FOUNDATION COURSE semester III

Module III – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY -I

Science is one of the most important aspects of human life. It is a

broad field which studies various subjects from nature to machines. Science
has led to better understanding of the world and is making human life much
better. As man‘s curiosity and needs grew, his knowledge also grew.
Science thus began from simple inventions and later developed into
complex theories.
Science has given solutions of many problems of man. It is a process
to understand natural phenomena. Scientific knowledge is continuously
increasing. To know what qualifies a certain study as a science we need to
understand the meaning and characteristics of science
The word science is derived from the word scientia meaning
knowledge. Thus any body of knowledge can be termed as science.
It is a systematic study of knowledge based on reasoning, observation and
experimentation. It can be defined as, an organized knowledge especially
when obtained by observation and testing of facts about the physical world,
natural laws and society.

Science is a way of discovering what is in the universe and how

those things work today, how they worked in the past, and how they are
likely to work in the future. The above definition states that science aims at
acquiring factual information and presenting it in structural form. Thus the
smallest atom, the universe, anatomies of living beings and even their social
lives become a part of scientific study.
Principles and characteristics

There are certain basic principles that make science unique.

Following are some of the essential characteristics of science.

a. Scientific method

Science studies various phenomena using the scientific method. This

method is systematic process of finding relevant data, forming hypothesis,
analyzing its validity and conducting experiments. It is a gradual process.
At the end scientists end up with new facts, theories and inventions.
Answers to questions are found based on reasoning and accurate data.

b. Observation and inference.

Scientific data is gathered through observation and studied through

inferences. Observations are made through five senses often supported by
technology. Based on the observations logical interpretations are derived.
For example the earliest model of planetary systems was prepared on the
basis of continuous observation of the sky over a long period using simple
tools.

1
 c. Objectivity

Science is based on facts. It depends upon observation and logic. It

is not concerned with the personal beliefs, opinions and prejudices of the
people conducting the study. The facts of science and results of its
experiments are therefore objective. They do not change from person to
person. It is unbiased and factual.

d. Universal basic ideas

Science assumes that the universe is a system in whichbasic rules

apply everywhere. Laws developed by science are thus universally
applicable such as the law of motion or magnetism. Scientific experiments
can be thus inducted in any one part of the universe to understand the
working of the entire system.

e. Tentative

New hypotheses sometimes challenge well established facts. Even

with strong evidence it is not possible to prove that a certain law will be true
in every condition. Sometimes new experiments improve earlier facts and
theories. Thus scientific knowledge is tentative. For example, the earlier
theory that earth is the centre of the system was later proved wrong by
Copernicus who showed that sun is the centre and earth revolves around it.
Science is thus improvising continuously.

f. Precise and durable knowledge

Since scientific knowledge is based on rigorous experiment it is

precise and reliable. Scientific knowledge is expressed in clear language to
avoid ambiguity. Once scientific ideas are established as facts they remain
unchanged for a long time. Several ideas are consistent facts such as
gravitational force and facts relating to energy and matter.

g. Tentative

New hypotheses sometimes challenge well established facts. Even

with strong evidence it is not possible to prove that a certain law will be true
in every condition. Sometimes new experiments improve earlier facts and
theories. Thus scientific knowledge is tentative. For example, the earlier
theory that earth is the centre of the system was later proved wrong by
Copernicus who showed that sun is the centre and earth revolves around it.
Science is thus improvising continuously.

h. Precise and durable knowledge

Since scientific knowledge is based on rigorous experiment it is

precise and reliable. Scientific knowledge is expressed in clear language to
avoid ambiguity. Once scientific ideas are established as facts they remain
unchanged for a long time. Several ideas are consistent facts such as
gravitational force and facts relating to energy and matter.

2
 i. Creative thinking

Creativity and imagination are the roots of scientific ideas. Scientists

use creative, never-before-used methods to conduct theirexperiments. They
are inspired to stretch the limits of their imagination and bring it to reality.

j. Laws and theories are different

Scientific laws and theories are related to each other. However they
are not the same. Both are based on hypotheses and supported by empirical
data. Laws are established facts that explain the relationship between various
factors and explain patterns of systems under particular conditions. They are
descriptive and mathematical.

Theories on the other hand provide explanation to established facts.

They are non mathematical and give answers to how a certain system works.
Theories are interpretations of laws. A few theories become laws while
some theories lead to discovery of new facts. For e.g. Ptolemy‘s theory on
planetary systems led to almost accurate prediction of position of planets.

k. Science has limitations

Science predicts and explains phenomena. However it cannot solve

all problems with complete accuracy. For example there are a few diseases
which are not curable today.

