Full download ebooks at https://ebookmeta.

com

Biomaterials and Materials for Medicine:

Innovations in Research, Devices, and
Applications (Emerging Materials and
Technologies) 1st Edition Jingan Li (Editor)
For dowload this book click link below
https://ebookmeta.com/product/biomaterials-and-materials-
for-medicine-innovations-in-research-devices-and-
applications-emerging-materials-and-technologies-1st-
edition-jingan-li-editor/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWLOAD NOW
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Bioengineering and Biomaterials in Ventricular Assist

Devices Emerging Materials and Technologies 1st Edition
Eduardo Guy Perpétuo Bock Editor

https://ebookmeta.com/product/bioengineering-and-biomaterials-in-
ventricular-assist-devices-emerging-materials-and-
technologies-1st-edition-eduardo-guy-perpetuo-bock-editor/

Novel Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices:

Materials, Architectures, and Future Trends 1st Edition
Feng Li

https://ebookmeta.com/product/novel-electrochemical-energy-
storage-devices-materials-architectures-and-future-trends-1st-
edition-feng-li/

Terahertz Biomedical and Healthcare Technologies:

Materials to Devices 1st Edition Amit Banerjee (Editor)

https://ebookmeta.com/product/terahertz-biomedical-and-
healthcare-technologies-materials-to-devices-1st-edition-amit-
banerjee-editor/

Enzyme Inactivation in Food Processing: Technologies,

Materials, and Applications Megh R. Goyal

https://ebookmeta.com/product/enzyme-inactivation-in-food-
processing-technologies-materials-and-applications-megh-r-goyal/
Organic Electronics for Electrochromic Materials and
Devices 1st Edition Hong Meng

https://ebookmeta.com/product/organic-electronics-for-
electrochromic-materials-and-devices-1st-edition-hong-meng/

Energy Storage and Conversion Devices: Supercapacitors,

Batteries, and Hydroelectric Cells (Emerging Materials
and Technologies) 1st Edition Anurag Gaur (Editor)

https://ebookmeta.com/product/energy-storage-and-conversion-
devices-supercapacitors-batteries-and-hydroelectric-cells-
emerging-materials-and-technologies-1st-edition-anurag-gaur-
editor/

Organic Flexible Electronics: Fundamentals, Devices,

and Applications (Woodhead Publishing Series in
Electronic and Optical Materials) 1st Edition Piero
Cosseddu
https://ebookmeta.com/product/organic-flexible-electronics-
fundamentals-devices-and-applications-woodhead-publishing-series-
in-electronic-and-optical-materials-1st-edition-piero-cosseddu/

Innovations Technologies and Research in Education 1st

Edition Linda Daniela

https://ebookmeta.com/product/innovations-technologies-and-
research-in-education-1st-edition-linda-daniela/

Battery Technologies Materials and Components Jianmin

Ma

https://ebookmeta.com/product/battery-technologies-materials-and-
components-jianmin-ma/
Biomaterials and Materials
for Medicine
 Emerging Materials and Technologies
Series Editor:
Boris I. Kharissov

Recycled Ceramics in Sustainable Concrete: Properties and Performance

Kwok Wei Shah and Ghasan Fahim Huseien
Photo-Electrochemical Ammonia Synthesis: Nanocatalyst Discovery,
Reactor Design, and Advanced Spectroscopy
Mohammadreza Nazemi and Mostafa A. El-Sayed
Fire-Resistant Paper: Materials, Technologies, and Applications
Ying-Jie Zhu
Sensors for Stretchable Electronics in Nanotechnology
Kaushik Pal
Polymer-Based Composites: Design, Manufacturing, and Applications
V. Arumugaprabu, R. Deepak Joel Johnson, M. Uthayakumar, and P. Sivaranjana
Nanomaterials in Bionanotechnology: Fundamentals and Applications
Ravindra Pratap Singh and Kshitij RB Singh
Biomaterials and Materials for Medicine: Innovations in Research, Devices,
and Applications
Jingan Li
Advanced Materials and Technologies for Wastewater Treatment
Sreedevi Upadhyayula and Amita Chaudhary
Biomaterials and Materials
for Medicine
Innovations in Research, Devices,
and Applications

Edited by
Jingan Li
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and
let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com
or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-
750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-0-367-75321-4 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-75323-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-16198-1 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003161981

Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
Foreword....................................................................................................................xi
Editor...................................................................................................................... xiii
Contributors.............................................................................................................. xv

Chapter 1 Cardiovascular Therapeutic Devices: Material and Fabrication

Progress................................................................................................. 1
Xiao Luo, Dan Zou, and Li Li

Chapter 2 Vascular Patches: Past and Future, Problems, and Solutions.............. 35

Hualong Bai, Yanhua Xu, Hao He, Xin Li, Chang Shu,
Jingan Li, Quancheng Kan, and Alan Dardik

Chapter 3 Biomaterials for Fabricating Vascularized Scaffolds

in Tissue Engineering.......................................................................... 49
Yonghong Fan, Yinhua Qin, Xinxin Li, Yuhao Wang,
Youqian Xu, and Chuhong Zhu

Chapter 4 Biomaterials and Coatings for Artificial Hip Joints.......................... 105

Y. Ren

Chapter 5 Overview of Polymeric Biomaterials for Dental Applications......... 145

Zichen Wu, Xiaoxuan Lu, Xiaowei Wang,
Xiangyang Li, and Jialong Chen

Chapter 6 Recent Progress of Hydrogel in Skin Tissue Engineering................ 177

Kun Zhang, Shuaimeng Guan, Longlong Cui, Jiankang Li,
Jiaheng Liang, and Jingjing Su

Chapter 7 3D Printing in Nerve Regeneration................................................... 211

Guicai Li and Liling Zhang

Chapter 8 Progress in Biomaterials for Application of Esophageal Stents....... 233

Yachen Hou, Jingan Li, Aqeela Yasin, and Mujiahid Iqbal

v
vi Contents

Chapter 9 High-Performance Materials for Targeted and Controlled

Drug Delivery Systems..................................................................... 257
Jinjie Zhang

Chapter 10 Wearable/Attachable Sensors and Biosensors................................... 285

Jingwen Li, Haiyang Liu, and Yifeng Lei

Chapter 11 Micro/Nanobiomaterials...................................................................307
Shuo Wang

Chapter 12 Bioinspired Design for Medical Applications................................... 319

Feng Wu

Chapter 13 Modeling and Simulation of Biomaterials........................................ 329

