An Introduction toSafety

RRC INTRODUCTIONS
Introduction to Health and
Health and Safety

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RRC INTRODUCTIONS
Introduction to Health and Safety
Workplace health and safety practice brings together knowledge from many different disciplines,
including the sciences, engineering, psychology, sociology and the law. The fundamental tool for
identification and control of risks is the ‘Risk Assessment’. Some health and safety risks are simple
to identify, understand and control; others are technical and require specialist knowledge. This
introduction gives a brief overview of practical issues to consider in most workplaces.

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 Introduction to Health and Safety
Foundations in Health and Safety
Moral, Social and Economic Reasons for Health and Safety
Moral
Although legislation and extensive guidance have helped to reduce the number of work-related
accidents, the global statistics show an unacceptably high number of injuries and fatalities and financial
loss due to workplace incidents.
Social/Legal
An employer has a duty to provide:
• A safe place of work – both the workplace and access to and from the workplace.
• Safe plant and equipment – machinery, tools, plant, equipment and appliances used by workers in
the performance of their work must be kept in a well-maintained and safe condition.
• Safe systems of work – appropriate review, planning and control measures should ensure that
working methods are safe.
• Training and supervision which ensure that staff are competent.
Economic
Apart from prosecutions and fines, or damages paid as compensation for injuries to workers that may
result from accidents, unsafe working conditions are likely to impact on motivation and morale in the
workforce and therefore on production levels. Poor business conduct can also seriously damage the
reputation and long-term financial viability of an organisation.

Role of Employers, Employees, Enforcement Agencies and

International Bodies
Employers’ Legal Responsibilities
Some of the common basic duties placed on employers in many countries are to:
• Provide workplaces and work equipment, and use work methods, which are safe and no risk to
health.
• Provide appropriate instructions and training.
• Provide necessary supervision.
• Put in place health and safety arrangements adapted to suit the size and nature of the undertaking.
• Provide any necessary personal protective clothing and equipment free of charge.
• Ensure that the hours of work do not adversely affect employees’ safety and health.
• Remove any extreme physical and mental fatigue.
• Stay up-to-date with knowledge in order to comply with the above.

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Workers’ Responsibilities and Rights
Workers should:
• Take reasonable care of their own safety and that of other people who might be affected by the things
that they do and the things that they fail to do.
• Comply with safety instructions and procedures.
• Use all safety equipment properly and not tamper with it.
• Report any situation which they believe could be a hazard and which they cannot themselves correct.
• Report any work-related accident or ill-health.
Workers’ rights include:
• The right to be provided with adequate information on actions the employer has taken to ensure
occupational safety and health.
• The right to the necessary training in occupational safety and health.
• The right to be consulted by the employer on all matters of occupational safety and health relating to
their work.
• The right to leave a workplace which he has reason to think presents an imminent and serious danger
to his life or health and not be compelled to return until it is safe.
Role of Enforcement Agencies
Each country has a number of agencies that investigate incidents and enforce laws (i.e. enforcement
agencies and fire authorities) or provide advice.
International Standards and Conventions
Most countries have their own laws and enforcement bodies. The United Nations has led the way in
upholding international standards in health and safety, particularly through the International Labour
Organisation (ILO) which sets international standards through ‘conventions’ and ‘recommendations’.
The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) has been the main instigator of the Quality
Management Standard (ISO 9001) and the Environmental Management Standard (ISO 14001).

Health and Safety Management Systems

Key Elements of a Health and Safety Management System
The ILO Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health Management Systems 2001 (ILO-OSH 2001)
provides a model for the development and maintenance of effective systems and procedures. The key
elements of this are the same as for other management processes as follows:
• Setting a health and safety policy.
• Organising staff and assigning roles and responsibilities for health and safety.
• Planning and implementing systems.
• Evaluation – monitoring and reviewing standards and systems.
• Action for improvement – implementing any necessary adjustments.
• Auditing the effectiveness and reliability of the safety system in order to continually improve.

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 Introduction to Health and Safety
Setting a Health and Safety Policy
As a minimum, like other management system standards, the policy is typically a short ‘statement
of intent’. This is accompanied with objectives and signed by senior management. It may seem
insignificant but it represents the commitment, direction and authority for everything else.

Organising Staff
Roles and Responsibilities
Although everyone working in an organisation will have a practical responsibility for their health and
safety and that of others, ILO Convention 1981 (C155) and Recommendation (R164) place specific duties
in respect of health and safety to different people within the organisation. We outline the main ones
here.
Directors and Senior Managers
Directors and senior managers must demonstrate clear commitment and leadership with regard to
health and safety, and have strategic responsibilities to ensure:
• The right health and safety policy is in place.
• There is an adequate budget for implementing the policy.
• The right organisational structures are in place.
• Competent people are employed by the organisation.
Demonstrating Top Management Commitment
Directors and senior managers demonstrate commitment to health and safety through strategic thinking
by:
• Ensuring availability of resources.
• Defining roles and responsibilities.
• Appointing a member of top management with specific responsibility for health and safety.
• Appointing one or more competent persons and adequate resources to provide assistance.
• Reviewing performance at board level.
Middle Managers and Supervisors
These are responsible for the health and safety standards within the operations they control, ensuring:
• Health and safety policies are implemented and monitored.
• Safe systems of work and equipment are supplied.
• Incidents are recorded and investigated.
They are responsible for:
• The staff that work directly for them (their direct reports).
• Staff lower down in the organisational chart (below their direct reports).
• The areas and activities under their control.

