Earth Science FACTORS THAT MAKES EARTH HABITABLE

- The Earth is in the habitable zone (goldilocks

Lesson 1 | Introduction and The Earth’s Formation
zone)
EARTH SCIENCE
a. TEMPERATURE
- Is the study of the Earth’s structure, properties,
b. ATMOSPHERE
processes, and four a half billion years of biotic
c. NUTRIENTS
evolution.
d. MAGNETIC FIELD
e. ENERGY
BRANCHES OF EARTH SCIENCE
f. WATER

1. GEOLOGY Study of the Earth’s surface THE SPHERE OF EARTH

2. OCEANOGRAPHY Study of the Earth’s oceans ● MAGNETOSPHERE

- Earth is surrounded by a system of magnetic fields
3. PALEONTOLOGY Study of the fossils - shields our home planet from harmful solar and
cosmic particle radiation, but it can change shape
4. METEOROLOGY Study of the weather and climate in response to incoming space weather from the
Sun
5. ASTRONOMY Study of planets, starts, and other
found in the universe ● ATMOSPHERE
- Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78%
nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and one percent other
gases.
THE EARTH
- The 3rd planet from the sun and the 5th largest
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
planet in the solar system
- Has one natural satellite (moon)
- The shape of earth is an oblate spheroid 1. EXOSPHERE - End where the Earth’s gravity is
- 4.5 billion years old too weak to prevent gas particles
from drifting into space
THE EARTH’S FORMATION - the exobase is the boundary
between the exosphere and
thermosphere, and its altitude
1. SOLAR NEBULA changes based on the
- Earth formed from a massive cloud of gas and thermosphere’s size
dust
2. THERMOSPHERE - the hottest layer
2. ACCRETION PROCESS
- The coming together and cohesion of matter 3. MESOSPHERE - the coldest layer
under the influence of gravitation to form
larger bodies 4. STRATOSPHERE - the ozone layer blocks much of
the sun’s radiation
3. PROTO-EARTH - planes fly here
- These planetesimals continued to collide and
merge, forming a larger body known as 5. TROPOSHPERE - most of Earth’s weather, including
proto-Earth. the wind and most clouds, exists in
- The planet was extremely hot and largely this layer
molten due to the energy from these
collisions. ● HYDROSPHERE
- Includes water that is on the surface of the planet,
4. DIFFERENTIATION underground, and in the air
- As Earth cooled, heavier elements like iron - Cryosphere is the frozen water part of the Earth’s
sank to the center, forming the core, while system
lighter elements formed the mantle and crust.
ALL WATER SURFACE WATER FRESHWATER
ON EARTH
5. FORMATION OF THE MOON
- A significant event in Earth’s history was the
97% - Saline 87% - Lakes 68.7% - Icecaps
impact with a Mars-sized body, which ejected
Oceans and Glaciers
enough debris to form the Moon. 11% - swamps
3% - 30.1% -
6. COOLING AND SOLIDIFICATION Freshwater 2% Rivers Groundwater
- Over millions of years, Earth continued to
cool, forming a solid crust. Volcanic activity 0.9% - Others
released gases, creating the early atmosphere
0.30% - Surface
and eventually leading to the formation of
Water
oceans.
 B. INORGANIC
● LITHOSPHERE - Not composed of organic matter; not from living
- the solid, outer part of Earth things or the remains of living things
- includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and
the crust, the outermost layers of Earth's structure. EXAMPLES
COAL NOT a mineral because it comes from
● BIOSPHERE plants
- made up of the parts of Earth where life exists—all
ecosystems. AMBER NOT a mineral because it comes from
tree sap
EARTH AS A SYSTEM
- A set of things working together as a mechanism or PEARLS NOT a mineral because it comes from
interconnecting network oysters

Lesson 2 | The Layers of the Earth

C. SOLIDS
EARTH’S CRUST (5-70 KM) - Have a definite volume and a definite shape
- The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth. It is - Stable and solid at room temperature
the thinnest layer
D. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
● CONTINENTAL CRUST (35 KM)
- the thicker layer of the Earth's crust that is found ● SILICATE MINERALS
under the continents 1. silicon and oxygen groupings; SiO4
2. Combined with one or more metals
● OCEANIX CRUST (7 KM) - Talc- Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
- The thinner layer of the Earth's crust that is found 3. Largest group of minerals
under the ocean basins. 4. 90% of the earth’s crust

