PHILOSOPHY BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

LESSON 1 DOING PHILOSOPHY

● Ideas, views, principles, METAPHYSICS
perspectives of beliefs ● Study of the fundamental nature of
○ “PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE” = reality
beliefs and principles ● It seeks the most intimate aspect of
● Activity of reasoning every reality its being.
○ PILOSOPO - philosopher; ● WHAT IS REAL?
one who likes to reason out or ● What kinds of things exist? Do only
to engage in the activity of particular things exist or do general
reasoning things also exist?
● Academic course of degree
EPISTEMOLOGY
PHILOSOPHY ● Study of the nature, origin, and
● Philosophy serves as frameworks or limits of human knowledge.
bases for interpreting or making ● Comes from the Greek words
judgments about the world. episteme (knowledge) and logos
● Philosophy distinguishes between (study of), meaning study of
correct and incorrect forms of knowledge.
reasoning, and engages in this ● HOW DO WE KNOW?
activity only for the purposes of ● Determining sources, the kinds, and
knowing or determining what is true. conditions of knowledge.
● Philosophy is an activity that we can
do in various aspects of our life ETHICS
and not just a set of theories. ● Study of what is right and wrong in
human behavior
“PHILO”- loving ● Identifying the standards for
“SOPHIA”- wisdom making moral judgments, clarifying
= “love of wisdom” the meaning moral judgments
● WHAT IS MORALLY GOOD?
“PHILOSOPHER” - term was first used by WHAT IS RIGHT?
Pythagoras ● This philosophical concept has
different applications in a person's
“Our reason will show us that certain truths real life.
are universal and objective”
LOGIC
A Sense of WONDER ● Study that seeks to organize
● Philosophy begins with wonder. reasoning
● Whenever we ponder on these ● Logic has two types: deductive and
thoughts, ideas, standards, inductive reasoning:
hypotheses, ethics o r methods for ● Deductive reasoning examines a
living, we are doing philosophy. general case then deducing it to
● Each one of us has his/her own specific cases.
“philosophy”
 ● Inductive reasoning involves taking Many important questions about a discipline,
specific examples and considering such as the nature of its concepts and its
the general principles that caused relation to other disciplines are philosophical
them. in nature.

AESTHETICS Philosophy provides ethical guidelines

● Study of beauty and taste for the use of modern technology.
● Greek word Aisthetikos - one. who New ethical issues require new and updated
is perceptive of things his sensations, approaches, which philosophy supplies
through feelings, and intuitions through the different areas of applied or
● How do we find something beautiful? practical ethics.
● Every person defines beauty as his
or. her own perspective. Philosophy has significantly contributed
to social transformation.
IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY The concept of democracy that we have
(separation of power - executive, judicial and
Philosophy provides a holistic view of legislative) is largely a product of ideas of
life. some philosophers - Locke and Montesquieu
It supplements what is lacking in
explanations to come up with holistic Philosophy continues to explore what is
explanations of things or events in the world. possible and consequently expands the
boundaries of knowledge or of what we
Aristotle argued that there are four kinds of can know.
answers to "Why" questions: the causes. This is to keep our sense of wonder and
amazement with the world since it drives us
ARISTOTLE’S FOUR KINDS OF CAUSES to explore alternative ways of looking at
● Material - composition of something; things.
what a thing is made up of e.g., for a
table, that matter might be wood; for The only true wisdom is in knowing you
a statue, it might be bronze or marble. know nothing. – Socrates
● Formal - design or form of
arrangement, shape, something; due LESSON 2 - JOURNEY TO TRUTH
to the or appearance of the thing
changing. TRUTH VS OPINION To know the truth is
● Efficient - the one that initiates a different from believing something to be true.
change in an object e.g., the artisan,
the man who gives advice, or the What is VS What appears to be We are not
father of the child. supposed to believe all views presented to
● Final - purpose of something e.g., a us as true.
seed's end is an adult plant and a
sailboat's purpose is sailing. We need to distinguish... Falsity from
Philosophy contributes to the Veritas, or the illusions from the real.
development of some disciplines or areas
of knowledge.
So, it matters that as lovers of wisdom. we THEORIES OF TRUTH
also ask the questions: "Adequatio rei Intellectus"
The thoughts in the mind should conform to
"ARE WHAT WE BELIEVE IN JUSTIFIED?" the reality of the world.

