HLTAAP003 Analyse and respond to client health information

HLTAAP003
Analyse and respond to

client health information
Contents Page
Contents Page ............................................................................................................................................... 2
Learner guide ............................................................................................................................................ 6
About this document ................................................................................................................................ 7
1. Assess client health status ............................................................................................................ 8
1.1 Analyse client health information in relation to planning services and in line with organisation
requirements ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Medical history ................................................................................................................................... 12
Current symptoms .............................................................................................................................. 12
Physical observation ........................................................................................................................... 12
Current medications ........................................................................................................................... 13
Past treatments................................................................................................................................... 13
Interviews with patient ....................................................................................................................... 13
Results of diagnostic testing ............................................................................................................... 13
1.2 Recognise normal readings on the findings of available tests, observations and physical
assessments that assist in determining health status ............................................................................ 14
Open .................................................................................................................................................... 16
Closed .................................................................................................................................................. 17
Simple.................................................................................................................................................. 17
Compound questions .......................................................................................................................... 17
Check background information........................................................................................................... 25
Observe the patient ............................................................................................................................ 25
Talk with the patient ........................................................................................................................... 25
Examination ........................................................................................................................................ 26
Check equipment that is in use ........................................................................................................... 26
Assess the environment ...................................................................................................................... 26
Take patient’s vital signs ..................................................................................................................... 26
Record patient’s status and nursing care ........................................................................................... 27
Evaluate care given ............................................................................................................................. 27
1.3 Identify pathophysiologies, or changing pathologies, through observation, physical assessment
and analysis of other available information ........................................................................................... 28
Glandular fever pathophysiology ........................................................................................................ 42
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Rheumatoid arthritis pathophysiology ............................................................................................... 45
Molecules and compounds ................................................................................................................. 47
Chemical reaction ............................................................................................................................... 47
Energy ................................................................................................................................................. 47
Acids and bases ................................................................................................................................... 47
Carbohydrate metabolism .................................................................................................................. 48
Cell/tissue requirements for survival .................................................................................................. 49
Major types of cellular adaptation...................................................................................................... 50
Atrophy................................................................................................................................................ 50
Hypertrophy ........................................................................................................................................ 50
Hyperplasia ......................................................................................................................................... 50
Dysplasia ............................................................................................................................................. 51
Metaplasia .......................................................................................................................................... 51
1.4 Identify the likely impact of specific interventions ..................................................................... 52
Common environmental emergencies (diving, altitude, temperature) ............................................. 53
Overdose and poisoning ..................................................................................................................... 55
Surgical insult ...................................................................................................................................... 55
Trauma (penetrating, blunt) ............................................................................................................... 55
2. Plan action to address identified health status .......................................................................... 56
2.1 Apply detailed understanding of anatomy, physiology and pathophysiology of disease to a
problem solving approach to service planning. ...................................................................................... 57
Names and Locations of Bones ........................................................................................................... 59
Levels of structural organisation of body systems.............................................................................. 62
Subatomic particles ...................................................................................................................62
Atoms ........................................................................................................................................62
Molecules ..................................................................................................................................62
Organelles .................................................................................................................................62
Cells ...........................................................................................................................................62
Tissues .......................................................................................................................................62
Organs .......................................................................................................................................62
Organ systems...........................................................................................................................63
Organisms .................................................................................................................................63
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Human life processes .......................................................................................................................... 63
Organisation .............................................................................................................................63
Metabolism ...............................................................................................................................63
Responsiveness..........................................................................................................................63
Movements ...............................................................................................................................63
Reproduction .............................................................................................................................63
Growth ......................................................................................................................................64
Differentiation ...........................................................................................................................64
Respiration ................................................................................................................................64
Digestion ...................................................................................................................................64
Excretion....................................................................................................................................64
Homeostasis and the relationship between homeostatic imbalance and disease. ........................... 65
Epithelial tissue ................................................................................................................................... 68
Connective tissue ................................................................................................................................ 68
Muscle tissue ...................................................................................................................................... 68
Nervous tissue..................................................................................................................................... 69
Organs ................................................................................................................................................. 69
Heart Valves ........................................................................................................................................ 70
Circulation Pathway ............................................................................................................................ 70
Coronary Circulation ........................................................................................................................... 70
Pulmonary Circulation......................................................................................................................... 70
Systemic Circulation ............................................................................................................................ 70
Structure and Mechanics of Bone, Muscle and Connective Tissue .................................................... 72
Role of Receptors in Mediating Hormonal Changes ........................................................................... 73
Sensory ................................................................................................................................................ 78
Integration .......................................................................................................................................... 79
Afferent and Efferent Nervous System Signals ................................................................................... 79
Voluntary and Involuntary Nature of Nervous System ....................................................................... 79
Structure of A Motor Neuron.............................................................................................................. 80
Conduction of a Motor Impulse .......................................................................................................... 80
Smell.................................................................................................................................................... 81
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Taste .................................................................................................................................................... 82
Vision................................................................................................................................................... 82
Equilibrium and touch ......................................................................................................................... 83
Hearing ................................................................................................................................................ 84
Metabolism ......................................................................................................................................... 86
Nutrition .............................................................................................................................................. 86
Body temperature regulation ............................................................................................................. 87
Biological maturation and ageing ....................................................................................................... 87
Inheritance .......................................................................................................................................... 88
Active (primary) and passive (diffusion – simple, facilitated)............................................................. 89
Forces (hydrostatic and oncotic)......................................................................................................... 90
Osmosis ............................................................................................................................................... 91
2.2 Consider and note implications of any contra-indications in relation to health assessment
findings. ................................................................................................................................................... 92
Neglect ................................................................................................................................................ 93
Parasites .............................................................................................................................................. 94
Infection .............................................................................................................................................. 94
Congestion .......................................................................................................................................... 94
Environmental ..................................................................................................................................... 95
Inherited genetic conditions ............................................................................................................... 98
Type 1 Diabetes................................................................................................................................. 101
Type 2 Diabetes................................................................................................................................. 101
2.3 Document action plan in accordance with organisation policies and procedures. .................. 108
Referring to the human body............................................................................................................ 110
Taking measurements in different body systems ............................................................................. 111
References ............................................................................................................................................ 113
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Learner guide
This unit describes the skills and knowledge required to engage consumers, analyse service This
unit of competency describes the skills and knowledge required to analyse client health
information and then to plan appropriate health services within scope of own role. It requires
an in-depth knowledge of anatomy and physiology.
This unit applies to individuals who plan and provide services with some level of autonomy.
Some disciplines will require a state/territory regulatory determination regarding delegation
and supervision.
The skills in this unit must be applied in accordance with Commonwealth and State/Territory
legislation, Australian/New Zealand standards and industry codes of practice
Areas to cover as follows:

1. Assess client health status
2. Plan action to address identified health status
Your assessment tasks will reinforce learning in the above areas.
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About this document
The notes provided are basic notes only and there is an expectation that learners may need to
undertake research, ask questions of their trainer or other individuals, or draw on experience
and/or information that may be gained in the workplace or through communication with a
workplace.
Where learners are undertaking study through online learning, the relevant copy of this
workbook will not contain assessment activities as they are being done online, however, the
information and the activities will remain constant through both approaches.
NOTE: Only basic information is supplied and there is an expectation that the learner will
conduct further investigation and research into these subjects. All materials used are used
under creative commons.
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1. Assess client health status
1.1 Analyse client health information in relation to planning services and in line
with organisation requirements
1.2 Recognise normal readings on the findings of available tests, observations

and physical assessments that assist in determining health status
1.3 Identify pathophysiologies, or changing pathologies, through observation,

physical assessment and analysis of other available information
1.4 Identify the likely impact of specific interventions
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1.1 Analyse client health information in relation to planning
services and in line with organisation requirements
Role responsibilities and limitations in relation to analysing health information

and providing services
In any professional practice, it is important to know your scope of practice and the limitations
of your specific role. This is especially true in the medical industry. You are required to know
what your role is in analysing the health information and providing services to patients.
There are many different departments within the health care field that have particular staffing
requirements and training, that are necessary to providing adequate service. These medical
specialities are typically classified in the surgical or internal medicine, age range of patients,
organ-based or technique-based, as well as diagnostic or therapeutic medicine.
Here are a few examples of particular health care fields:

 Paediatric medicine: this is medicine that specialises in patients that are under 18
years of age.
 Anaesthesiology: this is a medical speciality regarding anaesthesia
and anaesthetics.
 Pathology: this is a medical specialty that works with the diagnosis
of disease that is based on laboratory analysis of bodily fluids.
 Cardiology: this is medical specialty that specialises in the heard and
cardiovascular system.
 Emergency medicine: this medical speciality works with patients
that are in emergency situations that require immediate care.
 Endocrinology: this medical specialty works in diagnosing medical
conditions that are correlated to the glands in the body.
 General practice: general practice physicians and nurses work in
acute and chronic conditions and preventative care.
 Infectious disease: this is a medical specialty that specialises in
disorders that are caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites.
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Each medical specialty will have its own set of established criteria for training that must be met
in order to analyse the health condition of patients in these departments. In your healthcare
profession, you will need to understand your scope of practice and the limitations that you
have in regards to your training and experience.
There are many different levels of nursing in Australia that will provide you with different
limitations and responsibilities depending on your registration and level of training. Enrolled
nurses, for example, have different roles and responsibilities than registered nurses. This is
because the education and training level is different for each one of these professions.
Enrolled nursing scope of practice

Enrolled nursing is a nursing career path that includes educational training that can typically be
done in under a year. This allows individuals to become staffed in a health care facility quickly in
order to start their career. These individuals have to work under the supervision of a registered
nurse and have to carry out particular tasks that are assigned to them in a hospital or medical
setting. In a hospital setting, enrolled nurses are consistently checking on the care of patients,
helping with daily activities and observing patient’s condition. Enrolled nurses are also trained
to provide basic care for wounds and infections and are able to administer drugs and assist in
the changing of bandages.
The outline of the scope of practice for enrolled nurses includes:

 Recognising anything normal and abnormal in their assessment of patients
 Understanding health information technology
 Intervening and evaluating individual health status
 Monitoring the impact of nursing care
 Providing support and comfort to patients
 Providing emotional needs for individuals
 Assisting with daily activities
 Maintaining consistent communication with the registered nurse regarding the
health status of patients
 Administering prescribed medications or intravenous fluids according to
organisational policy
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Registered nursing scope of practice
Registered nurses have completed a three-year degree course from a reputable university.
These individuals on this career path may even choose to study an extra year to get their
honours degree.
Registered nurses are able to assess, diagnose and evaluate the medical care of their patients,
where enrolled nurses are not. These functions are reserved for nurses who have additional
training and qualifications. Registered nurses will oversee enrolled nurses in their practice.
Where enrolled nurses take on the more supportive role in the medical field, registered nurses
have the capability of overseeing departments within their medical healthcare centres.
Scope of practice for registered nurses are as follows:

 Observation, assessment, evaluation, care and counsel or health teaching to patients
 Maintenance of health or prevention of illnesses
 Development of nursing care plan
 Administration, supervision and evaluation of nursing practices and polices
 Supervision or teaching of nursing staff
 Administration of medication or treatment as appropriately ordered by physicians
 Requesting, receiving and distribution of prescription drug samples to patients at
qualifying medical practices
It is important for you to recognise your role within your organisation and the scope of practice
that you hold. There are limitations that are put in place for each nursing practice as
established by the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia as well as local state and territory
laws and regulations.
You will need to be aware of your limitations and be self-aware to know when you have
reached your limits in your nursing practice. This will ensure that you are practicing safe
medicinal practices and are not violating any legal requirements. This will help keep you and
the patient safe.
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Analyse client health information in relation to planning services
When you have a new patient, you will need to appropriately assess their health condition in
order to create an effective treatment care plan. Each patient that you have will have different
requirements and backgrounds that will need to be considered when you are creating a care
treatment plan.
When you have a patient, you will need to consider the following in order to get a full picture of
their medical condition:
 Medical history
 Current symptoms
 Physical observation
 Current medications
 Past treatments
 Interviews with patient
 Results of diagnostic testing
Medical history
The patient’s past and present will contain relevant information regarding their current health
status and the future of their health. The medical history includes an account of all medical
events and problems that the patient has experienced. This can include history of medications
that they have taken, medical intervention, past diagnoses, etc.
Current symptoms
Symptoms are physical or mental signs that can be indications of diseases or illnesses. It is
important to assess your patient’s symptoms in order for you to get a clear picture of what
condition they may have in order for you to effectively treat and manage their health.
Physical observation
In your observation of the patient, you need to consider the outward appearance of your
patient. This can include symptoms that you see, how they are acting and responding,
coherency, body temperature, blood pressure, etc.
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Current medications
You need to be aware of the current medications that your patient is taking in order to get a
good assessment of their current health status. There are many medications that can have an
adverse impact on your client’s health and may be the cause of their deteriorating health. It is
also important to know what medications your patient is taking so you are aware of what
medications you are able to prescribe. There are some medications that cannot be taken
together as they can result in poorer health and conditions for your patient.
Past treatments
There are many past medical treatments that can have an impact on the current health status
of your patient. You should be aware of any previous surgeries, diagnoses, medical
interventions, etc. that can all have an impact on the future health of your patient.
Interviews with patient

There are many things that can be going on internally with your patient that can lead you in the
right direction of diagnosing your patient through appropriate interviews. Patients can tell you
how they are feeling, where they feel pain, particular sensations they are feeling, etc. that can
lead to you identifying medical conditions and illnesses.
Results of diagnostic testing

There are many different types of tests that can be taken in order to prove the medical
condition of your patient. While you can make your assumptions or guesses about the
condition of your patient, in many situations you are required to do additional testing in order
to determine what the cause of your patient’s deteriorating health is.
There are also limitations to your own working practice that you will need to consider. You may
not have the qualifications to appropriately diagnose or create a care treatment plan for your
patient. In these situations, you will need to refer to a registered nurse or physician.
When you have fully conducted the interviews, testing and appropriate observation of your
patient, you can then begin to analyse this information to determine what treatment is
necessary in the patient’s care plan. If you do not take the time to consider all of these options,
your patient can be given medical interventions that later prove to be harmful. It is your duty of
care as a medical professional to ensure that your patient’s health is the highest priority. This
requires you to thoroughly test and evaluate the current health status of your patient.
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1.2 Recognise normal readings on the findings of available
tests, observations and physical assessments that assist
in determining health status
Obtaining information about physical health

