however, the extensive range of punishments detailed in the Arthashastra
suggests that breaches of law were not uncommon, necessitating a stringent penal code.
Significantly, the judicial system placed a strong emphasis on evidence and witness
testimony. Legal disputes were often resolved by a "body of arbitrators," with the option for
appeal to the king. Nonetheless, it is important to note that penalties outlined in the
Arthashastra were influenced by Varna hierarchies, resulting in disparities in punishment
severity based on the offender's social class. For instance, a Brahmana would face
considerably lighter penalties compared to a Shudra for the same offense, reflecting the
prevailing social stratifications of the time.
7. PUBLIC WELFARE
The Mauryan state demonstrated a remarkable commitment to public works, as evidenced by
accounts from Megasthenes and the Arthashastra. The administration recognized the
significance of various infrastructure projects in fostering economic prosperity and enhancing
the welfare of its citizens.
Irrigation
One of the primary focuses of the Mauryan administration was irrigation, which was viewed
as a critical source of revenue. Megasthenes documented the presence of officials tasked with
supervising irrigation projects, while the Arthashastra outlined various methods of irrigation,
including dams, ponds, and canals. The state implemented strict regulations governing the use
of water resources, with violations considered a serious offense. Furthermore, the
administration encouraged local communities to take the initiative in repairing dams, offering
land revenue remissions as incentives. Notably, the inscription of Rudradaman from the
second century CE references the construction of a water reservoir, known as Sudarsana,
during the reign of Chandragupta, further illustrating the state's commitment to ensuring a
reliable water supply.
Health Services
The Mauryan period also saw the proliferation of health professionals, including ordinary
physicians (Chikitsakah) and midwives (Garbhavyadhi). Asokan inscriptions reveal that
medical treatment and medicines were accessible not only to humans but also to animals,
reflecting a holistic approach to health care.
Infrastructure Development
Infrastructure development was another crucial aspect of public works. The Mauryan state
invested in the construction and maintenance of roads and the establishment of inns,
facilitating trade and travel across the empire. This focus on connectivity contributed to the
overall efficiency of the administrative system and the economy.
Disaster Management
In times of natural calamities such as floods and famines, the Mauryan administration took
proactive measures to assist affected citizens. The state recognized its responsibility to
provide relief and support to those in distress, showcasing a paternalistic approach to
governance.
Social Welfare Initiatives
The Arthashastra emphasizes the king's duty to care for vulnerable populations, including
orphans and elderly women without support. While the extent to which these provisions were
effectively implemented remains uncertain, the inclusion of such initiatives in the
administrative framework indicates a broader commitment to social welfare.
In summary, the Mauryan state’s dedication to public works encompassed a wide range of
initiatives aimed at irrigation, health care, infrastructure, disaster management, and social
welfare, reflecting a comprehensive approach to governance that sought to enhance the
quality of life for its citizens.
8. REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

The revenue administration of the Mauryan Empire was a sophisticated system, intricately
designed to optimize the flow of resources into the state treasury, managed under the
oversight of the official known as the Sannidhata. This multifaceted approach to revenue
generation encompassed various channels, each contributing to the economic vitality of the
empire.
Sources of Revenue
1. Agricultural Income:
 o The Crown Lands (Sita) and land revenue (Bhaga) constituted significant
portions of the state's income, primarily derived from cultivators. This
included taxes on orchards and additional charges like ferry fees. The rural
areas were crucial in supporting the state’s finances.
2. Urban Contributions:
o In urban centers, revenue collection was facilitated through various taxes,
including fines, sales tax (Sulka), and an income tax levied on wealthier
citizens. The Arthashastra identifies up to 21 distinct taxes, which were
systematically collected by local officials.
3. Natural Resources:
o The state's control over mines (Karma) ensured a steady influx of mineral
wealth, a vital source of income. This included taxation on minerals extracted
from state-controlled mines, underscoring the importance of natural resources
in sustaining the empire's economy.
4. Forestry and Plantations:
o Revenue was also generated from forests (Vans) and plantations (Setu),
which were managed by the state. These resources provided timber and other
forest products that could be taxed.
5. Trade and Commerce:
o The Mauryan Empire levied taxes on merchants traversing roads or
waterways, as well as on imports and exports. This included a tax on
merchants' earnings from sales, as well as a percentage of winnings from
gambling, showcasing a comprehensive approach to commercial taxation.
6. State-Controlled Industries:
o The state exerted control over essential industries, such as the armament
industry and salt trade, thereby enhancing its revenue. These strategic sectors
were closely regulated to ensure consistent income.
7. Emergency Taxation:
o In times of need, the state had the authority to impose additional taxes to
bolster its revenues, reflecting an adaptive governance model capable of
responding to changing circumstances.
Revenue Outflow
The revenue collected was subsequently allocated for various expenditures critical to the
maintenance and functionality of the empire:
 King's Expenses: The king’s expenditures were funded from the state treasury.
 Maintenance of Army and War Efforts: A significant portion of the revenue was
directed toward sustaining a formidable military, crucial for defence and expansion.
  Construction Projects: Infrastructure development, including public works, required
substantial investment.
 Gifts and Religious Donations: The king’s patronage extended to religious
institutions and the distribution of gifts, reflecting the intertwining of governance and
spirituality in Mauryan society.
 Salaries of Officials: The administration’s efficacy depended on the timely payment
of officials, which was funded through the state’s revenues.
One notable aspect of the revenue system was the king's discretion in granting remissions of
land revenue, exemplified by Ashoka's decision to reduce the agricultural tax (Bhaga) for the
village of Lumbini to 1/8 since it was the birthplace of Buddha.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the revenue administration of the Mauryan Empire exemplified a well-
organized and strategically planned system. Through diverse channels of income and
judicious management of resources, the state not only sustained its operations but also
facilitated growth and stability across its vast territories. This framework laid the foundation
for the economic resilience of one of ancient India's most influential empires.