"ARE THEY TRUE?" TRUTH

Correspondence Definition of Truth: The
Beliefs are important in that what we do thoughts in the mind should conform to the
on earth is based on what we believe. It reality of the world.
was said, "We are what we believe."
When someone says, "Today is Tuesday".
A. ANCIENT PERIOD one should ask oneself, "Is it today Tuesday"
OPINION VS KNOWLEDGE before accepting the persons statement to
PLATO be true.
DOXA APPEARANCE
What appears to be- Opinion/ simply belief NOTION OF INDUBITABILITY
• Can be doubted. RENE DESCARTES "Father of Modern
• Confuses our thought. Philosophy"

EPISTEME REALITY In his Meditation on First Philosophy...

What is is, Reality/ simply knowledge "From my earliest years, I have accepted
• Indubitable (cannot be doubted.) many false opinions as true, and that what I
• CERTAIN have concluded from such badly assured
Philosophers have a traditional analysis of premises could not be highly doubtful and
knowledge that says, uncertain. From the time that I first
• Knowledge= Justified True Belief. recognized this fact, I have realized that if I
wished to have any firm and constant
SYLLOGISM knowledge in the sciences, I would have
ARISTOTLE undertake, once and for all, to set aside all
• deductive argument of a certain form the opinions which I have previous accepted
where a conclusion is inferred from among my beliefs and start again from the
two premises very beginning"
Premises
• knowable and guarantee the truth of TRUTH
a conclusion. Absolute Skepticism
• explanation on why the conclusion is • However, this is not the case for the
valid and acceptable. Contemporary philosophers. Post-
AIM: to demonstrate the truth of a claim or modernism has its own take about
conclusion truth, as in truth.
• Absolute Skepticism is the denial
that knowledge is at all possible.
There is not and there can be no such
things as knowledge
SOLUTION: HEALTHY SKEPTICISM/ proposition (conclusion) being
DOUBT asserted.
• Rene Descartes will teach us how. • Used to persuade others to believe
• Suspend your judgment the truth of the proposition being
• If you are given a box full of apples, asserted
do not assume that all apples in the
box are fresh apples. Just like our "BUT ARGUMENTS MAY BE FAULTY... IT
beliefs and the 'facts' presented to us. MAY BE FALLACIOUS"
• We must first suspend our judgment • It is meant to deceive you into
and wear our philosopher's hat. accepting a conclusion that does not
reflect reality
Examine each apples
• Remove the apples from the box, FALLACY
examine each one, return the fresh • fallacia (latin) – deceit or fraud.
apples in the box and throw or • Effective in subjectively convincing
discard those that are rotten. their audience
• Not all of our beliefs are justified true • Obviously incorrect arguments
beliefs. • Subtly incorrect arguments
• So it is imperative that we become
somewhat skeptic, so that we may 2 GROUPS OF FALLACIES
begin the process of thinking.
Remember, philosophers question PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE
appearances. They are not easily targets and seduces emotions and
swayed and convinced. subconscious drives and motivation of man

"What is true for you may not be true to REPEATED ASSERTION/ AD NAUSEAM
me" Repeats or multiplies essentially the same
assertion with the aim that sooner or later
• Read and research more about them people will accept the true.
to determine which of these make
sense to you. Example:
• Be diligent enough to know more so • The politician who clutters all the
you can make progress in your street corners and public walls with
journey to truth. his face and office long before
• learning is a life-long activity. election time...