Once your patient has appropriately gone through admissions protocols by your organisation,
you will need to obtain information about their physical health. Obtaining information about
health status or the potential health problems that are impacting your patient will require you
to use a number of techniques to appropriately identify. This includes observation techniques,
questioning techniques, as well as the appropriate review of documentation.
The information that you will need to gather from your

patients will vary based on your speciality and the work
context. You will need to be aware of any type of
organisational policies and procedures that have been
put in place regarding your initial assessment of your
patient and processes to gather information.
There are observations that you are able to make based

on your scope of practice and you position. You will
need to make certain that you are aware of what these
boundaries are and how you are to appropriately gather
information as well as the documentation that you have
access to.
If you find any potentially serious or harmful situations

when you are working with patients, you need to make
certain that you appropriately document and report this
information. Your organisation should have protocols in
place that will make certain that these situations are
handled appropriately.
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Observation techniques
As a health care professional, you will need to understand how to conduct observations in
order to gain knowledge of the health status of your patient. This is the process of observing
your patient in order to gain information. When you are speaking with someone, you need to
be aware of more than just what they are saying. Actions can often speak louder than words.
Nursing observation is the objective evaluation of the patient’s condition. You need to consider
your patient’s overall appearance, their emotional affect, nutritional status, preferences, habits,
body temperature, skin condition, abnormal processes, as well as the complaints and remarks
that are made by the patient.
There are many things you should consider when you are assessing the physical health of your
patients including
 Signs and symptoms that suggest health conditions or the potential for health
conditions
o Temperature
o Inflammation
o Swelling
o Pain
o Dizziness
o Coughing
o Runny nose
o Sensory or comprehension difficulties
 Identify any limitations
 Appropriately document observations
Part of observing your patients is using skills that make you aware of your surroundings. You
need to pay attention to more than just what your patient is saying, but the manner in which
they say it. Look for any physical signs that relate to what they are communicating and be
aware of symptoms of serious conditions that will require you to report your findings.
It is important to note that as a nurse or another health care professional, that you will be
required to observe your patient’s symptoms and their health status at various intervals
throughout their care. While you conduct your initial assessment with your patient, you will
also need to observe them when you provide them periodic care (that is if they are your patient
in a hospital or an extended care facility).
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Questioning techniques
There are many different methods that you can use when you are questioning your patient. You
want to ask questions that will help you gain information about how your patient is feeling and
descriptions of the symptoms and the pain that they are experiencing.
There are many types of questions that can be asked, these include
 Open
 Closed
 Simple
 Compound questions
As a health care professional, you will need to be aware of the various questioning techniques
in order to develop your interpersonal skills. While you are looking to gather information, you
always want to create a connection with your patients as well. You should always ask questions
and gain information in a way that is empathetic and caring.
You want to make certain that you choose the right type of questioning technique that will
gather the most concrete information from your clients. In some situations, you may require
your patients to answer questions yes or no or to rate their pain and their symptoms on a scale
from 1-10. In other instances, you will need to ask questions that will require an additional
response from your patient for them to provide more detail than a simple answer.
Open
Open ended questions are questions that require more than one word responses. The answer
can include a list, a few sentences or may even require a lengthier response. Open ended
questions include:
 How exactly did this fight between the two of you start?
 What is your favourite childhood memory?
 What do you plan to do once you finish university?
 What was your high school experience like?
These questions require more response but do not have to be more complicated than closed
ended questions.
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Closed
These are questions that require a yes or no or a one-word response. Because of these short
responses, you will be able to gather limited information that will require open ended
questions as follow up to gain additional response. Close-ended questions include
 Are you feeling better today?
 Can I help you with that?
 Are you happy?
 Were you planning on going to university?
Simple
Simple questions are those that are asked to gain basic information from someone with one
response. These are the most general questions that are asked to gain one answer from
someone. Asking individuals how they feel or what happened are examples of simple questions.
Compound questions
When more than one question is combined in what is
seen as a single question it is considered a compound
question. A compound question touches on more
than one issues but still requires just one answer.
This is often used in interviews and can cause

inaccuracies. The person who is being interviewed will
only be able to respond to one of the two questions
and cannot indicate which one is being answered. An
example of this would be to ask, “how satisfied are
you with your job conditions and your pay?” As these
are two different issues, it can be difficult to answer
both of these questions in one response. You would
have to address pay and job conditions separately.
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Review of documentation
Having documentation on your patient’s medical history can provide you with a clearer picture
of the current health situation of your patient. In many health organisations, new patients are
required to fill out questionnaires and documentation that ask patients to list any existing
conditions that they may have, the medication that they are taking, whether they are a smoker
or not, as well as history of medical conditions. These can all play a role in their current
symptoms and their future treatment.
Because of privacy and confidentiality requirements for patient’s medical records, you may not
have the access to patient’s files from other organisations. If you require medical records from
other organisations that have previously performed medical interventions on your patient, you
will need to gain informed consent from your patient.
This is a contract in which your patient will list those who are able to receive access to their
medical records as well as providing the organisation permission to share the medical records
with your health care facility or practice. The informed consent contract will need to include the
specifics of the documentation that is to be released and where the information is being
transferred to.
You will also need to review your patient’s care plan as well in order to gain information
accordingly of your patient’s health care history. A care plan is the guide that will provide
explanation to the care that is required for individuals. Care plans are created in order to meet
the specific needs of each patient and they are typically created by health care professionals
that have assessed and previously observed the signs and symptoms of the patient.
As a health care professional, you will need to use appropriate observation skills in order to
appropriately diagnose a patient of medical conditions. From there, a plan will need to be
created that lists the health care treatments, medications and strategies that are required in
order to focus on the priorities and the goals for the patient. The care plan will address the
patient’s strengths and problems areas. It will also list the details of the treatment include how
the treatment is implemented and when care should be provided to the patient.
The care plan will also list the specific staff members and their responsibilities regarding the
care of the patient. It includes the list of required interventions and the health care
professionals who will be providing this care.
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Various medical tests and physical assessments
There are many different types of medical tests that can be taken in order to get a more sound
diagnosis for your patients. There are many conditions that your patient may have that can be
easily identified and diagnosed through interviews and physical observation. However, in many
cases, it is important to run medical tests in order to get a better understanding of what is
going on in the body.
A medical test is a medical procedure that is performed to help monitor disease, disease
processes, as well as detecting and diagnosing diseases. Medical tests can help physicians and
other health care professionals determine a course of treatment to prevent these conditions
from continuing. Many of these tests are conducted in a medical laboratory and involve the
processes of clinical chemistry and molecular diagnostics.
Medical tests are classified often by what the use of the test is for typically between diagnostic
uses, screening and monitoring. A diagnostic test is a medical procedure that is performed to
determine the presence of a disease in an individual. These will usually follow after a report of
symptoms or based on other medical tests.
Screening tests are done to predict the presence of a disease in individuals who are at risk for
these conditions. These individuals are not presently showing symptoms of conditions, but they
are at risk for them because of their family or their workforce. These tests can help aid in the
prevention of these conditions. Monitoring tests are those that are done to monitor the body’s
progress throughout the medical treatment process.
There are many different methods that medical tests can be undertaken. These processes
include:
 Observations that are made by the patient
 Tests performed in a physical assessment
 Radiological tests
 In vivo diagnostics which test the body
 In vitro diagnostics which test samples of
bodily fluids or tissues
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Analysis of body fluids
Fluids are often analysed when there are symptoms of disorders that are present. The most
commonly analysed fluids include:
 Blood
 Urine
 Fluid within a joint (synovial fluid)
 Fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord (cerebrospinal fluid)
There are also tests that will check fluid from the digestive track, saliva, and sweat. These tests
are not conducted as frequently.
Imagining medical tests

Imagining medical tests take a picture of the inside of the body. This can be specific to one part
of the body or the entire body. This can allow for diagnosis of internal conditions in bones and
organs. Imagining tests include:
 X-rays
 Ultrasonography
 Computed tomography (CT)
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
 Angiography
 Positron emission tomography (PET)
 Radioisotope (nuclear) scanning
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Endoscopy
An endoscope, or a viewing tube, is used to observe the inside of the body organs or the
cavities of the body. These endoscopes are typically flexible in order to gain more access to
these parts of the body. In some cases, however, a more rigid endoscope is required. The tip of
the endoscope will usually have a light and a camera on it. The examiner will then watch the
images on a monitor as the images are projected.
Endoscopy will pass this viewing tube through existing openings in the body to observe these
parts of the body. This includes:
 Vagina: to examine the uterus (hysteroscopy)
 Nose: to examine the voice box (laryngoscopy) or the lungs (bronchoscopy)
 Mouth: To examine the oesophagus (esophagoscopy), stomach (gastroscopy), and
small intestine (upper gastrointestinal endoscopy)
 Urethra: to examine the bladder (cystoscopy)
 Anus: To examine the large intestine, rectum, and anus (colonoscopy)
There are some instances where it is required for medical examiners to make an opening in the
body. There is a small incision that is made through the skin and layers of tissues so that the
endoscope is able to be passed into the body cavity. These small incisions may be necessary in
order inside the following parts of the body:
 Joints (arthroscopy)
 Abdominal cavity (laparoscopy)
 Area of the chest between the lungs (mediastinoscopy)
 Lungs and pleura (thoracoscopy)
Measurement of body functions

There are many body functions that are able to be recorded and analysed by the activity of the
organs.
Measurement tests include:

 Electrocardiography (ECG) used to measure the activity levels of the heart
 Electroencephalography (EEG) is used to measure the electrical activity of the brain
 Pulmonary function tests are used to measure the lung’s ability to hold air and move
air in and out.
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Biopsy
These are tests that are conducted by tissues being removed from the body and examined. This
typically involves examination under a microscope. The examination will usually focus on
finding abnormal cells in these tissues that can help identify a disorder. They can help identify
inflammation, a disorder as well as cancer.
The tissues that are typically examined in a biopsy include:

 Skin
 Breast
 Liver
 Lung
 Kidney
 Bone
Analysis of genetic material or genetic testing

In these tests, cells are examined to look for any type of abnormalities in genes (such as DNA)
as well as chromosomes. This involves the analysis of cells from the skin, bone marrow or the
blood.
Genetic testing may be done in the following methods:

 Adults: determine the likelihood of certain disorders
 Children and young adults: determine whether they have the risk of the
development of certain disorders
 Foetuses: determine whether or not they have a disorder.
It is important for medical professionals to be aware of the risks that are associated with
medical testing. There is a risk of injury during the test that must be considered. Additional
testing is also more expensive and can be dangerous to the individual. Doctors must be able to
appropriately measure the risk of the test against the usefulness of the information that these
tests will provide.
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Physical examinations
Physical examinations are a key part of a patient’s visit to their doctor. Routine check-ups are
common in an annual physical to check the overall functions and health levels of an individual.
Physical examinations will typically involve the following:

 Vital signs:
o Blood pressure
o Heart rate
o Respiration rate
o Temperature
 General appearance including:
o Memory and mental quickness
o Skin appearance
o Ability to stand and walk
 Heart exam:
o Listening to the heart with a stethoscope
o Checking for any irregularities such as a heart murmur or an irregular
heartbeat
 Lung exam:
o Listening to the lungs with a stethoscope
o Listening for crackles, decreased breath sounds or wheezes
 Head and neck exam:
o Examination of the throat and tonsils
o Examination of the ears, nose, eyes, lymph nodes, thyroid and sinuses.
 Abdominal exam
 Neurological exam:
o Nerves, muscle strength and reflexes
o Balance and mental state
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There are also physical examinations that should be taken specifically for men and women.
Male physical examinations include:

 Prostate exam
 Penis exam
 Hernia exam
 Testicular exam
Female physical examinations include:

 Breast exam
 Pelvic exam
o Examination of the vagina, cervix, uterus and ovaries
o May also include a Pap test and HPV test to screen for cervical cancer
Checking on health status of client

Before you conduct any type of medical intervention on a patient you will need to check the
current health status of your patient. Patients can change in their health status in a moment
and you need to be aware of the procedures within your organisation in regards to pre-
intervention.
The process to checking on the health status of a client includes:

 Check background information
 Observe the patient
 Talk with the patient
 Examination
 Check equipment that is in use
 Assess the environment
 Take patient’s vital signs
 Record patient’s status and nursing care
 Evaluate care given
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Check background information
Before you go into a patient’s room or you see your patient, you need to check their chart and
their health history to see what has been done previously to the patient. In a hospital setting,
you need to be aware of any treatments that have been given to the patient that day. If there is
a healthcare professional that has been assigned to that patient, you should ask them for
information, if that is possible. Many organisations will also require you to verify your patient’s
identity in the first instance as well.
Observe the patient

When you are with the patient you need to observe the following:
 The colouring of the patient
 Listen to the patient’s breathing
 If the patient is showing any signs that they are having trouble breathing, check their
vital signs
 Report any problems to the nurse in charge or the doctor
 Do not wake patients up for assessment unless there is a problem
Talk with the patient

You can also gather information about your patient from simply asking them the right type of
questions and talking to them. This process includes:
 If the patient is awake, ask if they are comfortable and how they are doing
 Ask about any pain
 Ask about urinary and faecal elimination
 Ask if they have been eating and drinking
 Ask about medication and treatment and if it has helped
 Note any problems
If your patient is not volunteering information, you will need to ask specific questions regarding
the symptoms that you can expect based on their treatment.
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Examination
Briefly examine the patient from head to toe to note if there are any abnormalities or changes
in their condition. Pay attention to any problems regarding their medical treatment. The
examination that you undertake is dependent on the medical problem and what body systems
are impacted by these problems.
Check equipment that is in use

You will also need to make certain that any equipment that the patient is using for their care is
working correctly. These can include oxygen systems, indwelling catheters or intravenous lines.
The type of check that you will conduct is based on the type of equipment that is being used.
Assess the environment

Nurses have the primary responsibility to ensure that the environment that the patient is in is
safe and clean. This involves the process of checking:
 The overall cleanliness of the room and floor
 That the floor is dry
 That all bedding is clean and that the bed and the area around it is clean
 Removing any dirty eating equipment or soiled tissues
 That the toilet is clean
 That the patient has what they need
 Patient has plenty of fluids
Take patient’s vital signs

One of the most important components of checking on the health status of your patient is
checking their vital signs. This is temperature, pulse, breathing and the blood pressure of the
patient. Changes in vital signs can indicate changes in their health care condition. Any sudden
or large changes should always be appropriately reported to the patient’s doctor.
In many cases, vital signs are required to be checked every four hours by hospital staff. When
patients have been in intensive care units or have had surgery, their vital signs will need to be
checked more frequently. Vital signs should always be checked if a patient has made complaints
of dizziness, being suddenly hot, light-headedness or if their condition changes for the worse.
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Record patient’s status and nursing care
Recording or noting information is an important component of health care. You need to make
certain that you report any important information about the status of the patient, the care that
you provided to the patient, as well as the patient’s response to your care. You need to make
certain that you provide accurate notes so that the nurse or other health care staff that attends
to the patient after you is aware of what is going on.
Evaluate care given

After you have provided your care to the patient, you will need to go back and make certain
that you care has made an impact on the patient and has been effective. If you give a patient
medication for pain, you should go back at a later time to make certain that they are feeling
better.
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1.3 Identify pathophysiologies, or changing pathologies,
through observation, physical assessment and analysis of
other available information
Pathophysiology of diseases associated with each body system

Pathophysiology is the combination of physiology and pathology which makes a medical
practice that seeks to explain the physiological processes that causes a medical condition to
develop.
Pathophysiology is a study of diseased organs and how the disease impacts the function of the
organs. While pathology focuses on the physical changes of organs, the pathophysiology will
focus on the malfunctions of those organs.
As a health care professional, you need to be aware of what common disorders as well as the
signs and symptoms that your patient has these conditions. This will help you in your diagnosis
of the problem as well as in your care plan to meet your patient’s needs.
You may be the first person to recognise these signs and symptoms of your patient and you will
be required to take the necessary action to provide them the care that they need within your
job role and scope of practice.
When you have identified that your patient has signs and symptoms of more serious or other
health care problems, you may need to clarify the situation with other health care
professionals. You should always be aware of your organisation’s policies and procedures in
these situations. This involves appropriate documentation, reporting and consultation with
appropriate health care professionals within your
organisation.
There are many different types of common disorders

that impact a various amount of systems within the
body. You need to be aware of these basic signs and
symptoms in order for you to recognise if there is a more
serious medical problem that requires immediate action.
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Below are a list of conditions and their corresponding system of the body and what symptoms
and signs to look for.
Cardiovascular system disorders

Cardiovascular system disorders are those that impact the heart and the various structures and
function of the heart. Cardiovascular disorders are the leading cause of death across Australia.
These disorders include:

 Heart attack
 Coronary artery disease
 Abnormal heart rhythms or arrhythmias
 Heart failure
 Heart muscle disease
 Pericardial disease
 Aorta disease
 Vascular disease
Symptoms of these conditions include:

 Chest pain
 Shortness of breath
 Pain in the neck, jaw, upper abdomen, back
or throat
 Pain, numbness, weakness in the legs or arms
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Heart failure pathophysiology
Heart failure is a common condition that occurs in the cardiovascular system. When heart
failure develops, the heart will fail to pump blood at a rate that is required for all parts of the
body to function. The muscles of the heart become damaged and less efficient which cause the
heart to become overloaded and fail.
There are many conditions that can lead to heart failure. This can be caused by muscle damage
through heart attack or myocardial infarction. This is where there is a lack of blood supplied to
the heart muscles. When this happens, there is not enough oxygen given to these muscles and
tissues begin to die. When the heart muscles become thin and fail to function normally, there is
an increased risk of heart failure.
Heart failure can also be caused in anaemia. This is where there is inadequate oxygen delivery
to particular parts of the body. The heart then has to work harder to pump out more blood and
oxygen around the body. Cardiac muscle diseases can also lead to heart failure.
The main pathologies of heart failure include:

 Weakened heart muscles because of overloading of the ventricle with blood during
diastole. This will fail because of weakened cardiac muscles which do not allow the
heart to pump enough blood.
 The heart rate rises in order to compensate for lowered cardiac output. The heart
then requires more nutrients to work and the muscles will pump at an increased
rate.
 Stroke volume reduces as the diastole or systole contractions begin to fail. If the
amount of blood into the ventricle at the end of the systole increases, there is less
blood that is ultimately ejected. When the amount of blood at the end of diastole is
decrease, there is less blood that is entering the heart during diastole.
 Cardiac reserves are decreased. The heart has reserves in place for elevated
demands such as exercising or exertion. When this reserve is lowered, it can lead to
heart failure.
 The heart begins to enlarge over time. When these muscles increase in size to
improve the ability to contract, they will become still and unyielding which caused
the blood pressure in the arteries to fall and reduce flow to the kidneys.
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Respiratory system disorders
The respiratory system involves the lungs, nose and nasal cavity, the mouth, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, and the bronchi and bronchioles.
Respiratory system disorders include:

 Tuberculosis
 Pneumonia
 Influenza
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
 Asthma
 Sleep apnoea
 Mesothelioma
 Lung cancer
 Pleural effusion
 Asbestosis
 Pneumothorax

 Difficulty breathing
 Rapid breathing
 Shallow breathing
 Absence of breathing
 Wheezing
 Shortness of breath
 Chronic cough
 Chronic mucus production
 Coughing up blood
 Chronic chest pain
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Asthma pathophysiology
Asthma is one of the most common respiratory conditions. This is a condition that impacts
individuals world-wide and is the most common chronic condition in children. Asthma is a
pulmonary condition that is defined by chronic inflammation of respiratory tubes. It also
includes the tightening of respiratory smooth muscles and bronchoconstriction.
During an asthma attack, inflamed airways will react to environmental triggers. These can
include dust, smoke or pollen. The airways will narrow and produce excess amounts of mucus
which makes it difficult for individuals to breathe. Asthma is then an immune response in the
bronchial airways of the body.
The airways in the body are hypersensitive to external triggers or stimuli. When these airways
encounter these stimuli, the bronchi will begin to contract into a spasm, which leads to the
feeling of an asthma attack. Inflammation will then follow which leads to continued narrowing
of these airways and further production of mucus. When this occurs, the individual will
experience excessive coughing and wheezing.
In a healthy individual, when allergens or these stimuli

are ingested by antigens, these antigens will then share
these allergens with immune system cells. These immune
system cells will check these antigens and will typically
ignore these allergens.
However, individuals who have asthma will have these

immune cells transform into a different type of cells that
will then produce antibodies against these allergens. The
immune system will then remember these allergens and
produce this response as the same allergen is continually
inhaled.
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Musculoskeletal system disorders
Musculoskeletal system disorders are injuries and disorders that impact the movement of the
human body or the musculoskeletal system. This system includes the ligaments, tendons,
nerves, discs, blood vessels and the muscles of the body.
Common musculoskeletal system disorders include:

 Tendonitis
 Carpal tunnel syndrome
 Ligament sprain
 Thoracic outlet compression
 Rotator cuff tendonitis
 Muscle or tendon sprain
 Epicondylitis
 Ruptured or herniated disc
 Mechanical back syndrome
 Digital detritus
 Trigger finger or thumb
These symptoms can include:

 A burning sensation in the muscles
 Sleep disturbances
 Aching or stiffness in the body
 Fatigue
 Twitching muscles
 Localised pain
 Widespread pain that worsens with movement
 Feeling of overworked or pulled muscles
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Tendonitis pathophysiology
Tendonitis is when there is pain in tendons in the bones that is caused by an inflammation in
these tissues. This is typically found in the rotator cuff of the shoulder, the elbow, wrists,
patellar and popliteal tendons at the knee, Achilles tendon and the heel as well as the insertion
of the posterior tibial tendon in the leg.
Tendons are designed to transmit the forces of the muscles to the skeleton. Because of this,
tendons are continually subjected to mechanical loads. This is a major contributor to tendonitis.
When individuals used a repeated motion for example, it causes these tendons to become
inflamed as well as causes fibroid necrosis in tendons and mucoid degeneration. Micro tearing
and proliferation of fibroblasts can also occur.
The exact pathophysiology of tendonitis is still being studied and evaluated. Most studies have
found that tendonitis is caused by excessive force and repeated mechanical loads put on these
tendons.
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Endocrine system disorders
The endocrine system is the system of glands that produce and release various hormones
throughout the body. Disorders in this system vary because of the vast number of functions of
the various hormones in the body. Because of these vast differences, you cannot pinpoint
symptoms to just one type of condition. Each symptom will be related to each condition.
The disorders and the symptoms in the endocrine system include:

 Type 1 and 2 diabetes
o Frequent urination
o Fatigue
o Excessive thirst or hunger
 Grave’s disease
o Bulging eyes
o Heat intolerance
o Irritability and mood changes
o Rapid heart rate
o Tremors
 Addison’s disease
o Depression
o Loss of appetite
o Hyperpigmentation of the skin
o Salt cravings
o Low blood pressure
 Acromegaly
o Body and joint aches
o Abnormally large or swollen hands, feet, lips, nose or tongue
o Headaches
o Sleep apnoea
o Deep voice
 Cushing’s syndrome
o Buffalo hump
o Skin discolouration
o Thinning of the bones
o Frequent urination
o High blood sugar
 Prolactinoma
o Erectile dysfunction
o Infertility
o Missed menstrual period
o Unexplained milk production
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Grave’s disease pathophysiology
Grave’s disease is an autoimmune condition that is characterised by hyperthyroidism. Thyroid-
stimulating immunoglobulins or TSIs, will bind to and activate thyrotropin receptors. This will
cause the thyroid gland to continually grow and increase the stimulus of the thyroid hormone.
The thyroid gland is under constant stimulation because of circulating autoantibodies against
the thyrotropin receptor. The pituitary thyrotropin secretion is suppressed because of the
larger increase of thyroid hormones. These thyroid stimulating antibodies will then cause
release of thyroid hormones which will stimulate iodine uptake, thyroid gland growth and
protein synthesis.
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Digestive system disorders
The digestive system is the system that deals with the stomach, oesophagus, large and small
intestines and the other important components of digestion. While some of these conditions
are acute, there are some that are long lasting and chronic conditions.
Common digestive system disorders include:

 Gastroesophageal reflux disease
 Irritable bowel syndrome
 Lactose intolerance
 Diarrhoea
 Diverticulosis and diverticulitis
 Acid reflux
 Crohn’s disease
 Celiac disease
 Gallstones
 Anal fissures
 Haemorrhoids
 Hepatitis B or C
 Liver failure
Symptoms of digestive system disorders include:
 Constipation
 Nausea and vomiting
 Pain in the belly
 Heartburn
 Bleeding
 Bloating
 Swallowing problems
 Weight loss or gain
 Diarrhoea
 Incontinence
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Gastroesophageal reflux disease pathophysiology
Gastroesophageal reflux disease or GERD, is when the amount of gastric acid that is refluxed
into the oesophagus is more than the regular amount. This can cause heartburn, regurgitation
as well as dysphagia. The primary cause of this condition is incompetence of the anti-reflux
barriers at the base of the oesophagus.
The lower oesophageal sphincter is in a position to prevent or allow reflux to occur. The
malfunction of this part of the body leads to increased levels of gastric acid being pushed into
the oesophagus.
Urinary system disorders

Urinary system disorders are those that involve the kidneys, bladder and the urethra. These
conditions can be chronic or acute in their nature.
Common urinary system disorders include:

 Renal or kidney failure
 Urinary tract infections
 Urinary incontinence
 Renal cancer
 Kidney stones
 Interstitial cystitis
 Haematuria
 Ileostomy
 Granulomatosis with polyangiitis
 Chronic kidney disease
 Creatinine
 Bladder infections
 Diabetic kidney problems
Symptoms that are associated with urinary system disorders include:

 Upper back and side pain
 High fever
 Shaking and chills
 Vomiting
 Nausea
 Pelvic pressure
 Frequent or painful urination
 Blood in urine
 Burning with urination
 Discharge
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Urinary tract infection pathophysiology
A urinary tract infection is a bacterial infection that occurs within the urinary tract of the body.
This includes a lower urinary tract infection or an upper urinary tract infection. When a
pathogen colonises at the periuretheral area of the body it will then ascend up towards the
bladder. The fimbria will then allow the bladder epithelial cells to attach which will allow
bacteria to continue to replicate. When there is sufficient bacterial colonisation, the bacteria
may continue to ascend towards the kidney which will lead to an upper urinary tract infection.
Bacterial toxins can then inhibit the flow of urine.
Reproductive system disorders

These are the systems involved in either the male or female reproductive systems. In the male
reproductive system, this includes the testes, scrotum, sex glands, penis and the spermatic
ducts. In the female reproductive system, this includes the ovaries, fallopian tube, uterus,
cervix, the vagina, and breasts.
Male reproductive system disorders include:

 Balanitis
 Peyronie’s disease
 Cancer of the penis
 Hydrocele
 Testicular cancer
 Erectile dysfunction

 Inflammation of the penis
 Abnormal discharge
 Itchy rash, blisters, sores or small red bumps
 Blood in semen
 Erection that lasts for longer than 4 hours
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Erectile dysfunction pathophysiology
Erectile dysfunction is the inability to achieve or to maintain an erection for sexual
performance. The development of an erection involves psychologic, vascular, endocrine,
neurologic and the anatomic system. Because of the use of all of these symptoms, there are
many medical conditions that can lead to erectile dysfunction. These can include diabetes,
alcohol use, smoking, trauma, neurological disease, obesity as well as cardiovascular disease.
Conditions that produce neurovascular abnormalities are most common to causing erectile
dysfunction.
Female reproductive system disorders include:

 Infertility
 Breast cancer
 Genital warts
 Dysmenorrhoea
 Ectopic pregnancy
 Endometriosis
 Uterine cancer
 Menopause

 Pain during sex
 Cramping or pain during bowel movements or urination
 Infertility
 Uterine cramps
 Excessive bleeding during periods
 Breast pain
 Breast lumps
 Nipple discharge
 Irregular periods
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Breast cancer pathophysiology
Cancer begins when cells in part of the body begin to grow abnormally. These types of cells
occur when disturbed growth of cells lead to formation of lesions and tumours. They have
longer life spans and instead of dying grow and form into new abnormal cells. They will also
invade other tissues which normal cells are not able to do. Cancer cells can then grow into
tumours that are given a new network of blood vessels which will then provide nutrients to the
cancer cells. In breast cancer, a malignant tumour will start in the cells of the breast. This can be
caused by damage to the DNA and genetic mutations.
Integumentary system disorders

The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, nails, glands and the nerve receptors of the
body.
Integumentary system disorders include:

 Skin cancer
 Warts
 Eczema
 Acne
 Psoriasis
 Vitiligo
 Moles
Each of these conditions can typically be seen and observed through an examination by a
doctor.
Eczema pathophysiology
Eczema, also known as atopic dermatitis, is a chronic inflammation of the skin. It is based on
complex interactions of environmental triggers such as allergies, immune dysregulation as well
as genetic predispositions. A disturbed epidermal barrier will lead to dry skin because of high
transepidermal water loss. The disruption of this epidermal barrier can be caused by genetic
alterations. The epidermal barrier function is also dependent on the immune system. Deviated
immune response, allergies and impaired innate immunity can lead to inflammation of the skin
can cause eczema.
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Lymphatic system disorders
The lymphatic system of the body is the system that maintains the fluid levels in the body. The
organs that are associated with this system is the spleen and use of the thymus.
Common disorders in the lymphatic system include:

 Glandular fever
o Symptoms include tender lymph nodes
 Hodgkin’s disease
o Symptoms include lump in the neck, under the arm, or in the groin
 Oedema
o Symptoms include swelling in the body that is caused by excessive fluids in
the tissues
 Tonsillitis
o Symptoms include sore throat, painful swallowing, fever and enlarge lymph
nodes in the neck.
Glandular fever pathophysiology

Glandular fever is also known as infectious mononucleosis. This condition is transmitted by
contact with body secretions. The Epstein-barr virus or EBV will infect the body and cause this
condition. EBV will infect the B cells that will cause these circulating cells to spread infection.
This can include infections in the liver, spleen and peripheral lymph nodes. EBV infections of the
B lymphocytes will then result in humoral and cellular responses to the virus. The immune
system will then respond with fever.
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Nervous system disorders
The nervous system is made up of various nerves throughout the body that regulate and
coordinate the bodies movements and activities. The nervous system includes the central
nervous system, the eyes, ears, sensory organs, and the peripheral nervous system.
Conditions of the nervous system include:

 Oral health disease of the mouth and teeth including edentulous (no-natural teeth)
and dentate (having natural teeth)
 Stroke
 Transient ischemic attack
 Meningitis
 Brain or spinal cord injuries
 Bell’s palsy
 Peripheral neuropathy
 Carpal tunnel syndrome
 Brain or spinal cord tumours
 Epilepsy
 Parkinson’s disease
 Multiple sclerosis
 Alzheimer’s disease
Symptoms of nervous system disorders include:

 Persistent or sudden onset of headache
 Loss of feeling or tingling
 Back pain that moves to feet, toes and other parts of the body
 Tremors and seizures
 Muscle rigidity
 Lack of coordination
 Impaired mental ability
 Memory loss
 Sudden loss of sight or double vision
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Stroke pathophysiology
A stroke is a sudden onset of weakness, paralysis, slurred speech, problems with visions and
other symptoms. This is caused by a disruption of blood flow to parts of the brain. This is
typically caused by an underlying heart or blood vessel condition. These pathologies include
hypertension, coronary artery disease, heart disease, and hyperlipidaemia. When the heart is
continually weakened, it can cause a disruption of flow of blood which can lead to a stroke
occurring.
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Immune system disorders
The immune system is the part of the body that fights infections and works to keep the body
health. When there is abnormally low activity or over activity of the immune system, it is known
as an immune system disorder. When the body attacks or damages its own tissues, it is known
as an autoimmune disease. Immune deficiency diseases decrease the body’s ability to fight
invaders so there is more vulnerability to infections.
Because these conditions are so wide spread, each condition will have its own symptoms that
are related to that particular condition.
Immune system disorders include:

 Rheumatoid arthritis
o Joint pain, swelling and redness
 Systemic lupus erythematosus
o Severe fatigue, hair loss, anaemia, joint swelling, headache and rash on the
cheeks and nose
 Inflammatory bowel disease
o Fever, fatigue, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, blood in the stool, cramping, and
reduced appetite
 Multiple sclerosis
o Loss of balance, numbness, tingling, thinking problems, double vision and
weakness in the arms and legs.
 Type 1 diabetes
o Irritability, increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue and weakness.
Rheumatoid arthritis pathophysiology

