CommercialCity Eng v1

Colombo Commercial City
Development Plan – 2019-2030
Volume I
Ministry of Megapolis & Western Development

Urban Development Authority
Sri Lanka
Colombo Commercial City Development Plan 2019 – 2030
Colombo Commercial City Development Plan 2019–2030

Volume I
© Urban Development Authority – Sri Lanka - 2019
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the
publisher.
Published by
Urban Development Authority – Sri Lanka
6th & 7th Floors, “Sethsiripaya”, Battaramulla, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Website – www.uda.gov.lk
Email – info@uda.gov.lk
Telephone - +94 112 873 637
Published in July, 2019
Colombo Commercial City Development Plan 2019–2030 is delivered through a series of publications; Volume I, II & III.
Volume I contains the situational analysis and the explanations on the need of a plan. Volume II contains a detailed
elaboration on the plan including vision, goals, objectives, strategies, strategic projects and implementation mechanism.
Volume III is a separate document which contains both special and general Planning & Building Regulations applicable to
Colombo Commercial City within the period of 2019–2030.
Colombo Commercial City Development Plan 2019–2030 was prepared by Western Province Division and Research &
Development Division of Urban Development Authority with the consultation of relevant stakeholder agencies.
Direct Supervision by:

Dr. Jagath Munasinghe Chairman - UDA, Eng. S.S.P. Rathnayake Director General - UDA, Plnr. D.M.B. Ranathunga Additional
Director General - UDA, Plnr. K.A.D. Chandradasa Former Additional Director General - UDA, Plnr. M.P. Ranathunga Deputy Director
General (Planning) - UDA, Plnr. Janak Ranaweera Director (Development Planning & R&D), Plnr. Y.A.G.K. Gunathilaka Director
(Western Province), Plnr. Lalith Wijayarathna Former Director (Development Planning)
Planning Team:
Plnr. Dayani Francis Deputy Director (Planning), Western Province, Plnr. B.L. Ranjith Assistant Director (Planning), Western Province,
Plnr. Subha Kukulevithana Assistant Director (Planning), Western Province, Plnr. Indu Witharana, Assistant Director (Planning),
Western Province, Plnr. Nishamani Abeyratne Assistant Director (Planning), Research & Development, Plnr. Nadeepa Palliyaguru
Planning Oficer, Western Province, Plnr. Chaminda Senevirathna Planning Oficer, Western Province, Plnr. Ruwan Udaya Kumara
Planning Oficer, Western Province, Plnr. Lasantha Bandara Planning Assistant, Western Province, Plnr. Madhuka Thamarasi
Planning Assistant, Research & Development, Plnr. M.M. Riswan Planning Assistant, Research & Development, Plnr. Janithra
Wimaladasa Assistant Planning Oficer, Research & Development, Plnr. Lakshan Dissanayake Assistant Planning Oficer, Research
& Development, Ms. Chulesha Geeganage Assistant Planning Oficer, Research & Development, Plnr. H.G.A. Surangi Planning
Assistant, Western Province, Plnr. Jeewanthi Kaushalya Planning Assistant Western Province, Plnr. Dilki Weerathunga
Planning Assistant, Western Province, Ms. Madhusha Thennakoon Assistant Planning Oficer, Western Province
II
Volume I
Acknowledgement
Preparation of Colombo Commercial City Development Plan (CCCDP) is a collaborative work under-
taken by the Western Province and Research & Development Divisions of Urban Development Authority in
consultation with relevant stakeholder agencies. hroughout the process which continued for nearly
one and half years, there were many who contributed to CCCDP in numerous ways.
Our sincere gratitude is extended to the Minister of Megapolis & Western Development, Honorable
Patali Champika Ranawaka for his guidance and support in making this exercise a success. he
counsels and support given by Secretary to the Ministry of Megapolis & Western Development and
the fellow staff at Ministry are also highly valued at this point.
Our special thanks is extended to the Mayors, Chairmen, Council Members, Commissioners,
Secretaries and staff of all 08 Local Authorities; Colombo Municipal Council, Dehiwala Mt-lavinia
Municipal Council, Boralesgamuwa Urban Council, Kolonnawa Urban Council, Peliyagoda Urban Council,
Wattala-Mabola Urban Council, Wattala Pradeshiya Sabha and Kelaniya Pradeshiya Sabha for their great
cooperation and contribution towards CCCDP.
Special gratitude is extended to all relevant key stakeholder agencies of both state and private sector
for sharing their comments, suggestions and ideas along with numerous valuable input data without
which the CCCDP won’t be a reality. he support and guidance given by the Department of Town
& Country Planning of University of Moratuwa is remembered with utmost gratitude at this point.
he comments, recommendations and suggestions given by general public; especially the Colombo
Community in the means of participating in stakeholder meetings, focused group discussions,
business forums, through the website and other social media are also highly appreciated.
Chairman of Urban Development Authority, Dr. Jagath Munasinghe is recalled with great appre-
ciation for initiating the process of preparing CCCDP, guidance given throughout by introducing
many new innovative planning techniques and applications and for continuous supervision and
encouragement given throughout the process. Special thanks is also extended to Director General of
UDA, Eng. S.S.P. Rathnayake, Additional Director General, Deputy Director Generals and Directors
of all Divisions of UDA for their encouragement, supervision and counsel given throughout. he
continuous direct guidance and encouragement given by Director (Development Planning & R&D),
Plnr. Janak Ranaweera is also remarked with great appreciation.
Special gratitude is extended to Development Planning Division, Research & Development Division,
GIS Division, Enforcement Division, Environmental & Landscape Division, Project Management
Division and Urban Regeneration Project Ofice of UDA for their cooperation. In addition, all staff
of UDA is remembered with utmost gratitude for their support towards CCCDP in numerous ways.
Further, special thanks is extended to outside parties who worked with us to make CCCDP a reality
such as Mr. Indula Jayasekara for 3D visualization of special project areas, Mooniak for designing
all publish materials and Mr. Gihan Wijewardhana for designing of presentation panels and all who
contributed towards CCCDP in numerous ways.
III
Honorable Minister’s Forward
Having established under the provisions of the Urban Develop-ment

Authority Law: Act No. 41 of 1978, the Urban Development Authority by now
has completed 40 years of service contributing to the urban development
in Sri Lanka. At this moment the UDA marks another milestone by
completing a comprehensive Development Plan for another decade for
Colombo Commercial City.
Colombo is the administrative, commercial and inance hub of Sri Lanka

and it has also gained a considerable position in the international context
as an emerging vibrant business hub in South Asian region. he role
of Colombo is crucial, not only for the economy and for the administration of the whole country,
but also in Sri Lanka’s journey to become a developed nation. hus, the Colombo Commercial City
Development Plan 2019-2030 shall be viewed as a scenario that has both national and international
signiicance.
Our effort is to support Colombo’s role as an international business hub by shaping up its physical
environment while ensuring a higher livability for its inhabitants and an eficient functioning of the
state of the art infrastructure facilities. he Plan intends to address the prevailing issues of the city
with strategic action projects while envisaging to harness the untapped potentials at the best.
My understanding is that the preparation of this Plan involved extensive consultation of professionals,
expertise, stakeholders and the communities, while engaging modern methods, sound techniques
and innovative approaches. In this regard, I appreciate the extraordinary efforts of the Chairman,
Director General, Planning Team, all staff of Urban Development Authority and those who have
contributed in numerous ways to successfully complete this work. I also appreciate the support and
contribution of relevant local authorities, state and private sector agencies and general public by
working equally on a same platform to make Colombo Commercial City Development Plan – 2019-
2030 a success.
Hon. Patali Champika Ranawaka

Minister of Megapolis & Western Development
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Volume I
UDA Chairman’s Forward
Today, the Urban Development Authority (UDA) is the apex planning and
plan implementation body in Sri Lanka that is responsible for managing
the state of the urban environments of the nation. he Authority was
established in 1978 with the objective of introducing integrated planning
and implementation, in order to promote and regulate developments for
the common beneit of the urban areas. With the existence of Colombo as
the commercial capital of Sri Lanka, it is high time that we view in retrospect
to observe the achievements and successes as well as the drawbacks and
failures it has gained. We can be happy of the developments which have
been commenced up to now, but certainly we need to accept that we could
achieve much more on this unique city area. his Colombo Commercial City Development Plan –
2019-2030 is a framework towards such noble objective of making Colombo and its surrounding areas
a highly competitive, livable, sustainable and adorable city and that will become the most sought
attraction in South Asia for business, investments, living, working and visits.
For the implementation of this Plan, we have not forgotten that our path is not as smooth as silk,
but as rough as gravel, full of challenges, illed with uncertainties, and fouled by vicious intents.
Yet the UDA today is equipped with necessary systems, tools and strategies to face such challenges,
withstand those uncertainties, to make Colombo : the ‘Aquarina – he City in Water’.
I take this opportunity to offer my sincere gratitude to the Team of the UDA who had to work hard
and committed to deliver this comprehensive work and also to all those who have supported and
contributed with various means towards its formulation and hope the equal and continuous support
of the all of them will be there towards its successful implementation.
Dr. Jagath Munasinghe