Thus, Science is a subject that describes, finds solutions, prepares

models and provides explanations to natural phenomena. It is based on
empirical data.

Science as knowledge

As a body of knowledge science has the following aims:

a. Empirical

Empirical knowledge means knowledge gathered through sensory

experience, i. e. through touch, sight, sound, taste or smell. In science, all
hypotheses and theories are tested against observations of the natural world.
Along with reasoning experience is given importance. Evidence derived
from experiments become basis for knowledge. For example, Aristotle one
of the earliest philosophers said that knowledge of the natural world is
based on its perception and thoughts based on what is experienced.

The empirical data can be subjected to bias of the scientists.

Verification of scientific data can help to avoid bias of the investigator. Thus
scientific knowledge is validated.

3
b. Theoretical

Construction of useful theories is a major goal of science. A scientist

formulates a hypothesis means a calculated conclusion which he wants to
prove right. To do this he conducts experiments and observes facts. The
result of this process is a theory. A scientific theory can be proved wrong
by testing it under various conditions. As new ideas develop and new
evidences are found, theories improve accordingly. No theory is at any time
completely proven, except in mathematics. Wrong theories are modified or
completely discarded. For e.g. the planetary theory of Ptolemy remained
true for around 1000 years till Copernicus gave his heliocentric theory.
However, Newton‘s theory of gravitation, Darwin‘s theory of evolution is
self consistent. Scientists conduct research to verify theories, check their
validity or sometimes toimprove them.

The theories should be able to predict. On the basis of existing

theories new discoveries and experiments should be made.

c. Practical

Practical knowledge of science refers to the application of scientific

knowledge. Basic theoretical research is required for further technical
research. Through application of scientific knowledge man has found
solutions to several problems, increased efficiency of human life and has
made many useful things. The application of studies in molecular biology,
genetics and anatomical research has opened many new areas in medicine.
Knowledge of space and astronomy has encouraged man to dream of
exploiting resources from other planets for use on earth. Sciences such as
psychology and neuroscience aim at understanding human thinking but
there are practical motives such as treatment of mental illness.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE

Science as a body of knowledge developed along with man‘s

understanding of nature. All things that man did for survival are a part of
the story of growth of science. Development of science can be studied in the
following stages:

Development of Science in the Ancient cultures:

Ancient period of history of man dates back to more than one million
years ago. The ancient man was completely dependent on nature for
survival. He observed nature and devised simple ways to explain it. He
made several attempts at experimenting on the basis of his observation.

4
a) Stone age
During the early Stone Age, man was completely dependent on what
was available in nature. He experimented with resources for food, shelter
and clothing. Simple tools of stone, the discovery of fire, clothes of animal
skin are some of the discoveries he made using his knowledge of nature. He
also formed simple social and religious institutions. Though writing was not
known to him, the various cave paintings belonging to this period
discovered all over the world show his inclination towards culture. These
painting might have also been means of communication.
When man experimented with creating his own resources by
manipulating nature, the New Stone Age began. This shows that by this time
he had accumulated lots of knowledge of nature. In the absence of writing,
this knowledge was communicated orally through generations. By
understanding season cycle and use of water he invented agriculture around
9000 years ago. He also domesticated animals. During this stage man ‘s
relationship withnature changed. He became less dependent on nature.

b) Civilization stage
In around 3500 BC, man developed civilization. A new urban
society in which agriculture was developed, writing was invented, trade and
commerce flourished. Development of writing is one of the biggest
milestones of human kind history. It enabled man to store knowledge. Early
form of writing was in symbols. Several inscriptions from the Egyptian and
Mesopotamian (ancient Iraq) civilizations give us knowledge about life
during that period. Arts and science was developing during these
civilizations.

The Sumerians of Iraq have contributed to modern science with their

numerical data. For e. g. the number system based on 60 is basis for 360
degree circle. Astronomical periods identified by them are still widely used
in lunar calendars. Babylonian astronomy was the first attempt at refined
mathematical description of astronomical phenomena. Ancient Egypt made
significant developments in astronomy, medicine and mathematics.

Development of Science in the classical age:

The Classical age is a period spanning over 1000 years from the 8th century
BC to around 6th Century AD. It is the age of cultural advancement of the
Greek and Roman civilizations. Philosophers during this period developed
such knowledge in science that became basic foundations for later scientific
study. The art of Classical Greece began the trend towards a more
naturalistic depiction of the world, thus reflecting a shift in philosophy from
the abstract and supernatural to more immediate earthly concerns.
Philosophers stopped merely suggesting‖ the human form and began
describing‖ it with accuracy.