ARGUMENTATION AND FALLACIES • More ingenious advertisers will

compose CATCHY JUINGLES OR
ARGUMENTS TELEVISION SCENES that will
• Traditionally defined as a hopefully recur over and over again in
combination of propositions wherein the heads of the audience.
a given proposition or premise is
used to support the truth of another
 POISONING THE WELL running leap at it, only to fall short once
it happens when one discounts in advance more. Again and again he tried, but in vain.
the opponent's evidence, proof, or counter Now he sat down and looked at the grapes
argument, thereby preventing him from in disgust. "What a fool I am," he said. "Here
employing them. I am wearing myself out to get a bunch of
sour grapes that are not worth gaping for."
Example:
When a biblical fundamentalist says, And off he walked very, very scornfully.
"Theories are speculations, and
speculations are always unreliable. Now hoe Examples:
do you prove your theory of evolution?" 1. Don't tell them we failed. Tell them we
temporarily postponed our success.
Here he is discounting in advance the value 2. "I never would have hit that car if he'd just
of a theory and has prevented his opponent stopped for a second longer at that stop
to argue in favor of it. sign!"

When your teacher exhorts the class that AD BACULUM

only lazy students ask for open book exam, when force or threat of force is used instead
then asks later on who wants an open book of proper reason.
exam.
This fallacy bears its classical Latin name
RATIONALIZING Baculum (club or staff). Argumentum ad
when one's ego is placed in an unpleasant baculum roughly means an argument
situation, one can spin untrue, but pleasant accompanied with threatening blow of a club.
reasons to settle things.
Examples:
Example: • "Follow the rules or I will beat you to
Aesop, a 6th century Greek folk hero and death."
teller of fables, had a story about a fox who • "Don't ask me questions! I will flunk
felt so bad because he could not grab the you!"
hanging bunch of grapes • "You ask me to be the president, then
I will kill all those who are against my
A Fox one day spied a beautiful bunch of presidency!"
ripe grapes hanging from a vine trained
along the branches of a tree. The grapes AD HOMINEM
seemed ready to burst with juice, and the attacks not the argument but the person of
Fox's mouth watered as he gazed longingly the opponent himself.
at them.
It simply means 'against the person.
The bunch hung from a high branch, and
the Fox had to jump for it. The first time he However, in court adjudications, ad hominem
jumped he missed it by a long way. So he may be reasonably used. Lawyers may
walked off a short distance and took a attack the testimony of witnesses by focusing
on their character, credibility, and expertise.
 LOGICAL MANEUVER Example:
• fools the cognitive and intellectual Marites: Our manager said that our sales
aspect of human mind. team is outstanding because the sales we
• Uses rhetorical skills. endorsed by the end of the week make up 80
percent of this month's profit.
FALLACY OF COMPOSITION
If each of the member of a group has a Therefore, I am an outstanding sales agent
particular characteristic feature, then the despite me not being able to make any sale.
group as a whole has this same
characteristic feature. FALSE DILEMMA
Also called “Black and white fallacy” claiming
Claiming that the conclusion is true on the that the conclusion is true on the basis of only
basis of treating individual characteristics or two possible contrary alternatives without
attributes as applicable to the whole group recognizing that there may be other possible
alternatives that can be considered
Example:
Coach: Each of the members of EAC Example:
Generals is very good in playing basketball. "You are either with us, or against us."

Therefore, EAC Generals is a very good Definition: The false dilemma fallacy occurs
basketball team. when a limited number of choices, outcomes
or views are presented as the only options
Thus, five very good point guards will not when, in fact, more options exist.
necessarily make a very good basketball
team. STRAW-MAN FALLACY
claiming that the conclusion is true on the
Thus, if all atoms that constitute a basketball basis of proving false an argument that is
player is invisible it does not follow that the weaker or watered- down version of the
player is also invisible. original argument that one tends to oppose