Zhe Fang, Yu Zhao, and Hongyan Wang

Index....................................................................................................................... 351
Preface
Many monographs on biomaterials have been published in recent years, which
introduce the development of biomaterials from various aspects. However, bioma-
terials is a cutting-edge dynamic discipline. Therefore, in this book, new knowl-
edge, technology, and concept of biomaterials worldwide, especially in developing
countries, are summarized. Invited by CRC Press/Taylor & Francis’s Series Editor,
Prof. Boris I. Kharissov, we, together with young scientists from 13 research groups,
wrote this book entitled “Biomaterials and Materials for Medicine: Innovations
in Research, Devices, and Applications” to join the Emerging Materials and
Technologies Book Series.
This book is application-oriented, covering nine research directions of bioma-
terials and medical materials, and is divided into 13 chapters. The first three chap-
ters mainly introduce the research of vascular biomaterials, including the latest
research on cardiovascular therapeutic devices, vascular patches, and biomaterials
for vascular tissue engineering. Chapters 4 and 5 describe the research regarding
orthopedic biomaterials in detail, including joint materials and dental materials.
Chapter 6 focusses on recent research hotspots about skin tissue engineering bioma-
terials. Chapter 7 introduces the related research of nerve tissue engineering materi-
als, including central nerve repair materials and peripheral nerve repair materials.
Chapter 8 introduces non-mainstream biomaterials, which are special stent materials
for palliative treatment of esophageal cancer and related technologies of surface
modification. These design concepts and emerging technologies can also provide
reference for other lumen interventions such as biliary tract and airway. Many bioma-
terials and related designs display high performance in drug targeting and controlled
release, which will be elaborated in Chapter 9. Wearable biomedical devices is a new
research field, thus its research progress is interpreted by an authoritative expert,
Associate Professor Yifeng Lei from Wuhan University in Chapter 10. Micronscale
and nanoscale biomaterials have been demonstrated to have a series of functions
related to scale, which is discussed Chapter 11. Dr. Shuo Wang from the University
of Tsukuba in Japan highlights the related research. Inspired by nature and learning
from nature, the latest research progress of biomimetic materials in biomedical engi-
neering is introduced in Chapter 12. Finally, the theoretical calculation and computer
simulation of biomaterials, as a complementary discipline with physical experimen-
tal science, is elaborated in Chapter 13.
Of course, the contents we introduce in this book cannot entirely cover the cur-
rent knowledge of biomaterials and materials for medicine. To be practical, it is just
a drop in the ocean for this discipline. However, it represents the knowledge of first-
line scientists, especially the authors of this book, in their respective fields of under-
standing and academic achievement. In the future, we will invite more experts and
scholars from around the world to introduce new knowledge and expound their views
in this series of books.

ix
Foreword
At the invitation of Dr. Jingan Li, I am very pleased to write a foreword for the
book “Biomaterials and Materials for Medicine: Innovations in Research, Devices,
and Applications”. Biomaterials is one of the most important frontiers and inter-
disciplinary fields in the world today. Almost all implant devices, medical testing
equipment, and drug carriers need the development of biomaterials. The field of
biomaterials covers a wide range of disciplines in science and technology, includ-
ing materials, biology, iatrology, pharmacy, physics, chemistry, and mathematics.
In recent years, the development of biomaterial science and technology has been
progressing rapidly. At the same time, many new and detailed branches in the field
of biomaterials have emerged, and these latest research achievements and technolo-
gies have not been summarized yet. Hence, it is important to provide this infor-
mation to a majority of readers in a simple and easy to understand fashion. The
publication of the book “Biomaterials and Materials for Medicine: Innovations in
Research, Devices, and Applications” is timely, almost concluding all directions of
application-oriented biomaterials, such as cardiovascular materials, bone materials,
nerve scaffold materials, scaffold materials for vascular tissue engineering, con-
trolled drug release carrier materials, wearable medical device-related materials,
and research on theoretical calculation of materials.
The book is divided into 13 chapters, four of which are contributed by young
scientists and teachers of Zhengzhou University. Zhengzhou University is a world-
class university under the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China
and the Henan provincial government. The disciplines of materials, chemistry,
and medicine offered at the university have entered the world-class discipline
construction sequence, while nine disciplines, including materials science and
engineering, clinical medicine, chemistry, biology, history and culture of Central
Plains, cancer prevention and treatment, resource processing and efficient utiliza-
tion, engineering safety and disaster prevention, and morphology of conscious-
ness and social governance, were selected as the first phase of the construction
project of advantageous characteristic disciplines in Henan Province. Zhengzhou
University also has the largest number of students in China, about 72,600 (accord-
ing to statistics published in 2019). Therefore, our aptitude for science and tech-
nology is not only reflected in senior experts, scholars, and professors but also
our students’ desire for the latest knowledge and the most advanced technology.
For Zhengzhou University, the publication of this book meets the needs of some
disciplines to a certain extent, but it only meets the short-term needs of some
disciplines. We welcome more books like this.

xi
xii Foreword

Finally, we are willing to work together with global peers to promote the rapid
development of biomaterials and materials for medicine, and also wish outstanding
young scientists continue on the road of science.
Shao-kang Guan
Zhengzhou University, China
Editor
Dr. Jingan Li is a professor at Zhengzhou University,
China, and his research fields include biomaterials and
advanced functional materials. So far, he has published
more than 70 academic papers in international academic
journals as the first author or corresponding author, includ-
ing ACS Applied Materials & Interface, Bioactive
Materials, Acta Biomateralia, Carbohydrate Polymers,
and Journal of Materials Science & Technology. He has
served as the editorial board member of 12 journals,
including Stem Cells International (Lead Guest Editor)
and Smart Materials in Medicine, and is also the invited
reviewer of more than 40 academic journals. Till now, he
has been invited to attend more than 30 international aca-
demic conferences as plenary speaker, keynote speaker, invited speaker, organizing
committee member, technical program committee, and session chair, and he was hon-
ored with “China-Korea Young Scientist Award” (2015) and “IAAM Fellow” (2020).
For detailed information please see: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/
Jingan_Li2.

xiii
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
be in the most perfect condition as regards purity of matter,
composition of its different parts, size and position; no part of his
body must suffer from ill-health; he must in addition have studied
and acquired wisdom, so that his rational faculty passes from a state
of potentiality to that of actuality; his intellect must be as developed
and perfect as human intellect can be; his passions pure and equally
balanced; all his desires must aim at obtaining a knowledge of the
hidden laws and causes that are in force in the Universe; his
thoughts must be engaged in lofty matters; his attention directed to
the knowledge of God, the consideration of His works, and of that
which he must believe in this respect. There must be an absence of
the lower desires and appetites, of the seeking after pleasure in
eating, drinking, and cohabitation; and, in short, every pleasure
connected with the sense of touch. (Aristotle correctly says that this
sense is a disgrace to us, since we possess it only in virtue of our
being animals; and it does not include any specifically human
element, whilst enjoyments connected with other senses, as smell,
hearing, and sight, though likewise of a material nature, may
sometimes include [intellectual] pleasure, appealing to man as man,
according to Aristotle. This remark, although forming no part of our
subject, is not superfluous, for the thoughts of the most renowned
wise men are to a great extent affected by the pleasures of this
sense, and filled with a desire for them. And yet people are surprised
that these scholars do not prophesy, if prophesying be nothing but a
certain degree in the natural development of man.) It is further
necessary to suppress every thought or desire for unreal power and
dominion; that is to say, for victory, increase of followers, acquisition
of honour, and service from the people without any ulterior object.
On the contrary, the multitude must be considered according to their
true worth; some of them are undoubtedly like domesticated cattle,
and others like wild beasts, and these only engage the mind of the
perfect and distinguished man in so far as he desires to guard
himself from injury, in case of contact with them, and to derive some
benefit from them when necessary. A man who satisfies these
conditions, whilst his fully developed imagination is in action,
influenced by the Active Intellect according to his mental training,—
such a person will undoubtedly perceive nothing but things very
extraordinary and divine, and see nothing but God and His angels.
His knowledge will only include that which is real knowledge, and his
thought will only be directed to such general principles as would
tend to improve the social relations between man and man. [227]