Chairman – Urban Development Authority
V
Message from Mayors and Chairmen of

Local Authorities
We extend our gratitude towards Urban Development Authority for the initiative taken to prepare
a common plan amalgamating our 08 Local Authority Areas into an integrated planning area as
Colombo Commercial City. It is important to understand that the local authority boundaries drawn in
legal documents are no longer reflected in real grounds, as all these areas function as a single entity
accommodating the overspill of Colombo’s urbanization. Hence, we believe, by adopting a single
plan, we will be able to develop all 08 Local Authority Areas in an equal way following a shared vision.
We appreciate UDA’s attempt to make Colombo Commercial City Development Plan a collaborative and
participatory exercise by incorporating the recommendations, suggestions and criticisms given
by us; the representatives of general public. Hence, we declare it as our plan and ensure our future
collaboration and support in the implementation of Colombo Commercial City Development Plan within
the next eleven years. Also, we request all citizens and stakeholders of Colombo Commercial City to
act at individual and corporate levels to lead the city towards the shared vision as envisaged by the
Colombo Commercial City Development Plan – 2019-2030
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Volume I
Table of Content
Acknowledgments III
Honorable Minister’s Forward IV
UDA Chairman’s Forward V
Message from Mayors and Chairmen of Local Authorities VI
Table of Content VII
Chapter 01 – Introduction 01
1.1. Background 02
1.1.1. Legality in Planning 02

1.1.2. UDA’s New Approach 04
1.1.3. Planning Colombo 05
1.2. Stakeholders 06
1.3. Scope 08
1.3.1. Scope in Terms of Scale of the City 08

1.3.2. Scope in Terms of Geography 08
1.3.3. Scope in Terms of Influenced Population 08
1.3.4. Scope in Terms of Sectors 08
1.3.5. Scope in Terms of Timespan 10
1.3.6. Scope in Terms of Execution 10
1.4. Methodology 10
1.4.1. Where are we now? 10

1.4.2. Where do we want to go? 12
1.4.3. How do we go there? 12
Chapter 02 – Planning Context 15
2.1. Evolution of Colombo 16
2.1.1. Portuguese Period (1505 – 1656) 16

2.1.2. Dutch Period (1656 – 1796) 19
2.1.3. British Period (1796 - 1948) 21
2.2. Interventions to Plan Colombo 22
VII
2.2.1. City Plan by Sir Patrick Geddes – 1921 23

2.2.2. Plan by Clifford Holiday – 1940 24
2.2.3. The Regional Plan by Patrick Abercrombie – 1948 24
2.2.4. UNDP Assisted Colombo Master Plan – 1978 25
2.2.5. City of Colombo Development Plan – 1985 26
2.2.6. Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan (CMRSP) – 1998 27
2.2.7. City of Colombo Development Plan – 1999 30
2.2.8. Western Region Megapolis Plan (CESMA) – 2004 31
2.2.9. City of Colombo Development Plan (Amendment) – 2008 32
2.2.10. Western Region Megapolis Master Plan – 2030 34
2.3. The Present Colombo 35
2.3.1. Colombo as an International City 35

2.3.2. Colombo as the Commercial Capital 38
Chapter 03 - Need of the Plan 67
3.1. Identiication of ‘Need of the Plan’ 68

3.2. Problems due to Changing Development Trends 69
3.2.1. Spontaneous Emergence of High Dense Developments within Colombo

Commercial City Regardless the Availability of Supporting Infrastructure 69
3.2.2. Current Development Trends Challenging the Existing Planning and
Building Regulations based on Zoning 83
3.3. Emerging Social, Environmental and Economic Problems due to Distribution of

Underserved Settlements 87
3.3.1. Case I – Underserved Settlements within City of Colombo 89

3.3.2 Case II - Underserved Settlements located outside of City of Colombo 104
3.4. Public Inconvenience and Economic Loss due to Trafic Congestion on Major
Arterials at Peak Hours 106
3.4.1. Heavy Trafic Flows Entering and Leaving Colombo Commercial City 107
3.4.2. Hourly Fluctuation of Trafic Flows 110
3.4.3. Major Reasons behind the Severe Trafic Congestion at Peak Hours 112
3.4.4. Severity of the Trafic Congestion in Colombo 118
3.4.5. Major Impacts of Severe Trafic Congestion during Peak Hours 122
3.5. Lack of User-convenience within Colombo Commercial City due to prevailing

Environmental Problems, Social Issues and Deiciencies of Public Facilities 129
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3.5.1. Lack of user-convenience due to environmental problems 130

3.5.2. Lack of User-convenience due to Safety Issues 152
3.5.3. Inconvenience due to Lack of Public Facilities 157
3.6. Perceiving City Potentials as Solutions for Issues of Colombo Commercial City 158
3.6.1. Economic Potentials 159

3.6.2. Environmental Potentials 166
3.6.3. Ongoing and Proposed Mega Projects of Colombo Commercial City 172
3.7. Conclusion 179
List of Tables 180

List of Figures 181
References 192
IX
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Volume I
XI
XII
Volume I
Chapter 01
Introduction
–––
Chapter 01
Introduction
1
Chapter 01
Introduction 1.1. Background
––– 1.1.1. Legality in Planning
Background
he Urban Development Authority has been established under the provisions of the
Legality in Planning Urban Development Authority Law; Act No. 41 of 1978 for the purpose of integrated
planning and implementation for economic, social, environment and physical
development of the urban areas in Sri Lanka. he Authority has been engaged in a
variety of activities related to the Planning and Development of the areas declared by
the Minister in-charge of the subject Urban Development as per the powers vested in
him by the Section 03 of the same Law.
Figure 01 : Planning Area – ‘Colombo Commercial City’
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Currently, the Authority is heading with the vision towards ‘a planned, sustained Chapter 01
and adored urbanization in Sri Lanka, has engaged in preparing comprehensive Introduction
Development Plans for all ‘Urban Development Areas’. –––
Background
Even though it has been the conventional practice to prepare development plans
for each declared “Urban Areas” as a separate entity, currently the UDA attempts to Legality in Planning
capture the complexities in the urbanization trends and patterns which do not
conine to the limits of declared “Urban Areas”. Hence, when preparing Development
Plans for Colombo, the extent of the Colombo’s Commercial City Area is studied
as not conined to area under the jurisdictions of the Colombo Municipal Council
(CMC) but also extends in to adjacent areas governed under the local authorities
of Dehiwala Mount-Lavinia Municipal Council (DMMC) area, Borelasgamuwa,
Kolonnawa, Peliyagoda, Wattala – Mabola Urban Council areas and Parts of Wattala
and Kelaniya Pradeshiya Sabha areas towards which the waves of Colombo's
urbanization are rapidly moving.
Declaration Details
No. Local Authority
Date of Declaration Gazette Number
1 Colombo MC 30.09.1978 No. 4/1
2 Dehiwala Mount Lavinia MC 30.09.1978 No. 4/1
3 Boralesgamuwa UC 01.10.1979 No. 56/6
4 Kolonnawa UC 30.09.1978 No. 4/1
5 Peliyagoda UC 14.08.1981 No. 154/13
6 Wattala – Mabola UC 19.04.2002 No. 1231/15
7 Part of Wattala PS 22.08.1995 No. 885/6
8 Part of Kelaniya PS 13.02.2001 No. 1171/10
Table 01 : Declaration of Local Authorities of Colombo Commercial City as “Urban Areas”

Source : Urban Development Authority– 2018
he declaration of the above areas as “Urban Areas” was carried out during late 1970s
and 1980s considering their emerging urban characteristics and the particulars
of declaration are mentioned in the Table No. 01. However, out of them, gazetted
Development Plans are available only for CMC and DMMC areas. he irst
development plan for CMC area was gazetted on 1986.01.30 under gazette No.386/23
and amended by No. 1090/3 on 1999.07.29 and by No. 1535/4 on 2008.02.06
consequently. he inal amendment to the City of Colombo Development Plan is in
effect for the period of 2008 to 2025. he Development Plan for DMMC area was
gazetted on 2009.03.27 by the gazette No. 1594/32 is in effect for the period of 2008
to 2020. he draft development plans available for Kolonnawa UC (2008-2020)
and Boralesgamuwa UC (2008-2025) areas act as the main legal framework for the
3
Chapter 01 land use management and regulation of the developments in these areas. General
Introduction regulations as per the Common Building and Planning Regulations gazetted on
––– 03.03.1986 are practiced for the rest of the local authority areas for which the draft
development plans are not available.
Background
Legality in Planning
1.1.2. UDA’s New Approach
UDA’s New Approach
By now the UDA has adopted a new approach for preparing development plans
deviating from the conventional methods and several advanced technologies
and methodologies are being used for the evaluation of existing urban systems,
to diagnose prevailing issues, to identify the most appropriate visionary paths
and development solutions and for the planning of strategic paths to achieve the
anticipated transformations in respective urban areas. Since the validity period of
the available Development Plans for CMC and DMMC areas are coming to end in
near future and there aren’t updated Development Plans for the rest of the planning
areas, and most importantly due to the absence of a single plan addressing the
overspill of Colombo's urbanization into its adjacent areas, the UDA has undertaken
to prepare a single plan with a holistic vision for all of the above 08 local authority
areas within the said new approaches.
Figure 02 : Western Region Structure Plan - 2030