5
 Thales (7th c BC) is considered as the Father of Science. He was
the first to state that movement of earth and earthquake were geological
phenomena and not works of gods. Pythagoras (6th C BC) founded school
of mathematics, while Euclid (3rd C BC)devised axioms, theorems and
proofs in mathematics. Mathematical devices of both are still considered
basics foundations in geometry. Aristarchus (2nd C BC) was the first to
propose a heliocentric model of solar system, i. e. the sun was at the
centre and the earth revolved around it. Eratosthenes calculated
approximate accurate circumference of the earth.

Hippocrates, the father of Medicine, and his associates were the

first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. Herophilos
described the nervous system.

Leucippus and his student Democritus introduced the theory that

all matter is made of indivisible units called atoms.

Plato and Aristotle gave philosophical explanations to natural

phenomena. They also made important contributions to biological sciences.

With the spread of the Greek empire, scientific knowledge alsospread in

Egypt. Greek became the primary language of Science. Schools of science
were established in Alexandria in Egypt. Later German works were
translated in to Latin by Roman philosophers.

Many scientists during this period were pioneers in their field. It was such
path breaking knowledge that made this period classical for later
generations.

Development of Science in the Middle Ages:

The period between the classical ages and European Renaissance is

referred to as the Middle Ages. It marked both the decline of scientific
advancement and also later its revival. The middle ages are studied in three
parts; early, high and later.

a) Early Middle ages (476-1000 AD)

Following the decline of Roman Empire, economic and cultural

deterioration began in Europe. The knowledge of Greek declined, and
scholars had limited original work to study from. Bythe early 5th century
Christianity had spread in Europe on a large scale.

6
 There was rise of monasticism. Surviving manuscripts of Roman
classics were copied in monasteries. These served as sources for study to
philosophers. However, very less original work was produced. By the 6th
century monasteries became centers of teaching and learning. Bible became
the centre of study; even if nature was studied it was for practical purposes
for e. g study of astronomy to calculate the day of Easter. It was not done
for theoretical study.
Under the rule of Charlemagne in Italy, sciences were encouraged.
He introduced several educational reforms and brought about Cultural
Revolution. Due to the transformations he brought about, his rule is known
as the period of Carolingian Renaissance. He set up new schools throughout
his empire. Some experts believe that the scientific study during
Charlemagne‘s rule was not original, but based on researches on ancient
Roman texts. Because of lack of original scientific contribution and also
loss of several ancient works, this period is called the Dark Ages. During
the dark ages many arts were lost and science suffered major decline.

b) High Middle Ages ( 1000-1300 A.D.)

From the 11th century onwards, innovation again got impetus. There
were new scientific discoveries. The European scholars during this period
were influenced not only by classic Greek works but also by Arabic texts.
They translated these ancient classics into Latin and started improving the
knowledge base. Inventions such as the windmills and magnetic compass
advanced agriculture and trade. The introduction of papermaking by the
Chinese transformed the way knowledge was stored and circulated.

During this period many new universities were established. This

gave institutional support and encouragement to scientific studies. Eminent
scholars like Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon researched old theories of
empiricism and developed it to a new level. They proposed the study of
nature based on reason and logic.

The period witnessed the development of new form of art. The

Gothic style of architecture was introduced and used on a large scale for
churches.

c) Late middle ages (1300-1450 A.D.)

The most important development during this period was the

separation of science from theology and philosophy. Scientific works of the
Byzantine and Islamic empire influenced the Europeans during this period.
Science was no more joined with religious understanding. The most lasting
and strong foundation theories were given by William Occam (14th
century). Today it is known as Occam‘s razor. Its simple explanation means
“when you have two competing theories that make exactly the same
predictions, the simpler one is the better”. It was later on utilized by Newton
and Einstein.

7
 Thus the middle ages were not dark throughout. There were several
scientific advances. However by the end of the 15th century, Europe was
affected by the Black Plague. It not only led to huge loss of population but
also a setback to the interest in science. During this period science was
largely associated with religion.