We have thus described three kinds of perfection: mental perfection

acquired by training, perfection of the natural constitution of the
imaginative faculty, and moral perfection produced by the
suppression of every thought of bodily pleasures, and of every kind
of foolish or evil ambition. These qualities are, as is well known,
possessed by the wise men in different degrees, and the degrees of
prophetic faculty vary in accordance with this difference. Faculties of
the body are, as you know, at one time weak, wearied, and
corrupted, at others in a healthy state. Imagination is certainly one
of the faculties of the body. You find, therefore, that prophets are
deprived of the faculty of prophesying when they mourn, are angry,
or are similarly affected. Our Sages say, Inspiration does not come
upon a prophet when he is sad or languid. This is the reason why
Jacob did not receive any revelation during the period of his
mourning, when his imagination was engaged with the loss of
Joseph. The same was the case with Moses, when he was in a state
of depression through the multitude of his troubles, which lasted
from the murmurings of the Israelites in consequence of the evil
report of the spies, till the death of the warriors of that generation.
He received no message of God, as he used to do, even though he
did not receive prophetic inspiration through the medium of the
imaginative faculty, but directly through the intellect. We have
mentioned it several times that Moses did not, like other prophets,
speak in similes. This will be further explained (chap. xlv.), but it is
not the subject of the present chapter. There were also persons who
prophesied for a certain time and then left off altogether, something
occurring that caused them to discontinue prophesying. The same
circumstance, prevalence of sadness and dulness, was undoubtedly
the direct cause of the interruption of prophecy during the exile; for
can there be any greater misfortune for man than this: to be a slave
bought for money in the service of ignorant and voluptuous masters,
and powerless against them as they unite in themselves the absence
of true knowledge and the force of all animal desires? Such an evil
state has been prophesied to us in the words, “They shall run to and
fro to seek the word of God, but shall not find it” (Amos viii. 12);
“Her king and her princes are among the nations, the law is no
more, her prophets also find no vision from the Lord” (Lam. ii. 9).
This is a real fact, and the cause is evident; the pre-requisites [of
prophecy] have been lost. In the Messianic period—may it soon
commence—prophecy will therefore again be in our midst, as has
been promised by God.

[Contents]
 CHAPTER XXXVII
It is necessary to consider the nature of the divine influence, which
enables us to think, and gives us the various degrees of intelligence.
For this influence may reach a person only in a small measure, and
in exactly the same proportion would then be his intellectual
condition, whilst it may reach another person in such a measure
that, in addition to his own perfection, he can be the means of
perfection for others. The same relation may be observed
throughout the whole Universe. There are some beings so perfect
that they can govern other beings, but there are also beings that are
only perfect in so far as they can govern themselves and cannot
influence other beings. In some cases the [228]influence of the
[Active] Intellect reaches only the logical and not the imaginative
faculty; either on account of the insufficiency of that influence, or on
account of a defect in the constitution of the imaginative faculty, and
the consequent inability of the latter to receive that influence: this is
the condition of wise men or philosophers. If, however, the
imaginative faculty is naturally in the most perfect condition, this
influence may, as has been explained by us and by other
philosophers, reach both his logical and his imaginative faculties: this
is the case with prophets. But it happens sometimes that the
influence only reaches the imaginative faculty on account of the
insufficiency of the logical faculty, arising either from a natural
defect, or from a neglect in training. This is the case with statesmen,
lawgivers, diviners, charmers, and men that have true dreams, or do
wonderful things by strange means and secret arts, though they are
not wise men; all these belong to the third class. It is further
necessary to understand that some persons belonging to the third
class perceive scenes, dreams, and confused images, when awake,
in the form of a prophetic vision. They then believe that they are
prophets; they wonder that they perceive visions, and think that
they have acquired wisdom without training. They fall into grave
errors as regards important philosophical principles, and see a
strange mixture of true and imaginary things. All this is the
consequence of the strength of their imaginative faculty, and the
weakness of their logical faculty, which has not developed, and has
not passed from potentiality to actuality.

It is well known that the members of each class differ greatly from
each other. Each of the first two classes is again subdivided, and
contains two sections, namely, those who receive the influence only
as far as is necessary for their own perfection, and those who
receive it in so great a measure that it suffices for their own
perfection and that of others. A member of the first class, the wise
men, may have his mind influenced either only so far, that he is
enabled to search, to understand, to know, and to discern, without
attempting to be a teacher or an author, having neither the desire
nor the capacity; but he may also be influenced to such a degree
that he becomes a teacher and an author. The same is the case with
the second class. A person may receive a prophecy enabling him to
perfect himself but not others; but he may also receive such a
prophecy as would compel him to address his fellow-men, teach
them, and benefit them through his perfection. It is clear that,
without this second degree of perfection, no books would have been
written, nor would any prophets have persuaded others to know the
truth. For a scholar does not write a book with the object to teach
himself what he already knows. But the characteristic of the intellect
is this: what the intellect of one receives is transmitted to another,
and so on, till a person is reached that can only himself be perfected
by such an influence, but is unable to communicate it to others, as
has been explained in some chapters of this treatise (chap. xi.). It is
further the nature of this element in man that he who possesses an
additional degree of that influence is compelled to address his
fellow-men, under all circumstances, whether he is listened to or
not, even if he injures himself thereby. Thus we find prophets that
did not leave off speaking to the people until they were slain; it is
this divine influence that moves them, that does not allow them to
rest in any way, though they might [229]bring upon themselves great
evils by their action. E.g., when Jeremiah was despised, like other
teachers and scholars of his age, he could not, though he desired it,
withhold his prophecy, or cease from reminding the people of the
truths which they rejected. Comp. “For the Word of the Lord was
unto me a reproach and a mocking all day, and I said, I will not
mention it, nor will I again speak in His name; but it was in mine
heart as a burning fire, enclosed in my bones, and I was wearied to
keep it, and did not prevail” (Jer. xx. 8, 9). This is also the meaning
of the words of another prophet, “The Lord God hath spoken, who
shall not prophesy?” (Amos iii. 8) Note it.
[Contents]
 CHAPTER XXXVIII
Every man possesses a certain amount of courage, otherwise he
would not stir to remove anything that might injure him. This
psychical force seems to me analogous to the physical force of
repulsion. Energy varies like all other forces, being great in one case
and small in another. There are, therefore, people who attack a lion,
whilst others run away at the sight of a mouse. One attacks a whole
army and fights, another is frightened and terrified by the threat of a
woman. This courage requires that there be in a man’s constitution a
certain disposition for it. If man, in accordance with a certain view,
employs it more frequently, it develops and increases, but, on the
other hand, if it is employed, in accordance with the opposite view,
more rarely, it will diminish. From our own youth we remember that
there are different degrees of energy among boys.