Source : Western Province Division, UDA - 2017
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Chapter 01
1.1.3. Planning Colombo Introduction
–––
he inception of Colombo Commercial City Development Plan (CCCDP) - 2019-2030
is associated with the Draft Western Region Structure Plan (WRSP) – 2030 which Background
was prepared by the UDA in 2017. It is the WRSP – 2030 which identiies a part of
Planning Colombo
Western Province as the Core Area and delineates a functional area within it, which
now hosts most of the activities of the Colombo CBD and acts as the commercial and
administrative center of Sri Lanka. he lands that falls within this functional area
boundary has been declared as the ‘Core Area of the Metro Colombo Development Region’
by the Minister of Megapolis & Western Development by the Extra Ordinary Gazette
Notiication No. 2049/11 dated 11th December 2017.
Figure 03 : National Physical Plan - 2050

Source : National Physical Planning Policy – 2050, 2017
5
Chapter 01 Out of this, the area that is predominated by the major commercial and the related
Introduction activities is hereby named ‘Colombo Commercial City’ and it includes 08 local
––– authority areas as explained above. he WRSP – 2030 also delineates another planning
area named National Capital City which is edged at the east of Colombo Commercial
Background
City and includes the areas under the jurisdictions of Kotte Sri Jayawardanepura
Planning Colombo Municipal Council, Kaduwela Municipal Council, Maharagama Urban Council and
the Kotikawatta-Mulleriyawa Pradeshiya Sabha.
Stakeholders
Planning of the Colombo Commercial City and the National Capital City was carried
out as parallel exercises considering the cross impacts. he planning guidance given
by the National Physical Plan - 2050 and the WRSP – 2030 were considered as the
base for these plans.
Planning of Colombo Commercial City has been a collaborative exercise where a

team of planning expertise from the UDA played the main role for the preparation
of the Development Plan in consultation with relevant stakeholder agencies and
representatives of the general public. he preparation of Colombo Commercial
City Development Plan was mainly conducted by the Western Province Division
of the UDA in collaboration with the Research & Development Division with the
support of the Development Planning Division, the Enforcement Division and the
Geographic Information System Division under the direct supervision of the higher
management of the UDA. In addition, the directors and oficers of other divisions
of the UDA and experts from other organizations also engaged with the planning
process at different stages through consultation.
1.2. Stakeholders
‘Planning is for people’ and people are a part of the plan who contribute for its design,
implementation and feedback and it is on them the ultimate effect of the plan is
experienced. hus, stakeholder consultations were conducted at different stages of
the planning process to capture the ideas of people, development agencies, citizen
organizations, etc, who are considered as an essential partaker of the Colombo
Commercial City Development Plan.
he co-implementation authorities such as the 08 Local Authorities; Colombo

Municipal Council, Dehiwala Mt-lavinia Municipal Council, Boralesgamuwa Urban
Council, Kolonnawa Urban Council, Peliyagoda Urban Council, Wattala Urban
Council, Wattala Pradeshiya Sabha and Kelaniya Pradeshiya Sabha, respective
Divisional Secretariat Divisions, Colombo District Secretariat Division, Road
Development Authority (RDA), Central Environment Authority (CEA), Sri Lanka
Land Reclamation & Development Corporation (SLLRDC), Irrigation Department
(ID), Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB), National Water Supply & Drainage Board
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(NWSDB), Coast Conservation Department (CCD), Sri Lanka Railways (SLR), Sri Chapter 01
Lanka Transport Board (SLTB) and Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority Introduction
(SLTDB) have been consulted throughout the preparation of the Draft Plan. he –––
ideas of several other stakeholders including the state agencies, private sector
Stakeholders
organizations and the general public were gathered by means of Focused Group
Discussions and Public Open Forums as mentioned below.
Stakeholder Consultation
Focused Group Meetings Public Open Forums
Transport Sector Surveys at Public

Gathering Places
Environment Sector
Infrastructure Sector Public Meetings

(Developers' Forum)
Economic Sector
Social Media / Media
Social
(News paper advertisements /
Threads in Facebook & UDA web Page)
Other Religious Institutions
Community Leaders /
Public Societies
Tri-forces/ Police
Universities/ Academia
Professional Institutes
Figure 04 : Stakeholder Consultation Process
7
Chapter 01
Introduction 1.3. Scope
––– 1.3.1. Scope in Terms of Scale of the City
Scope
Given the evolution in association with the Colombo International Port and
Scope in Terms of other established administrative and commercial activities, Colombo projects its
Scale of the City
prominence as the Commercial hub of Sri Lanka having the capability to compete
Scope in Terms of as an International City. With no debate Colombo plays the epi-center of Sri Lanka’s
Geography
trade and commerce, international relations, cross boarder transportation and
Scope in Terms of transactions, branding and political affairs. herefore, it deserves provisions for
Influenced Population
a higher standards of living facilities for better attractions and space for a more
Scope in Terms of Sectors competitive economy, compared to the other cities of the island and the South Asian
Region. Hence, this Development Plan for Colombo was assigned with the scope of
deining means for an international city, addressing the requirements to compete in
the international context.
1.3.2. Scope in Terms of Geography

Topographical boundary of the Colombo Commercial City Development Plan (CCCDP)
covers the areas falling under the jurisdictions of CMC, DMMC, Borelasgamuwa,
Kolonnawa, Peliyagoda, Wattala – Mabola Urban Councils and Parts of Wattala and
Kelaniya Pradeshiya Sabhas. (Figure 1) he total land extent covered by the CCCDP
– 2030 is 103.71km2. he planning area includes 08 Divisional Secretariat Divisions;
Colombo, himbirigasyaya, Dehiwala, Ratmalana and parts of Kesbewa, Kolonnawa,
Kelaniya and Wattala. Altogether the planning area includes 149 Grama Niladhari
Divisions. (Figure 5)
1.3.3. Scope in Terms of Influenced Population

he CCCDP – 2030 directly influences two categories of population including
approximately 1.1 Million of residential population and 0.8 Million of daily
commuters. However, since Colombo acts as the commercial capital of Sri Lanka,
the CCCDP – 2030 indirectly influences 21.4 Million of Sri Lankans as well as the
international community who has particular interests on Colombo which can be
regarded as a competing international city.
1.3.4. Scope in Terms of Sectors

Adhering to the mandatory requirements speciied in the UDA Act No. 41 of 1978
with reference to the preparation of development plans, CCCDP – 2030 is prepared
to guide and manage overall spatial development of Colombo Commercial City while
ensuring Environment Management and Economic, Infrastructure, Settlement and
Social Development.
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Volume I
Figure 05 : Administrative Boundaries within Colombo Commercial City
9
Chapter 01
Introduction
1.3.5. Scope in Terms of Timespan
–––
Given that the CCCDP is prepared in the scope of an international city, the plan puts
Scope forward the positive measures that will sharpen the future of Colombo through long
term physical transformation. Hence, the CCCDP – 2030 which is derived based
Scope in Terms of on an ultimate vision anticipated to be achieved in an approximate time span of 30
Timespan
years, will form the pathway towards its long-term vision within the next 11 years.
Scope in Terms of
Execution
1.3.6. Scope in Terms of Execution
Methodology
CCCDP – 2030 will be executed within the next 11 years commencing from 2019 in
Where are we now?
collaboration with the main co-implementation authorities and other public and
private sector parties in the means of long-term planning guidelines, policies,
strategic projects, private-public partnership programs and planning and building
regulations. However, one of the major limitations associated with the preparation
of Colombo Commercial City Development 2019-2030 Plan is that, the practical
conduct of each step of planning process was bounded with the constraints in
existing technical capacities, availability of data and time and resource constraints.
1.4. Methodology
CCCDP – 2030 was prepared adopting the Strategic Planning Approach which
proceeds the plan in three main stages gradually addressing three strategic questions
in line.
1.4.1. Where are we now?

his question was attempted to be answered with a comprehensive understanding
of the planning context which was gained through background studies and initial
public/ stakeholder consultation. As an output the main issues were identiied in
terms of context, magnitude and signiicance which were followed by a preliminary
analysis and identiication of root causes to derive precise deinitions of problems
and potentials.
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Volume I
K N O W I N G T H E P L A C E
Background Studies
Data collection & processing Historical Evolution

Field surveys Planning attempts
Literature Review Demography / Housing
Secondary data collection Environmental / Geographical / Disaster Data
Land use update Land use / Land value
Preparation of base maps Economic condition
and database Infrastructure facilities
Archeological & heritage data
National & regional positioning / linkages
Public / Stakeholder Consultation
Observations
Scoping
Initial identiication of problems & potentials

Preliminary Analysis
Identiication of root causes
Problems & Potential Deinition
In terms of Context, Magnitude & Signiicance
Need of the Plan
Figure 06 : Planning Process (Where area we now?)
11
Chapter 01
Introduction
1.4.2. Where do we want to go?
–––
Following to the deinition of problems and potentials, addressing of which is the
Methodology need of the plan, a vision for the area has been formulated. he vision has been
dissected into Goals which would direct the rest of the Plan for the city to overcome
Where do we want to go? its problems while capturing the potentials in their highest and best levels. hen
How do we go there? a detail analysis was carried out in order to formulate a SWOT which enabled the
evaluation of the said Goals in terms of the city’s strengths and opportunities and
the weaknesses and threats. Subsequently, the speciic and smart objectives were
derived with quantiiable indicators based on the SWOT.
V I S I O N I N G
Formulation of Vision & Concept
Detail Analysis – SWOT (Evaluation of the Vision)
Formulation of Goals & Objectives
Figure 07 : Planning Process (Where do we want to go?)
1.4.3. How do we go there?