Thus, if sodium is highly toxic, and chlorine The arguer attacks a strawman (effigy) of the
is also highly toxic, it does not follow that salt, enemy instead of the real enemy. We should
included in the tonic drink the players drink is attack the real arguments of the opponent.
also highly toxic. Not our weakly reformulated version of their
arguments.
FALLACY OF DIVISION
if a given group as a whole has a particular SLIPPERY SLOPE
characteristic feature, then each of its claiming that the conclusion is not true on the
member has this same characteristic feature. basis of the universality of the conclusion
being proposed.
Claiming that the conclusion is true on the
basis of treating a general trait of a group as This happens when one objects to and
applicable to each of its members criticizes an particular action with the reason
that once such an action is performed, it will
simply lead unavoidably to a similar yet People will make claims about all kinds of
unpleasant action which again will lead to an things based on one or two pieces of
even more undesirable action, and so on evidence, which is not only wrong but can be
sliding down the slippery slope until unknown dangerous. It's really easy to fall into this kind
horrors lurking at the bottom will be the of thinking, but we must work to avoid it. We
ultimate fate must hold ourselves to higher standards
when we are making arguments.
BANDWAGON
sometimes called "the appeal to common Fallacies are statements or arguments
belief" or "appeal to the masses" because it's whose intention is to deceive the hearer
all about getting people to do or think into accepting the truth of the conclusion
something because "everyone else is doing despite the lack of logical support
it" or "everyone else thinks this" provided by the premises to the
conclusion.
Assuming a claim is true because many or
most others believe it. LESSON 3 - DISCOVERING THE SELF:
WHO AM I?
GUILT BY ASSOCIATION
when someone connects an opponent to a Man is always more than he knows about
demonized group of people or to a bad himself -Karl Jaspers
person in order to discredit his or her
argument. The person is "guilty" by simply A. HUMAN BEING'S UNDERSTANDING
being similar to this "bad" group and OF HIMSELF/HERSELF
therefore, should not be listened about 1. Who am I?
anything, 2. Why do I have lived, if I die soon?
3. Why do I have to follow a boss who does
HASTY GENERALIZATION not even his responsibilities?
claiming that the conclusion is true on the 4. Why do I have to fear losing things which
basis of evidence that is of insufficient I do not have yet? 5. What is true love?
quantity to logically support the extent of the
conclusion HUMAN BEING
is the source of many questions about the
The hasty generalization fallacy is existence of the world and everything that
sometimes called the over- generalization exists in it.
fallacy. It seems that he is capable of discovering all
the answers of all his own questions.
It is basically making a claim based on
evidence that it just too small. Essentially, When he is confronted with the question
you can't make a claim and say that "WHO AM I?" which directly unveils his
something is true if you have only an existence, he is pushed to the limit of silence.
example or two as evidence.
 HUMAN BEING'S ECHOUNTER WITH JOHN LOCKE
EXISTENTIAL LIMIT SITUATIONS Theory of the self as tabula rasa

For Jaspers, human beings lead to a deeper John Locke's notion of inner sense that is
consciousness and experience his better understood as reflection or
limitations and funitude. These boundary introspection
situations lead into a deepers reflection on
his own self being. He points out that all thoughts are
conscious.. Moreover, our consciousness is
• Why am i experiencing guilt or death the criterion for personal identity.
or pain?
• Why am i suffering this kind of The "I" or the self is consciousness and this
illness? is found even in Descartes when he
• What is the meaning of all these? observed that the self is a thinking thing
• How do i deal with these things?
THE RELATION OF I AND THE BODY
DUALITY OF BODY AND SOUL 1. A human being is conscious that he is
The duality of body and soul is the view held limited is constantly connected with his body.
by those who believe that our body is
separate and distinct from our soul. 2. "My body" feels something (reality); "My
body" touches, smells, or hears or senses
Our body shows our corporeality but we are something.
more than our body because we have a soul
or spirit 3. "My body" senses the "I-existence". This
principal basis of reflection is a
Plato is one of those who argued for the communicative manifestation of an essential
dualism of body and soul. The human soul relationship between "My body" and
he theorized, exists prior to the body and existence or the world.
even after the body is long gone.
TWO LEVELS OF EXPERENCE IN
UNITY OF BODY AND SOUL REFLECTION ON “MY BODY”
Saint Thomas Aquinas claimed that body 1. In the first level of reflection, the body is
and soul are not two entities that interact with seen as separate entity from the self.
each other but are one being made up of
matter and form. 2. Another way or level of reflection on "my
body" is when I consider it as a "mystery".
HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS AND
EXISTENCE I HAVE MY BODY
The claim "I have my body" implies
Part of the reason why the mind-body possession. I own my body; it is mine.
problem could not be entirely abandoned in
philosophy is because humans naturally Nonetheless, this does not only show
engaged in thought as they interact with the authority over it, but also a great
world. responsibility.
 I AM MY BODY • The problem with this approach is
The union between my body and I is not just that when a human being can no
a mere relationship of two organisms or longer recognize the value of
entities. environment, it ceases to be of value.