REGIONAL AND LOCAL UNITS OF

ADMINISTRATION

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
The Provincial Administration in the Mauryan Empire was a well-structured system
designed to govern vast territories efficiently. At the head of each province was the Kumara
(royal prince), who served as the King's representative. These royal princes held significant
authority and were tasked with maintaining law and order, overseeing the administration, and
ensuring the smooth functioning of their provinces. For instance, Ashoka, before ascending
to the throne, had served as the Kumara of Ujjayini and Taxila.
The Kumara was supported by a council of ministers and senior officials, including the
Mahamatyas (or Mahamatras during Ashoka's reign). These ministers performed various
roles and ensured that provincial governance aligned with the central authority's policies. The
Arthashastra describes Mahamatyas in the sense of ministers, while the Ashokan edicts
highlight their involvement in a wide range of activities, including judicial work, overseeing
border regions, and managing religious affairs as Dhamma Mahamatras. These officials
were appointed either by the King or by the Kumara, reflecting a balanced administrative
approach.

The Mauryan Empire had major provincial capitals mentioned in Ashokan edicts:
 PROVINCE CAPITAL
  Uttarapath  Taxila
 Avantiprastha  Ujjain
 PRACHI  PATLIPUTRA
 Kalinga  Tosali
 Dakshinapath  Suvarnagiri

Within these provinces, certain areas were administered by governors, who may have been
minor rulers or local chiefs. The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman, for example,
mentions Tushaspa, a Yavana, as the governor of the Junagadh region during Ashoka's reign,
and earlier, during Chandragupta Maurya's reign, a Vaishya named Pushyagupta held the
same position.
In addition to the Kumara and his council, the provincial ministers played a crucial role in
governance. They not only acted as advisors but also served as a check on the powers of the
Kumara. In some cases, they communicated directly with the King. Another significant
category of officials was the Amatyas, who wielded considerable power. The discontent with
their arbitrary actions led to revolts in Taxila during the reigns of Bindusara and Ashoka,
indicating their prominent role in provincial administration.
Thus, the provincial administration in the Mauryan Empire was a well-organized system that
ensured centralized control while allowing for local governance, with a balance between the
powers of the Kumara, his council, and senior officials.

DISTRICT AND VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION

The District and village-level administration in the Mauryan Empire was a well-structured
and hierarchical system, ensuring efficient governance at both the local and regional levels.
The administrative units comprised a district that consisted of several villages, with each
village having its own local administrative structure.
At the district level, the key officials were:
 Pradeshta: The overall in-charge of the district.
 Rajuka: A senior official involved in public welfare and land management.
 Yukta: A junior officer who provided secretarial assistance to the Pradeshta and
Rajuka.
The main responsibilities of these officials included:
 Surveying and assessing land,
 Conducting inspections and tours,
 Collecting revenue,
 Maintaining law and order.
At times, the King himself was in direct contact with these officials. For example, in Ashoka's
4th Pillar Edict, he granted independent authority to the Rajukas to execute certain
instructions related to public welfare, indicating their enhanced role in governance.
The Yukta, as a junior officer, played a supportive role to the senior district officials,
ensuring smooth operations at the district level. There were also systems of checks and
balances to prevent misuse of power among officials.
At the village level, although Ashokan edicts provide limited information, the Arthashastra
mentions a decentralized administrative system. Local officials, often referred to as
Gramikas, were likely appointed from among the local population and supported by the
villagers. Their functions included managing village affairs, demarcating village boundaries,
maintaining records of land usage, and overseeing local income, expenditures, taxes, and
fines.
Two intermediary officials connected the district and village levels:
 Gopa and Sthanika: They maintained records of land use, income, and expenditure
and served as links between the village and district administrative systems.
Although the villages had a degree of autonomy, the Mauryan state kept a close watch on
administrative matters. The extensive administrative structure at various levels required a
large number of officials, which placed a considerable burden on the state treasury. An
important feature of this period was the payment of salaries in cash. For instance, a
commander-in-chief received 48,000 panas, a soldier received 500 panas, and a laborer
received 60 panas. This reliance on cash transactions indicates the prevalence of a money
economy during the Mauryan period, and also highlights the state's focus on extracting and
generating revenue through various taxes and fines, including land revenue and taxes on
gambling.
In summary, the Mauryan Empire maintained an elaborate administrative system at the
district and village levels, which facilitated efficient governance, land management, revenue
collection, and law enforcement.