After determining the direction towards which the city should be guided with the
formulated vision, goals and objectives, the path to accomplish them was designed
in terms of broader strategies and strategic actions. SWOT analysis was conducted
for each broader goal to derive strategic actions under them. he inalized CCCDP
– 2030 has been then processed through the formal procedures as per the guidance
given in the relevant Law to ensure the incorporation of the stakeholders’ views and
smooth delivering of the plan to the public.
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A C C O M P L I S H M E N T
Strategy Formulation
Identiication of broader Strategies (Areas of intervention)
SWOT Analysis (Evaluation of goals)
Determination of Strategic Actions
Proposed Spatial Structure Plan

Thematic Plans
Overall Planning Guidelines
Strategic Actions
Planning & Building Regulations
Implementation Plan
Delivering of the Plan
Identiication, Establishment, Evaluation and Testing
Documentation, Presentation and Formalizing
Public/ Stakeholder Consultation & Obtaining of Local Authority Consent
Amendments & Publishing
Figure 08 : Planning Process (How do we go there?a)
13
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Volume I
Chapter 02
Planning Context
–––
Chapter 02
Planning Context
15
Chapter 02
Planning Context 2.1. Evolution of Colombo
––– Colombo is not only a city of the future or the present, but it also is a city with a long
antiquity that subscribes to the rich history and the heritage of Sri Lanka. he name
Evolution of Colombo "Colombo", is believed to be derived from the classical Sinhalese name “Kolon thota”,
Portuguese Period meaning "the port on the river Kelani”. Another belief is that the name is derived
(1505 – 1656) from the Sinhalese name “Kola-ambo” meaning "Harbour with leafy mango trees"
which later turned into Colombo.
During the Pre-colonial era, for over 2000 years, Colombo has been a point of
interest for many traders: Arabs, Indians, Chinese, Persians, Romans and the
Greeks; mainly because of its strategic location. Many came to Sri Lanka to establish
trade as it located in the East - West Trade route. he descendants of these traders
can be seen within the population composition of Colombo today. he settlements
of that era were located near the sea port and the Kelani River mouth and inhabited
by ishing communities, traders and those who provided various services, and the
other surrounding areas were marshy lands.
2.1.1. Portuguese Period (1505 – 1656)
Figure 09 : The irst Portuguese Port of Colombo - 1518

Source : sirimunasiha.wordpress.com
16
Volume I
he Portuguese explorers arrived in Galle in Sri Lanka (Galle) in 1505 and came to the Chapter 02
port of Colombo along the coastal belt. Taking the natural topographical features of Planning Context
Colombo as an advantage they built a well-defended fortress in Colombo. he fortress
was surrounded by water bodies and canals and said to had infested with crocodiles. –––
he Portuguese during the 15th century created a ‘Planned City’ covering the present
Evolution of Colombo
Fort and Pettah areas. he Fort consisted of all administrative functions whereas
Pettah was then an elegant residential area. Other settlements were scattered in Portuguese Period
Modara and Grandpass areas. (1505 – 1656)
Figure 10 : A drawing of Colombo Fort in Portuguese Period

Source : http://lankapura.com
17
Chapter 02
Planning Context
–––
Portuguese Period
(1505 – 1656)
Figure 11 : Settlements Distribution in Early Portuguese Period
18
Volume I
Chapter 02
2.1.2. Dutch Period (1656 – 1796) Planning Context
he Dutch governed Colombo for nearly one and half centuries. he Dutch divided –––
the city into two parts as Castle (Fort) and Oude Staad (outer city – Pettah) as two
separate entities. Pettah was the location for the native settlements and commercial Evolution of Colombo
activities. In city planning history of Colombo, the Dutch should deserves credit for
adding interesting features such as the canal network, well – laid regular pattern Dutch Period
(1656 – 1796)
streets and some iconic buildings. he canal network connecting Beira Lake was
used as a mode of transport and a part of storm water drainage system. According
to the historical records, the present York street was a storm water canal during this
period. An extensive system of water bodies was laid, being a key feature of Dutch
planning. Modara, Mutval and Grandpass were the dominant residential areas. he
contribution by Dutch to city planning, architecture, and storm water drainage has
become a part of the heritage of the city.
Figure 12 : Dutch Colombo (1775), Sri Lanka. Johannes Kip c. 1775

Source : http://www.colonialvoyage.com
19
Chapter 02
Planning Context
–––
Dutch Period
(1656 – 1796)
Figure 13 : Dutch Houses in Pettah, Colombo

Source : http://www.serendib.btoptions.lk
Figure 14 : Settlements Distribution in Dutch Period
20
Volume I
Chapter 02
2.1.3. British Period (1796 - 1948) Planning Context
British occupation of nearly 150 years influenced the development of City of Colombo –––
into its present mode. he basic structure of the city on which the present city is being
built, was initially laid out by the British. he British expanded the city from what Evolution of Colombo
the Portuguese and Dutch had already built. One of the most interesting features of
British period was the creation of a vast extent of public open spaces such as Victoria British Period
(1796 - 1948)
Park (Viharamahadevi Park in its present terms), Galle Face Green, golf courses
and many cricket grounds that act as the green lungs of Colombo even today. he
development of port during this period was a critical factor in the transformation of
Colombo especially in northern and central Colombo.
Figure 15 : Settlements Distribution in Figure 16 : Settlements Distribution in

Early British Period Late British Period
Another interesting phenomenon that occurred during the British rule was shifting
of settlements from place to place following the growth pattern of the city. he
gradual deterioration of the residential character in northern Colombo with the
expansion of port related activities to North of Colombo opened up Kollupitiya,
Wellawatte, Bambalpitiya and Maradana became as new attractions for residential
uses, while Cinnamon Garden became the residential area of elite towards late
1800s. he most signiicant contributions made by the British were the development
of large scale city infrastructure such as the highways, local roads, railways, water
21
Chapter 02 supply, storm water drainage sewerage disposal systems, etc. Under the British
Planning Context ruling large extents of marshy lands and paddy ields were reclaimed losing some
of the distinctive waterfronts in the region. Degrading the image of Beira Lake by
––– reclaiming it to reduce its original size was another negative impact made during
British rule.
Figure 17 : Prince Street – Colombo Fort in 1800s - British Streets

Source : http://www.lankapura.com
2.2. Interventions to Plan Colombo
Having noted the rapid development and the expansion of the City of Colombo in
the latter part of the 19th century, the British rulers of Ceylon endeavored in a few
made comprehensive planning proposals for Colombo to avoid unplanned growth
and to regularize the foreseen developments.
22
Volume I
Chapter 02
2.2.1. City Plan by Sir Patrick Geddes - 1921 Planning Context
he irst formal planning

–––
attempt was in 1921 by
Interventions to
Sir Patrick Geddes who in-
Plan Colombo
troduced a new vision for
the City of Colombo: "he City Plan by
Sir Patrick Geddes - 1921
Garden City of the East". In
his plan, Geddes considered
the development of port as
a strategic intervention to
influence the development
of Colombo and also atte-
mpted to address the pre-
vailing issues of Colombo
at that time such as the
increasing need for housing
and the floods experienced
by one third of the city.
Figure 18 : City Plan by Sir Patrick

Geddes 1921/ Source : Colombo
Metropolitan Regional Structure
Plan – UDA, 1998
Establishment of Town Hall with a digniied appearance at a geographically central

location of Colombo overlooking the Victoria Park (now known as Viharamaha-
devi Park), improvement of Galle Face Green, proposal to construct a Relief Road
(presently known as Duplication Road) parallel to Galle Road and construction of a
foot path along the southern railway line (which gradually led to the development of
Marine Drive) are few milestone proposals of this plan.
Proposals to construct an aquarium at the Old Parliament roundabout, two new race
courses, a zoological garden, polder lakes in Peliyagoda for flood retention, two wet
docks for port expansion at Bloemendhal area and Orugodawatta (latter two were
not implemented as those lands were reclaimed for urban development purposes)
are some of the examples of Geddes’ attempts to make Colombo a Garden City
dominated with water bodies. he tree lined streets (Bauddhaloka Mawatha) within
23
Chapter 02 the grid of roads in Cinnamon Gardens radiating from the central garden; Victoria
Planning Context Park, are legacies of this plan which still contributes to its prominence as a highly
sought residential and commercial area with premium character.
–––
Interventions to 2.2.2. Plan by Clifford Holiday – 1940