This is a chronic and autoimmune disease that impacts the joints in the body. This causes
damage caused by the cytokines, chemokines and the metalloproteases. The peripheral joints
are inflamed that causes destruction of the articular structures. This is caused by immunological
abnormalities where immune complexes produce synovial lining cells and the inflamed blood
vessels. Plasma cells will create antibodies that contribute to these complexes. Lymphocytes
will infiltrate the synovial tissues. Inflammatory mediators and enzymes will cause joint
manifestations of rheumatoid arthritis including bone destruction.
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Basic chemistry as related to metabolism, respiration, and pH respiratory and
renal acidosis/alkalosis
Medical chemistry is an important science that will help you understand the important
functions of the body. Many health care professionals will use their knowledge of medical
chemistry in order to develop new medications and pharmaceuticals.
Metabolism is chemical reactions that are required for living organisms to continue to live. This
process is utilized throughout the body. At the cellular level of organisation, the primary
chemical processes are typically similar if not identical. All living matter is made up of molecules
called proteins. These proteins provide coordinated movements, storage and the transport of
small molecules that allow for chemical reactions to take place.
Respiration is the chemical process where compounds release energy. It involves a set of
metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells. These cells will then convert
biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate. Waste is also then created.
Respiration reactions include catabolic reactions which will break larger molecules into smaller
ones. This helps release energy. Respiration allows from cells to release chemical energy to fuel
cellular activities.
The pH level is the measure of hydrogen ion concentration. It is a measurement of the acidity or
alkalinity of a specific solution. Respiratory alkalosis is the evaluation of respiration which will
increase the blood pH levels beyond the normal range. When there is stimulus that makes a
person hyperventilate, there is an increase in expelling CO2 from blood circulation. This alters
the chemical equilibrium of carbon dioxide. The circulating hydrogen ions are shifted through
carbonic acid and makes more CO2. This causes a decreased circulation of hydrogen ion
concentration which increases the pH level.
Respiratory acidosis is a condition where the lungs cannot move enough of the CO2 from the
body. This causes the pH of the blood to decrease. Where respiratory alkalosis is an increased
level of breathing and hyperventilation that increases the amount of CO2 levels in the body,
respiratory acidosis involves decreased levels of breathing that cause these levels to increase.
Renal acidosis is the process for which the kidneys are unable to excrete acids into the urine.
This causes the acidity of the blood to remain too high and decreases the pH blood levels. The
body uses cells to cause chemical reactions to carry out basic tasks. When there is a chemical
reaction that occurs, acids are created. Healthy kidneys are able to maintain the acid-base
levels in the body through excreting acids into the urine. However, if the kidneys are not
appropriately functioning, this can cause increase blood acidity.
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The basics of chemistry relate to the following:
 Molecules and compounds
 Chemical reaction
 Energy
 Acids and bases
Molecules and compounds

A molecule is formed when two or more atoms are joined together in a chemical reaction. A
compound is a molecule that contains two different types of elements in this reaction. All
compounds are therefore considered molecules but not all molecules are considered to be
compounds. Molecular hydrogen is not a compound because it only contains one element,
however, water contains hydrogen and oxygen so it is considered a compound.
Chemical reaction
A chemical reaction is the process of rearranging molecules or ionic structures of a substance.
Chemical reactions are a key component in the healthy life structure of an organism.
Metabolism is the combination of all chemical reactions that are required for an organism to
live.
Energy
Energy is considered the ability to do work. All cells require energy in order for them to
function. When energy is lost, it cannot be recaptured for use. Cells in the body are looking for
substances to gain energy from. Cellular nutrients come from sugars and fats. In order for cells
to have energy, molecules are passed across the cell membrane. Cells will then release stored
energy through the oxidation reaction which is a chemical reaction where electron are
transferred from one molecule to another. This will change the composition and the energy
content of both molecules. During oxidation, food is broken down and converted into energy.
Acids and bases

An acidic solution is one where there is a high concentration of hydrogen ions and a basic
solution is one that has a low concentration of hydrogen. The pH scale measures how acidic or
basic a liquid is. This is a scale from 0-14 with 14 being the most basic and 0 being the most
acidic. The kidneys in the body are the primary organ that help regulate the pH levels in the
body. When the body is exposed to acidic substances, the body will create electrolytes to
combat this acidity. Where there is a high level of acidity in the body there are minerals that are
taken from the bones and organs of the body. This can cause the immune system to become
suppressed as well as impacting vitamin absorption.
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Structure and function of cells
You should have a full understanding of the structure and the functions of cells in the body.
Cells make up how the body is able to appropriately function and is considered to be the
building blocks of any organism.
The basic structure and function of cells includes the knowledge of:
 Carbohydrate metabolism
 Cell/tissue requirements for survival
 Major types of cellular adaptation
Carbohydrate metabolism
Carbohydrate metabolism is the biochemical process that involves the formation, breakdown
and interconversion of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are an important component of living
organisms. It is important for these to be metabolised in the body in order to create energy.
Carbohydrates can be divided into two parts: complex and simple. Simple carbohydrates
contain a single or double sugar units. Table sugar is an example of a simple carbohydrate.
Complex carbohydrates are made up of sugar molecules that are strung together in long,
complex chains. Complex carbohydrates are found in foods such as peas, beans, whole grains,
and vegetables. Both simple and complex carbohydrates are turned to glucose (blood sugar) in
the body and are used as energy. Glucose is used in the cells of the body and in the brain. Any
unused glucose is stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen for use later.
Complex carbohydrate foods provide vitamins, minerals, and fiber that are important to the
health of an individual. The majority of carbohydrates should come from complex
carbohydrates (starches) and naturally occurring sugars, rather than processed or refined
sugars, which do not have the vitamins, minerals, and fiber found in complex and natural
carbohydrates. Refined sugars are often called "empty calories" because they have little to no
nutritional value.
Studies have shown that ingesting complex carbohydrates over simple carbohydrates can help
maintain lowered blood glucose. Carbohydrates are simpler to metabolise than fats or amino
acids. Because of this, they are often used as short-term fuel in the body.
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Cell/tissue requirements for survival
In order for cells to survive, they require nutrients. These nutrients are necessary in the form of
glucose and minerals plus oxygen. Cells also require waste products to be disposed of after
chemical reactions. Without oxygen, minerals and removal of wastes, cells are not able to
survive.
Blood cells will delivery necessary nutrients and oxygen to the tissues in order for them to
function. They will then take away any waste. This process relies on diffusion which allows
these substances to pass from one side of the cell wall to the other. Diffusion is able to occur
when the concentration of a substance is high on one side.
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Major types of cellular adaptation
Cellular adaptation is the changes that are made in a cell because of adverse environmental
changes. There are normal changes that are known as physiological and abnormal changes that
are known as pathological.
The five primary types of cellular adaptation include:

 Atrophy
 Hypertrophy
 Hyperplasia
 Dysplasia
 Metaplasia
Atrophy
This is when cells decrease in size. When the majority of cells within an organ atrophy, the
entire organ will decrease in size. Thymus atrophy is a process in early development that occurs
in childhood. Skeletal muscle atrophy is a pathological adaptation to when skeletal muscles are
not used.
Hypertrophy
This is when cells increase in size. If there are enough cells within an organ that hypertrophy,
the whole organ will increase in size. The heart and the kidneys are more likely to hypertrophy
than other organs in the body. Hypertrophy involves the increase in intracellular protein instead
of cytosol or the intercellular fluid. Hypertrophy can be caused by mechanical signals or trophic
signals. Muscles that increase in size because of weight bearing exercises is an example of a
physiological hypertrophy. Cardiac muscles that increase in size because of high blood pressure
is an example of pathological hypertrophy.
Hyperplasia
Hyperplasia is an increase in the overall number of cells because of mitosis. There are two types
of physiological hyperplasia: compensatory and hormonal. Compensatory hyperplasia allows
tissues and organs to regenerate including in the epidermis and the intestine. It can also occur
in bones and cartilage. Hormonal hyperplasia occurs typically in organs that rely on estrogen.
After pregnancy, the uterine cells will undergo hyperplasia and hypertrophy. Pathological
hyperplasia is when there is an abnormal increase in cells. This includes endometriosis.
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Dysplasia
This is the abnormal changes in the size, shape and the organisation of cells. Dysplasia is not
typically considered a cellular adaption, but it is considered to be related to hyperplasia. Tissues
that are prone to dysplasia include the respiratory epithelium and the cervix. These areas are
strongly associated with development of cancer.
Metaplasia
This is when differentiated cells of a particular type are replaced by cells of another type. It is a
process that can be reversed through stem cell reprogramming. An example of metaplasia is
the respiratory tract responds to inhalation of irritating substances such as smoke. The
bronchial cells will convert from mucus-secreting epithelium to epithelium that is unable to
secrete mucus. These cells can become cancerous if the stimulus is not removed.
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1.4 Identify the likely impact of specific interventions
Analysis of abnormal findings from diagnostic procedures and physical

assessment
Once you have conducted your physical assessments as well as necessary medical tests and
examinations, you will need to take the necessary steps to determine which disease or
condition explains the symptoms and signs of your patient.
Diagnosing your patient can be a challenging process. It is important for you to make certain
that diagnosis of your patients is within your scope of practice, in order for you to offer your
contribution to these efforts. Healthcare professionals go through extensive training and
education in order for them to make these diagnoses.
There are many signs and symptoms that patients can have can be
difficult to diagnose. Symptoms that are nonspecific can be a sign
of many different disorders that can make finding the right
diagnosis challenging. Differential diagnosis is where there are
several possible explanations for the signs and symptoms a patient
is having. This involves the correlation of various pieces of
information.
If you detect that your patient may have a medical condition that
is beyond your scope of practice, you will need to appropriately
refer your patient to the corresponding healthcare professional.
General practicing physicians may refer their patients to specialists

in these areas to complete further testing, while patients that are
already admitted to a hospital may be transferred to a different
department to complete further treatment for the patient.
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The impact of various conditions on the body
There are many stressors and factors that can cause negative impacts on the body. While there
are impacts that can be made to the body which can cause positive changes, there are
adjustments that need to be made to the body in order for there to be a regulation to relieve
these stressors.
Here are a few examples of various conditions that impact the function of the body:
 Common environmental emergencies (diving, altitude, temperature)
 Overdose and poisoning
 Surgical insult
 Trauma (penetrating, blunt)
Common environmental emergencies (diving, altitude, temperature)

There are many environmental factors that can have an impact on the body. Scuba diving is one
environmental impact that can expose users to many different effects. This includes immersion,
hyperbaric bases, elevated breathing pressure, as well as risk of gas bubbles continually
circulating in the blood once the dive has been completed. It is important for users to have a
healthy heart when they are considering diving. When your body goes under water, there is a
greater level of pressure which will shift the blood from the vessels in your legs into your chest
cavity. This will increase the volume of blood that is in the chest. This will increase the size of
your heart and increase pressure in the right atrium of the heart. Your heart rate will decline
and your body will go into a fight or fight response.
High altitudes also play a role in the function of the body. When the body reaches around
2,100m above sea level, the saturation of oxygen will decrease. The body has short term and
long term adaptions that allow for the compensation of lack of oxygen. As sea level, the human
body is able to function the most. This is because of the level of atmospheric pressure and
concentration of oxygen is the most optimal. The higher the altitude that individuals go, the
higher the risk of them high-altitude pulmonary oedema.
Studies have shown that there is risk of permanent brain damage for individuals who climb to
extreme altitudes. There are some altitudes that do not have enough oxygen to sustain human
life. This is considered to be at 8,000m above sea level. The human body is unable to acclimate
to these zones and causes loss of body functions and loss of consciousness.
There are normal functions in the body that are there to help regulate the temperature in the
body. However, there are some environmental conditions that are too extreme for the body to
keep up with and to regulate the internal temperature of the body.
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Condition Internal degrees Symptoms
Celsius
Heat 43
Stroke
42
Unconsciousness, confusion, restlessness,
41 headache, dizziness or flushed dry skin.
40
Heat 39
Exhaustion Pale sweaty skin, nausea, loss of appetite.
38 Cramping in stomach, arms, and legs.
Normal 37
Normal body temperature
36
Mild hypothermia 35 Shivering
34 Slurred speech or confusion
33 Slow weak pulse, rigid muscles
32 Drowsiness
Severe Hypothermia 31 Low response levels
30 Unconscious, dilated pupils
29 No detectable pulse
28
Appearance of death
27
26 Death
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Overdose and poisoning
A drug overdose occurs when the body has been overloaded with illicit substances or
medication. The body uses metabolism in order to detoxify substances in the body. However,
when the body has too much of these toxins, metabolism is unable to keep up which causes
fatalities. When an individual is overdosing on drugs, they may experience the following
symptoms:
 Seizures
 Paranoia or agitation
 Vomiting or diarrhoea
 Heart palpitations
 Hallucinations
There are many organs in the body that can also fail because of a drug overdose depending on
the type of drug in the system of the body.
Poisons can also affect the body in different ways depending on the type of poison that is
ingested. Poisons work by changing the speed of various body functions. This can include
increase the heart rate or sweating as well as decreasing them such as breathing. Some poisons
can even stop these processes entirely. There are many different responses that take place
regarding specific poisons in the body. The first step in poisoning includes the inactivation of an
enzyme. This will lead to a cellular change that will then cause physiological changes and
symptoms of the poisoning.
Surgical insult
A surgical insult is an injury that is caused by a surgery. These are many errors that can be
made during surgery that can ultimately cause more harm to the patient. This can include
accidental cutting of nerves or major arteries. Surgical insult can lead to a condition known as
surgical stress. This is where the sympathetic nervous system, endocrine responses as the
immune system are all activated in order to regulate the body. The impact that these injuries
have on the body is dependent on the type of injury that has occurred.
Trauma (penetrating, blunt)

Penetrating trauma is an injury that occurs when an object pierces the skin and enters in to the
tissues of the body. This will then create an open wound. Blunt force trauma is when there is a
blunt trauma but it does not penetrate the skin. Penetrating trauma can be caused by a foreign
object or by fragments of broken bone. This can cause damage to the internal organs and
causes a risk of shock and infection. The severity of these injuries is dependent on the parts of
the body that are involved, the type of object that was utilized, as well as the amount of energy
that was transmitted to the tissues. This assessment requires the use of X-rays or CT scans.
Blunt force trauma can cause contusions or rupture of internal organs.
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2. Plan action to address identified health status
2.1 Apply detailed understanding of anatomy, physiology and pathophysiology

of disease to a problem solving approach to service planning.
2.2 Consider and note implications of any contra-indications in relation to

health assessment findings.
2.3 Document action plan in accordance with organisation policies and

procedures.
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2.1 Apply detailed understanding of anatomy, physiology
and pathophysiology of disease to a problem solving
approach to service planning.
Understanding the functions of the body