The same is the case with the intuitive faculty; all possess it, but in
different degrees. Man’s intuitive power is especially strong in things
which he has well comprehended, and in which his mind is much
engaged. Thus you may yourself guess correctly that a certain
person said or did a certain thing in a certain matter. Some persons
are so strong and sound in their imagination and intuitive faculty
that, when they assume a thing to be in existence, the reality either
entirely or partly confirms their assumption. Although the causes of
this assumption are numerous, and include many preceding,
succeeding, and present circumstances, by means of the intuitive
faculty the intellect can pass over all these causes, and draw
inferences from them very quickly, almost instantaneously. This
same faculty enables some persons to foretell important coming
events. The prophets must have had these two forces, courage and
intuition, highly developed, and these were still more strengthened
when they were under the influence of the Active Intellect. Their
courage was so great that, e.g., Moses, with only a staff in his hand,
dared to address a great king in his desire to deliver a nation from
his service. He was not frightened or terrified, because he had been
told, “I will be with thee” (Exod. iii. 12). The prophets have not all
the same degree of courage, but none of them have been entirely
without it. Thus Jeremiah is told: “Be not afraid of them,” etc. (Jer. i.
8), and Ezekiel is exhorted, “Do not fear them or their word” (Ezek.
ii. 6). In the same manner, you find that all prophets possessed
great courage. Again, through the excellence of their intuitive
faculty, they could quickly foretell the future, but this excellence, as
is well known, likewise admits of different degrees. [230]

The true prophets undoubtedly conceive ideas that result from

premisses which human reason could not comprehend by itself; thus
they tell things which men could not tell by reason and ordinary
imagination alone; for [the action of the prophets’ mental capacities
is influenced by] the same agent that causes the perfection of the
imaginative faculty, and that enables the prophet thereby to foretell
a future event with such clearness as if it was a thing already
perceived with the senses, and only through them conveyed to his
imagination. This agent perfects the prophet’s mind, and influences
it in such a manner that he conceives ideas which are confirmed by
reality, and are so clear to him as if he deduced them by means of
syllogisms.

This should be the belief of all who choose to accept the truth. For
[all things are in a certain relation to each other, and] what is
noticed in one thing may be used as evidence for the existence of
certain properties in another, and the knowledge of one thing leads
us to the knowledge of other things. But [what we said of the
extraordinary powers of our imaginative faculty] applies with special
force to our intellect, which is directly influenced by the Active
Intellect, and caused by it to pass from potentiality to actuality. It is
through the intellect that the influence reaches the imaginative
faculty. How then could the latter be so perfect as to be able to
represent things not previously perceived by the senses, if the same
degree of perfection were withheld from the intellect, and the latter
could not comprehend things otherwise than in the usual manner,
namely, by means of premiss, conclusion, and inference? This is the
true characteristic of prophecy, and of the disciplines to which the
preparation for prophecy must exclusively be devoted. I spoke here
of true prophets in order to exclude the third class, namely, those
persons whose logical faculties are not fully developed, and who do
not possess any wisdom, but are only endowed with imaginative and
inventive powers. It may be that things perceived by these persons
are nothing but ideas which they had before, and of which
impressions were left in their imaginations together with those of
other things; but whilst the impressions of other images are effaced
and have disappeared, certain images alone remain, are seen and
considered as new and objective, coming from without. The process
is analogous to the following case: A person has with him in the
house a thousand living individuals; all except one of them leave the
house: when the person finds himself alone with that individual, he
imagines that the latter has entered the house now, contrary to the
fact that he has only not left the house. This is one of the many
phenomena open to gross misinterpretations and dangerous errors,
and many of those who believed that they were wise perished
thereby.

There were, therefore, men who supported their opinion by a dream

which they had, thinking that the vision during sleep was
independent of what they had previously believed or heard when
awake. Persons whose mental capacities are not fully developed,
and who have not attained intellectual perfection, must not take any
notice of these [dreams]. Those who reach that perfection may,
through the influence of the divine intellect, obtain knowledge
independent of that possessed by them when awake. They are true
prophets, as is distinctly stated in Scripture, ve-nabi lebab ḥokmah
(Ps. xc. 12), “And the true prophet possesseth a heart of wisdom.”
This must likewise be noticed. [231]