Development in the Renaissance (1450- 1650)

The modern period in European history was ushered in the 15th

century by the Renaissance. The term renaissance means rebirth in Italian.
It was a cultural movement that brought new thought and discoveries. After
the rise of the Ottoman Empire in the mid 15th century, scholars from
Turkey moved to Europe with ancient and medieval classics. The
rediscovery of classics by the Europeans led to the reintroduction of reason
and emphasis on human emotions and ideas. The invention of printing press
by Johan Gutenberg in 1436, ideas spread rapidly. With its centre in Italy,
Renaissance gradually spread towards north Europe by the 16th century.

The scholars and philosophers during this period rejected medieval

idea of god being the central idea for nature and art. They developed new
theories which rejected the classical theories.

Nicolas Copernicus developed a more detailed and accurate

heliocentric theory of the planetary system. His book explaining the
revolution of earth and other heavenly bodies revolving around the sun was
banned by the church, since it believed in the geocentric theory. He also
made theoretical studies in mathematics.

Johan Kepler was a strong follower of Copernicus‘s theory. He

studied it and added the fact that planets revolve around the sunin ellipse
and not complete circles. His contribution is the famous Three Laws of
planetary motion.

Galileo Galilee was the man of true renaissance spirit. He was not
only an astronomer, but also a physicist, mathematician and philosopher.
His first scientific discovery was the law of pendulum. He later successfully
developed several devices like magnet, compass, thermometer, microscope
etc. His breakthrough discovery was however, the use of telescope for
observation of space. He is known as the father of Modern physics as he
developed the law of falling bodies.

Francis Bacon argued that truth required evidence from the real
world. He devised the inductive method for study of nature. He stated that
scientist‘s should frame axioms or simple statement and prove them through
the process of experimentation and analysis.

Apart from astronomy and mathematics, study of human anatomy

was also developing very differently from the classics. While Andreas
Vesalius laid the foundations of modern medicine and anatomical studies,
William Harvey described blood circulation.

8
 Leonardo da Vinci is known as the Renaissance man. He was a
scientist, mathematician, philosopher, architect and painter. He wrote and
drew on subjects including geology, anatomy, flight, gravity and optics,
often flitting from subject to subject on a single page, and writing in left-
handed mirror script. He made proto types of the bicycle, airplane,
helicopter, and parachute.

Renaissance was thus a period of new ideas and growth of scientific

knowledge.

The Age of reason and enlightenment (1650-1800)

The new ideas of reason and independent understanding of nature

were carried forward strongly in the late 17th century. Scholars emphasized
the right of individuals to think and express themselves freely. During
Renaissance the church opposed scientific theories of Copernicus and
Galileo. Such opposition of church and domination of the monarchy was
rejected during this period. This led to the scientific revolution.

The Age of Enlightenment succeeding the Age of Reason was the

period of further scientific advancement. Reason was to be the basis of
authority and belief. Science was looked as a study of nature with the aim
of developing humanity and achieving advanced progress. Intellectuals or
Philosophers based their arguments against any authority on the basis of
logic. Thus in social and political field also there was rejection of tyranny
and tradition.

John Locke is considered as the father of Classical Liberalism.

Locke argued that human nature was changeable and that knowledge was
gained through accumulated experience rather than by accessing some sort
of outside truth. His thoughts greatly influenced political philosophy all over
the world.

Issac Newton is considered the greatest figure of scientific

revolution. He was a physicist, astronomer, mathematician and also a
theologian. He gave the theory of gravitation. He made significant
contributions to the fields of optics and mechanics.

Several universities and institutes of scientific studies were set up all

over the world during the scientific age. This encouraged scientific research.

In the 19th century further advances were made in astronomy, new planets
were discovered and phenomenon like dark stars and star creation were
studied. Medicine progressed withbetter understanding of human body and
diseases. Cure to several medicines started being discovered, the very
earliest being the discovery of vaccination for small pox by Louis Pasteur.
One of the milestones of scientific theories of the 19th century was
Charle Darwin‘s Theory of Evolution which described the evolution of
lifeon earth and led to the foundation of modern biology.

9
 SCIENTIFIC TEMPER AND TECHNOLOGY

Science is developed from the need of understanding the natural

phenomena. It is a set of complex theories and ideas based on observing,
testing, analyzing and then presenting phenomena. Scientist have developed
several techniques to achieve this. The general process that has thus been
formulated is known as the scientific method.

The scientific knowledge accumulated over the years has helped

man to apply rationale and logic to everyday life as well. It has proved
several superstitions and blind beliefs as wrong. The most important part of
application of science is technology.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The logical process adopted by scientists to develop knowledge of

nature and present it as acceptable fact is known as the scientific method.
This method is based on gathering empirical data through observation and
experimentation and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.