As a healthcare professional, you will need to have full understanding of the various functions
of the body in order to appropriately assess your patient. In university training and other
methods of education for health care professionals, there is required knowledge and training
that is done over the basic functions of the body.
However, there are more specialised studies that can be done that provide you with further
knowledge and expertise in one specific area of medicine. These can range from services in
labour and delivery, intensive care units, cardiology, interventional radiology, etc. There are
many different types of medical units and professions that require more specialised knowledge
of parts of the body.
There is a basic requirement for all health care professionals to understand the basic functions
of the body. This includes having a knowledge of what all of the systems of the body are and
how they relate to each other. While you may have a general knowledge of all of the functions
and parts of the body, there may be areas of medicine that you are unfamiliar with just because
of your current field of medicine.
Individuals who have worked in women’s health for years cannot be expected to have the same
medical knowledge as a urologist and vice versa. Because of this, you need to make certain that
you understand your scope of practice when it comes to treating your patients. If you are
treating a patient that you believe may have something more serious going on that is beyond
your current practice, you will need to take the necessary steps to refer them to another
professional that can provide them with more complete health care service.
Having the basic knowledge of the functions of the body will help you in identifying situations
where you will require a referral for your patient as well as help you in diagnosing and creating
a care plan for your patient’s health care treatments.
Understanding the functions of the body requires you to have knowledge in the human
anatomy and physiology. These are the sciences that make up the study of the human body and
its functions.
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Concepts underpinning human anatomy and physiology
Human anatomy is the branch of science regarding the bodily structure. The word anatomy
comes from the Greek word that means “to dissect.” Human anatomy is a key foundation that
is required in the understanding of health and medical practices.
Anatomy is broken up into two different categories gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy.
Gross anatomy is the study of structures that can be seen by the naked eye while microscopic
anatomy is the study of structures that can only been seen through the assistance of
microscopes.
Microscopic anatomy includes the study of the organisation of tissues and the study of cells.
Structural anatomy is a reference to the bones and the joints that hold the form and protect
the internal organs in the body. Bones are the hard organs that produce red and white blood
cells, store minerals, and are able to provide the movement and structure for the muscles in the
body. Bones have many distinct shapes and sizes and functions.
There are over 270 bones in the human body when we are born and as we continue to develop,
these bones will fuse together and an adult will have 206 bones.
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Names and Locations of Bones
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Major Bones and Major Landmarks of the Skeleton
There are many bones in the body but there are a few that are very important to the overall
structure of the body.
Here are a few examples of the major bones and landmarks of the skeleton:
 The Skull - Cranium, Mandible and Maxilla
 Arm - humerus, radius and ulna
 Chest - Sternum and Ribs
 Spine - Cervical area, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacrum and Coccyx
 Pelvic girdle - Ilium, Pubis and Ischium
 Ankle - Talus and calcaneus
 Foot - Tarsals, Metatarsals and Phalanges.
 Shoulder girdle - clavicle and scapula
 Hand - Carpals, Metacarpals and Phalanges
 Leg - Femur, Tibia and Fibula
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Physiology
The human body is comprised of many different types of cells that gather together to create
tissues and organ systems. The human body is made up of the head, neck, trunk, arms, hands,
legs and feet and also includes the following systems
 Skeletal system
 Muscular system
 Cardiovascular system
 Digestive system
 Endocrine system
 Nervous system
 Respiratory system
 Immune / Lymphatic system
 Urinary system
 Female reproductive system
 Male reproductive system
 Integumentary system
Physiology is the study of the basic functions of living organisms and their parts. While anatomy
is the structure of the body and the systems of the body, physiology is the study of how
molecules, cells and organs interact together in the body in order for it to appropriately
function.
Physiology will look at each system of the body and understand how it functions, while
anatomy will look at how these systems are compiled together and their location.
Here are the primary concepts that make up the foundation for human anatomy and physiology
that should be considered in your medical practice
 Levels of structural organisation of body systems
 Human life processes
 Homeostasis and the relationship between homeostatic imbalance and disease
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Levels of structural organisation of body systems
Before you can gain an understanding of the various structures and functions of the human
body, you should consider basic architecture. In basic architecture, there are small parts that
are assembled into larger structures. You will have a better understanding of the overall
structure of the human body if you are able to gain the concept that there are levels of
organisation in the body that begin with very small structures and are then increase in
complexity.
Levels of structural organisation of body systems include:
Subatomic particles
These are the smallest known particles that make up an atom including neutrons.
Atoms
All matter in the universe includes one or more unique substances that are called elements. The
smallest unit of any element is called an atom. Atoms that are combined together create a
molecule which are the chemical building blocks of all body structures.
Molecules
Molecules are groups of atoms that are bonded together. These molecules make up the
smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that makes up life.
Organelles
These are specialised structures that are within a living cell. They are sometimes referred to as
organs in the cell as they function the same way within a living cells as organs do in the human
body.
Cells
A cell is the smallest functioning unit of a living organism. All living things and every structure of
the human body is comprised of cells. Almost all of the functions of human physiology are
either performed in the cell or they are initiated by cells.
Tissues
A tissue is a group of similar cells that all work together to perform a specific function. They are
sometimes not exactly the same but are related cells that are working together.
Organs
An organ is a structure of the body that is composed of one or two types of tissues. These
organs are performing specific functions in order for the body to work. Organs can work in
more than one organ system to provide these necessary functions.
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Organ systems
Organ systems are a group of organs that are working together to perform specific and major
functions that meet the physiological needs in the body. (Organ systems are the related
systems of the body that are listed earlier in this section.)
Organisms
This is the highest level of organisation. This is a living being that is able to independently
function for life. Organisms require cellular structure that is made up of cells, tissues, organs,
and organ systems that work together to maintain life.
Human life processes

All living organisms have specific characteristics that are able to distinguish them from all non-
living forms. When the human body is functioning, it is able to make up these characteristics
which show that the human body is a living organism.
The basic human life processes are as follows:
Organisation
Organisation is the makeup of the division of labour of each component of the organism. There
are jobs that must be performed in order for the organism to function. Every cell that loses its
organisation or its integrity will die.
Metabolism
This is a broad term that involves all of the necessary chemical reactions that occur within the
body. These reactions are required in order for life to be maintained.
Responsiveness
This is the act of sensing a stimulus and then having an appropriate response to it.
Responsiveness or irritability involves being able to detect changes in the environment,
whether internal or external, and reacting to those changes.
Movements
In the body, there are many types of movements. This involves molecules moving from one
place to the other, blood that moves throughout the body, the lungs and the diaphragm that
move with every breath that is taken. The ability for the muscle fibres within the body to
shorten cause movement.
Reproduction
Reproduction involves the process of forming a new person and the birth of a baby. However, it
also refers to the reproduction and duplication of cells in replacement of old cells for growth.
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Growth
This is the increase in size of an organism. It can be done through the increase in the number of
cells or the increase in size of each cell.
Differentiation
Differentiation is the development process where cells are changed into specialised cells. This
means that cells are given a distinctive structure with specific functional characteristics. These
cells can then be made into tissues and organs.
Respiration
This is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. This is a process that involves cells and the
external environment.
Digestion
Digestion is the body’s process that requires food to be broken down into molecules that are
then absorbed and utilised by the body.
Excretion
This is the process where waste is removed from the body. This waste is made from digestion
and metabolism. There are many toxic and unusable materials that are generated in the body
that require removal in order for the body to function.
These life processes are able to appropriately function along with water, oxygen, heat, pressure
and nutrients. These physical factors are all components of sustainable life.
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Homeostasis and the relationship between homeostatic imbalance and disease.
Homeostasis is the process by which living things use to actively maintain stable living
conditions that are required for survival. The body uses many different functions in order to
maintain steady levels of temperature, water, salt, oxygen contents in the blood, calcium, fat,
protein, salt and sugar.
An example of homeostasis at work is the human body using processes to keep the body at a
normal temperature. One of the physical responses to overheating is sweating. This helps cool
the body down by allowing more moisture to be evaporated on the skin. The body will also
reduce heat loss in cold surroundings by sweating less and reducing the level of blood
circulation to the skin. The body will have a response to help regulate the temperature of the
body in order for it to survive.
When the body is unable to perform the necessary actions that restore the body to a
functioning stable internal environment, there are many diseases and problems that can occur.
Disease is the failure of any normal physiological

functions in the body that will lead to negative
symptoms. This can be a result of infection or injury
as well as the disruption of homeostasis. Anything
within the body that prevents the positive or the
negative feedback functions of homeostasis can lead
to disease.
Ageing is one example of disease that results from

imbalances in homeostasis. As we continue to get
older, the feedback loops of positive and negative
become weaker. These weaker loops will then create
an unstable internal environment. This increases the
risk for illness as well as the physical responses to
ageing that we see.
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Heart failure
Heart failure is the result of negative feedback mechanisms in homeostasis becoming
overwhelmed. This allows destructive positive feedback mechanisms to then compensate for
the failed feedback mechanism. This will ultimately lead to high blood pressure as well as an
enlarged heart. When the heart has becoming enlarged, it will eventually become too hard and
stiff to effectively pump blood which will cause heart failure.
Diabetes
Diabetes is a metabolic disorder that is caused by there being excessive amounts of blood
glucose. Homeostasis in a normally functioning body will prevent the imbalance of blood
glucose from happening. However, there are some instance when these mechanisms do not
effectively work to manage these levels.
Identifying actual or potential health problems

In order for you to effectively determine the health problems of your patient, whether they be
current health problems or problems that could occur in the future, you need to make certain
that you have knowledge of the basic functions of the body.
Your knowledge of the structure and the function of the body will help you make important
decisions and diagnose your patient’s condition. If you are ever unsure of what your patient’s
condition and health status is, you should choose to collaborate with other health professionals
to help you in these situations.
It is important to keep your patient’s best interest in mind at all times. It is much better for you
to refer your patient to a specialist if you are unsure of their health condition than make a
wrong diagnosis when you are inexperienced with that particular area of medicine.
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Structure and function of human body systems and their interactions
Understanding human anatomy and physiology is the foundation of medical science. In order
for you to be effective in identifying your client’s health status, you should be aware of the
structures and the functions of the body.
These body systems include:

 Cells, tissues and organs
 Cardiovascular system
 Respiratory system
 Musculoskeletal system
 Endocrine system
 Digestive system
 Urinary system
 Reproductive system
 Integumentary system
 Lymphatic system
 Nervous system, including sensory systems – eye and ear
As well as:
 The special senses – smell, taste, vision, equilibrium and hearing
 Immune system
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Cells, tissues and organs
Cells are considered the building blocks of life. Unicellular organisms are those that are only
comprised of one cell. An example of this would be an amoeba. Multicellular organisms are
organisms that are made up of a number of different cells, such as humans.
The cells in complex multicellular organisms organise their cells into groups called tissues.
These similar cells are grouped together to perform specific tasks and functions together. When
these tissues combine with other tissues to perform more than one particular function, they
are called organs.
At every level of organisation, the cells, tissues and organs, structure is related to the function.
Cells that are in the small intestine will absorb nutrients as their primary function while cells
that are in the muscles are used to move the body. These cells look completely different
because of the differences in their primary function. The different organ systems are structured
and look differently because the cells are performing different functions.
Every organ in the body is made up of two or more tissues. The human body is comprised of
four basic types of tissue: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue.
Epithelial tissue
This is a tissue that consists of cells that are closely packed together that cover surfaces and line
body cavities. An example of this is the tissues that line the small intestines and cover the
outside of the body.
Epithelial cells are polarised. This means that they have a top and a bottom side to them. The
top side of an epithelial cell will face the inside of a cavity or the outside of a structure. The
bottom side will face the underlying cells.
Connective tissue
Connective tissues contain cells that are suspended in an extracellular matrix that is typically
comprised of protein fibres. These tissues work to connect and support other tissues. These
tissues will connect epithelial tissues to the muscles that are underneath them and will provide
support to blood vessels and organs.
Muscle tissue
Muscle tissue are tissues that are used to keep the body upright and moving. It also helps pump
the blood through the body and move food through the digestive system. Muscle tissues, also
called muscle fibres, contain myosin and actin which allow them to contract and cause
movement.
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Nervous tissue
Nervous tissue is involved in the process of sensing stimulus, both internally and externally. This
means that they work to process information and transmit this information accordingly.
Nervous tissue includes neurons and glia that generate electrical signals and support neuronal
function.
Organs
Organs are made up of two or more types of tissues that are used for a specific function.
Examples of organs include the heart, lungs, liver, skin and kidneys. The heart is used in the
body to pump blood, the lungs bring the oxygen into the body and remove carbon dioxide and
the skin it used to protect internal structures in the body from the external environment.
Most organs will contain all four types of tissues. The organs are typically lined by epithelial
tissues, connective tissues will then connect these tissues to muscle tissues, with networks of
nervous tissue that are providing information to the brain through the nervous system.
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Cardiovascular system
The cardiovascular system is the system in the body that helps circulate blood and lymph
throughout the body. This includes the heart, blood vessels, lymph, blood, as well as the various
lymphatic vessels and glands.
Heart Valves
The heart has four different chambers in which blood passes through to be pumped throughout
the body. The top chambers are called the atria and the lower chambers are called ventricles.
These chambers help ensure that blood is flowing in the right direction at all times.
Circulation Pathway
This is comprised of coronary circulation, pulmonary circulation, and systemic circulation.
Coronary Circulation
Coronary circulation is specific to the heart and how blood circulates
through the body. This includes the pulmonary circulation and
systemic circulation.
Pulmonary Circulation
This circulation takes blood that has not be oxygenated from the
right side of the heart to the lungs. From there the blood becomes
oxygenated and comes back to the left part of the heart. This is done
through the right atrium and right ventricle.
Systemic Circulation
This circulation takes the blood that has been oxygenated from the
left side of the heart to the different parts of the body. This system
also takes away wastes from tissues and takes deoxygenated blood
back to the right side of the heart. These are completed with the left
ventricle and left atrium.
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Respiratory system
The respiratory system is the system in the body which facilitates the gases that are inhaled
into the body and the function in which that gas has in the body. The respiratory system is also
involved in how the body smells and creates sounds.
The five main functions of the respiratory system include:

 Inhaling and exhaling: This is process in which the air is inhaled through the nose or the
mouth and is then move through to the pharynx, larynx, and the trachea and then
passes to the lungs. When the air is exhaled, the air will travel back the same way. This
involves use of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. The respiratory
system will regulate all of the main components necessary to breathe air in and to
exhale the air back out.
 External respiration: Once air is in the lungs, it is exchanged for carbon dioxide through
a process known as external respiration. Oxygen that is inhaled is then diffused through
sacs called alveoli. The air is then bound to haemoglobin and is pumped through the
bloodstream. Then carbon dioxide from the deoxygenated blood is diffused into the
alveoli and is exhaled.
 Internal respiration: This is the process in which oxygen is deliver to cells and the waste
from carbon dioxide is removed. Red blood cells will carry oxygen from the lungs to the
various parts of the body.
 Air vibration and sound creation: During the exhalation process, the air will pass
through the larynx. When we speak, the muscles in the larynx will move and push the
vocal cords together. This creates sound.
 Olfaction or smelling: There are olfactory fibres in the nose that face reaction when
specific chemicals in the air are bound to them. From there, the nervous system is
activated and sends a signal to our brain.
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Musculoskeletal system
The musculoskeletal system is the system in the body that includes the muscular and the
skeletal systems. These combined include the ligaments, bones, muscles, and tendons of the
body. The musculoskeletal system is an important part of the body as it provides the protection
to the other parts of the body. The internal organs and soft tissues in the body require the
framing and structure of the musculoskeletal system in order to efficiently work.
Muscles are a collective group of fibres that contract and create motion in the body. These
muscles are formed around bones and joints that allow for a predetermined range of motion.
These contractions are much like the motions that are made by the tightening of a rubber band.
When all of these fibres contract together, various types of motion can be obtained. There are
650 muscles in the human body.
The skeleton in the body is all the joints and bones that make up the structure of the body.
Bones are living organs that are comprised of protein fibres, minerals, and cells. The skeletal
system is beneficial by giving support and protection of the softer organs and issues that are
vital in the health of the body. Bones allow muscles to move around joints by giving points
where muscles can attach. Bones also store calcium, iron, and energy in them as a source for
the rest of the body. During childhood, bones provide the frame in which the body will continue
to grow until adulthood.
Structure and Mechanics of Bone, Muscle and Connective Tissue

Bones, muscles, and ligaments all work together to create movement. These help create the
form, support, and the stability for the body as well. Connective tissues in the body include the
joints, tendons, cartilage, and the ligaments that help connect organs and tissues together.
Bones are designed to help support the form of the body and also store calcium and
phosphorus which is necessary for major functions in the body.
Bones are connected to each other throughout the body by the use of joints. Joints are where
two bones in the body interconnect and create various levels of stability and a predetermined
range of motion. Shoulder joints and elbows have a specific range of motion as these are joints
that are connected by two bones.
Tendons are fibres that attach muscles to the bone itself. This is necessary to help make
motions and cause limbs and parts of the body to use. Ligaments fibres attach bones to
different bones. Cartilage is a hard like substance that is used in various parts of the body to
connect bones to each other.
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Endocrine system
The endocrine system in the body is the part that includes particular glands that produce
hormones in the body. Hormones help regulate a number of particular functions in the body
including metabolism, tissue function, reproduction, sexual functions, sleeping, moods, as well
as growth and development. A few of these glands include the thyroid, pituitary, adrenal,
pancreas, and the parathyroid glands. The endocrine system impacts almost every organ and
cell in the body and as an important part of the function of the human body.
Role of Receptors in Mediating Hormonal Changes