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Safety Specialists
Typical responsibilities include:
• Providing advice on legislative requirements.
• Developing and implementing policy.
• Overseeing the implementation of adequate risk assessments.
• Identifying training needs.
• Monitoring health and safety performance.
Responsibilities of Workers
Workers are expected to act responsibly and take reasonable care of themselves and of others who
may be affected by their actions or omissions, and to co-operate with their employer in respect of their
health and safety duties.
Contractors
Contractors are engaged to perform a certain task without close supervision and direction from the
client – the person commissioning and paying them. Responsibility for risk control is shared between
client and contractor.
The client is responsible for the workplace and environment, and his own workers, while the contractor
is responsible for the job in hand, and those employed by him to carry out certain duties.

Safety Culture
Part of ‘organising’ is motivating and involving staff. This means developing what is usually called a
‘positive safety culture’. The culture of an organisation refers to the formal and informal rules, values,
customs and relationships that describe the ‘feel’ of the organisation.

Safety Culture
The shared attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviours relating to health and safety.

Correlation Between Culture and Performance

An organisation with a positive health and safety culture will ensure that health and safety standards are
high and will have:
• A firm statement of health and safety policy.
• Well-defined lines of responsibilities and control.
• Clear communication and consultation on health and safety.
• Active approaches to health and safety at all levels.
• People working safely so there will be fewer accidents and ill-health.

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An organisation with a negative health and safety culture will have:
• Workers who think health and safety is unimportant.
• Lack of clear direction and leadership from senior management.
• Managers who do not consider health and safety in their decision-making.
• Workers who behave unsafely because they do not know any better or they do not care.
• Lack of attention given to health and safety so standards will be low, behaviour poor and accidents
will occur.
Improving Health and Safety Culture
An organisation’s approach to health and safety can be improved by:
• Securing the commitment of senior managers and ensuring that they are fully involved with day-
to-day work and decisions, and consult with employees on any changes to working conditions and
policies.
• Promoting health and safety standards by enforcing company safety rules and procedures, and
carrying out active monitoring to ensure continuous improvement.
• Using competent personnel and contractors in accordance with regulations and the work to be done
(i.e. scaffolding) or providing training (induction, refresher, task-specific, etc.) where necessary.
• Communicating effectively with all workers.

Planning and Implementing

Importance of Planning
Setting ‘SMART’ Objectives
When health and safety objectives are set for an organisation, those objectives should be ‘SMART’:
• Specific – a clearly defined, precise objective.
• Measurable – it is possible to measure achievement of (or towards) the target, usually by quantifying
the objective.
• Achievable – it can be done.
• Reasonable – within the timescale set and with the resources allocated.
• Time-bound – a deadline or timescale is set for completion of the objective.
When setting health and safety objectives, consideration should be given to:
• Who is going to set the objectives.
• How objectives will be set at each functional level.
• Legal and other requirements.
• Hazards and risks.
• Technological options.
• Financial, operational, and business requirements.
• Views of interested parties.

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Principles and Practice of Risk Assessment
Risk Assessment
Nothing more than a careful examination of what could cause harm in the workplace, so that we
can decide if the current precautions are enough to prevent that harm, or if we need to do more to
reduce the level of risk.
Hazards
Any substance, machine or situation that has the potential to cause harm or damage. Hazards will
always exist, to some extent, in the workplace.
Risk
The likelihood of harm actually occurring from workplace hazards, and their consequences. The
degree of risk depends on the likelihood of harm happening and the severity of the injury, damage or
loss that might foreseeably occur.

Risk Assessors
Risk assessments should be carried out by competent people – they might be carried out by one person
or a team. A team allows for various views and opinions to be taken into account, including those of:
• Workers familiar with the tasks and areas to be assessed.
• Health and safety specialists.
• Technical specialists.
• Line managers.
• Worker safety representatives.

Risk assessments examine what could cause harm in the

workplace.

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 Introduction to Health and Safety
5-Steps to Risk Assessment
Step 1 – Identifying Hazards
The first step in the risk assessment process is to identify all the significant hazards.
Safety hazards – capable of causing immediate physical injury and can be categorised according to type
of accident that is foreseen:
• Slips, trips or falls.
• Falls from height.
• Falling objects.
• Collision with objects.
• Trapping, crushing under or between objects.
• Manual handling.
• Contact with machinery and hand tools.
• Electricity.
• Transport.
• Contact with chemicals.
• Suffocation and drowning.
• Fire and explosion.
Health hazards – can cause occupational disease or ill-health conditions, and can be categorised into five
groups:
• Physical.
• Chemical.
• Biological.
• Ergonomic.
• Psychological.