The scientific method consists of the following four elements:

a) Defining research problem: To determine what phenomenon has

to be understood, what has to be observed and how it has to be
measured.

b) Hypotheses: hypothesis is a logical predictive statement regarding

the outcome of the research. Developing hypothesis provides
direction to the research. A hypothesis can be proved wrong during
the process of research. In this case also it is helpful because it helps
to find out other logical steps to reach a certain conclusion.

c) Observation and experimentation: testing characterization,

hypothesis, predictions. Verify the empirical data.

d) Conclusions: based on experimentation and logic, derive

conclusions to understand the phenomena.

By following this process, new theories can be developed, existing

theories can be tested under new hypothesis also existing hypotheses can
be verified through new experiments devised to test them.

Observation

Observation of a particular element means to notice and study it, in

as it is form. In scientific observation several techniques are applied for
investigating phenomena and acquiring knowledge.

10
 The observer does not change anything in the phenomena and
remains neutral during the observation process. The empirical data gathered
through observation is subjective based on observer. To rule out such errors
scientific instruments are used. They help to channelize the sense through a
particular channel and help to avoid differences in sensory perceptions like
optical illusions. Standard units of measurements are followed during
observation. Measuring of qualitative data helps in comparing and testing
it.

Since the observer does not interfere in the natural form of the
phenomena during observation best of the factual data can be collected
during this process. It also becomes a basic step while forming hypothesis.

Observation cannot singularly become the basis of developing a

theory. The empirical data collected through observation has to be based on
certain strong foundations. For this they should be verifiable.
Experimentation of observed information is the best way to quantify data
and arrive at conclusions.

Experimentation

Experiments are processes devised to verify the validity of the

hypothesis and understand the empirical data under selected conditions. An
experiment is the test which tests the observations and brings out such
results that add to the knowledge of the phenomena. During an experiment
the scientists observes the phenomena in a controlled environment. Some
experiments arehowever such that natural environments are necessary for
the elements to function.

The experiments are devised in a manner such that the hypothesis

can be tested using various parameters. It should be repeatable to enable
further checking by any other scientists. Experiment is not the ultimate step
to understand phenomena. It is coupled with observation. Scientists can skip
experimentation in certain cases where observational data explains fact,
logic, intuition and even sometimes accidents reveal information.

The scientist has to follow basic scientific steps while designing an

experiment. Certain experiments do not produce immediate results. In such
cases all variables that will remain constant as well as those which will
change have to be considered. Errors can occur during experiments. This
can lead to false results, biased conclusions or failure of hypothesis.
Conducting experiments more than once to verify the results is the best way
to understand the phenomena. Experiments answer ‗why‘ and / or
‗how' a certain phenomena occurs. If the experiments bear expected results,
it may become a theory. If the experiment fails the method is ruled out for
further research or adopted with accepted modifications.

11
 OBJECTIVITY
Though intuition and logic are considered to be some of the methods to arrive
at scientific conclusion, they are not considered to be valid unless supported by
evidences. Empirical data collected through observation and verified through
experimentation is thestandard basis for scientific knowledge. Conclusions are
drawn based on systematic analysis. Such scientific method is devised to rule
out any bias on the part of the researcher. Scientists are humans and hence
study made by them is subjected to be influenced by their perception.

Scientific objectivity assumes that the experiments have been properly

performed and the quantitative data has not been tampered with. If the data is
objectively obtained then its results are acceptable and reliable. Sources and
experiments can be verified to authenticate the theories presented. Scientific
objectivity thus also implies sharing of knowledge available for testing.
Hypotheses should be subject to criticism. Only then can they invite further
research and development.

It also brings out the element of scientific measurement. Such standard

measurement is developed that can be used by other scientists except the
originator to further develop the theory. It expects universality of empirical tests

Apart from measurement the experiment also becomes an element in

objectivity. The experiment for validation of hypothesis should be devised in
such a manner that it can be repeated. If the experiment performed by other
scientists produces same results only then does the theory proposed becomes
acceptable. Reproducibility of scientific experiments is required for universal
acceptance and objectivity.

Scientific objectivity ensures that no knowledge is imposed in the society

which is not verifiable. It also ascertains that personal biases, emotional
involvement and personal beliefs do not interfere with formation of scientific
knowledge. Scientific knowledge is not only useful in theoretical studies but also
for general knowledge and development of education. Stress on objectivity makes
sure that scientific results and theories are presented in most unambiguous and
simple manner.