Plan Colombo
Clifford Holiday who arrived to Sri Lanka on an invitation of the Colombo Municipal
City Plan by Council made the next Plan for Colombo. his plan laid much emphasisze on
Sir Patrick Geddes - 1921
controlling the people movement by "Zoning", which he assumed would regulate
Plan by Clifford and stabilize the future growth of Colombo. Commercial, industrial and residential
Holiday – 1940
areas were provisionally deined in this plan. Decentralization of certain functions
The Regional Plan by and regulating activities by developing a legal framework is a predominant feature of
Patrick Abercrombie – 1948
this plan. Planning area was expanded up to Moratuwa, Ja-Ela and 14 miles towards
inland through this plan. Perhaps the most influential proposal of his works was
providing a legislative framework for town planning in Sri Lanka, incorporated in
the Town & Country Planning Ordinance enacted in 1946.
2.2.3. he Regional Plan by Patrick Abercrombie – 1948
By this time, central

built-up area had been
overcrowded having res-
ident population around
350,000 and provision of
healthy and convenient
housing for all had been a
challenge. he inundation
of one third of land still
remained an issue making
vast areas of Colombo
un-suitable for building
developments. Facilitation
of around 125,000 daily
commuters to the city with
available inadequate infras-
tructure was also seen as a
challenge at this time.
Figure 19 : Regional Plan by Patrick Abercrombie - 1948

Source : Colombo Living High; A City in Transition, N.P
Herath & D. Jayasundara, 2007
24
Volume I
In response to these issues, Patrick Abercrombie prepared a town planning scheme for Chapter 02
the City of Colombo based on the principle of decentralization of urban activities. Planning Context
his plan proposed a concept of "Region" which consists of 220 square miles in extent
and covering land area of 14 miles in radius from Colombo port. he plan proposed –––
to decentralize city functions into three new satellite towns of Colombo city such
Interventions to
as Ratmalana, Ragama and Homagama. he plan included a ring road to link these
Plan Colombo
towns and the shifting of central administrative functions to Ratmalana. he Zoning
Proposals introduced in the plan were based on character and density and divided The Regional Plan by
the region into three distinctive uses such as urban, semi-urban and rural. Patrick Abercrombie – 1948
UNDP Assisted Colombo

2.2.4. UNDP Assisted Colombo Master Plan - 1978
Master Plan - 1978
Figure 20 : UNDP Assisted Colombo Master Plan - 1978

Source : UNDP Colombo Master Plan - 1978
he gradual urban sprawl beyond Colombo City limits influenced by the

decentralization of urban activities as promoted by the Abercrombie’s Plan was
well evident within the region at this time. With the introduction of open economic
25
Chapter 02 policy by the Government in 1977, the city went through facing the challenges of
Planning Context rapid growth and the resulting booming property developments along with the
increasing land values. It is in this context the Colombo Master Plan came into a
––– publication that was by a team of consultants under United Nations Development
Program (UNDP) in collaboration with local planners from 1972 with the objective of
Interventions to
promoting a balanced regional growth and an accelerated economic development in
Plan Colombo
the Colombo region.
UNDP Assisted Colombo
Master Plan - 1978 he planning area included three districts; Colombo, Kalutara and Gampaha and the
City of Colombo whole region was divided into two main components as Central sub-region and Outer
Development Plan – 1985 region. Central sub-region was again divided into Colombo Urban Area and Outer
region which consisted of towns outside the city such as Panadura, Bandaragama,
Homagama, Ragama and Gampaha. he plan consisted of two main components:
he Regional Structure Plan and the Urban Area Development Plan covering the
Central sub-region.
However, the strategy of the balanced spatial development was not successful.
Unchecked urban sprawl continued at a rapid rate than in the past with the
improved affluence of the citizens and Colombo urban area continued to expand
beyond its physical limits as deined in the Colombo Master Plan. Even though it was
anticipated to attract around 500,000 population per each center in the outer region
namely Negombo, Veyangoda, Avissawella, Horana and Kalutara, these centers
failed to achieve the expected accelerated development. Two signiicant outcomes
of the Colombo Master Plan are the implementation of Peliyagoda Integrated Urban
Development Project which influenced several planning decisions in following
decades and the establishment of the Urban Development Authority in 1978.
2.2.5. City of Colombo Development Plan – 1985

Realizing the need of a new plans to address the challenges of rapid urban growth, the
UDA prepared the City of Colombo Development Plan with the assistance of UNDP
Master Plan team in year 1985. his plan which incorporated zoning and planning and
building regulations, can be identiied as the foundation of the present development
plan that is being practiced for the City of Colombo. he plan was prepared for the
Colombo Municipal Council area which consists of 47 municipal wards and divided
in to ….. zones for detail planning and development control purposes.
he main objectives of the plan focused on the ease of trafic congestion, relocate
obsolete land uses such as industries and administrative functions, sensibly locate
and lay out wholesale and retail trade activities and open up waterfronts and create
vistas. In addition, the plan also proposed to redevelop identiied slums and shanty
areas as special project areas.
26
Volume I
Chapter 02
Planning Context
–––
Interventions to
Plan Colombo
City of Colombo
Development Plan – 1985
Colombo Metropolitan
Regional Structure Plan
(CMRSP) - 1998
Figure 21 : City of Colombo Development Plan 1985

Source : City of Colombo Development Plan 1985
2.2.6. Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan

(CMRSP) - 1998
In 1996, the UDA developed Colombo Regional Structure Plan which is commonly
known as the "CMRSP" plan. It was the irst time that a plan of such magnitude
was prepared entirely by local planners. his plan was influenced by the three
pillars of sustainable development concept namely the Society, Economy and the
Environment. Further, the ‘Growth Centers’ and a hierarchy of regional town centers
as 1st order to 4th order based on the services provided by each town centers has
helped to identify several urban agglomerations in different parts of the region for
potential development.
27
Chapter 02 he plan identiied that these urban agglomerations as useful to promote regional
Planning Context economic growth centers to cater the country’s economy. his plan outlined a
central urbanized "Core area" and six outlying areas namely Negombo, Gampaha,
––– Biyagama, Homagama, Horana and Mathugama as "Growth centers". he core area
which was designated as the urban hub of the country, consisted of City of Colombo
Interventions to
and Sri Jayawardanepura Kotte. he Core Area has been approved by the Cabinet of
Plan Colombo
Ministers in July 1998 as the Capital Territory of the Country
(CMRSP) - 1998
Figure 22 : Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan 1998

Source : Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan, 1998
28
Volume I
he main objective of this plan was to make the City of Colombo as the inancial, Chapter 02
commercial and a main shipping hub of South East Asia. Colombo Katunayake Planning Context
Expressway, a Circular Light Rail system covering the core area, a Marine Transport
System from Colombo to Panadura and electriication of existing railways were some –––
of the key proposals of this plan. However, the CMRSP was not fully implemented,
Interventions to
thus many of the above proposals were not realized until very recent times.
Plan Colombo
(CMRSP) - 1998
Figure 23 : Colombo Core Area, CMRSP - 1998

Source : Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan, 1998
29
Chapter 02
Planning Context
2.2.7. City of Colombo Development Plan - 1999
––– As the planning issues in the city were complex, a comprehensive planning approach
was crucial to address all urban issues such as inadequate infrastructure facilities,
Interventions to pollution, trafic congestion, urban sprawl and inappropriate distribution of
Plan Colombo activities in the city as well as those that were likely to emerge in the future. he
City of Colombo Development Plan – 1999, was prepared by the Urban Development
City of Colombo Authority as an amendment to the Colombo City Development Plan – 1985. It was
Development Plan - 1999
prepared based on the Core Area Plan of CMRSP – 1998 hence, follows its planning
guidance given for the City of Colombo.
Figure 24 : City of Colombo Development Plan 1999

Source : City of Colombo Development Plan (UDA) - 1999
30
Volume I
he 1999 Development Plan had been developed to address the above issues and to Chapter 02
ensure a viable economy, supported by more conducive and aesthetically pleasing Planning Context
and friendly environment with much-improved quality of life and to develop the city
as the inancial and commercial hub of the South Asian region. he plan introduced –––
Land use Zoning and Building Regulations, Building Density Regulations and
Interventions to
especially Development Guide Plans which incorporated urban design aspects
Plan Colombo
for the city. he plan also included Trafic & Transportation, Infrastructure and
Environment & Housing strategies. City of Colombo
Development Plan - 1999
his plan designated an identiied area in proximity to Port as Port related Activity Western Region
Zone making more lands available for development of port related activities. Central Megapolis Plan
(CESMA) - 2004
Business District was zoned as Concentrated Development Zone to promote high-
rise developments. In addition, a Special Primary Residential Zone was introduced
with special regulations to preserve the existing Garden City Character in Colombo
07 area. One of the important outcomes of this plan was the promotion of high-rise
developments within identiied places in Colombo.
2.2.8. Western Region Megapolis Plan