A hormone receptor is a protein in the body that is found in and on the surface of distinct cells
throughout the body. These receptors receive messages from various substance in the
bloodstream and are then giving cells contrasting directions of what they should do. An
example is to think of receptors as the on and off switch for regulating different activities of
cells.
Hormone receptors latch onto particular cells in the body and respond to the signals that come
from the coordinating hormones in the body. Hormones are essentially the chemical
messengers that are sent throughout the body to make changes to different target cells.
Receptors invoke change in specific hormones by binding with these cells and influencing a
transcription in the nucleus. The change is dependent on the number of hormone molecules
that are bound to these receptors. When there is a higher concentration of these circulating
hormones, there is a higher rate of secretion.
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Digestive system
The digestive system is an organ system that works together to convert the food that we eat
into energy while also absorbing the nutrients that we need to provide energy to the entire
body.
Food is consumed through the mouth which is also known as the oral cavity. The mouth
contains accessory organs that will help in the process of digestion include the tongue, teeth
and salivary glands. These all work together to chop food into smaller pieces and guide the food
down into the pharynx.
The pharynx, or the throat, will then move the food down into the oesophagus. The pharynx
has two functions as it helps in the digestive system in moving food but it also functions in the
respiratory system as air passes through the pharynx, into the larynx, into the lungs.
The oesophagus is the long muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach. This will
carry the food that has been swallowed into the stomach to continue digestion. The stomach is
a muscular sac that is approximately the size of two fists put next to each other. This organ acts
as storage for the food in order for the body to digest the food. The stomach contains
hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes that will continue the digestion process.
The small intestine is a long tube that is part of the lower gastrointestinal tract while the
previous organs that are comprised of the digestive system are known as the upper
gastrointestinal tract. Once the food has been further broken down by the stomach, it will then
move to the small intestine for nutrients to be extracted.
The liver will produce bile and its secretions will move into the small intestines that is necessary
for nutrient absorption. The gallbladder is used to store and recycle any excess bile from the
small intestine so that it can be reused in the digestion process. The pancreas is a large gland
that secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine that completes the chemical digestion
of foods.
Once food has passed from the small intestines, the majority of the nutrients have been
absorbed into the body. The large intestines will then absorb water and continues to break
down bastes to extract any small amounts of nutrients.
The final function of the digestive system is excretion. This is the process where the wastes are
moved from the large intestines into the colon and then are extracted out of the body through
the process of defecation.
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Urinary system
While the digestive system works to extract nutrients, and remove waste from foods, the
urinary system does the same thing with liquids. The kidneys and the urinary system help keep
the chemicals and water balance in the body. Urea is created when foods that contain proteins
are broken down in the body and is then carried into the bloodstream for the kidneys and is
later removed in the form of urine.
The kidneys also function to regulate blood pressure and create erythropoietin which controls
the amount of red blood cell produced in bone marrow.
In the urinary system, there are two kidneys. These are organs that are located below the ribs
in the middle of the back. Their primary function is to remove liquid waste from the blood in
the form of urine. The kidneys will remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units.
Urea, which is then comprised of water and other waste substances, will form urine and pass
through these filtering units and down the renal tubes of the kidney.
The ureters will then carry urine from the kidneys into the bladder. The muscles in the walls of
the ureter will tighten and relax which will cause the urine to move down into the bladder. The
bladder will then store urine and contract and flatten in order to empty the urine through the
urethra.
The urinary system also includes nerves in the bladder that will alert a person of when they
need to urinate, muscles that help keep urine from leaking out of the body by keeping the
bladder closed, as well as a urethra that allows urine to pass out of the body.
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Reproductive system
The reproductive system of the body is the system of sex organs in both the male and female
bodies. These systems work together in order to create reproduction and new life.
In the male reproductive system, there are two main parts. These include the testes where
sperm is produces and the penis. The penis and the urethra are part of both the urinary and the
reproductive systems in males. The testes are carried in an external sac that keeps the
temperature slightly cooler in order to facilitate the production of sperm.
The female reproductive system includes both internal and external structures of the female
anatomy. This includes the clitoris, labia minora, labia majora and Bartholin’s glands. These
major internal organs include the vagina and the uterus.
Reproduction is a process that begins with fertilization. This is when the sperm enters the
fallopian tube within the uterus through the penis in the male. The sperm will then burrow into
the egg. The egg will then become implanted in the lining of the uterus which will begin the
process where the embryo will begin to form. When the foetus becomes mature enough to
survive outside of the womb, the cervix in the female will dilate and contraction will begin in
order for the baby to propel through the birth canal.
Integumentary system
The integumentary system is the organ system that has been put in place to protect the
internal organs from external environments. This includes skin, hair, nails, glands and nerve
receptors.
The integumentary system has a number of particular

functions. These include protecting deeper tissues from
loss of water and abrasions, regulating temperature,
excreting wastes, as well as attachment site for sensory
receptors that detect pressure, temperature, pain and
sensation.
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Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is the system help regulate and remove toxins and waste from the body.
The lymphatic systems work to transport lymph which is a fluid that contains white blood cells
to fight infections to various parts of the body.
The lymphatic system includes vessels that work directly with the lymph nodes where lymph is
then filtered. The tonsils, adenoids, spleen and thymus are components of the lymphatic
system.
The spleen is the largest of the lymphatic organs and it controls the amount of red blood cells
and blood storage in the body as well as fighting infections. When the spleen detects dangerous
bacteria in the body, it will create white blood cells that are called lymphocytes to kill these
bacteria and stop infections from continually spreading. While individuals can survive without a
spleen, they are more apt to infection.
The thymus is located in the chest above the heart and stores immature lymphocytes and
prepares them to becomes active T cells. T cells will then help destroy cancerous or infected
cells.
Tonsils are large clusters of lymphatic cells. The tonsils are found in the pharynx. They are
typically considered the first line of defence in the immune system. When bacteria come
through the mouth or the nose the tonsils will be the first part of the body to detect them.
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Nervous system, including sensory systems – eye and ear
The nervous system is comprised of various networks of cells and muscle fibres that move
different impulses throughout the entire body.
The nervous system is made up of neurons, or nerve cells, and neuroglia or helper cells.
Neurons will work to communicate through electrochemical signals throughout the body while
neuroglia or glial cells, assist the neurons.
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that
connect these organs with the rest of the body. Together, these organs are responsible for the
control of the body and communication among its parts. The brain and spinal cord form the
control centre, known as the central nervous system (CNS), where information is evaluated and
decisions made. The sensory nerves and sense organs of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
monitor conditions inside and outside of the body and send this information to the CNS.
Efferent nerves in the PNS carry signals from the control centre to the muscles, glands, and
organs to regulate their functions.
The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and the nerves that work
together to connect the rest of the body to these specific organs. The nervous system is how
the body moves through communication throughout the body.
The nervous system is made up of the following parts:

 Central nervous system: this is made up of the brain and spinal cord where decisions
are evaluated and made.
 Peripheral nervous system: this is made up of the nerves and sensory organs that
are constantly checking inside and outside of the body and are sending the
information they find back to the central nervous system.
 Efferent nerves and they carry information from the central nervous system to the
different parts of the body for them to function correctly.
Functions of the Nervous System

The three main functions of the nervous system include sensory, integration, and motor
functions.
Sensory
The sensory function collects information from various sensory receptors throughout the body
that are constantly evaluating the internal and external conditions of the body. From there,
efferent neurons will then pass the information to the central nervous system for further
evaluation.
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Integration
Integration is the process in which sensory signals are passed through to the central nervous
system. The sensory signals that are received are thoroughly inspected and evaluated in order
for decisions to be made. Integration also determines what will be left for memory and what
should just have discarded. This process takes place in the grey matter of the brain and spinal
cord.
Afferent and Efferent Nervous System Signals

There are particular types of messages that are sent throughout the body with the use of the
nervous system. These include afferent messages which are messages that are received and
efferent which are signals to act. The motor sensors are the efferent sensors while sensory is
the afferent fibres.
Afferent neurons send signals or nerve impulses from stimuli to the brain and the central
nervous system. This means messages from muscles that go to the brain. While efferent
neurons will send messages to the stimuli from the brain. These are signals that tell muscles
how to act and how to move.
Voluntary and Involuntary Nature of Nervous System

The nervous system is an essential part of the movements of the body. There are movements
that are required for us to live such as breathing, digestion, and the circulatory motions that
require the movement of blood throughout the body. In order for any movements to be made,
there has to be proper communication between the brain and the associated part of the body.
The nervous system is the important part of this communication in the body.
The somatic nervous system or the voluntary nervous system works with the peripheral
nervous system regarding the voluntary moment of muscles. This includes motions that are
controlled by conscious decisions and movements of the body. The unconscious movements
are controlled by the automatic nervous systems. This includes particular movements of
muscles that require movement in order for us to live, but we do not have to consciously make
the decision for these movements to occur.
Voluntary movements examples include:

 Talking
 Running
 Writing
 Lifting
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Involuntary movement examples include:
 Pulsation of heart muscles
 Digestive motions in the intestines and stomach
 Movements of the smooth muscles in the body
Structure of A Motor Neuron

Motor neurons are the neurons that are in the central nervous system that work to control the
movements of muscles. Motor function of the central nervous system is in place when a
decision of action has been made. Efferent neurons will then take information from the grey
matter of the central nervous stems and pass this information throughout the peripheral
nervous system to the appropriate effector cells. From there, the effector cell can release a
hormone or will move the part of the body accordingly.
Conduction of a Motor Impulse

A motor neuron transmits specific impulses from the central area of the nervous system to the
muscles. These impulses can cause contractions of various muscles in the body. These motor
impulses are an important part of the structure and the movements required for the body to
function. The conduction of these motor impulses are through the stimuli of the central
nervous system.
Motor impulses or motor neurons are essential for our bodies to

properly function every day. Even now, your muscles are at work to
move the air in and out of your lungs and allow for oxygen to be
transported throughout the body.
When you walk, or do daily activities, your muscles are contracting

and relaxing in a specific rhythm that allows proper motion to move
you forward. There is a pattern of movement that is necessary to
ensure that you are able to move and conduct you daily activities.
These rhythmic motor patterns are controlled by the networks of

motor neurons and the impulse that they produce throughout the
body. Motor neurons are the direct connection between the
nervous system and the movements that our muscles make.
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The special senses – smell, taste, vision, equilibrium and hearing
Each of the five senses of the body consist of organs that have specific cellular function that
allow responses to particular stimuli. These cells have links to the nervous system and are
therefore connected to the brain. Sensing is done through the cells and is then integrated into
sensations in the nervous system.
Smell
The nose is the organ for the sense of smell. The cavity of the nose contains lines of mucous
membranes that have smell receptors. These receptors are then connected to the olfactory
nerve that transmits sensations to the brain. The nose has a structure that is called the
vomeronasal organ that is sensitive to pheromones that influence the reproductive cycle.
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Taste
The receptors that are used for humans to taste are called taste buds. These are located on the
tongue as well as the roof of the mouth and near the pharynx. These are able to detect bitter,
sour, sweet and salty tastes. At the base of each taste bud is a nerve that will transmit these
sensations to the brain. Taste also works with smell and creates great sensitivity to taste.
Vision
The eye is the organ that is used in the body for sight. The eye has a complex structure that
consists of a lens that focuses light onto the retina. The retina is covered with light-sensitive
cell-rods and cones. These cones are sensitive to the colour and are located where the light is
focused on the lens. The rod cells in the eye are not sensitive to colour, however, they are more
sensitive to the light than cone cells. The rod cells are located around the fovea and allow for
peripheral vision as well as vision in the dark. The eyes are then connected to the brain through
the optic nerve.
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Equilibrium and touch
The sense of touch is throughout the body and is done through the skin organ. There are nerve
endings in the skin that transmit sensations to the brain. There are some parts of the body that
have a larger number of these nerves that others. These parts of the body are more sensitive.
The four kind of touch sensations include pain, contact, heat and cold. Hairs that are on the skin
help act as an early warning sign for the body as well as magnifying sensation.
Equilibrium is the process of balancing the body and includes breathing, vision, musculoskeletal
alignment, vestibular function and proprioception. The eyes, proprioceptors of the neck and
vestibular system read and adjust the placement of the head in order to understand the
environment. The respiratory system and the musculoskeletal system of the feet and body will
impact the stability of the body.
Important components of equilibrium include:

 Breathing: this provides oxygen for necessary brain function and interaction with
sensory organs that can detect imbalances.
 Vision: the brain is able to sense body movements and orientation to objects in
space through sight
 Vestibular function: this includes the functions of the inner ear. This coordinates
with the visual and auditory systems in order to cause balance.
 Musculoskeletal alignment: balance within the muscle groups and alignment of the
skeletal system will impact body equilibrium.
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Hearing
The ears are the organ in the body that allow us to hear. The outer ear is located away from the
head and is shaped like a cup in order to direct sounds towards the tympanic membrane. The
tympanic membrane will then transmit these vibrations to the inner ear that will transmit these
impulses to the brain through the auditory nerve. The brain combines the input from both ears
to determine the direction and distance of sounds.
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Immune system
The immune system is a network of organs that work to defend the body against invaders. This
is what is knowns as the body’s defence system in fighting infection and disease.
The immune system involves white blood cells that seek out and destroy organisms in the body
that can cause diseases. These white blood cells are also called Leukocytes. Leukocytes are
produced and stored in the thymus, spleen and the bone marrow of the body.
When a foreign substance enters the body, it is called an antigen. When these are detected, the
lymphocytes, a type of leukocyte that works to remember and recognise foreign organisms, will
produce antibodies that will lock onto these specific antigens.
Once these lymphocytes recognise antigens, they will develop a memory for the antigens in the
future. When these antigens enter the body again, the lymphocytes will produce the necessary
antibodies to combat these conditions.
When we receive immunizations, we are introducing antigens into the body in a way that
allows the lymphocytes to combat these antigens and create the antibodies that will protect
the person from future attack for that particular disease.
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Various processes of the body
There are many specific processes of the body that are involved in making certain that the body
is able to appropriately function. It is important that all of these processes are completely
working and functioning accordingly in order for the body to be considered healthy.
Here are a few examples of the key processes of the body:

 Metabolism
 Nutrition
 Body temperature regulation
 Biological maturation and ageing
 Inheritance
Metabolism
Metabolism is the process in which chemical reactions take place in the cells in order to convert
food into energy. There are proteins in the body that control these chemical reactions in
metabolism and each of these reactions are coordinated with other body functions. There are
thousands of metabolic reactions that occur simultaneously to keep the body healthy and
functioning.
Metabolism is a process that converts food into energy, converts food to build blocks for
proteins, lipids, and some carbohydrates as well as the elimination of nitrogenous wastes.
These are enzyme catalysed reactions that allow organisms to reproduce and grow, respond to
their environments as well as maintain their structures.
Nutrition
Nutrients are the substances that are found in foods that help maintain the health of cells and
make the body function. Most of what is consumed is made up of carbohydrates, proteins and
fats. There are many nutrients that are required by the body but in smaller amounts. These
include vitamins and minerals. It is important to have a balanced diet to provide all of the
necessary nutrients that the body needs for proper function. Through digestion, the body is
able to break down the food that we need and absorb the necessary nutrients and disperse
them to the cells that need them for function.
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Body temperature regulation
The body is able to appropriately regulate the core temperature through homeostasis. This is a
process by which the hypothalamus maintains homeostasis and controls hormones. In humans,
the core temperature should be at approximately 37 degrees Celsius. When the hypothalamus
senses that the body is too hot, it will send signals to the sweat glands in the body to produce
sweat. Sweat will then help cool the body down and reduce this temperature. When the
hypothalamus senses that the body is too cold, it will send signals to the muscles that create
the shivering sensation that helps create warmth.
Biological maturation and ageing