Step 2 – Identifying the People at Risk and How they Might be Harmed
Consider all people at risk, e.g. workers or visitors. Give special attention to lone workers, any persons
with disabilities, etc.

Step 3 – Evaluating the Risk and Deciding on Precautions

Risk evaluation aims to identify the likelihood of harm that will result from a hazard and the severity of
that harm.
Risk estimation may involve a good deal of subjective judgment. A formula (Risk = Likelihood × Severity)
is sometimes used for this purpose, to estimate the relative magnitude of risks. The various risks are
then ranked. Generally, the higher the risk magnitude, the higher the priority for treatment. In each
case, the assessor must decide if the risk is acceptable or whether more (and, if so, what) needs to be
done to reduce the risk (see later section on hierarchy of control).

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Step 4 – Recording Significant Findings and Implementing Any further Actions Needed
There is no standard layout for recording findings but documents should describe the processes/
activities assessed; identify any groups of workers at risk; evaluate the risks; identify the adequacy of
existing controls and how any additional ones will be implemented; include the date of the next review
and the name of the competent person carrying out the assessment. It is essential that actions get
implemented.

Step 5 – Reviewing
The assessment will need to be reviewed when there are changes to the process or to personnel. It
should also be monitored to ensure that the control measures are effective.
Special Cases and Vulnerable Workers
Some employees may be particularly vulnerable:
• Young persons.
• Expectant and nursing mothers.
• Disabled workers.
• Lone workers.

General Hierarchy of Control

There are many approaches to controlling risks. These usually have variable effectiveness and are placed
in a hierarchy of reducing effectiveness (the ones at the top are the most effective at reducing risk). In
practice, a range of strategies are used. One such hierarchy is:
• Eliminate the hazard or substitute it for something less hazardous – but this may not be possible in
many cases.
• Change work methods or patterns, reducing exposure.
• Isolate or segregate the risk at source.
• Use engineering controls that provide general rather than individual protection.
• Ensure safe systems of work.
• Provide training and information to all concerned.
• Use personal protective equipment.
• Provide welfare/monitoring/supervision.

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Emergency Procedures
An organisation has to develop procedures to deal with foreseeable incidents, such as fires, hazardous
substance spillage and toxic gas release. The foreseeable incidents will vary depending on many factors
such as the type of organisation and its location.
Having identified the foreseeable incidents, the organisation should make internal arrangements to deal
with each of them, including:
• Procedures to be followed.
• Provision of suitable equipment.
• Nomination of responsible staff.
• Provision of training and information.
• Drills and exercises.
Every workplace is likely to have some provision (however basic) for first-aid medical treatment of
casualties.
First-Aid
The basic principle of first-aid is to keep the injured casualty alive until professional medical assistance
can take over.
An employer has a duty to make appropriate first-aid provision for his employees to allow an immediate
emergency medical response to foreseeable injuries that might occur. Factors to consider in the level of
provision include:
• The general risk level of the workplace.
• The hazards present in the workplace.
• Accident history.
• The presence of vulnerable persons.
• The number of workers in the workplace.
• Work patterns and shift systems of workers.
• The geographic location of the workplace. Workplaces within easy reach of the emergency services
can perhaps provide minimal cover, but workplaces in remote locations must be far more self-reliant.
• The spread of the workplace.
• The adequacy of first-aid cover on all shifts worked in the workplace.
This provision could consist of:
• Facilities – an appropriate location where first-aid treatment can be given, provided with washing
facilities, etc.
• Equipment – suitably stocked first-aid kits and other equipment, such as eye wash stations,
emergency showers, stretchers and resuscitation equipment as necessary.
• Personnel – staff with appropriate training to deliver first-aid treatment.
• Personnel – staff who maintain first-aid kits and contact emergency services.
The employer must notify staff of these first-aid arrangements and in particular the identity of trained
first-aid personnel.

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Measuring, Audit and Review
Active and Reactive Monitoring
There are two approaches to monitoring health and safety:
• Active monitoring that takes place before any event has happened. It involves systematic inspection
of the workplace and existing safety measures to establish conformance with standards and non-
conformance. It looks at:
–– Plant.
–– Premises.
–– People.
–– Procedures.
• Reactive monitoring that takes place in response to, and after, an event. Information about what has
failed may come from:
–– Data on accidents, incidents, ill-health and near-misses, including from accident investigations.
–– Complaints or concerns voiced by the workforce through consultative channels and safety/worker
representatives.
• Evidence from external agencies involving enforcement notices.

Health and Safety Auditing

Health and Safety Auditing
“The structured process of collecting independent information on the efficiency, effectiveness and
reliability of the total health and safety management system and drawing up plans for corrective
action.”

Scope and Purpose

The purpose of auditing is to monitor and assess the effectiveness of the health and safety management
system to ensure that:
• Appropriate management arrangements are in place.
• Adequate risk control systems exist, are implemented, and are consistent with the hazard profile of
the organisation.
• Appropriate workplace precautions are in place.
• Critical feedback on the health and safety management system is provided so that appropriate follow-
up action can be implemented.