EARTH’S MANTLE (2,900 KM) ● NON-SILICATE MINERALS

- The layer beneath the Earth's crust and is the 1. Do not contain SiO4
thickest layer. 2. Subdivided into several other classes
3. Extremely rare
● UPPER MANTLE 4. 8% of the Earth’s crust
- is relatively rigid and contains the asthenosphere, a 5. Few are relatively common
semi-fluid layer that allows the movement of
tectonic plates. NON-SILICATE SUBDIVISIONS
a. Native Elements found in nature in their mineral form.
● LOWER MANTLE Elements
- contributes to the overall convection and heat Ex. gold (Au), sulfur (S), silver(Ag)
transfer within the Earth's interior.
b. Sulfides Minerals that contain sulfur ions.
EARTH’S CORE
- is the innermost layer of the Earth, situated beneath Ex. Galena (PbS), Pyrite (FeS2)
the mantle
c. Sulfates Minerals which include the sulfate ion (SO42- ).
● OUTER CORE (2,300 KM)
Ex. Gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O)
- a liquid layer composed mainly of molten iron and
nickel. d. Oxides Minerals that contain oxygen bonded with one
- Responsible for the magnetic field or more metals
Minerals containing (OH) are typically included
● INNER MANTLE (1,220 KM) in this class. (hydroxides)
- is the solid, central part of the earth.
- composed of solid iron and nickel. Ex. Hematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe3O4),
Portlandite (Ca(OH)2 ))
Lesson 3 | Minerals and Rocks
e. Halides Minerals with that contain Fluorine, Chlorine,
Bromine and Iodine ions.
MINERALS VS ROCKS
- Minerals are the ingredients of rocks Ex. Halite (NaCl), Fluorite (CaF2)
- Rocks are naturally fmade up of minerals
f. minerals that contain a
MINERALS Carbonates carbonate ion, CO2−3.

I. A MINERAL IS/HAS: Ex. Calcite (CaCO3), Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)

A. NATURALLY OCCURING
E. CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
- The internal structure or arrangement of atoms ● DENSITY/HEFT
within a mineral - Minerals have different densities and vary in weight
- Atoms/molecules are arranged in repeating given the same sample size.
geometric patterns.
● ACID TEST
SIX BASIC CRYSTAL SYSTEM - Placing a drop of dilute (5% to 10%) hydrochloric
acid on a rock or mineral and watching for bubbles
a. Cubic Galena, Halite, Pyrite
of carbon dioxide gas to be released.
b. Tetragonal Chalcopyrite
● MAGNETISM
- Ability to attract iron fillings or steel pins.
c. Hexagonal Quartz, Calcite

USES OF MINERALS
d. Orthorhombic Olivine, To

● ORE
e. Monoclinic Mica, gypsum
- A mineral that contains metals and nonmetals that
can be mined and removed in usable amounts; for
f. Triclinic Feldspar, Turquoise
a profit
a. Metals - elements that have a shiny surfaces,
IDENTIFYING/CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS are able to conduct heat and electricity, and
are malleable
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES b. Nonmetals - Elements that have dull surfaces
- Determined by chemical composition and and are poor conductors of heat and
structure electricity and are brittle.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ● ALLOY

- mixture of two or more metals or a mixture of
● COLOR metals and nonmetals
- Not a reliable property; some minerals can be
many different colors. ● GEMS
- Color may vary due to - Minerals that have desirable qualities; such as
a. Natural Coloring Agents - impurities hardness, color, luster, clarity, durability, rarity
b. Weathering - exposure to the environment a. Precious Stones: Diamond, Rubies,
Sapphires, Emeralds
● STREAK b. Semi-Precious Stones: Amethyst, Garnet,
- The color of the mineral in its powdered form. Topaz
- Determine by using a streak plate c. Gems that are not minerals: Pearls, Amber