SCIENTIFIC TEMPER

The attitude which enables man to apply logic and arrive at decisions
based on reliable and practical knowledge is said to be scientific temper. It
implies application of reasoning and avoidance of preconceived notions as
beliefs.

12
 General views and beliefs develop because of traditionally accepted
views or because it is believed by important persons or given in religious books.
Scientific temper demands scrutiny of a certain idea before believing it.
Discussions over it, arguing to proveor disprove its validity are methods used to
arrive at scientific knowledge with the application of scientific temper. This
attitude helps to dismiss superstitions and blind beliefs. It encourages an open
mind which strives to achieve best possible reliable knowledge.
Importance: The progress of a society today is said to depend upon its
member‘s attitude towards critical enquiry. Lack of such critical approach can
lead to imposition of unjust rules and dogmatic ideas on the people. Such a
society will be weak. Thus, scientific temper is necessary for the establishment
of a politically, socially and intellectually strong society.

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, was a keen
advisor of scientific temper. The makers of our Indian constitution also realized
its importance and hence have included
―the development of scientific temper and spirit of inquiry‖ as one of the
Fundamental Duty (article 51 A) of Indian citizens. Bydeveloping such attitude
humanism can be fostered among the people. It will help in formation of a
peaceful and civilized society.

India is a land of long history of tradition and also a land of several

religions. Heavy emphasis on both tradition and religion create obstacle in the
development of scientific temper in the country. This attitude is a severe need of
the society. Superstitions and blind faith has given rise to many social crimes and
injustices. It has also become hindrance to development of the society. The
importance of religion has also led to tensions among various religious groups.
Under the name of worship, rituals and dogmatic religious customs, several
sections of the society are exploited.Even when India is making new history with
atomic development, space researches and technological advancement, such
conditions prevail. To counter such sad condition of Indian society, the
development of scientific temper becomes the need of an hour.

Scientific temper can be encouraged through education. A spirit of

inquiry should be developed at young age. Answers with proper logic should be
provided to questions of the young rather than just dismissing them. Through
history, tradition should be taught to develop a sense of identity; they should not
be imposed without reasoning. The present generation should become more
acceptable to reform. Challenge to tradition should be looked in the light of
progress if it is based on strong logical grounds. It should be understood that
scientific temper does not mean rejection of faith or imposition of western
culture. It implies a logical and proper understanding of one‘s culture and nature

13
 SUPERSTITIONS, MYTHS AND PREJUDICES
a. Superstitions

Superstitions have been a part of human society since ancient times. It is

known to develop because humans fear that which they cannot explain. By
making some beliefs about it they try to avoid or to overcome this fear. It is
such a belief which is not based on any reason. Superstitions are linked with
traditions and many a times with good and bad omens. Many have come down
as traditions. However not all traditions are superstitions.

Many a times superstition induces a man to behave irrationally. For e.g.

Because of the superstition of the day goes bad when a cat crosses one‘s road,
many people get petrified when such incidence happens and lose all confidence.
Some people avoid taking new work or things on certain days of the week
because they believe these days are unlucky, and sometimes they miss out on
good opportunities in life. Superstitions have become sources of social problems
also. The belief of a son is needed to carry legacy of family has resulted in female
infanticide in the society. Animal and human sacrifice is carried in the name of
bringing wealth, prosperity and many a times rains.

Science plays a very important role in the eradication of superstition.

Science requires proof and empirical data for coming to conclusions.
Superstitions are challenged by scientific method in which they have failed
completely. A spirit of inquiry can provide answers to many unexplained
phenomena and clear out fears related to it. The superstition of snake drinking
milk on naag panchami, or bad omen due to the sight of an owl and many
banned activities like not cooking on eclipse days are proved to be baseless
through scientific experiments.

In a country of beliefs like India, complete eradication of superstitions is

still not achieved. However with the greater spread of scientific knowledge it will
not be distant dream.

b. Myths

Myths are stories which may be or may not be true. It is based on tradition or
legend. They have deep symbolic meaning in it. They are often used to
explain beginnings of supernatural beings. It is generally believed that myths
were formed to explain some natural phenomena. They are passed down from
one generation to another. Myths often convey misleading or wrong
knowledge. Therefore scientists work towards proving these myths wrong
with various experiments and theories. Myths have importance in history but
are mixed with lies. They make interesting stories but cannot be completely
believed.