[Contents]
 CHAPTER XXXIX
We have given the definition of prophecy, stated its true
characteristics, and shown that the prophecy of Moses our Teacher
was distinguished from that of other prophets; we will now explain
that this distinction alone qualified him for the office of proclaiming
the Law, a mission without a parallel in the history from Adam to
Moses, or among the prophets who came after him; it is a principle
in our faith that there will never be revealed another Law.
Consequently we hold that there has never been, nor will there ever
be, any other divine Law but that of Moses our Teacher. According to
what is written in Scripture and handed down by tradition, the fact
may be explained in the following way: There were prophets before
Moses, as the patriarchs Shem, Eber, Noah, Methushelah, and
Enoch, but of these none said to any portion of mankind that God
sent him to them and commanded him to convey to them a certain
message or to prohibit or to command a certain thing. Such a thing
is not related in Scripture, or in authentic tradition. Divine prophecy
reached them as we have explained. Men like Abraham, who
received a large measure of prophetic inspiration, called their fellow-
men together and led them by training and instruction to the truth
which they had perceived. Thus Abraham taught, and showed by
philosophical arguments that there is one God, that He has created
everything that exists beside Him, and that neither the constellations
nor anything in the air ought to be worshipped; he trained his
fellow-men in this belief, and won their attention by pleasant words
as well as by acts of kindness. Abraham did not tell the people that
God had sent him to them with the command concerning certain
things which should or should not be done. Even when it was
commanded that he, his sons, and his servants should be
circumcised, he fulfilled that commandment, but he did not address
his fellow-men prophetically on this subject. That Abraham induced
his fellow-men to do what is right, telling them only his own will
[and not that of God], may be learnt from the following passage of
Scripture: “For I know him, because he commands his sons and his
house after him, to practise righteousness and judgment” (Gen. xix.
19). Also Isaac, Jacob, Levi, Kohath, and Amram influenced their
fellow-men in the same way. Our Sages, when speaking of prophets
before Moses, used expressions like the following: The bet-din (court
of justice) of Eber, the bet-din of Methushelah, and in the college of
Methushelah; although all these were prophets, yet they taught their
fellow-men in the manner of preachers, teachers, and pedagogues,
but did not use such phrases as the following: “And God said to me,
Speak to certain people so and so.” This was the state of prophecy
before Moses. But as regards Moses, you know what [God] said to
him, what he said [to the people], and the words addressed to him
by the whole nation: “This day we have seen that God doth talk with
man, and that he liveth” (Deut. v. 21). The history of all our
prophets that lived after Moses is well known to you; they
performed, as it were, the function of warning the people and
exhorting them to keep the Law of Moses, threatening evil to those
who would neglect it, and announcing blessings to those who would
submit to its guidance. This we believe will always be the case.
Comp. “It is not in the heavens that one might say,” etc. (ibid. xxx.
12); “For [232]us and for our children for ever” (ibid. xxix. 28). It is
but natural that it should be so. For if one individual of a class has
reached the highest perfection possible in that class, every other
individual must necessarily be less perfect, and deviate from the
perfect measure either by surplus or deficiency. Take, e.g., the
normal constitution of a being, it is the most proper composition
possible in that class; any constitution that deviates from that norm
contains something too much or too little. The same is the case with
the Law. It is clear that the Law is normal in this sense; for it
contains “Just statutes and judgments” (Deut. iv. 8); but “just” is
here identical with “equibalanced.” The statutes of the Law do not
impose burdens or excesses as are implied in the service of a hermit
or pilgrim, and the like; but, on the other hand, they are not so
deficient as to lead to gluttony or lewdness, or to prevent, as the
religious laws of the heathen nations do, the development of man’s
moral and intellectual faculties. We intend to discuss in this treatise
the reasons of the commandments, and we shall then show, as far
as necessary, the justice and wisdom of the Law, on account of
which it is said: “The Law of God is perfect, refreshing the heart”
(Ps. xix. 8). There are persons who believe that the Law commands
much exertion and great pain, but due consideration will show them
their error. Later on I will show how easy it is for the perfect to obey
the Law. Comp. “What does the Lord thy God ask of thee?” etc.
(Deut. x. 12); “Have I been a wilderness to Israel?” (Jer. ii. 31). But
this applies only to the noble ones; whilst wicked, violent, and
pugnacious persons find it most injurious and hard that there should
be any divine authority tending to subdue their passion. To low-
minded, wanton, and passionate persons it appears most cruel that
there should be an obstacle in their way to satisfy their carnal
appetite, or that a punishment should be inflicted for their doings.
Similarly every godless person imagines that it is too hard to abstain
from the evil he has chosen in accordance with his inclination. We
must not consider the Law easy or hard according as it appears to
any wicked, low-minded, and immoral person, but as it appears to
the judgment of the most perfect, who, according to the Law, are fit
to be the example for all mankind. This Law alone is called divine;
other laws, such as the political legislations among the Greeks, or
the follies of the Sabeans, are the works of human leaders, but not
of prophets, as I have explained several times.
[Contents]
 CHAPTER XL
It has already been fully explained that man is naturally a social
being, that by virtue of his nature he seeks to form communities;
man is therefore different from other living beings that are not
compelled to combine into communities. He is, as you know, the
highest form in the creation, and he therefore includes the largest
number of constituent elements; this is the reason why the human
race contains such a great variety of individuals, that we cannot
discover two persons exactly alike in any moral quality, or in external
appearance. The cause of this is the variety in man’s temperament,
and in accidents dependent on his form; for with every physical form
there are connected certain special accidents different from those
which are connected with the substance. Such a variety among the
individuals of a class [233]does not exist in any other class of living
beings; for the variety in any other species is limited; only man
forms an exception; two persons may be so different from each
other in every respect that they appear to belong to two different
classes. Whilst one person is so cruel that he kills his youngest child
in his anger, another is too delicate and faint-hearted to kill even a
fly or worm. The same is the case with most of the accidents. This
great variety and the necessity of social life are essential elements in
man’s nature. But the well-being of society demands that there
should be a leader able to regulate the actions of man; he must
complete every shortcoming, remove every excess, and prescribe for
the conduct of all, so that the natural variety should be
counterbalanced by the uniformity of legislation, and the order of
society be well established. I therefore maintain that the Law,
though not a product of Nature, is nevertheless not entirely foreign
to Nature. It being the will of God that our race should exist and be
permanently established, He in His wisdom gave it such properties
that men can acquire the capacity of ruling others. Some persons
are therefore inspired with theories of legislation, such as prophets
and lawgivers; others possess the power of enforcing the dictates of
the former, and of compelling people to obey them, and to act
accordingly. Such are kings, who accept the code of lawgivers, and
[rulers] who pretend to be prophets, and accept, either entirely or
partly, the teaching of the prophets. They accept one part while
rejecting another part, either because this course appears to them
more convenient, or out of ambition, because it might lead people to
believe that the rulers themselves had been prophetically inspired
with these laws, and did not copy them from others. For when we
like a certain perfection, find pleasure in it, and wish to possess it,
we sometimes desire to make others believe that we possess that
virtue, although we are fully aware that we do not possess it. Thus
people, e.g., adorn themselves with the poems of others, and
publish them as their own productions. It also occurs in the works of
wise men on the various branches of Science, that an ambitious, lazy
person sees an opinion expressed by another person, appropriates
it, and boasts that he himself originated it. The same [ambition]
occurs also with regard to the faculty of prophecy. There were men
who, like Zedekiah, the son of Chenaanah (1 Kings xxii. 11, 24)
boasted that they received a prophecy, and declared things which
have never been prophesied. Others, like Hananiah, son of Azzur
(Jer. xxviii. 1–5), claim the capacity of prophecy, and proclaim things
which, no doubt, have been said by God, that is to say, that have
been the subject of a divine inspiration, but not to them. They
nevertheless say that they are prophets, and adorn themselves with
the prophecies of others. All this can easily be ascertained and
recognized. I will, however, fully explain this to you, so that no doubt
be left to you on this question, and that you may have a test by
which you may distinguish between the guidance of human
legislation, of the divine law, and of teachings stolen from prophets.
As regards those who declare that the laws proclaimed by them are
their own ideas, no further test is required; the confession of the
defendant makes the evidence of the witness superfluous. I only
wish to instruct you about laws which are proclaimed as prophetic.
Some of these are truly prophetic, originating in divine inspiration,
some are of non-prophetic character, and some, though prophetic
originally, are the result of plagiarism. You will find that the sole
[234]object of certain laws, in accordance with the intention of their
author, who well considered their effect, is to establish the good
order of the state and its affairs, to free it from all mischief and
wrong; these laws do not deal with philosophic problems, contain no
teaching for the perfecting of our logical faculties, and are not
concerned about the existence of sound or unsound opinions. Their
sole object is to arrange, under all circumstances, the relations of
men to each other, and to secure their well-being, in accordance
with the view of the author of these laws. These laws are political,
and their author belongs, as has been stated above, to the third
class, viz., to those who only distinguish themselves by the
perfection of their imaginative faculties. You will also find laws
which, in all their rules, aim, as the law just mentioned, at the
improvement of the material interests of the people; but, besides,
tend to improve the state of the faith of man, to create first correct
notions of God, and of angels, and to lead then the people, by
instruction and education, to an accurate knowledge of the Universe:
this education comes from God; these laws are divine. The question
which now remains to be settled is this: Is the person who
proclaimed these laws the same perfect man that received them by
prophetic inspiration, or a plagiarist, who has stolen these ideas from
a true prophet? In order to be enabled to answer this question, we
must examine the merits of the person, obtain an accurate account
of his actions, and consider his character. The best test is the
rejection, abstention, and contempt of bodily pleasures; for this is
the first condition of men, and a fortiori of prophets; they must
especially disregard pleasures of the sense of touch, which,
according to Aristotle, is a disgrace to us; and, above all, restrain
from the pollution of sensual intercourse. Thus God exposes thereby
false prophets to public shame, in order that those who really seek
the truth may find it, and not err or go astray; e.g., Zedekiah, son of
Maasiah, and Ahab, son of Kolaiah, boasted that they had received a
prophecy. They persuaded the people to follow them, by proclaiming
utterances of other prophets; but all the time they continued to seek
the low pleasures of sensual intercourse, committing even adultery
with the wives of their companions and followers. God exposed their
falsehood as He has exposed that of other false prophets. The king
of Babylon burnt them, as Jeremiah distinctly states: “And of them
shall be taken up a curse by all the captivity of Judah, which are in
Babylon, saying, The Lord make thee like Zedekiah, and like Ahab,
whom the king of Babylon roasted in the fire. Because they have
committed villainy in Israel, and have committed adultery with their
neighbours’ wives, and have spoken lying words in my name, which
I have not commanded them” (Jer. xxix. 22, 23). Note what is meant
by these words.