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Investigating Incidents
Workers normally report incidents to their immediate line manager verbally, followed by completion
of an internal incident report form. Incidents, whether they are accidents or near-misses, should be
investigated. This is primarily to find the root cause and formulate measures to prevent a recurrence.
Basic Investigation Procedures
Step 1: Gather Information
• Secure the scene and collect witnesses’ details.
• Collect factual information, including physical layout, environmental conditions, etc. using plans,
diagrams, measurements, photographs, etc.
• Interview witnesses.
• Examine appropriate documents, e.g. company policy, risk assessments, training records,
maintenance records, etc.

Step 2: Analyse Information

It is necessary to draw conclusions about the immediate and root causes of the accident.
• Immediate causes are the unsafe acts on the part of the worker, e.g. walking through an oil spill, or
unsafe conditions in the workplace, e.g. inadequate guarding.
• Underlying or root causes are the things that brought about the immediate causes, i.e. management
system failure, lack of adequate supervision or training, lack of maintenance, etc.
• Some accidents will have one immediate cause and one underlying cause, but others are complex and
have multiple causes.

Step 3: Identify Suitable Control Measures

This stage involves determining what should be done to prevent future incidents with similar underlying
causes, such as:
• Improving safety and skills training.
• Improving management and supervisory control.
• Changing work practices and implementing a positive safety culture.

Step 4: Plan the Remedial Action

This is usually in the form of an action plan which identifies priority, timescale and responsible persons.
These must be implemented to prevent a recurrence.

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Workplace Hazards and Risk Control
Chemicals
Chemicals are used extensively in the workplace and come in many forms - dusts, liquids, mists, etc.
Many chemicals are hazardous. The specific hazards of a chemical and general precautions in use
can be found on container labels and safety data sheets provided by the manufacturer. In addition
to this information, however, you need to consider many other factors such as the form, the amounts
being used, the method of use (spraying, painting, pouring, etc.), any applicable legal limits, individual
susceptibility and other chemicals being used with it.

Labels indicate hazards and general precautions of a chemical.

Preventing exposure to hazardous substances (such as by substituting a dangerous chemical for one that
is not, or totally enclosing the process) is the most effective way of controlling the health risk that they
represent. Where exposure cannot be prevented then it should be adequately controlled.
In many countries there is a system of occupational exposure limits for airborne concentrations of
chemicals in the workplace. These values are set on the basis of scientific evidence about the levels of
exposure that do not cause ill-health or, where this is difficult to establish, practical limits.

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Driving for Work
Up to a third of all road traffic accidents involve somebody who is at work at the time.
Arguably, driving a vehicle for work is the highest risk activity that most workers will engage in whilst at
work. Evaluating and controlling the risk involves looking at:
• The Driver
–– Competency – drivers should hold the relevant driving licence and may have to demonstrate
relevant experience, skill and knowledge.
–– Training – drivers may have to undertake specific training on safe driving.
–– Fitness and health – drivers may have to be passed as fit to drive.
• The Vehicle
–– Suitability – the vehicle must be suitable for its intended purpose.
–– Condition – the vehicle must be in a roadworthy condition.
–– Safety equipment – the vehicle should carry suitable safety equipment.
–– Safety critical information – certain information must be understood by the driver.
–– Ergonomic – adjustability of seat position and driver posture to achieve comfort.
• The Journey
–– Routes – route planning allows for hazards to be avoided and risks minimised.
–– Scheduling – scheduling journeys at the right time of day.
–– Time – allowing sufficient time for the journey.
–– Distance – travel distances must be reasonable.

Drugs and Alcohol

Alcohol and drug abuse at work can lead to a number of physical and psychological problems. Employers
should have a policy in place which might contain:
• Rules restricting access to (or being under the influence of) alcohol and drugs in the workplace during
working hours.
• Reinforcement of any specific legal requirements (these may apply to specific sectors or safety critical
tasks).
• Arrangements for any drugs and alcohol testing.
• Rehabilitation and treatment programmes.
• Disciplinary procedures for those who refuse assistance, or refuse/fail a test.
• Provision of information, instruction and training to workers, supervisors and managers.