(CESMA) - 2004
In 2004, a foreign consultancy team under the purview of Board of Investment of
Sri Lanka, prepared Western Region Megapolis Plan which is commonly known
as “CESMA Plan” among Planners. he objective of preparation of this plan was to
make Colombo a modern city that would play a key role in the South Asian Region.
Accordingly, the vision of the plan was, “An oasis of aspiration, heritage, recreation
and glorious living”.
he Plan was based on three planning concepts. hese were decentralization of

direct development to the eastern, southern and northern parts of the region with
Colombo as the core development area, development of the city based on Garden
and Green Finger Concepts and adoption of ‘Live, Work, Play’ concept to promote a
better quality of life by enabling many people to live close to their areas of work.
According to the CESMA plan, it was envisaged to transform the City of Colombo into
a world-class city, globally recognized as a thriving, dynamic and attractive regional
hub that is the centerpiece of 21st Century Sri Lanka. According to this plan, lands
in the Western Region were earmarked as a Business Corridor for trade and services
and a Technology Corridor and an Industrial Corridor for employment generation.
31
Chapter 02
Planning Context
–––
Interventions to
Plan Colombo
Western Region
Megapolis Plan
(CESMA) - 2004
City of Colombo
Development Plan
(Amendment) - 2008
Figure 25 : Western Region Megapolis Plan 2004 – Zoning Plan

Source : Western Region Megapolis Plan - 2004
2.2.9. City of Colombo Development Plan

(Amendment) - 2008
his plan may be cited as the City of Colombo Development Plan (Amendment) - 2008,
prepared under Section 8H and approved under Section 8F of the Urban Development
Authority (UDA) Law No. 41 of 1978, with a view of promoting and regulating the
integrated planning and physical development in the Colombo Development Area,
declared under Gazette Notiication No. 4/1 dated 30th September 1978, containing
provisions in respect of the matters in the schedule to the Law, and has been in effect
since 6th February 2008.
32
Volume I
Chapter 02
Planning Context
–––
Interventions to
Plan Colombo
City of Colombo
Development Plan
(Amendment) - 2008
Figure 26 : City of Colombo Development Plan - 2008

Source : City of Colombo Development Plan (Amendment) - 2008
Mainly, this plan includes the amendments to the City of Colombo Development
Plan – 1999 and it is the current plan in effect for the City of Colombo. As per the plan,
there are 07 zones, namely the Concentrated Development Area, Commercial Zone,
Mixed Development Zone, Port Related Activity Zone, Primary Residential Zone,
Special Mixed Residential Zone and Special Primary Residential Zone. In addition to
that, the plan also introduced two Development Guide Plan Areas for surroundings
of Beira Lake Area and Independence Square Premises.
33
Chapter 02
Planning Context
2.2.10. Western Region Megapolis Master Plan - 2030
––– he Western Region Megapolis Master Plan is the most recent planning attempt on
the Colombo Commercial City Area. Megapolis Master Plan is prepared considering
Interventions to whole Western Province as a single planning entity. he vision of the plan is ‘From
Plan Colombo Island to Continent’ and its main focus is on three main national goals such as
Western Region Megapolis • Addressing the prevailing issues due to congestion pressures being exerted on
Master Plan - 2030
urban infrastructure, services, amenities and environment
• Development and transformation of physical and institutional infrastructure

and national economic structure to enable the nation to reach the status of
‘high-income developed country’
• Harness the beneits of knowledge-based innovation driven global

economic environment
Aligned with 07 broader goals, the plan identiies 13 detail sub planning areas with
different themes. Among them, Central Business District (CBD) and Inner Core
Area fall within the area of Colombo Commercial City. As per the guidance given
by the Megapolis Master Plan, CBD is the business centre, international gateway
and the heart of the region with a very high density development and good quality
environment and infrastructure whereas Inner Core Area is expected to be the
high density commercial and mixed residential development area. In addition, the
coastal belt of Colombo Commercial City falls within the Marine Corridor identiied
by Megapolis Master Plan.
34
Volume I
2.3. he Present Colombo Chapter 02

Planning Context
he present Colombo is a reflection of its evolution over last few centuries with –––
the influences of many of its custodians, occupiers, visitors and the invaders. he
following section attempts to describe the city’s present direction of evolution with The Present Colombo
reference to its current status and development trends of different sectors. Colombo as an
International City
2.3.1. Colombo as an International City Colombo Port in the

International Sea Route
2.3.1.1. Colombo Port in the International Sea Route
Colombo Port which is one of the busiest maritime hubs of South Asia, connects
the city internationally where it has been ranked among the world’s best 25 harbors
in accordance with the Alphaliner rankings in 2017. he port’s strategically positioning
on the main East-West shipping route, linking the far East with Africa, Europe,
and the East Coast of the US, providing ideal connections to the trade in the Indian
Maritime Shippinghub
Routes
in the and Strategic Locations
sub-continent. Colombo port has the potential to be developed as a prominent
transshipment South Asian Region upon its already prominent sea-port
in the region.
Bosporus
Gibraltar
Suez Canal
Strait of Hormuz
Bab el-Mandab
Panama Canal
Strait of Malacca
Cape of Good Hope
Shipping Density
High
Average
Figure 27 : Sri Lanka’s location in Maritime Shipping Routes
Low Source : https://transportgeography.org; Maritime Shipping Routes & Strategic Passages,
Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Geography of Transport Systems
Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University.
Source: Shipping density data adapted from Natonal Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, A Global Map of Human Impacts to Marine Ecosystems.
Colombo Port can be designated as the most important element of Colombo which
contributed to the development of the city since its inception and which has the
steering power to direct Colombo’s future towards an outstanding city with an
international recognition.
35
Figure 28 : A collection of photos of Port of Colombo

Image courtesy : securityspeciiers.azurewebsites.net, ft.lk by Shehan Gunasekara, Lloyd's List
Maritime Intelligence Informa, dailymirror.lk
2.3.1.2. Colombo as a South Asian Business Hub
No:1 in the South Asian region in Mercer’s 2017 Quality of Living survey.
Colombo ranks number 132 globally out of 231 cities surveyed by considering the factors
including political stability, crime levels, economic environment, personal and cultural
freedom, health services, standard of education, transportation, housing and environment.
The Global Livability Report 2017 released by ‘The Economist Intelligence Unit’ (EIU),
showed that Colombo stood at ifth place in the list of ‘ive biggest improvers’ for having
successfully transformed its landscape over the last ive years.
Colombo is the second most expensive city in South Asia, and 108th most expensive in
the world according to Economist Intelligence Unit, 2017.
Colombo is regarded as a Gamma + city in 2018, which link smaller economic regions into the
world economy.
36
Volume I
With the comparatively high GDP growth rate of 8% to 9% ??(his is not recorded Chapter 02
anywhere????)that was earned during the irst three years of 2010s, Sri Lanka Planning Context
was upgraded into the class of to the status of middle-income countries by the
International Monetary Fund. his was accomplished in the context where the civil –––
war of 30 years had ended in mid- 2009, leading the country’s economy towards a
The Present Colombo
strong growth trajectory supported with rebuilding measures, surging tourism and
increased investor conidence. Being the Commercial Capital of Sri Lanka, Colombo Colombo as an
acts as a centerpiece of the nation. his has been proved with the above rankings International City
of Colombo which designate it as a Gamma + City that link the smaller economic Colombo as a South Asian
regions with the world economy, the second most expensive city of South Asia which Business Hub
represents the demand for the city and being the ifth in the “ive biggest improvers” Colombo as an International
for having successfully transformed the Colombo’s landscape. Tourism Destination
he GDP contribution of Colombo is mainly based on inance, tourism, real-estate,

IT/ITES industries, services and retail which take place in relatively high magnitude
and intensity than other neighboring cities. he great majority of Sri Lankan
corporations have their head ofices, restaurants and entertainment venues located
in Colombo CBD including Colombo Stock Exchange which signiicantly contribute
to the national economy. Colombo having many branches of multi-national inancial,
service, industrial, tourism sector corporations, is the main portal which connects
the city globally.
2.3.1.3. Colombo as an International