[Contents]
 CHAPTER XLI
I need not explain what a dream is, but I will explain the meaning of
the term mareh, “vision,” which occurs in the passage: “In a vision
(be-mareh) do I make myself known unto him” (Num. xii. 6). The
term signifies that which is also called mareh ha-nebuah, “prophetic
vision,” yad ha-shem, “the hand of God,” and maḥazeh, “a vision.” It
is something terrible and fearful which the prophet feels while
awake, as is distinctly stated by [235]Daniel: “And I saw this great
vision, and there remained no strength in me, for my comeliness
was turned in me into corruption, and I retained no strength” (Dan.
x. 8). He afterwards continues, “Thus was I in deep sleep on my
face, and my face toward the ground” (ibid. ver. 9). But it was in a
prophetic vision that the angel spoke to him and “set him upon his
knees.” Under such circumstances the senses cease to act, and the
[Active Intellect] influences the rational faculties, and through them
the imaginative faculties, which become perfect and active.
Sometimes the prophecy begins with a prophetic vision, the prophet
greatly trembles, and is much affected in consequence of the perfect
action of the imaginative faculty, and after that the prophecy follows.
This was the case with Abraham. The commencement of the
prophecy is, “The word of the Lord came to Abraham in a vision”
(Gen. xv. 1); after this, “a deep sleep fell upon Abraham”; and at
last, “he said unto Abraham,” etc. When prophets speak of the fact
that they received a prophecy, they say that they received it from an
angel, or from God; but even in the latter case it was likewise
received through an angel. Our Sages, therefore, explain the words,
“And the Lord said unto her” that He spake through an angel. You
must know that whenever Scripture relates that the Lord or an angel
spoke to a person, this took place in a dream or in a prophetic
vision.
There are four different ways in which Scripture relates the fact that
a divine communication was made to the prophet. (1) The prophet
relates that he heard the words of an angel in a dream or vision; (2)
He reports the words of the angel without mentioning that they were
perceived in a dream or vision, assuming that it is well known that
prophecy can only originate in one of the two ways, “In a vision I
will make myself known unto him, in a dream I will speak unto him”
(Num. xii. 6). (3) The prophet does not mention the angel at all; he
says that God spoke to him, but he states that he received the
message in a dream or a vision. (4) He introduces his prophecy by
stating that God spoke to him, or told him to do a certain thing, or
speak certain words, but he does not explain that he received the
message in a dream or vision, because he assumes that it is well
known, and has been established as a principle that no prophecy or
revelation originates otherwise than in a dream or vision, and
through an angel. Instances of the first form are the following:
—“And the angel of the Lord said unto me in a dream, Jacob” (Gen.
xxxi. 11); “And an angel said unto Israel in a vision of night” (ibid.
xlvi. 2); “And an angel came to Balaam by night”; “And an angel said
unto Balaam” (Num. xxii. 20–22). Instances of the second form are
these: “And Elohim (an angel), said unto Jacob, Rise, go up to
Bethel” (Gen. xxxv. 1); “And Elohim said unto him, Thy name is
Jacob,” etc. (ibid. xxxv. 10); “And an angel of the Lord called unto
Abraham out of heaven the second time” (ibid. xxii. 15); “And
Elohim said unto Noah” (ibid. vi. 13). The following is an instance of
the third form: “The word of the Lord came unto Abraham in a
vision” (ibid. xv. 1). Instances of the fourth form are: “And the Lord
said unto Abraham” (ibid. xviii. 13); “And the Lord said unto Jacob,
Return,” etc. (ibid. xxxi. 3); “And the Lord said unto Joshua” (Josh. v.
9); “And the Lord said unto Gideon” (Judges vii. 2). Most of the
prophets speak in a similar manner: “And the Lord said unto me”
(Deut. ii. 2); “And the word of the Lord came unto me” [236](Ezek.
xxx. 1); “And the word of the Lord came” (2 Sam. xxiv. 11); “And
behold, the word of the Lord came unto him” (1 Kings xix. 9); “And
the word of the Lord came expressly” (Ezek. i. 3); “The beginning of
the word of the Lord by Hosea” (Hos. i. 2); “The hand of the Lord
was upon me” (Ezek. xxxvii. 1). There are a great many instances of
this class. Every passage in Scripture introduced by any of these four
forms is a prophecy proclaimed by a prophet; but the phrase, “And
Elohim (an angel) came to a certain person in the dream of night,”
does not indicate a prophecy, and the person mentioned in that
phrase is not a prophet; the phrase only informs us that the
attention of the person was called by God to a certain thing, and at
the same time that this happened at night. For just as God may
cause a person to move in order to save or kill another person, so
He may cause, according to His will, certain things to rise in man’s
mind in a dream by night. We have no doubt that the Syrian Laban
was a perfectly wicked man, and an idolater; likewise Abimelech,
though a good man among his people, is told by Abraham
concerning his land [Gerar] and his kingdom, “Surely there is no fear
of God in this place” (Gen. xx. 11). And yet concerning both of them,
viz., Laban and Abimelech, it is said [that an angel appeared to them
in a dream]. Comp. “And Elohim (an angel) came to Abimelech in a
dream by night” (ibid. ver. 3); and also, “And Elohim came to the
Syrian Laban in the dream of the night” (ibid. xxxi. 24). Note and
consider the distinction between the phrases, “And Elohim came,”
and “Elohim said,” between “in a dream by night,” and “in a vision by
night.” In reference to Jacob it is said, “And an angel said to Israel in
the visions by night” (Gen. xlvi. 2), but in reference to Laban and
Abimelech, “And Elohim came,” etc. Onkelos makes the distinction
clear; he translates, in the last two instances, ata memar min kodam
adonai, “a word came from the Lord,” and not ve-itgeli, “and the
Lord appeared.” The phrase, “And the Lord said to a certain person,”
is employed even when this person was not really addressed by the
Lord, and did not receive any prophecy, but was informed of a
certain thing through a prophet. E.g., “And she went to inquire of
the Lord” (Gen. xxv. 22); that is, according to the explanation of our
Sages, she went to the college of Eber, and the latter gave her the
answer; and this is expressed by the words, “And the Lord said unto
her” (ibid. ver. 23). These words have also been explained thus, God
spoke to her through an angel; and by “angel” Eber is meant here,
for a prophet is sometimes called “angel,” as will be explained; or
the angel that appeared to Eber in this vision is referred to, or the
object of the Midrash explanation is merely to express that wherever
God is introduced as directly speaking to a person, i.e., to any of the
ordinary prophets, He speaks through an angel, as has been set
forth by us (chap. xxxiv.).