● LUSTER USES OF MINERALS

- The way a mineral shines/reflects light from its - Many kinds of rocks are composed of minerals
surface. - There are almost 4,700 different minerals
a. Metallic - reflects light like the surface of a
polished metal ● MONOMINERALIC
b. Non Metallic - reflects light in more subtle - rocks that are composed of only one mineral.
ways
● POLYMINERALIC
● HARDNESS - Rocks that are composed of two or more minerals
- A measure of how easily a mineral can be
scratched. Lesson 4 | Classifications of Rocks
- When a mineral is scratched by a substance; it is
softer than the substance THE ROCK CYCLE
- When a mineral scratches a substance; it is harder
than the substance

● CLEAVAGE
- When a mineral splits/breaks along smooth flat
surfaces
- Determine by atomic structure of mineral
- Cleavage is the way a mineral breaks while crystal
shape is the way crystal grows

● FRACTURE
- When a mineral breaks unevenly into curved or
irregular pieces with a rough and jagged surfaces.
IGNEOUS ROCKS - formed from peat after the evaporation of
- Known as primary rocks aqueous parts and other gases
- form out of magma and lava from the interior of the Bituminous
interior of the earth, - the most used coal type in the world
- hard bituminous coal is dark, powdery in
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS texture and with characteristic stratification
c. Natural Gas - Often found alongside oil,
INTRUSIVE EXTRUSIVE
formed from both plant and animal material
Magma Formed From Lava
● CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- created when minerals that are present in rock
Inside the Earth Where Surface
forms undergo a chemical reaction that causes
them to cool as precipitates over time before
Slowly Rate of Cooling Quickly
changing back to rock form.
Large Size of Crystal Small
● CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- formed when rock layers are formed due to the
Coarse Texture Fine/Smooth
mechanical weathering of different rock types.
- WEDCC (Weathering, Erosion, Deposition,
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Compaction, and Cementation)
- Sediments like gravel, sand, silt or clay, are
naturally compacted and cemented together to FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
form sedimentary rocks.
1. EROSION & TRANSPORTATION
TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - Eroded sediments end up in the water and
begin to settle down
● ORGANIC/BIOLOGIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - Particles carried away by wind or water
- mainly comprises coal and limestones, which are
formed due to the accumulation and deposition of 2. DEPOSITION
dead plants and animals in rock layers - With time, more sediments are added to newly
formed sedimentary layers
FORMATION OF FOSSIL FUELS - Loosely packed sediments

1. Accumulation of Organic Material 3. COMPACTION

- Fossil fuels originate from the remains of - The release of moisture from the sedimentary
ancient plants and animals. layers makes the layers compact
- Closely packed sediments
2. Burial and Compaction
- Over time, layers of sediment bury this organic 4. CEMENTATION
material. The weight of the overlying - Salt crystals glue the layers to form more
sediments compacts the material, squeezing compact sedimentary rocks
out water and increasing its carbon content. - Tightly packed sediments