Tourism Destination
he tourism industry of Sri Lanka signposted an upsurge in the beginning of 2010s

with the increased tourists’ arrivals resulted with the end of civil war in 2009. As
per the recent records, the tourism industry of Sri Lanka has reached a new limit
of over 2 million (2,050,832) arrivals in 2016, which is an increase of 14.0 per cent
over last year’s 1,798,380 arrivals. Colombo being the Commercial Capital of the
nation which is composed of various inancial services, modern facilities, branches
of multi-national corporations, chained-brand hotels, tourist destinations such as
public open spaces, historical sites, shopping complexes and branded fashion and
food outlets, attracts a signiicantly a large percentage of tourists visiting Sri Lanka.
Jones Lang LaSalle Report – 2016 states that the tourists who spend an average of 10
days in Sri Lanka stay at least 2 days in Colombo and spend around USD 100 per day.
37
Figure 29 : A collection of various tourist attractions in Colombo
2.3.2. Colombo as the Commercial Capital

Colombo connects with other parts of the country in various means such as transport
flows, material flows and population flows which also deine Colombo’s positioning
in the national and regional context as well as the connection in between Sri Lankan
citizens and Colombo and the way they perceive the city.
2.3.2.1. Transport Flows
Transport network of the country is an important element which facilitate the

movement of population and materials throughout the country. Hence, the transport
connectivity that Colombo has with other parts of the country or its positioning in
the national transport network is an important factor which determines its overall
national and regional importance.
38
Volume I
Colombo is the nuclear of the country in terms of connectivity as it is linked with Chapter 02
other regional centers by a network of main roads, expressways and railway lines. Planning Context
he city is linked with most of the commercial hubs and major tourist destinations of
the country revealing a large span of potentials rooting for rapid city development. –––
The Present Colombo
Colombo as the
Commercial Capital
Transport Flows
Figure 30 : The major modes of transport connecting City of Colombo with other regions
Negombo Kandy 1. Roads

Corridor Ja-Ela Corridor
Kadawatha
In terms of road connectivity,

Kelaniya
Colombo is mainly connected
Low Level Road
Corridor
with the adjoining and distanced
regions of the country by
Kaduwela
Battaramulla
seven major corridors namely
Nugegoda
Malabe
Malabe Negombo, Kandy, Low level road,
Corridor
Kottawa
Malabe, High level road, Horana
Maharagama and Galle.
Dehiwala
High Level
Piliyandala Corridor
Southern
Galle Corridor Expressway
Horana Figure 31 : Seven Corridors

Moratuwa
Corridor
Source : CoMTrans Urban Transport
Plan – 2014
39
Chapter 02 Number Road Length

Planning Context Road Name Road Section
of Lanes Width*(m) (Km)**
Negombo Road (A3) 4 20 37.8
–––
1. Colombo-
4 18–20 13.7
The Present Colombo Kandy Road (A1) Kadawatha
2. Kadawatha 2 13 41.8
Colombo as the
Commercial Capital Low Level Road (B435) 2 10–12 24.5
Transport Flows Malabe Road 1. Colombo -
6 18–25 8.1
(A0 – B240) Battaramulla
2. Battaramulla-
2 12 27.8
Malabe
1. Colombo-
High Level Road (A4) 4 12–18 20.8
Kottawa
2. Kottawa 2 12 41.2
Horana Road (B84) 2 12 28.0
1. Colombo -
4 18–25
Ratmalana
Galle Road (A2)
2. Ratmalana -
6 30 48.5
Moratuwa
Baseline Road 6 28–30 8.0
Table 02 : Section Details of Major Roads in Colombo Commercial City

Source : RDA, Western Provincial Council, Ministry of Highways, Road Development and Petroleum
Resources Development, CMC
As per the information of National Transport Commission (NTC), there are around
680 intra-provincial bus routes and 400 inter-provincial bus routes in Western
Province of which one third of these intra-provincial bus routes have one of their
ends in Pettah of Colombo where three major bus terminals are located. It has been
recorded that around 7,400 intra-provincial buses depart and arrive at Pettah while
around 3,300 inter-provincial buses depart and arrive at Pettah. he number of
passengers departing from Pettah bus terminal is estimated to be around 38,000
per day for inter-city bus services while 14,000 passengers per day for intra-city
bus services. As per the CoMTrans Urban Transport Plan – 2014, the vehicle flows
entering the City of Colombo from seven corridors are as follows.
40
Volume I
15% 15% Chapter 02

Galle Negombo Planning Context
8% –––
Horana
19% The Present Colombo
8% Kandy
Colombo as the
High Level Commercial Capital
Transport Flows
22% 13%
Malabe Low Level
Figure 32 : Percentage of Vehicle Flows entering City of Colombo from seven Corridors
Source : CoMTrans Urban Transport Plan – 2014
Vehicle Flows entering City of Colombo from Seven Corridors
Ratmalana
Boralesgamuwa
Nugegoda
Borella
Entry Points
Dematgoda
New Kelani Bridge
Wattala
No. of Vehicles Per Day
Figure 33 : Vehicle Flows entering Colombo Commercial City from Seven Corridors
Out of total vehicles entering to the City of Colombo, 6% of them are buses which carry
around 62% of passengers while 94% of them are cars, three-wheelers, Motor cycles
and other utility vehicles which carry around 38% passengers. (Weerawardhane,
2011)
41
Chapter 02 2. Expressways
Planning Context
he major expressway linkage in the planning area is the Colombo – Katunayake
––– Expressway which starts from Peliyagoda. Peliyagoda interchange is very important
as it acts as the main gateway connecting the Colombo city with the Expressway
The Present Colombo
Network of Sri Lanka. Other than Peliyagoda interchange, proposed Kerawalapitiya
Colombo as the expressway interchange located in close proximity at the periphery of the planning
Commercial Capital area will provide access to Outer Circular Highway (OCH) which connects Colombo
Transport Flows – Matara Expressway, Colombo – Katunayake Expressway and Colombo – Kandy
Expressway in near future.
3. Railway
Colombo also acts as the

nuclear of the Railway
Network of Sri Lanka, as all
main railway lines radia-
ting through the country
coincide at main railway
stations located within
the planning area such
as Fort Railway Station,
Maradana Railway Station
and Dematagoda Railway
Station. hese railway lines
are the Main Line running
towards northern, eastern
and central parts of the
country, Puttlam Line,
Kelani Valley Line running
up to Awissawella and
Coastal line running up to
Matara.
Figure 34 : Railway Network in

Sri Lanka
42
Volume I
As per the estimated sectional daily passenger volume determined by UoM based Chapter 02
on ticket sale data, the highest passenger volume for both directions of 152,000 Planning Context
is observed in the section between Dematagoda and Ragama, followed by Fort –
Maradana section with 136,000 passengers and Maradana – Dematagoda section –––
with 121,000.
The Present Colombo
4. Domestic Air Transport Colombo as the

Commercial Capital
Colombo Airport, Ratmalana plays an important role in domestic air transport and Transport Flows
military transport of Sri Lanka as it is the primary domestic airport serving the
Colombo Commercial City. It was the country’s irst Interntaional Airport until
the establishment of Bandaranaika International Airport, Katunanayake. It also
facilitates aviation training for several organizations. he Colombo Airport is of
strategic signiicance with related to Colombo Commercial City as it caters the high-
end tourism and business travel needs of High Net Worth Individuals.
At present, there are around four passenger flights which fly to regional destinations
such as Anuradhapura, Batticaloa, Trincomalee, Hambantota, Jaffna, Koggala and
Sigiriya. In addition, the air taxi services operated by Sri Lankan Airlines also act as
a prominent transport mode connecting Colombo with other regions.
Figure 35 : Domestic Air Routes Figure 36 : Sri Lankan Air Taxi Flight Schedule
Source : www.srilankan.com/airtaxi Source : www.srilankan.com/airtaxi
43
Chapter 02 2.3.2.2. Material Flows

Planning Context
Colombo plays a dominant role in the material flow system of Sri Lanka due to
––– the existence of Colombo Harbor which is the main national harbor operating the
export and import of goods as well as one of the major ports in the region facilitating
The Present Colombo
transshipment of cargo.
Figure 37 : Destinations of Import Cargo Figure 38 : Origins of Export Cargo

Source : NIPPON KOEI CO. LTD & Engineering Source : NIPPON KOEI CO. LTD & Engineering
Consultants (Pvt) Ltd Consultants (Pvt) Ltd
44
Volume I
Export Cargo Import Cargo Chapter 02

Planning Context
% of Export % of Import
Region Region
Cargo Cargo
–––
Kelaniya 24.7 Kelaniya 21.6
The Present Colombo
Wattala 11.6 Colombo 17.0
Colombo 9.5 Wattala 7.7 Colombo as the
Commercial Capital
Ja-ela 7.4 Dehiwala – Mt Lavinia 6.0
Material Flows
Kolonnawa 6.6 Ja-ela 5.1
Negombo 2.9 Biyagama 3.3
Biyagama 2.8 Kaduwela 3.2
Table 03 : Origins and Destinations of Export and Import Cargo