[Contents]
 CHAPTER XLII
We have already shown that the appearance or speech of an angel
mentioned in Scripture took place in a vision or dream; it makes no
difference whether this is expressly stated or not, as we have
explained above. This is a point of considerable importance. In some
cases the account begins by stating that the prophet saw an angel;
in others, the account apparently introduces [237]a human being,
who ultimately is shown to be an angel; but it makes no difference,
for if the fact that an angel has been heard is only mentioned at the
end, you may rest satisfied that the whole account from the
beginning describes a prophetic vision. In such visions, a prophet
either sees God who speaks to him, as will be explained by us, or he
sees an angel who speaks to him, or he hears some one speaking to
him without seeing the speaker, or he sees a man who speaks to
him, and learns afterwards that the speaker was an angel. In this
latter kind of prophecies, the prophet relates that he saw a man who
was doing or saying something, and that he learnt afterwards that it
was an angel.

This important principle was adopted by one of our Sages, one of

the most distinguished among them, R. Ḥiya the Great (Bereshit
Rabba, xlviii.), in the exposition of the Scriptural passage
commencing, “And the Lord appeared unto him in the plain of
Mamre” (Gen. xviii.). The general statement that the Lord appeared
to Abraham is followed by the description in what manner that
appearance of the Lord took place; namely, Abraham saw first three
men; he ran and spoke to them. R. Ḥiya, the author of the
explanation, holds that the words of Abraham, “My Lord, if now I
have found grace in thy sight, do not, I pray thee, pass from thy
servant,” were spoken by him in a prophetic vision to one of the
men; for he says that Abraham addressed these words to the chief
of these men. Note this well, for it is one of the great mysteries [of
the Law]. The same, I hold, is the case when it is said in reference
to Jacob, “And a man wrestled with him” (Gen. xxxii. 25); this took
place in a prophetic vision, since it is expressly stated in the end
(ver. 31) that it was an angel. The circumstances are here exactly
the same as those in the vision of Abraham, where the general
statement, “And the Lord appeared to him,” etc., is followed by a
detailed description. Similarly the account of the vision of Jacob
begins, “And the angels of God met him” (Gen. xxxii. 2); then
follows a detailed description how it came to pass that they met
him; namely, Jacob sent messengers, and after having prepared and
done certain things, “he was left alone,” etc., “and a man wrestled
with him” (ibid. ver. 24). By this term “man” [one of] the angels of
God is meant, mentioned in the phrase, “And angels of God met
him”; the wrestling and speaking was entirely a prophetic vision.
That which happened to Balaam on the way, and the speaking of the
ass, took place in a prophetic vision, since further on, in the same
account, an angel of God is introduced as speaking to Balaam. I also
think that what Joshua perceived, when “he lifted up his eyes and
saw, and behold a man stood before him” (Josh. v. 13) was a
prophetic vision, since it is stated afterwards (ver. 14) that it was
“the prince of the host of the Lord.” But in the passages, “And an
angel of the Lord came up from Gilgal” (Judges ii. 1); “And it came
to pass that the angel of the Lord spake these words to all Israel”
(ibid. ver. 2); the “angel” is, according to the explanation of our
Sages, Phineas. They say, The angel is Phineas, for, when the Divine
Glory rested upon him, he was “like an angel.” We have already
shown (chap. vi.) that the term “angel” is homonymous, and
denotes also “prophet,” as is the case in the following passages:
—“And He sent an angel, and He hath brought us up out of Egypt”
(Num. xx. 16); “Then spake Haggai, the angel of the Lord, in the
Lord’s message” (Hagg. i. 13); “But they mocked the angels of
[238]God” (2 Chron. xxxvi. 16).—Comp. also the words of Daniel,
“And the man Gabriel, whom I had seen in the vision at the
beginning, being caused to fly swiftly, touched me about the time of
the evening oblation” (Dan. ix. 11). All this passed in a prophetic
vision. Do not imagine that an angel is seen or his word heard
otherwise than in a prophetic vision or prophetic dream, according to
the principle laid down:—“I make myself known unto him in a vision,
and speak unto him in a dream” (Num. xii. 6). The instances quoted
may serve as an illustration of those passages which I do not
mention. From the rule laid down by us that prophecy requires
preparation, and from our interpretation of the homonym “angel,”
you will infer that Hagar, the Egyptian woman, was not a
prophetess; also Manoah and his wife were no prophets; for the
speech they heard, or imagined they heard, was like the bat-kol
(prophetic echo), which is so frequently mentioned by our Sages,
and is something that may be experienced by men not prepared for
prophecy. The homonymity of the word “angel” misleads in this
matter. This is the principal method by which most of the difficult
passages in the Bible can be explained. Consider the words, “And an
angel of the Lord found her by the well of water” (Gen. xvi. 7),
which are similar to the words referring to Joseph—“And a man
found him, and behold, he was erring in the field” (ibid. xxxvii. 15).
All the Midrashim assume that by man in this passage an angel is
meant.