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Electricity
The dangers of electricity include:
• Electric shock (when a person makes contact with a live conductor):
–– At its most serious, current passing through the heart may interfere with the heart rate, causing
fibrillation and/or cardiac arrest, or it may interfere with the muscles controlling breathing and
cause respiratory failure. Both of these effects may be fatal.
–– The severity of the shock and type of injury caused will depend on the amount and nature of
current passing through the body, and the parts of the body through which the current passes.
• Electrical burns (from the heat given off by the flowing current):
–– Direct burns at the point of contact.
–– Indirect burns or arcing will occur where an uninsulated live conductor comes into contact with
another earthed conductor. Arcing generates ultraviolet radiation which can burn the skin and
retina of the eye (causing arc eye or eye flash).
• Fire and explosion:
–– Electrical equipment may be faulty and overheat.
–– The system may be overloaded.
–– Equipment may be misused.
–– There may be the existence of a flammable atmosphere.
–– Heat/sparks may be produced as part of equipment’s normal operation.
–– There may be poor internal connections within equipment.
Control measures include:
• Protection of live conductors (using, for example, insulation and casings).
• Equipment selection and use:
––Using equipment designed for the purpose and place it is to be used in.
––Using according to manufacturers’ recommendations.
––Using suitable protective devices.
––Checking for damage (simple user checks as well as formal inspection/maintenance) operated by
competent people.
–– Using only ‘authorised’ electrical equipment in the workplace.
–– Reporting defective equipment and repairing or replacing.
• Protective systems:
–– A fuse.
–– A circuit breaker.
–– Earthing.
–– Isolation.
–– Reduced or low voltage systems.
–– Residual current devices (RCDs).
–– Double insulation.

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Ergonomic Risks
Ergonomics studies the way people interact with equipment and their working environment with a
view to improving their comfort, safety and productivity. It involves applying anatomical, physiological
and psychological knowledge to the practical aspects of work, so that tasks may be fitted to the needs
and characteristics of the person. Typical forms of ill-health associated with poor ergonomic design are
musculoskeletal disorders, such as:
• Back injuries and back pain.
• Work-related upper limb disorders (WRULDs).
• Hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS).

A poorly designed workstation can lead to back injuries.

These will be due to:

• The physical requirements of the task – the way in which the worker sits and moves in order to
perform particular actions involved in the task.
• The environmental context – the way in which the worker is affected by the environment when
undertaking the task activities.
• The equipment – the way in which the worker is affected by the physical characteristics of the work
equipment itself.
Preventive and precautionary measures generally involve:
• Engineering controls, ensuring equipment is suitable for the task, is adjustable to suit the needs of
the user where appropriate, and is positioned to allow ease and comfort of access and movement.
• Systems of work to limit the duration of repetitive activities and allow for job rotation and regular
rest breaks and recuperative periods.
• Individual training and health checks to ensure that workers use equipment correctly and take
responsibility for their own welfare.

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Excavations
Excavations present the following dangers:
• Falls of persons/equipment/material into excavations due to unprotected edges, the use of badly
sited access ladders and badly constructed ramps used by vehicles.
• Contact with buried services such as electricity cables and gas pipes, water mains, drains and sewers
that can release dangerous substances and cause fire and explosion.
• Vibration caused by machinery and vehicles nearby may lead to the collapse of sides, if these are not
battered (sloped back) or shored up.
• Loose or unstable earth around an excavation or at the bottom may collapse, particularly if explosives
are used or if a disused mine shaft is found.
• Water ingress or flooding may occur due to weather conditions or from underground watercourses.
• There may be contaminated ground at the site of excavation due to residues contained in it from
previous industrial use/activities or stored or dumped on the land.
To prevent injury when working in and around excavations, the following are commonly employed:
• Excavation supports to prevent the collapse of the side walls of an excavated area.
• Barriers to protect the edge of an excavation to prevent falls of people, materials and vehicles.
• Ladders provide the main means of access to and egress from an excavation.
• Crossing points in an excavation at designated points and of sound construction to support all types
of vehicles and equipment.
• Lighting and warning signs.
• Personal protective equipment (PPE), such as hard hats.
• Identification and marking of buried services.
• Positioning and routeing of vehicles, plant and equipment should be carefully considered to prevent
objects falling into excavations.

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Fire
The Fire Triangle
Before a fire can start, the following three components must be present in sufficient quantity:
• Fuel – which includes any combustible material, such as flammable liquids or gases, cardboard and
paper.
• Oxygen – in minimum quantities, must be present to support a fire.
• Heat – a form of energy and the source of ignition, such as a flame or spark or the heat resulting from
these processes (discarded cigarettes, hot work, heating appliances, cooking appliances).

The Fire Triangle

It therefore follows that eliminating any one of these elements of the ‘fire triangle’ will prevent fires
starting in the first place. If a fire should start, it may spread rapidly. Minimising fire spread, fire
detection, raising the alarm and ensuring people can escape in time are important mitigation measures.
Fire Spread
Fire can be spread by:
• Direct burning where there is direct contact from one source to another.
• Convection where hot air rises then cools and falls, causing an air flow that spreads a fire rapidly.
• Conduction where heat is transferred through solid materials (conductors).
• Radiation where heat travels through the air from a source and may ignite any fabric or material.