14
Almost all cultures over the world have their own myths. Some myths have
become part of religious explanations. For example the earliest known myth
supported by the Bible was, the earth revolved around the sun and the earth was
flat. Scientists since the 13th century have found evidence and tried to explain
that the earth was round. The sun is stationery, while the earth and other
planets revolve around it. It was only by the 17 th century that the church accepted
this fact. There are varied theories which explain the creation of the universe.
Many of these including the Greek and Hindu mythology explain that the
creation of the universe was a gradual process and some order was brought in
thisworld by supernatural forces. While much of it might be unreal, the essence
of it may be the same as the Big Bang theory given by the scientists. As new
scientific knowledge was gained, gradually many other such myths were broken.
There is therefore an opposite relationship between myth and science. Science is
progressive, while myths are incorrect knowledge disguised as truths.

c. Prejudices

Prejudices are unfavorable or negative opinions held by people without

any knowledge or examination of facts. Prejudices are created in minds of people
because of certain stereotypes associated with religion, caste, region, sexuality
or nationality of a person. There might be some negative experiences behind
development of such attitudes. Such attitudes also pass from one generation to
another. For e.g. the phrase of kanjus Marwari in colloquial has developed
because of the strict business attitude of the Marwari‘s. There is general prejudice
among urban people that rural people are uneducated, backward minded and
poor.

Such negative attitudes have become problems in societies. They lead to

disruption of social peace. Such prejudices also bring divide among the people,
thus hampering unity in the nation. Minority communities especially suffer
inequality and injustice dueto prejudices.

Science has helped establish facts among human beings that entire human
kind is the same. It emphasizes on knowledge. It accepts the fact that society‘s
progress is based on new theories and laws which are based on facts and not
beliefs. Science has proved that any person from any region or cultural
background has equal right to exist and respect in the society. Thus, scientific
knowledge and scientific temper is necessary for social harmony and
development. Scientific temper helps to develop harmonious relationship among
people. This spirit of scientific temper can be spread through the medium of
education, media and youth.

15
 TECHNOLOGY
In simple words technology is the application of scientificknowledge. It
means production of such machinery, arrangements and procedures meant to
achieve a certain goal or perform a function. Today every field of human work,
from industry to medicine, is affected by and improved with technology. The
first stone tool created by man was a technological production at that time since
it was a product of man‘s knowledge.

Features of technology

Technology is not confined to use in one sector only. With more and more
developed scientific knowledge a better technology is induced. New technology
makes the earlier one inadequate. As technology is productive it also has its
demerits. Following are the important features or characteristics of technology

1. It has value: Technology has a lot of utilitarian value to mankind. It has

made even day to day jobs simpler with machines such as the fan,
calculator, water pump etc. technological progress was responsible for
the Industrial Revolution in Europe, which changed the economy as
well as the political conditions of the world.

2. Product of creativity: Technology is the product of scientist‘s creative

ideas based on scientific theories and laws. For e. g. the kitchen
microwave is based on the use of electromagnetic waves. Electricity is
produced using the kinetic energy of water. The imagination of men
combined with advancing mechanical science has led to the creation of
humanoid robots.

3. Problem solving: Right from the problem of survival during the Stone Age to
the problem of sustainable living in the modern age, technology has the power
to solve problems. The technology of dam building helped man save and utilize
water even apart from rainy season. Technology has helped solve agricultural
problems in India as well as in smaller nations.

4. It has demerits: Every technological product has a negative effect on

humans as well as on nature. With industrial progress the problem of
pollution increased. Nuclear energy is a great alternative for non-
renewable resources but it has health hazards for humans as well as other
living organisms on the planet. Several technological devices are also
expensive. Theology is not foolproof. Systems can fail, some damages
can be irreparable. The impact of damages done by technology can be
reduced but failures cannot be avoided completely.

16
5. Social change: Technology has completely and irreversibly changed the way
people meet, interact, learn, work, play, travel, worship, and do business. It has
brought people from various regions around the world together through better
communication, travelling and networking. This has made exchange of cultures
possible. The world has turned into a global village‘ in the 20 th century due to
technology.

Role of technology

Technology has helped increasing productivity and efficiencyin every

field that it is employed.

1. Agriculture: Technology has helped to improve agricultural production

all over the world with the use of tractors and other machines. It has
improved productivity in low rainfall lands with new methods of
irrigation. It has also enhanced food quality with use of fertilizers,
pesticides and also new seed qualities.

2. Transport and communication: Man‘s travel is not only increased in

speed but also in safety owing to new technological inventions in
transport. Air travel is common today and also safe. Transportation
technology has helped develop better trade too.