For Marcel, this union means existential AXIOLOGICAL APPROACH

existence to my body and to myself. • Human being recognizes the
intrinsic value of the environment.
My body cannot exist apart from my body. This approach demands him/her to
protect and take care of it.
MY SELF AND THE WORLD • This approach needs a greater use
My existence is existential. I appear to the of imagination and reflection on the
world and relate with it through my body. I part of human being for him/her to
touch, see, taste, smell, grasp, and affect the see and experience the intrinsic
world through my body in a particular way. value of the environment.

I am present in the world through my body: ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACH

the world knows and feels my presence • The primary concern of human being
through my body. is to unveil his/her being as human
or what being human ought to be.
LESSON 4 - HARMONY WITH NATURE • Human being does not recognize
HUMAN BEING’S ENCOUNTER WITH THE that the environment has its own
ENVIRONMENT consciousness and inherent
system. Such approach considers
HUMAN BEING'S PERSPECTIVE ON environment as an object
ENVIRONMENT
UTILITARIANISM
The kind of relationship that human being • This focuses on the consequences
establishes with the environment depends of human action, whether it is wrong
on how he/she perceives it. or right.
• Our action is ethically right when it
The environment is considered as a produces greatest happiness for the
commodity or property to be used and greater number of people.
disposed for one's own individual welfare.
• Human beings use such view to
utilize and manipulate natural
HUMAN BEING'S APPROACHES ON
environment for human
ENVIRONMENT
development

INSTRUMENTAL APPROACH
NATURAL LAW ETHICS
• Human being affirms the protection
• There is goodness in human nature
of the environment as long as it
to do good which is rooted in the
possesses values or importance
goodness of God; the God who
for human being
created everything according to His
Divine Plan
 • We respect nature because God protect, and cultivate his/her
created it for diving purpose. The potentialities, faculties, and
environment is created and functions.
continuously being recreated for • As part of creation, human being's
human being's well-being. choice and action influences and
affects the unfolding phenomena in
VIRTUE ETHICS PERSPECTIVE the environment
• Development of our virtue of care and • Human being's action must not distort
respect for the environment is a the nature of things, but helps it to its
habitual performance of caring and realization and sustainability.
respecting non-human beings. • What the human being does to the
• The act of caring and of respecting environment has a great influence
becomes our second nature. This and effect on his/her existence.
extends to non- human especially for • As a steward, the human being has
the environment where he/she lives to take care of the environment, and
and realizes his/her being. not to destroy it; as a steward, he/she
is responsible for the well- being and
SACREDNESS OF ENVIRONMENT harmony in the environment
• The recognition of the sacredness of
environment is based on the HUMAN BEING AS THE SUMMIT OF
creation of all things. The CREATION
environment as part of creation • Rationality makes human being
poses an affirmation of Creator who different from other created beings.
is, the uncaused and cause • As the summit of creation and image
everything that exists (Buenaflor, of the Divine Creator, he/she has
2006). moral responsibility to take care and
respect the environment.
LEONARDO MERCADO • According to St. Augustine, the
• Natural environment "symbolizes a human being bears and reveals the
possible encounter with the Divine" divine image of the Creator.
(Mercado 1974, 161). • Being the summit of creation, it does
• Mercado also asserted that human not mean that having the freedom
beings could encounter the Divine in and authority to control creation, the
the environment environment for its expense.
• Emmanuel Levinas believes that
THE INFLUENCE AND EFFECTS OF human being's action is for the good
HUMAN ACTIVITY TOWARD of the "other," and not for his/her own
ENVIRONMENT good.
THE SPIRIT OF STEWARDSHIP • The environment becomes the basis
• Human being is part of creation. of his/her judgment and choice. This
He/she is not the authors of his/her presupposes his/her great
existence. responsibility to protect and care for
• According to Timbreza, human being the environment.
has the responsibility to take care,