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The layout of buildings and the structural materials used can significantly reduce the risk of fire starting
or spreading. Buildings can consist of:
• Compartments or cells to contain fire.
• Compartments or cells to keep fire out.
Fire Detection and Alarm Systems
Appropriate fire detection and alarm systems should be used in a workplace, depending on the level of
risk:
• Simple – where there is low risk, a shouted alarm, then a hand-operated alarm such as a hand bell,
whistle or air horn.
• Interlinked smoke alarms – individual ceiling-mounted units that both detect smoke from the fire and
give the alarm sound, linked together so that when one sounder activates all of the sounders they
emit the alarm.
• Manually-operated fire alarm – manually activated at call points, which are usually buttons behind a
clear plastic disc that, when hit, breaks, activating the system which will have sounders (and/or lights)
at positions throughout the workplace.
• Automatic fire alarm – automatic detectors and manual call points linked into a central control box
linked in turn to sounders (and/or lights); commonly used to protect medium to high-risk workplaces,
multi-storey buildings and workplaces where sleeping accommodation is provided (such as offshore
platforms).
• Smoke detectors are of two types:
–– Ionisation devices.
–– Optical devices.
• Radiation detectors detect flame.
• Heat detectors (rate of rise and fixed temperature) detect the excess heat generated by a fire.
Fire-Fighting Equipment
This takes the form of fixed installations (like sprinklers) or portable equipment (such as hand-operated
fire extinguisher, hose reels and fire blankets). The type of extinguishing medium used depends on the
type of fire.
Type Use
Water Class A combustible fires

Chemical foam Class A and B fires

Powder All classes and live electrical equipment

Carbon dioxide Class A and B fires and electrical fires

Vaporising liquid Class A and B fires and live electrical equipment

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Escape Routes
An escape route provides the means by which occupants of a specified area can reach a place of safety –
a protected area where there is no fire risk, or the risk is considerably reduced.
• Stairs and passageways should be kept clear, well lit and appropriately marked.
• Doors on an escape route should open in the direction of travel and they should be maintained to
ensure an effective smoke seal. There should be toughened glass vision panels in the doors.
• Emergency lighting, if provided, should be regularly tested and maintained and should be backed up
by an emergency power supply.
• Exit and directional signs should clearly identify escape routes.
• Assembly points are safe refuge areas in a building or in the open air. They should be clearly marked
and kept clear.
Fire Evacuation of a Workplace
Emergency evacuation procedures should be documented and take account of staff or visitors with
disabilities who might otherwise struggle to escape in time. All staff need to be know what to do in an
emergency (evacuation notices should be displayed and training conducted). Fire marshals should be
appointed to take responsibility in a fire situation. Fire drills (practice evacuations) should take place at
least once a year.

Machinery
Machinery hazards are generally categorised as either mechanical or non-mechanical.
Mechanical hazards are caused by people interacting directly with the machines, particularly when they
are in motion.
Injuries include:
• Crushing.
• Shearing.
• Cutting or severing.
• Entanglement.
• Drawing in or trapping.
• Impact.
• Stabbing or puncture.
• Friction or abrasion.
• High-pressure fluid injection.

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Non-mechanical hazards arise from the use of machinery and its effect on the immediate environment.
The harm they cause is not necessarily through contact with the machinery and may affect people other
than the operator him/herself.
• Noise.
• Vibration.
• Electricity hazards.
• Temperature.
• Radiation.
• Hazardous materials and substances.
• Ergonomics.
The primary means of protection against machinery hazards are:
• Fixed guards.
• Interlocking guards.
• Adjustable guards.
• Self-adjusting guards.
• Trip devices.
• Two-hand controls.
• Protective appliances.
• Personal protective equipment.
• Information, instruction, training and supervision.

Manual Handling
Some common types of injury include:
• Back injuries.
• Tendon and ligament injuries.
• Muscular problems.
• Work-related upper limb disorders (WRULDs).
• Cuts, abrasions and bruising, burns and bone injuries.
Assessing manual handling risks involves looking at four key areas - LITE:
• Load.
• Individual capabilities.
• Task.
• Environment in which the work is carried out.

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 Introduction to Health and Safety
Control of manual handling risk can be achieved by:
• Eliminating the manual handling where possible (though note the use of lifting equipment will
introduce additional, different hazards), and where it cannot be eliminated, consider:
–– Using handling aids.
• Modifying:
–– The task: introduce rest breaks or job rotation to minimise time on repetitive handling; change the
layout to eliminate stooping.
–– The load: break a heavy load down into smaller parts; use several workers rather than one to
handle a heavy load; attach handles to a load that is difficult to grasp.
–– The environment: allow more space for the handling activity; level an uneven floor; provide
additional lighting in a poorly lit location.
• Ensuring individual capabilities are matched to the activity.

Noise
Many processes can emit high levels of noise, but prolonged exposure to lower levels of noise can cause
problems. Effects of exposure to noise include:
• Health effects:
–– Temporary reduction in hearing sensitivity (often with ringing in the ears) as a result of short
duration exposure to excessively loud noise.
–– Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) – permanent loss of hearing as a result of repeated exposure to
excessively loud noise.
–– Tinnitus – persistent ringing in the ears as a result of repeated exposure to excessively loud noise.
–– Stress effects caused by irritating nuisance/background noise.
• Safety effects:
–– Inability to hear hazards, alarms and warning sirens, conversation and spoken instructions, as a
result of background noise.
–– Difficulty concentrating and an increase in errors caused by nuisance/background noise.
Noise exposure control can be based on treating the noise:
• At source – by elimination or substitution of the process or equipment producing the noise.
• By interrupting the pathway from source to receiver using engineering controls, which limit the
amount of noise transmitted.
• At the receiver, by using personal hearing protection (ear muffs/defenders/plugs) – hearing
protection should be used only if neither of the first two approaches results in a satisfactory solution.
Selection of control measures may require measurement of the noise characteristics (level, frequency
distribution, duration). Health surveillance (in the form of hearing checks) may also be appropriate.