The internet has revolutionized communication among people. Since

communication technology is one of the cheaply available modes, it has
connected people even from remotest areas. Today the world is at one‘s
fingertips with iPad, tablets and Smartphones.

3. Industry: Production is made easier with the help of computers which

handle much of the work, minimizing the efforts of labourers. In some
factories such as car production, the entire production process is run by
robots. In many of the industries today, designs and test models are designed
on computers completely and viewed with 3D technology before making the
actual product. Technologyhas reduced the cost of production and increased
the efficiency in production on a large scale. One of the disadvantages of
technology based industry is unemployment especially in labour intensive
countries like India.

4. Services: The service sector has also been improved with technology.
Booking tickets, shopping, handling bank accounts and even setting up a
business, such works are easily done with the help of computers and
internet.

5. Medicine: Advanced medical inventions have helped to cure many

diseases. Vaccinations, diagnosis and operation equipment have
increased the lives of people by detecting life threatening diseases at early

17
 stages and performing microscopic surgeries on highly risky organs like
the heart and the brain. Many diseases like polio, chicken pox etc are
completely curable today.

Technology has changed media and its forms. Man has reached space and
is researching more about the universe with advancing space technology. Many
other fields like construction, logistics, education and commerce have also
progressed with better technology.

Interrelation between science and technology

The very definition of technology explains it as an extension of science.

The relationship between the both has several dimensions. Following points
explain the interrelation between science and technology:

1. Technological application:

New scientific knowledge leads to its application in a new field and for a
new purpose. For .e. g. the discovery of nano science has lead to advancement
not only in computer technology but also in cosmetics and refrigerators.
Technology is the way by which scientific knowledge is combined with practical
value and put to the benefit of humankind. Both science and technology are
based on experimentation and creation.

2. Exemplary relationship

Scientists explain natural phenomena on the basis of experiments. Many

a times such experiments are done oninstruments, tools and machines developed
through earlier technologies. Such technological aids help in understanding and
explaining scientific concepts better.

3. Instrumental relationship

Scientists require different machinery to find out, test and present

information. They need accurate machinery for this purpose. Technology is
aimed to provide sciences with such devices that further increase scientific
knowledge. Sometimes machinery produced for one purpose is used for another
scientific experiment. For e.g. telescope invented by an optician in Europe, was
later used and developed by Galileo for studying space. Skills and knowledge of
the technologists can be thus used to advance science.

4. Inspirational relationship

Science and technology take inspiration from one another for further
development. Based on basic electrical sciences, engineers develop such
machinery which is used in advanced electrical appliances. On the other hand,

18
 some technological devices provide science explanation of some unknown
phenomena. For e.g. the invention of steam engine later gave basis for the
creation of thermodynamics theory in physics. Thus the instrument gave
foundation to research in science.

Science and technology are different

Though we have seen that both science and technology are related in
many ways, they are different in nature. The following points can better explain
the distinction between them:

1. Purpose:

Science and technology have fundamentally different purposes. The main

aim of science is to explain natural phenomenon through scientific method of
observation and experimentation. Technology aims at creation of a product
through intellect and design based concepts and methods. While science only
observes and understands, technology intervenes in nature. Rather than meeting
a human need or opportunity, it is primarily driven by curiosity about something.

2. Aims

Technology aims at the satisfaction of the end users of a product, process

or environment. Science aims at discovery or verification of a certain element of
nature.
3. Role of value:

Scientific knowledge is objective. The theories and laws developed as

scientific knowledge cannot be termed good or bad. However technological
products do have negative implications on human nature. For e.g. nuclear power
and its use as scientific knowledge is not bad, however bomb producing
technology for terror purpose is surely inhuman.

4. Evaluation methods

Scientific knowledge is evaluated through analysis of data. Theories are

created and they are tested over various experiments and on the basis of several
hypotheses. Other scientists have to give validation to the theories as being true
so that they can be established as laws or universal facts. Technological products
are not based on assumptions and hypothesis but verified on the basis of analysis
of designs. Thus no validation for truth is required in technology.

Science involves formation of theories based on accurate data, while

technology involves use of available data to create approximate models.
Technology is therefore different from sciencein its goals, methodology and also
final product.

Science as a discipline is very wide. It develops theories and explanations about natural

19
phenomena by following the scientific method. Development of scientific temper is
essential for bettersocial life. It removes untrue baseless beliefs from people‘s lives
and also brings peace and harmony and equality in society. Technology is everyday
science. It has made human life convenient and advanced. Technology and science help
each other progress. They are distinct from one another in nature, aims and methods.

-------------

20