3. Heat and Pressure METAMORPHIC ROCKS

- As the buried material is subjected to higher - formed when an existing rocks of any type is
temperatures and pressures, it undergoes change due to heat and pressure within the earth.
chemical and physical changes. This process, - Metamorphism is cause by the presence of high
known as diagenesis and catagenesis, heat and pressure but not enough to melt the rock
transforms the organic material into fossil into magma.
fuels.
TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
TYPES OF FOSSIL FUELS
a. Oil - derived from marine microorganisms ● FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS
b. Coal - formed from plant material in swampy - Rocks in which the minerals have been flattened
environments and pushed down into parallel layers
● TYPES OF COAL - The bands in foliated metamorphic rock look like
Peat (Bog Coal) pages in a book
- first stage in the formation of coal
- contains a high amount of moisture but very ● NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS
low carbon content - Rocks that do not display layers, they are massive
-pale to dark brown coloured, somewhat structures with no obvious banding
porous and a light-weight intermediate - The mineral grains grow and rearrange, but they
- looks like charcoal don’t form layers
Lignite (Brown Coal)
- usually soft and crumbly
Lesson 5 | Ore Minerals and Minings ● MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL
- Practice removing the top of the mountain to
ORE MINERALS remove deposits not accessible by other
- Natural rock/sediment containing one or more techniques
valuable mineral.
- a metalliferous mineral, or an aggregate of 1. BEFORE: A NATURAL SITE
metalliferous minerals and gauge (associated rock a. Mountains are first stripped of trees and then
of no economic value), that can be mined at a explosives are used to remove 500-600’ from
profit. the top of the mountains to access the coal
seam.
b. Massive strip mining shovels then load the
MINERALS ORE MINERALS
coal into trucks for transport
c. Spoil/Overburden (rock and debris), is
Naturally occurring Minerals that contain a high
substance which contains percentage of metal, from
bulldozed into nearby valleys releasing toxic
the metal in free state or in which it can be extracted chemicals like arsenic and mercury into the
the form of compounds. conveniently and debris-covered steams, killing everthing in
economically. their path and contaminating ground water
and private wells
Low percentage of metal Large percentage of metal
present present 1. AFTER: RECLAMATION
- The newly flattened mountaintop plateau is often
All minerals are NOT ores All ores are minerals terraced and non-native vegetation is planted
- Restoration to original contour is never achieved
and the risk of flash flooding increases
HISTORY OF MINING
- Failure of huge slurry impoundments is ever
present
● MINING
- Archeological discoveries indicate that mining was
● PLACER MINING
conducted in prehistoric times.
- The process of extracting minerals from placer
- process of mineral extraction from a rock seam or
- Placer is a deposit of sand or gravel in the bed of a
ore.
river/lake, containing particles of valuable minerals
- process of extracting useful minerals from the
surface of the earth, including seas.
B. UNDERGROUND MINING
- A group of techniques used for the extraction of
● FLINT
valuable minerals or other geological materials
- First mineral used because of its conchoidal
buried deep in the Earth’s crust
fracturing pattern, could be broken into
sharp-edged pieces that were useful as scrapers,
TYPES OF UNDERGROUND MINING
knives, and arrowheads.

● DRIFT MINING
TYPES OF MINING
- Method of accessing valuable geological material,
by cutting into the side of the earth rather than
A. SURFACE MINING
tunneling straight downwards
- Mining operations that delve into rock to extract
deposits of mineral resources that are close to the
● SLOPE MINING
surface
- Method of accessing valuable geological material
where a sloping access shaft travels downwards
TYPES OF SURFACE MINING
the material
● OPEN PIT MINING
● SHAFT MINING
- Involve digging large open holes in the ground
- Process where miners dig straight down, or almost
- Holes are dug
straight down, until they reach their desired depth
- Ores are removed
- Iron, copper, gold, sand, gravel, and stone
ORE PROCESSING
- Mineral processing/Ore dressing
● STRIP MINING
- Process of separating the grains of ore minerals
- Practice of mining an ore by first removing all of the
from the unwanted minerals
soil and rock that lies on top
- Used for horizontal beds of minerals
PRIMARY STEPS IN PROCESSING MINERALS
- Are strip mining: flat land
- Contour strip mining: hills
1. SAMPLING
- Coal (70%)
- removal of a portion which represents a whole
needed for the analysis of this material
 2. ANALYSIS
- is important to evaluate the valuable
component in an ore. This includes chemical,
mineral and particle size analysis.

3. COMMINUTION
- the process where the valuable components
of the ore are separated through crushing and
grinding.
- begins by crushing the ores to a particular size
and finishes it by grinding the ores into a
powder form.

4. CONCENTRATION
- the separation of the valuable minerals from
raw materials.

TYPES OF CONCENTRATION

a. HYDAULIC WASHING
- a technique used when the impurities are
lighter and the ore particles are heavier
- lighter impurities are removed by washing in
current of water.
- we can use hydraulic washing for the
concentration of ores of gold.

b. MAGNETIC SEPARATION
- a method of Waste management where
magnets are used to separate metal from
Refuse.

c. FROTH FLOATATION
- a physicochemical process that separates
particles based on differences in surface
wettability.
- method based on the difference in the wetting
properties of the ore and the gangue particles.

5. DEWATERING
- uses the concentration to convert it to usable
minerals.
- involves filtration and sedimentation of the
suspension and drying of the solid materials
harvested from this suspension.
- process of removing water from the mineral
concentrate, which reduces the volume and
weight of the material, and improves its
handling and transport.