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People on Foot
There are numerous circumstances that can result in serious or fatal injuries to pedestrians:
• Slips, trips and falls on the same level.
• Falls from height: working next to an unprotected edge, partly-built scaffold or by an excavation or on
a fragile material above a drop; using access equipment or ladders.
• Collisions with moving vehicles: when using pedestrian walkways or crossing points or when working
adjacent to moving vehicles.
• Striking by:
–– Moving objects: machinery or unsecured objects.
–– Flying objects: ejected parts; thrown objects.
–– Falling objects: loads falling during lifting and handling operations; objects dislodged during work
at height or due to adverse weather conditions; toppling of unstable objects.
• Striking against fixed or stationary objects: objects that project into a pedestrian area or route;
narrow doorways; low overheads.
The main control measures employed are:
• Floor surfaces maintained and with an appropriate level of slip-resistance.
• Well-defined traffic routes and designated walkways.
• Fencing/guarding on open walkways as protection from moving vehicles; edge protection to prevent
falls.
• Signs and warning markings.
• Personal protective equipment/clothing (such as head protection and high-visibility clothing).
• Information, instruction, training and supervision should help people follow the correct procedures
and stop irresponsible behaviour.
• Cleaning and housekeeping, keeping passageways and corridors clear between working areas.

Radiation
Radiation comes in many forms. Some are particles (like alpha-particles and neutrons) and some are
electromagnetic waves (like X-rays, gamma rays, visible light, ultraviolet, microwaves and radio frequency
radiation). Some carry sufficient energy to displace electrons from atoms (a process called ‘ionisation’).
If this happens in human cells it can cause serious cell damage.
The health effects of radiation range from serious (like cancer or radiation sickness) to less serious (like
sunburn). It depends on the type and intensity of the radiation, as well as the body parts exposed (not
all parts of the body are equally sensitive).
When it comes to controlling exposure to radiation, there are:
• Administrative controls – like procedures to restrict the use of and exposure to radioactive materials.
• Engineering controls – the use of shields to form a physical barrier which prevents the transmission of
radiation.
• Personal protective equipment – the provision of special clothing to protect the individual worker
where there remains a risk of exposure despite the full application of other forms of control.

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 Introduction to Health and Safety
Stress
Work-Related Stress
“The adverse reaction that people have to excessive pressure or other demands placed on them.”
For the employee, the symptoms of stress may be physical or psychological (i.e. headaches, panic
attacks, skin rashes, stomach problems or poor concentration) and if intense stress is allowed to persist,
it can lead to alcohol abuse and to serious physical and mental health conditions, such as high blood
pressure, heart disease and depression. Because stress is a major cause of sickness absence among
employees, it represents a significant cost to employers.
The causes of stress are various but are often categorised into six areas:
• Demands – high and conflicting job demands as well as the nature of the job.
• Control – lack of control over what is to be done, how it is to be done, priorities, etc.
• Support – lack of training and support.
• Relationships – poor working relationships with supervisors, managers and peers, and harassment.
• Role – lack of clarity regarding role, responsibilities and authority.
• Change – the threat of change and the change process itself.
Prevention strategies largely follow from the causes. These will include clear lines of responsibility, and a
supportive and consultative working environment.

Vehicle Movements
Vehicle operations may lead to:
• Loss of control.
• Overturning.
• Collisions with other vehicles, pedestrians or fixed objects.
The necessary measures can be grouped in three main categories:
• The Workplace Environment
–– Vehicle-free zones and/or pedestrian-free zones – eliminating the hazard.
–– Good vehicle traffic route layout – keeping vehicles at a distance from pedestrian walkways and
other vehicles; use of one-way systems.
–– Segregation of vehicles and pedestrians – with separate walkways and possibly safe havens for
pedestrians. Use of barriers or markings for walkways.
–– Separate site and building entrances for vehicles and pedestrians.
–– Enforced speed limits and traffic calming measures where necessary.
–– Good visibility; eliminating any blind spots; providing vision aids such as mirrors.
–– Appropriate signage to warn drivers of hazards.
–– Traffic route surface to be suitable for the vehicles using it and gradients avoided where possible.