Biological maturation and ageing is the process by which natural changes in cells are made that
can cause cells to slow down and alter their capacity. Peak functioning and maturation in the
body is at approximately the age of 30. From there, the human body begins to change in
strength, sensory perception and stamina.
Ageing is the process of gradual deterioration of function in complex systems. Over time, cells
reach their limitations on their capacity and their ability to function. Old cells will sometimes
die because of how they are programmed. Cells will die because there is a limited amount of
times that they are able to divide. The number of times that they are able to divide is based on
genetics. When cells are no longer able to divide, they will grow larger and then eventually they
will die.
In organs, the functionality as the body continues to age is dependent on the functions of the
cells within them. When organs have older cells, they will have less function. There are some
instances where cells will die within an organ and are not replaced and the number of cells
within that organ will decrease. The number of cells in the testes, ovaries, liver and the kidneys
will lose the most cells as the body ages. When the number of cells in an organ are too low, the
organ is unable to appropriately function.
As the body gets older, most of the organs will function less well than they were able to when
they were younger. The brain is an example of one organ in the body that does not lose a large
number of cells. This typically will only occur when individuals have a stroke or disorder that
causes the loss of nerve cells.
The first signs of ageing are in the musculoskeletal system. This includes a loss in bone density,
loss in elasticity of ligaments in the joints, as well as thinning of cartilage. The number of muscle
mass is also decreasing as the body ages because of the loss of fast twitch muscle fibres.
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Inheritance
Biological inheritance or physical heredity, is the physical features that are inherited from
parents. This can include a number of different components such as eye colour, shape of the
nose, mouth, height, etc. This is the process by which the offspring cell or organism will acquire
characteristics of the parent cells.
These inherited traits are known as genes. Heritable traits are passed from one generation to
the next through a molecule that contains genetic information known as DNA. When a cell
divides, DNA is copied so that all of the cells that are created will have this specific sequence.
This makes certain that the components of a living organism have the same characteristics.
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Transport systems of the body
The circulatory system is just one example of the body’s transport system. This is because it is
made up of organs that transport blood throughout the body. Blood will transport nutrients
and oxygen to various parts of the body and then remove waste from chemical reactions that
occur in the cells. It is important for the body to have transport systems in place to help with
the primary functions of the body.
In order for substances to be transferred throughout the body, there are required transport
systems including:
 Active (primary) and passive (diffusion – simple, facilitated)
 Forces (hydrostatic and oncotic)
 Osmosis
Active (primary) and passive (diffusion – simple, facilitated)

Active transport is the movement of molecules across a cell membrane from a region of their
lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration in the direction against some
gradient or other obstructing factor (often a concentration gradient).
Unlike passive transport, which uses the kinetic energy and natural entropy of molecules
moving down a gradient, active transport uses cellular energy to move them against a gradient,
polar repulsion, or other resistance. Active transport is usually associated with accumulating
high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose and amino acids. If
the process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), it is termed
primary active transport. Secondary active transport involves the use of an electrochemical
gradient. Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose in the intestines in humans
and the uptake of mineral ions into root hair cells of plants.
While passive diffusion does not require energy. Molecules are able to move across cell
membranes through either active transport or diffusion. Diffusion is the movement from high
concentration of molecules to low concentration. This diffusion can be done through the
phospholipid bilayer or through special proteins. This does not require energy to be diffused
through the cell. There are special proteins that move molecules across the cell membrane and
require the use of energy. This is called active transport.
Diffusion is the movement of particles down their specific gradient. A gradient is the imbalance
in concentration. It can be described as moving an object downhill, it does not require any
energy. Simple diffusion is the process of moving down gradients through a membrane while
facilitated diffusion is facilitated by a membrane transport channel. These allow molecules to
pass through the membrane.
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Forces (hydrostatic and oncotic)
Hydrostatic pressure is pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point in the
fluid. This is caused by a force of gravity. Inside the capillaries of the body, the hydrostatic
pressure is the pushing force that causes the fluid to move out of the capillaries. The oncotic
pressures, is the pulling force that pulls fluids from the surrounding tissues into the capillaries.
As fluid leaves the capillaries because of hydrostatic pressures, large proteins cannot pass
through the capillary walls. Oncotic pressure will then rise and pull more water into the
capillaries to cause the balance in the solute concentration.
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Osmosis
Osmosis is the process where water is diffused across a membrane. Red blood cells are an
example of osmosis in the body. Red blood cells are unable to control their protein channels or
carriers in their plasma membrane. Because of this, the plasma membranes become permeable
to water and other solutes. Water can then move in and out of the red blood cells in response
to changes in osmotic concentration of fluid.
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2.2 Consider and note implications of any contra-indications
in relation to health assessment findings.
Basic pharmacology in relation to cautions and contraindications for relevant

health procedures
Pharmacology is the branch of biology that is related to the study of drugs and their impact on
the body. This is a study of how chemical agents impact the systems of the body. In the nursing
profession, it is important to know the name, side effects, nursing interventions and the way
that the body is able to use medicinal drugs in the body.
When you are prescribing, or suggesting that a patient should use medication in order to treat
their symptoms, it is essential that you use caution to make certain that patient is aware of all
of the side effects that this medication can have. Basics of pharmacology require healthcare
professionals to be aware of their patient’s health history, allergies and current health status in
order to determine if they are an adequate recipient for the medication.
A contraindication is a situation where a surgery, a procedure or surgery should not be used

because it can be harmful to the recipient. Contraindication can be relative, this is where you
should use caution when taking two drugs together or absolute contraindication where the
effect of the procedure of medication can be life threatening and should be avoided absolutely.
There are some treatments in the medical field that can cause dangerous reactions in
individuals who have high blood pressure, allergies or are pregnant. There are many different
types of medications that can be taken by individuals who do not have these conditions, but if
they are taken by people who do have these conditions, it can have adverse effects and the
medication should be avoided.
You will need to be aware of your patient’s health status and their care plan in order to
appropriately prescribe medication. Pharmacology relies on knowledge of the impact that
prescribed medication can have on the body in both the good and the bad.
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Understanding and applying knowledge of causes of disease
In order for you to effectively diagnose a patient, you will need to have an understanding of
what causes disease in the body. This can be done through assessment of the patient as well as
assessment of the patient’s health records. You will need to make certain that you have
adequate knowledge of diseases and what causes these conditions in order to effectively
implement a care plan that will treat your patient.
The causes of disease can be through any of the following factors:

 Physical
 Mental
 Emotional
Physical
There are many different physical causes that can lead to poor health and disease. While the
body is created to appropriately function, there are some external factors that play a role in
how well the body is able to function.
Physical causes of disease include:

 Neglect
 Parasites
 Infection
 Congestion
 Outside environment
Neglect
Neglect can include neglect of a number of different factors including food, water, exercise,
rest, supplements, etc. An example of neglect is not having proper nutrition through either a
poor diet that is low in nutrients or through not eating enough. The body requires appropriate
nutrients that allows parts of the body to function. Without a well-balanced diet, there can be
deficiencies of nutrients that can lead to break down in parts and functions of the body which
can lead to disease and illness.
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Parasites
Parasites are organisms that live in the body including hookworms, guinea worms, tapeworms
etc. They will feed off of the host and cause a number of different types of problems. Parasites
can lead to:
 Joint discomfort
 Anaemia
 Allergies
 Constipation
 Mood swings
 Inability to sleep
 Chronic fatigue
 Irritable bowel syndrome
Infection
The common cold is an example of a viral infection that impacts an
individual’s health. There are many other types of infections that can
also cause problems in the body. When you have an infection, there
is another organism in the body that gains nourishment and grows in
the body. The body will then work to remove this external organism
that is causing harm and is feeding off of the host.
Congestion
Congestion is the lack of flow of body fluids, hormones or waste in
the body. The most common form of congestion is constipation.
Congestion can actually occur in any part of the body including
organs, glands, muscles or bones. The liver is one of the largest
organs in the body. Liver congestion is the process where the liver is
overloaded and is unable to clear all of the toxins from the body.
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Environmental
Environmental diseases are diseases that can be directly attributed to environmental factors (as
distinct from genetic factors or infection). Apart from the true monogenic genetic disorders,
environmental diseases may determine the development of disease in those genetically
predisposed to a particular condition. Stress, physical and mental abuse, diet, exposure to
toxins, pathogens, radiation, and chemicals found in almost all personal care products and
household cleaners are possible causes of a large segment of non-hereditary disease. If a
disease process is concluded to be the result of a combination of genetic and environmental
factor influences, its etiological origin can be referred to as having a multifactorial pattern.
There are many different types of environmental disease including:
 Lifestyle disease such as cardiovascular disease, diseases caused by substance abuse such as
alcoholism, and smoking-related disease
 Disease caused by physical factors in the environment, such as skin cancer caused by excessive
exposure to ultraviolet radiation in sunlight
 Disease caused by exposure to toxic or irritant chemicals in the environment such as toxic
metals
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Mental
There are many particular types of mental illnesses that should be considered in your
diagnostics. Some mental illnesses have links to the abnormal function of nerve cells pathways
that connect to brain regions. Mental illnesses have also been linked to hormonal imbalances.
The following biological factors also play a role in the development of mental illness:
 Genetics: studies have shown that some mental illnesses will run in families.
 Infections: there are some infections that have been linked to brain damage which
can cause the development of mental illness.
 Brain defects or injury: there are some injuries or brain defects that can lead to
mental illness.
 Prenatal damage: the disruption of early development of the brain or trauma can
lead to the development of specific conditions.
 Substance abuse: individuals who have long term substance abuse problems have a
higher risk for mental illness.
 Other factors: these include poor nutrition and exposure to lead can lead to mental
illness.
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Emotional
Research and studies have been conducted that show that negative beliefs, attitudes, thoughts
and emotions can lead to weakened nervous and immune system which can lead to a number
of different conditions. While emotions that are positive can lead to increased release in
endorphins and build health.
Emotions such as fear, anger, worry, stress, sadness, unworthiness and disappointment can
lead to back pain, asthma, colds, addiction, allergies and bloating.
On a physical level, emotions can alter the cellular biology which impacts the overall function of
these cells. That is not to say that all conditions can be controlled by emotional processes, but
positive mindsets have been shown to cause strengthened immune systems.
When we experience trauma, the body internalises shock and this can impact daily health.
Trauma is stored in cellular memory and impacts how cells are able to function. If trauma is not
appropriately dealt with, there can be diseases and other conditions that will arise from the
breakdown in cellular function.
Emotions are linked to the health of the nervous, cardiovascular, immune and digestive
systems.
Stress can lead to many negative health conditions. While it may seem that stress is something
that only effects one’s mood or their attitude, it can have long lasting effects on the body. Your
client may not realise that the symptoms that they are experiencing are from stress. Having
your patient review their current symptoms and their life to determine if they are experiencing
excessive stress is the first step to helping them reduce stress in their life.
Here are a few examples of various symptoms of stress that your client can look for in their
lives:
 Headache
 Muscle pain
 Chest pain
 Fatigue or insomnia
 Upset stomach
 Social withdrawal
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Pathogens
Pathogen is a broad term used to describe anything that can cause disease. It includes
infectious agent such as prion, a fungus, bacterium or a virus. These agents cause disease in
their hosts by disrupting the cellular composition of cells. Pathogens gain access through
several pathways in t the body.
Bacteria is in the body that helps with function but there are some bacteria that are pathogens
that invade the body and cause diseases. These are single called organisms that rely on the
human cells in order to survive. These can cause diseases such as syphilis, botulism and
pneumonia. Bacterial infections require antibiotics in order to be effectively treated.
Viruses are infection agents that include genetic materials that enter the cells of a host. They
merge with these cells and cause conditions such as influenza, chicken pox, rabies, hepatitis,
AIDS, etc.
Inherited genetic conditions

Genetics also play a role in the development of health conditions. The human body is
comprised of cells that all have their own specialty and function. Chromosomes are the sub-
cellular structures that exist in the nucleolus of these cells. Chromosomes are responsible for
the transference of genetic information from one generation to the next.
Chromosomes in the body are comprised of DNA which contain the necessary information that
is required to produce proteins in the body. It is also commonly known that DNA contain the
genes that make up how we look and the functions of our body.
When there is a mutation in these chromosomes, it can be passed down in each generation
causing genetic disorders or conditions. While genetic conditions can be inherited from parents,
it can also impact the predisposition that individuals have towards specific types of diseases.
Individuals may not be born with these conditions, but through genetics, they have inherited
the likeliness to gain these conditions through their cellular composition.
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Trauma, toxins and other environmental hazards
It is important to consider the outside environment and how it applies to health as well.
Excessive heat can lead to heat stroke which prohibits the normal function of body systems.
Dehydration can also occur when individuals do not drink enough water which in some
instances can be fatal. Conditions that are extremely cold can cause hypothermia.
Chronic exposure to radiation can also be harmful and cause cancer. Cancer is a disease where
cells in the body are mutated which can be fatal. Lower levels of exposure to radiation can lead
to loss of hair, nausea and skin damage. It is important to be aware of any exposure your
patient may have to radiation.
Air pollution is another environmental factor that can impact health. Air pollution contains
harmful toxins that can cause a number of different health conditions including restriction of
the airways, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or bronchitis. Individuals who have
exposure to cigarette smoke are also at risk for these conditions a well.
Asbestos is a mineral that has been found to cause lung cancer as well as other conditions in
the lungs. There are also some chemical pesticides that have been known to cause cancer and
other conditions that cause birth defects and nerve damage.
Exposure to dust particles can cause chronic chest conditions such as asthma and bronchitis.
These is common for individuals who have jobs in the coal mining industry.
Nutritional factors
Nutrition impacts the general health and how effectively the body systems are able to operate.
Energy is created by the food that we consume. The energy is then used in the cells, tissues and
organs of the body for appropriate function. When we have poor diets, it can lead to problems
in these systems. An example of this is diets that are high in cholesterol. These can lead to
clogged arteries which can cause a disease called atherosclerosis. Diets that are high in fibre can
help prevent constipation.
Diet and nutrition play a large role in maintaining homeostasis and ensuring that parts of the
body are able to function as they are designed. There are many negative side effects of having
a poor diet. This can include fatigue, stress, and create a lower level of productivity. These are
just short term side effects. In the long term, there are more severe risks that are associated
with having a poor diet. These can all be prevented by having a proper diet.
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Hypertension or High Blood Pressure
Hypertension is also known as high blood pressure. High blood pressure is when the pressure
that is made in the arteries is at a higher level than what is considered normal or health.
Blood pressure is the force that the blood uses to pump blood throughout the body. Blood is
pushed against the walls of the arteries of the heart.
If blood pressure is high, there can be many different issues that result in the body. These
include heart disease, stroke, and kidney failure.
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Diabetes
Diabetes is a disease in which the body is unable to produce enough insulin that the body
needs. This causes an increased level of glucose in the body. When your body ingests sugars,
the food is then turned into glucose. From there, the pancreas will release insulin that will turn
glucose into energy. People who have diabetes have a failure occur in these systems.
Type 1 Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes is the more serious of the two types of diabetes. This occurs when the body’s
immune system will attack the pancreas. Like all auto-immune diseases, studies have not been
able to prove when this occurs.
People who have type 1 diabetes will undergo daily treatments of insulin. These insulin
injections will help regulate glucose levels accordingly.
It is important for individuals with type 1 diabetes to take the appropriate amount of insulin. If
they do not take enough insulin, the glucose levels can increase causing blood sugars to spike to
a dangerous level. Without enough insulin, the body can burn through too much glucose which
can be a life-threatening situation.
Type 2 Diabetes
Type 2 diabetes is considered non-insulin dependent diabetes. This is typically developed in
older adults after the age of 35. These are typically caused by individuals who are inactive or
are overweight. The best treatment of type 2 diabetes is proper weight loss and diet that can
help lower blood sugar levels.
Common symptoms of diabetes include:

 Higher level of thirst
 Passing more urine
 Fatigue
 Extreme hunger
 Slow healing cuts
 Itching, skin infections
 Blurred vision
 Unexplained weight loss (type 1)
 Gradually putting on weight (type 2)
 Mood swings
 Headaches
 Dizziness
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Gallstones
Gallstones are hard masses that are formed in the gallbladder. They can also be formed in the
bile ducts. Gallstones can cause severe pain and can cause issues with the digestive system.
Gallstones can be made of cholesterol while others can be made of calcium and bilirubin.
Gallstones are created when there is too much cholesterol in the bile that is created by your
liver. Typically, bile will dissolve and breakdown the cholesterol, however if there’s too much
cholesterol in your system than the bile can dissolve, this can cause a build-up of gallstones.
People who are at risk for gallstones include people that are overweight or obese, having a high
fat or high cholesterol diet, rapid weight loss, diets that are high in fibre, and having diabetes
mellitus. Symptoms of gallstones include fever, jaundice, nausea or vomiting, and clay coloured
stools. Surgery is often necessary to remove gallstones.
Celiac Disease
Celiac disease is a disease in which the immune system does read not react in a normal way to
gluten. Gluten is found in oats, wheat, rye, and barley. This abnormal reaction includes small
bowel damage. The lining of the intestines will also become enflamed. It is important for this
disease to be diagnosed as quickly as possible in order to prevent further damage to the body.
Celiac disease typically affects between 1 in 70 people. However, the majority of the number of
people do not know that they have celiac disease. As awareness of the disease continues, there
has been an increase in people who are getting tested for celiac disease
The best way to treat this disease, is to restrict the diet and avoid gluten. There is currently no
cure for celiac disease. Through proper diet the symptoms can be managed.
If the disease goes untreated, there can be chronic system inflammation and inadequate
absorption of nutrients.
Lactose Intolerance
Lactose intolerance is a digestive problem in which the body cannot digest lactose. Lactose is a
sugar that is typically found in dairy products. Symptoms include diarrhoea and excessive gas.
The best way to treat lactose intolerance is to limit the intake of dairy products. There are many
healthy grocery stores that include dairy products now they are free from lectures. These are
beneficial for individuals who have lactose intolerance meet their daily calcium needs. It can
also help them enjoy dairy products that they miss out on because of lactose.
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Obesity
Obesity is when people have excessive amounts of body fat. There are many different ways that
this can be defined. Obesity is typically classified as having a body mass index of 30 or more.
The body mass index or BMI is used to measure obesity. While using BMI is not the most
scientific way to measure obesity, it is the most popular. Some doctors will also use Waist
circumference measurements to determine if individuals are obese.
BMI is calculated by taking a person's weight in kilograms and dividing it by their height in
meters squared. When you were working with individuals who are looking for weight loss, it
can be beneficial for them to know what their body mass index is. Their body mass index will be
able to classify them in a specific range determining their overall health. If individuals have an
unhealthy body mass index, it is necessary for them to speak with her doctor.
Waist circumference is a less popular method used to determine obesity. This is done by
measuring the waist. To find the circumference, use a tape measure around the area above the
hip bone and below for women, and a waist circumference of 35 inches is considered
unhealthy. In men a waist circumference of 40 inches or greater is considered at risk for
obesity.
When individuals are obese, the risk of developing health conditions increase.
Here are a few examples of diseases in which there are a higher risk of with an individual is
obese:
 High blood pressure
 High cholesterol
 Diabetes
 Heart disease
 Stroke
 Gallbladder disease
 Osteoarthritis
 Sleep apnoea and respiratory problems
 Some cancers (endometrial, breast, and colon)
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Stroke
The stroke is when the blood vessels or an artery that supplies blood to the brain is blocked or
bursts. Very quickly after this occurs the nerve cells in the specific area of the brain that have
received damage, may die. Because of this that part of the body controlled by the damaged
part of the brain will no longer be able to function.
Arthritis
Arthritis is inflammation stiffness pain or damage that occurs to the musculoskeletal system
and joints of the body. Individuals who have arthritis typically will have weakness in their joints,
instability, as well as some deformities. Individuals who have severe cases of arthritis may not
be able to participate in daily activities or tasks. Or no cures for arthritis at this time. Symptoms
can be managed with medication use. Arthritis can inhibit individuals from doing daily tasks and
participating in various physical activities.
Cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease are diseases that are specific to the heart. This can include clogged
blood vessels, heart attacks, chest pain, or strokes there are many other heart conditions as
well that affect the muscles of the heart, valves of the heart, the rhythm of the heart, and other
deformities that are considered cardiovascular diseases.
Heart disease is very serious and can often be fatal. It is important for clients to tea necessary
steps to take care of their heart.
Tooth decay
Tooth decay happens when bacteria in the mouth make the acids eat away at a tooth. This can
cause a hole in the tooth which is called a cavity. Untreated tooth decay can lead to infection,
pain, and even tooth loss. Poor diet and poor hygiene can lead to tooth decay. It's important to
have consistent check-ups with a dental professional in order to prevent tooth decay.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is the weakening of bones that typically affects older adult females. Osteoporosis
can cause weekend joints, and even cause inability to perform daily tasks. Women who are
older should include more calcium in their diet to help strengthen their bones. They should also
include flexibility and balance training into their fitness training program. This training will help
the muscles around the joints of the body and create less stress on these bones. Fitness training
should then include muscular strength and conditioning training. This will help strengthen the
muscles surrounding the bones.
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Some cancers
Cancer is a disease in which uncontrolled division of abnormal cells and a part of the body
continues to grow. This can be tumours or malignant growth that causes the division of the
cells. There are many different treatments of cancer including chemotherapy. Depending on
what type of cancer there is, depends on what kind of treatment is necessary.
Oncologists are doctors that specialize in the treatment of cancer. This includes deciding
treatment for patients once they have been diagnosed with cancer. Treatments include
medical, radiation treatments, and surgery. Some cancers can be removed with surgery. It is
important for your client to gain the proper treatment and gain proper testing if they think they
may have cancer. Cancer can often be fatal.
Depression
Depression is a serious condition in which there is a severe feeling of
self-doubt and dejection. This can occur when individuals have intense
feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and worthlessness. It is important for
individuals who feel depression for an extended period of time seek
help from a medical professional.
Depression if left untreated can lead to many different lifestyle

changes. This can include isolation, and activity, or an extreme cases
suicide. Depression can be very serious and it is important that you
advise your client to get help and treatment if necessary.
Depression can also be a short period of time at different intervals

throughout the client’s life. This is because there are many events that
can happen in life that are upsetting such as the loss of a job, death of a
loved one, or a divorce. You should always be sensitive to your client’s
needs and be empathetic to their situation.
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Impacts caused by health interventions (iatrogenic)
Iatrogenic is the process by which medical professionals promote services or products as being
beneficial to the health of a patient but ultimately do not support the goals of the person that
are affected by the treatment.
There are many different types of iatrogenic with the most common known as complications
that arise during surgical procedures. There are also complex drug interactions that can also
play a role in the overall health of an individual.
Causes of iatrogenesis includes:

 Medical error
 Unnecessary medical treatments for profit
 Complications from procedures or treatment
 Side effects of drug interactions
 Negligence
 Anxiety in physician or medical professional in the administration of medical
procedures.
Degenerative changes in vital organ systems

All organs begin to lose some of their functionality as we continue to age. Ageing causes
changes in homeostasis and the functions of the cells, tissues and organs of the body. These all
together make an impact on the overall functions of the body.
As we age, cells become larger and are less likely to divide and multiply. There is also an
increase in the amount of fatty substances within the cells that can cause abnormal cell
function. This degeneration changes at the cellular level will also impact the function in the
organs that they comprise together to make up.
Connective tissues continue to change and become more stiff. This change causes organs and
blood vessels to become more rigid. Degenerative changes do occur at a slow pace so they are
not so readily identified. Organs have the capability to function beyond their normal means by
having an ability reserve. As we continue to age, this reserve continues to lessen each year.
Changes in cellular function appear slowly and over an extended period of time. When an organ
has been working for a long time and harder than it usually has to work, it may not be able to
adequately function. This can cause sudden heart failure or other problems.
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The loss of normal control mechanisms such as the uncontrolled growth of
cancer cells
In a multicellular organism, the only way that the body is able to thrive is if the cells are all
working together and functioning according to their design through cell growth and
reproduction. There are some circumstances where a normal cell will mutate and divide
recklessly, invade other tissues and ultimately become fatal to the body.
Cancer cells are the abnormal cells in the body that cause disruptions in normal cell division.
These changes can be caused by environmental factors such as tobacco, viruses, x-rays, etc.
While the growth and development of cancer cells have not been linked to one single event,
but rather is comprised of a number of different events in order for cells to evolve as they do.
Because cancer calls are cells that have mutated, they do not respond to the signals that
control the cellular growth and death of cells. The rapid spread of these cells can lead to organs
failing because they have been overgrown by these mutated cells.
Over time, cancer cells become more and more resistant to the controls that maintain normal
tissues and are able to divide more rapidly. It is important for cancer to be identified in early
stages so that they are able to be controlled and removed before they overtake organ function
entirely.
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2.3 Document action plan in accordance with organisation
policies and procedures.
Interpreting information gathered in regards to patient health

It is important for you to appropriately interpret information that has been gathered in order to
determine the current health status of your patient. This is a process that involves reviewing all
of the relevant information that has been gathered. If you do not effectively include all of the
necessary documentation, you may miss an important factor that will play a role in your
patient’s health and the treatment that they require.
When you are interviewing your patient to gain an understanding of the status of their health,
you will need to identify any previous treatment that they have had for their symptoms. This
includes any diagnostic studies that have been done, treatments, medication etc.
You will need to be aware of what medical abbreviations are when you are reading your
patient’s medical records and health history. Many health care professionals will include
medical abbreviations in their notes and in the health records of their patients in order for
them to make the note taking and documentation process more efficient.
Here are a few examples of medical abbreviations to be aware of

 Dx – diagnosis
 Fx – fracture
 Rx – prescription
 BP – blood pressure
 HR – heart rate
 TPR – temperature, pulse, respirations
 VS – vital signs
 RR – respiratory rate
 BG – blood glucose
 BID – 2x per day
 TID – 3x per day
 QID – 4x per day
 Q – every
There are many more terms and abbreviations that are also used. If you are ever unsure of
what is being communicated in your patient’s medical records, you need to seek assistance in
order to better understand.
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Gaining clarification from the health care professional who made the notes will help make
certain that you are completely clear on your patient’s health records. This is especially true for
the care plan for your patient. Confusing the amount of times that a patient should be taking
medication or using their medical equipment for example, can prove to be very damaging to
the patient.
In your interpretation of your patient’s health records, you will need to evaluate the following
in order to further assess the health status of your patient
 Health history
 Current or past symptoms
 Medication they are currently taking
 Medication they have taken previously
 Any previous medical procedures
 Current diagnoses
 Current medical treatments
 Any allergies
You will need to take the appropriate time to

understand these medical records before you
implement treatments on the patient. This will help
you make certain that you are aware of any type of
risks that the patient may be in because of their
current health status.
If you are unaware of a latex allergy and prescribe a

latex intermittent catheter to a patient, you can cause
them greater health problems in the future. But by
taking the time and the due diligence to make certain
you understand the health history and the treatment
requirements for your patient, you can prescribe them
a silicone catheter instead. This will make certain that
their latex allergy is not upset and that there is no
further harm done to the patient.
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Anatomical and medical terminology
Working in the medical field can lead you to having to use and understand medical terminology
as well as terminology that is related to the human body. These can often be very confusing for
individuals to understand who are outside of this medical industry but it is necessary for health
care professionals to use this terminology in order for there to be more precise communication
during medical procedures.
Here are the most basic forms of anatomical and medical terminology
 Referring to the human body
 Taking measurements in different body systems
Referring to the human body

If you can become familiar with some of the prefixes, roots and suffixes that are commonly
used in medical terminology, you will begin to gain a better understanding of the words and
phrases that are used. It can also help you when you are documenting and recording your
observations with your patient. By implementing medical terminology, you will be able to
communicate more effectively with others within the medical community.
Word Body Part
Abdominal Abdomen
Cranial Skull
Digital Fingers and toes
Hallux Great toe
Inguinal Groin
Lumbar Loin (lowest part of the spine below the false ribs and between the hips)
Mammary Breast
Nasal Nose
Pectoral Chest
Sternal Breastbone
Thoracic Chest
Umbilical Navel
Ventral Belly
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Here are a few examples of medical conditions that may impact these parts of the body and the
use of medical terminology relating to these conditions
Prefix Meaning Example

Ambi- Both Ambidextrous
Dys- Bad, painful, difficult Dyslexia
Eu- Good, normal Eukaryote
Homo- Same Homogenous
Iso- Equal, same Isotope
Mal- Bad, poor Malnutrition
-algia Pain Myalgia
-emia Blood Hypoglycaemia
-itis Inflammation Bronchitis
-lysis Destruction, break down Dialysis
-oid Like Haploid
-opathy Disease of Neuropathy
-pnoea Breathing Sleep apnoea
Taking measurements in different body systems

Here are a few examples of prefixes that are commonly used in anatomical terminology
regarding numbers and directions of the body
Prefix Meaning Example

Mono-, uni- One Unilateral
Bi- Two Bilateral
Tri- Three Triplicate
Ab- Away from Abduction
Ad- Toward Adduction
Ecto-, exo- Outside Ectoparasite
Endo- Inside Endoderm
Epi- Upon Epinephrine
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These are examples of medical terminology in relationship to the positions of the body
Word Meaning Example

Anterior or ventral At or near the front surface of the “Anterior muscles”
body
Posterior or dorsal At or near the surface of the body “Dorsal surface of the foot”
Superior Above “Superior (cranial) aspect”
Inferior Below “Inferior aspect”
Lateral Side “Lateral aspect”
Distal Farthest from centre “Axons distal to the injury”
Proximal Nearest to centre Proximal end of the forearm”
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http://lawatlas.org/datasets/registered-nurse-scope-of-practice
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HLTAAP003 Analyse and respond to client health information

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HLTAAP003

Analyse and respond to

Areas to cover as follows:

Your assessment tasks will reinforce learning in the above areas.

1.2 Recognise normal readings on the findings of available tests, observations

1.3 Identify pathophysiologies, or changing pathologies, through observation,

1.4 Identify the likely impact of specific interventions

Role responsibilities and limitations in relation to analysing health information

Here are a few examples of particular health care fields:

Enrolled nursing scope of practice

The outline of the scope of practice for enrolled nurses includes:

Scope of practice for registered nurses are as follows:

Interviews with patient

Results of diagnostic testing

Obtaining information about physical health

The information that you will need to gather from your

There are observations that you are able to make based

If you find any potentially serious or harmful situations

This is often used in interviews and can cause

Imagining medical tests

Measurement of body functions

Measurement tests include:

The tissues that are typically examined in a biopsy include:

Analysis of genetic material or genetic testing

Genetic testing may be done in the following methods:

Physical examinations will typically involve the following:

Male physical examinations include:

Female physical examinations include:

Checking on health status of client

The process to checking on the health status of a client includes:

Observe the patient

Talk with the patient

Check equipment that is in use

Assess the environment

Take patient’s vital signs

Evaluate care given

Pathophysiology of diseases associated with each body system

There are many different types of common disorders

Cardiovascular system disorders

These disorders include:

Symptoms of these conditions include:

The main pathologies of heart failure include:

Respiratory system disorders include:

Symptoms of these conditions include:

In a healthy individual, when allergens or these stimuli

However, individuals who have asthma will have these

Common musculoskeletal system disorders include:

These symptoms can include:

The disorders and the symptoms in the endocrine system include:

Common digestive system disorders include:

Symptoms of digestive system disorders include:

Urinary system disorders

Common urinary system disorders include:

Symptoms that are associated with urinary system disorders include:

Reproductive system disorders

Male reproductive system disorders include:

Symptoms of these conditions include:

Female reproductive system disorders include:

Symptoms of these conditions include:

Integumentary system disorders