[Contents]
 CHAPTER XLIII
We have already shown in our work that the prophets sometimes
prophesy in allegories; they use a term allegorically, and in the same
prophecy the meaning of the allegory is given. In our dreams, we
sometimes believe that we are awake, and relate a dream to another
person, who explains the meaning, and all this goes on while we
dream. Our Sages call this “a dream interpreted in a dream.” In
other cases we learn the meaning of the dream after waking from
sleep. The same is the case with prophetic allegories. Some are
interpreted in the prophetic vision. Thus it is related in Zechariah,
after the description of the allegorical vision—“And the angel that
talked with me came again and waked me as a man that is
awakened from his sleep. And he said unto me, ‘What dost thou
see?’ ” etc. (Zech. iv. 1–2), and then the allegory is explained (ver. 6,
sqq.).

Another instance we find in Daniel. It is first stated there: “Daniel

had a dream and visions of his head upon his bed” (Dan. vii. 1). The
whole allegory is then given, and Daniel is described as sighing that
he did not know its interpretation. He asks the angel for an
explanation, and he received it in a prophetic vision. He relates as
follows: “I came near unto one of those that stood by, and asked
him the truth of all this. So he told me, and made me know the
interpretation of the things” (ibid. ver. 16). The whole scene is called
ḥazon (vision), although it was stated that Daniel had a dream,
because an angel explained the dream to him in the same manner
as is mentioned in reference to a prophetic dream. I refer to the
verse: “A vision appeared to me Daniel, after that which appeared to
me at the first” (ibid. viii. 1). This is clear, for ḥazon (vision) is
derived from ḥaza, “to see,” and mareh, “vision,” from raah, “to
see”; and ḥaza and raah are [239]synonymous. There is therefore no
difference whether we use mareh, or maḥazeh, or ḥazon, there is no
other mode of revelation but the two mentioned in Scripture: “In a
vision I make myself known to him, in a dream I will speak unto
him” (Num. xii. 6). There are, however, different degrees [of
prophetic proficiency], as will be shown (chap. xlv.).

There are other prophetic allegories whose meaning is not given in a

prophetic vision. The prophet learns it when he awakes from his
sleep. Take, e.g., the staves which Zechariah took in a prophetic
vision.

You must further know that the prophets see things shown to them
allegorically, such as the candlesticks, horses, and mountains of
Zechariah (Zech. iv. 2; vi. 1–7), the scroll of Ezekiel (Ezek. ii. 9), the
wall made by a plumb-line (Amos vii. 7), which Amos saw, the
animals of Daniel (Dan. vii. and viii.), the seething pot of Jeremiah
(Jer. i. 13), and similar allegorical objects shown to represent certain
ideas. The prophets, however, are also shown things which do not
illustrate the object of the vision, but indicate it by their name
through its etymology or homonymity. Thus the imaginative faculty
forms the image of a thing, the name of which has two meanings,
one of which denotes something different [from the image]. This is
likewise a kind of allegory. Comp. Makkal shaked, “almond staff,” of
Jeremiah (i. 11–12). It was intended to indicate by the second
meaning of shaked the prophecy, “For I will watch” (shoked), etc.,
which has no relation whatever to the staff or to almonds. The same
is the case with the kelub ḳayiẓ, “a basket of summer fruit,” seen by
Amos, by which the completion of a certain period was indicated,
“the end (ha-ḳeẓ) having come” (Amos viii. 2). Still more strange is
the following manner of calling the prophet’s attention to a certain
object. He is shown a different object, the name of which has
neither etymologically nor homonymously any relation to the first
object, but the names of both contain the same letters, though in a
different order. Take, e.g., the allegories of Zechariah (chap. xi. 7,
sqq.). He takes in a prophetic vision staves to lead the flock; he calls
the one Noʻam (pleasure), the other ḥobelim. He indicates thereby
that the nation was at first in favour with God, who was their leader
and guide. They rejoiced in the service of God, and found happiness
in it, while God was pleased with them, and loved them, as it is said,
“Thou hast avouched the Lord thy God,” etc., and “the Lord hath
avouched thee,” etc. (Deut. xxvi. 17, 18). They were guided and
directed by Moses and the prophets that followed him. But later a
change took place. They rejected the love of God, and God rejected
them, appointing destroyers like Jeroboam and Manasse as their
rulers. Accordingly, the word ḥobelim has the same meaning [viz.,
destroying] as the root ḥabal has in Meḥabbelim keramim,
“destroying vineyards” (Song of Sol. ii. 15). But the prophet found
also in this name Ḥobelim the indication that the people despised
God, and that God despised them. This is, however, not expressed
by the word ḥabal, but by a transposition of the letters Ḥet, Bet, and
Lamed, the meaning of despising and rejecting is obtained. Comp.
“My soul loathed them, and their soul also abhorred me” [baḥalah]
(Zech. xi. 8). The prophet had therefore to change the order of the
letters in ḥabal into that of Baḥal. In this way we find very strange
things and also mysteries (Sodot) in the words neḥoshet, Kalal,
regel, ʻegel, and ḥashmal of the Mercabah, and in other terms in
other [240]passages. After the above explanation you will see the
mysteries in the meaning of these expressions if you examine them
thoroughly.

[Contents]
 CHAPTER XLIV
Prophecy is given either in a vision or in a dream, as we have said so
many times, and we will not constantly repeat it. We say now that
when a prophet is inspired with a prophecy he may see an allegory,
as we have shown frequently, or he may in a prophetic vision
perceive that God speaks to him, as is said in Isaiah (vi. 8), “And I
heard the voice of the Lord saying, Whom shall I send, and who will
go for us?” or he hears an angel addressing him, and sees him also.
This is very frequent, e.g., “And the angel of God spake unto me,”
etc. (Gen. xxxi. 11); “And the angel that talked with me answered
and said unto me, Dost thou not know what these are” (Zech. iv. 5);
“And I heard one holy speaking” (Dan. viii. 13). Instances of this are
innumerable. The prophet sometimes sees a man that speaks to
him. Comp., “And behold there was a man, whose appearance was
like the appearance of brass, and the man said to me,” etc. (Ezek. xl.
3, 4), although the passage begins, “The hand of the Lord was upon
me” (ibid. ver. 1). In some cases the prophet sees no figure at all,
only hears in the prophetic vision the words addressed to him; e.g.,
“And I heard the voice of a man between the banks of Ulai” (Dan.
viii. 16); “There was silence, and I heard a voice” (in the speech of
Eliphaz, Job iv. 16); “And I heard a voice of one that spake to me”
(Ezek. i. 28). The being which Ezekiel perceived in the prophetic
vision was not the same that addressed him; for at the conclusion of
the strange and extraordinary scene which Ezekiel describes
expressly as having been perceived by him, the object and form of
the prophecy is introduced by the words, “And I heard a voice of a
man that spake to me.” After this remark on the different kinds of
prophecy, as suggested by Scripture, I say that the prophet may
perceive that which he hears with the greatest possible intensity,
just as a person may hear thunder in his dream, or perceive a storm