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• The Vehicle
–– Suitable for their intended use, including for the environment and conditions in which they are
used.
–– Maintained in safe working order.
–– Only driven by suitably trained, qualified staff.
–– Inspected routinely before use.
–– Where necessary, vehicles should be fitted with a:
–– Seat for the driver (and any passengers).
–– Seat belt.
–– Roll bar or roll cage to protect the driver in the event of overturn.
–– Guard to protect the driver in the event of falling objects.
–– Horn.
–– Audible reversing alarm.
–– Beacon or flashing light.
• The Driver
–– Competent to drive the vehicle: proof of qualification may be required.
–– Medically fit to drive.
–– Provided with specific information, instruction and training appropriate to the workplace and site
where they will be driving.
–– Supervised, to ensure that they follow safe systems of work, obey site rules and do not lapse into
bad practices.

Vibration
Vibration is most commonly associated with hand-held power tools such as drills, grinders and cutters.
This type is called hand-arm vibration (HAV) and leads to symptoms such as:
• Vibration white finger (VWF) – the blood supply to the fingers shuts down and the fingers turn white.
The blood supply returns after a time and the fingers become red and painful.
• Nerve damage – the nerves from the fingers stop working properly resulting in a loss of pressure,
heat and pain sensitivity.
• Muscle weakening – grip strength and manual dexterity reduce.
• Joint damage – abnormal bone growth at the finger joints can occur.

Vibration White Finger (VWF)

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 Introduction to Health and Safety
Driving or riding certain types of vehicles (like dumper trucks or tractors), in particular conditions (like
a rough track) or standing on vibrating structures can also affect the whole body. This is then termed
whole body vibration (WBV). The most significant health effect is damage to the soft tissues of the
spine, though other effects have been reported.
Vibration exposure is controlled in similar ways to that of noise:
• Reduce the vibration at source:
–– Eliminate the source.
–– Substitute the source.
–– Change work techniques.
–– Maintenance.
• Interrupt the pathway from source to receiver – isolate vibrating parts from the user by means of
anti-vibration mountings.
• Limit the duration of exposure:
–– By calculating the time a particular tool can be used before the action or limit value is reached.
–– Job rotation.
Just as for noise, selection of controls may require characterisation of the vibration. Health surveillance
of workers may also be necessary (to monitor symptoms and possibly alert the employer to completely
remove the employee from exposure).

Welfare and Work Environment

Employers have a responsibility to ensure that workers have access to:
• Drinking water.
• Toilets and washing facilities with hot and cold water
• Secure lockers and changing rooms (depending on the nature of the work).
• Clean eating facilities and rest areas.
• Seating.
• Adequate ventilation.
• A comfortable temperature.
• Adequate lighting to work by.
Exposure to Extremes of Temperature
Prolonged exposure to extreme heat can cause dehydration, muscle cramps, heat stress or heat stroke.
Exposure to extreme cold can cause hypothermia, frost bite, slip hazards and loss of dexterity.
The main preventive measures include limiting exposure (i.e. task rotation) or providing protection and
alleviating the effects (i.e. ventilation/insulation or protective clothing).

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Working at Height
There are two main risks associated with work at height (both of which can result in serious injuries or
death):
• The worker falling from height.
• An object falling onto people below.
Working at height causes more fatalities than all other types of construction work.
The above risks may be the result of:
• Unprotected edges on access platforms/scaffolds.
• Unstable access equipment, such as ladders, lifts and hoists.
• Fragile roofs, roof lights, voids or unsound materials collapsing under a person’s weight.
• Wind causing materials and people to be blown off a roof or scaffold.
Where possible, avoid the need for work at height. If this is not possible, the following measures should
be taken where there is a risk of people or materials falling:
• Ensure adequate planning and supervision of the work to be carried out.
• Avoid adverse weather conditions, such as ice, rain or wind.
• Provide physical safeguards to prevent falls, such as toe-boards, guardrails or fencing.
• Construct access and working platforms of sound and stable materials to support weight of people
and equipment.
• Use suspension equipment if work is short-term or erection of a working platform is not practicable.
• Use fall arrest harnesses, particularly when open edges have to be approached, e.g. during steel
erection.
• Provide full training to operators of such equipment.
• Ensure emergency rescue arrangements are in place if required.
• Ensure that head protection is worn to protect from falling objects or materials.

Avoid working at height where possible.

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 Introduction to Health and Safety
Work Equipment
‘Work equipment’ refers to a wide range of tools, machinery and equipment, such as:
• Simple hand tools.
• Hand-held power tools.
• Access equipment such as ladders and stepladders.
• Single machines.
• Machine assemblies, where several machines are linked together to form a more complex plant, such
as a drilling rig.
• Mobile work equipment and vehicles.
In general, all work equipment must:
• Be fit for purpose, including the work environment (damp, flammable atmosphere, etc.) in which it is
used.
• Satisfy minimum health and safety requirements (comply with international and country-specific
standards).

© RRC International
 RRC Introductions
The RRC Introductions range provides a handy overview of topics
related to health, safety and environmental management.
Titles currently available include:
- An Introduction to Health and Safety
- An Introduction to Environmental Management
- An Introduction to Safety in the Oil and Gas Industry

RRC International, 27-37 St George’s Road,

London, SW19 4DS, United Kingdom
T +44 (0)20 8944 3100 | F +44 (0)20 8944 7099
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