Source : NIPPON KOEI CO. LTD & Engineering Consultants (Pvt) Ltd
1. Logistics Activities in Colombo
he above maps show that Kelaniya, Colombo CBD and Wattala act as key locations
of domestic cargo flows. Major inter – city cargo trip demands are to/from the
Colombo Port. he reason is the high concentration of custom inspection sites,
warehouses and related industries within these areas. Namely, Colombo Fort, Pettah,
Maradana, Dematagoda, Kotahena, Maligawatta, Mattakkuliya, Orugodawatta,
Bloemandhel, Peliyagoda, Hendala, Hekitta, Kerawalapitiya, Kelaniya and Wattala
have the highest concentration of warehouses and related industries.
It has been pointed out by transport studies that Customs Inspection Facilities
located within Dematagoda, Orugodawatta and Kotahena areas contribute to the
generation of heavy domestic container trafic within the area. According to Truck
OD interview survey conducted by CoMTrans study at Colombo Port, the destinations
of the trucks are Puttlam District (27%), Gampaha District (23%), CMC (17%) and
Colombo District (12%). At present, heavy vehicle to/from Colombo Port are passing
through the northern part of CMC and this contributes to the trafic congestion in
the city centre.
45
Figure 39 : Logistic Related Activities in North Colombo

Source : Western Province Division, UDA
2. Colombo Wholesale Markets
Pettah Bazaar, Manning Market, Peoples’ Plaza, Panchikawatta Motor Spare Parts
Market, Galwala Street Hardware Market, Colombo Gold Center and Peliyagoda Fish
Market etc. are some of the examples of largest and most active wholesale market
spaces within Colombo Commercial City area. Most of the above wholesale markets
are located in close proximity to Colombo Harbor as they are established based on
the imported products. he existence of these wholesale markets contribute largely
to the daily influx of commuters to Colombo Commercial City.
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Volume I
Pettah bazaar is the most hectic shopping borough in the heart of Colombo. Pettah Chapter 02
open air fresh market includes a coniguration of specialized streets of wholesale Planning Context
markets of knick knacks, clothing, fresh fruits & vegetables, electronics & electrical
items, dvds, leather products, grocery products, dried salted ish, freshly ground –––
spices and massive crowds of people to purchase their necessities in order to make
The Present Colombo
the life living and also to purchase products at wholesale prices for the purpose of re-
selling. Pettah Bazaar is possibly the best place in Colombo to get initiated into the Colombo as the
local Sri Lankan hustle and bustle, to ingest the sounds and smells, and to get a flavor Commercial Capital
of life in Colombo. Specialized streets of Pettah Bazaar area are as follows. Material Flows
• Leather: Front Street, Main Street

• Clothes, Shoes, Bags: Front Street, Main Street, 2nd Cross Street
• Electronics: 1st Cross Street, Prince Street
• Party stuff: China Street
• Toys: Prince Street
• Stationery: Maliban Street, 2nd Cross Street
• Vegetables, Fruits: 5th Cross Street Market
Figure 40 : A busy street in Pettah Bazaar

Source : https://www.flickr.com/photos/nazly/
47
Chapter 02 Manning Market which is located adjoining the Olcott Mawatha and Bestian
Planning Context Mawatha in Pettah is one of the busiest wholesale vegetable markets in Sri Lanka.
It acts as a central point of collecting vegetables, fruits and other food items from
––– agricultural areas and redistributing them to all parts of the island. here are around
800 wholesale stalls and 200 retail stalls which are being supplied with vegetables
The Present Colombo
from various distanced agricultural areas by around 1000 number of suppliers. It
Colombo as the has been revealed that within the peak hour of operations, around 120 large lorries,
Commercial Capital 35 medium lorries, 30 small lorries enter the Manning Market premises. here are
Material Flows around 2000 Porters (Nattamis) attached with Manning Market functions who
are considered as important agents operating in the Pettah Bazaar area. However,
due to space limitations in future expansions and improvements of the market, its
impact on trafic movement in Pettah and considering the potential of developing a
standard wholesale market with modern facilities in a better location, it is proposed
to relocate the Manning Market to Peliyagoda.
Figure 41 : Manning Market, Pettah

Image courtesy : gettyimages by Peter Stuckings, Tale of Pettah
by Vidumina Ihalagedara Photography
48
Volume I
Peliyagoda Fish Market is the primary hub for fresh seafood in the city, which is Chapter 02
incredibly popular, for trucks full of fresh ish. Fishermen lay out their catches, and Planning Context
the ish market get ready for business in early hour of the day and the market is not
just for ish and ishmongers but also for smaller vendors and little tea shops. Lorries –––
packed with blood-tinged ice and ish arrive from coastal areas of the country and
The Present Colombo
reach to the inlands. here are around 150 wholesale stalls, 130 retail stalls facilitated
with a 25 mt ice factory and isheries equipment stalls. Colombo as the
Commercial Capital
Material Flows
Figure 42 : Peliyagoda Fish Market

Image Courtesy : exploresrilanka.lk
Panchikawatta Motor Spare-

parts Market is a specialized
market established along
Panchikawatta Road, Mara-
dana which has an assortment
of both formal and informal
motor spare parts of a variety
of collection. Panchikawatta
Motor Spare Parts market is
a highly sought-after market
which is famous among all
Sri Lankans for any type of
motor part of any generation
at relatively cheaper costs.
Figure 43 : Panchikawatta Roundabout

Image Courtesy : flickr.lk by ceylonerana
49
Chapter 02 3. Industry Space of Colombo

Planning Context
Around 5% of developable foot print of Colombo Commercial City is utilized for
––– industrial activities which are largely concentrated in areas such as Ratmalana,
Wattala, Peliyagoda, Kelaniya and Kolonnawa. here is a Mini Industrial Estate
The Present Colombo
having manufacturing sector industries such as steel, toiletries, herbals and
Colombo as the stationery established at Ratmalana which had been planned to be promoted as an
Commercial Capital industrial area by Abecrombie’s Plan in 1948. With the influence of this plan, large
Material Flows land plots have been planned out in Ratmalana to be allocated for industries.
Figure 44 : Maliban Biscuit Factory - Ratmalana

Image Courtesy : malibanbiscuit.com
Maliban Biscuit Factory, Associated Battery Manufacturers (Ceylon) Ltd, Elcardo

Industries Ltd (steel/roller doors), Siddhalepa Ayurveda Exports (herbal products),
Dynamic Technologies (road tankers), Asian Chill Equipment (supermarket displays),
Deto Surfacts (industry detergents) are some of such examples of industries located
in Ratmalana.
50
Volume I
Chapter 02
Planning Context
–––
The Present Colombo
Colombo as the
Commercial Capital
Material Flows
Figure 45 : Kolonnawa Petroleum Reinery
Image Courtesy : ceypetco.gov.lk Population Flows
Kelanitissa Power Plant, Kolonnawa Petroleum Reinery are the industries of

national importance located within the planning area. hese industries also play a
signiicant role in the material flow in and out of Colombo Commercial City due to
the transportation of raw materials and end products.
Figure 46 : Kelanitissa Power Plant

Image Courtesy : lntsnl.com
2.3.2.3. Population Flows
It has been estimated by the CoMTrans study that the total person trip production
in Colombo Metropolitan Area would increase up to 12.2 million per person trips per
day which would be a 1.75 times of present person trip demand of 6.9 million trips
per day. he total commuters travelling to City of Colombo is estimated to be 1.2
million while the total commuters travelling to and through the city is estimated to
be 2.0 million.
51
Chapter 02 Number of Daily Passengers entering CMC

Planning Context (CoMTrans Study – 2013)
Corridors
–––
Negombo Road 245,880
The Present Colombo Kandy Road 437,120
Colombo as the Low Level Road 150,000
Commercial Capital
Malabe Road 348,000
Population Flows
High Level Road 174,000
Horana Road 130,000
Galle Road 298,000
Non-Corridors
Kolonnawa Road (B096) 89,335
Kirimandala Mawatha 27,051
Narahenpita Road 47,623
Polhengoda Road 14,857
Table 04 : Number of Daily Passengers entering CMC

Figure 47 : Train carrying morning commuters to Colombo

Image Courtesy : alamy.com
However, Colombo being the Commercial Capital of the country which has 28% of
commercial space consisting of ofice space, retail/wholesale space and tourism
space, 5% of industrial space and 8% of institutional space accounting for 41% of total
developable foot print of the area, attracts a large number of commuters from all
parts of the island for major three reasons such as employment, to obtain services
and for entertainment and recreational purposes.
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Volume I
1. Colombo as the Most Popular Employment Chapter 02

Planning Context
Destination of the Island
–––
Around 70% of night time population of Colombo District is engaged with services
sector while 28% are engaged with industrial sector and 2% is engaged with The Present Colombo
agricultural sector. he employment categorization of the night time population of
Colombo Commercial City is as follows.
Night time Employed Population Share (%)

DSD Primary Secondary Tertiary Primary Secondary Tertiary
Total
Industry Industry Industry Industry Industry Industry
Colombo 500 13,200 56,700 70,400 0.7 18.8 80.5
Dehiwala-Mt. Lavinia 100 5,200 20,300 25,600 0.4 20.3 79.3
Kesbewa 1,300 31,400 95,100 127,800 1.0 24.6 74.4
Kolonnawa 600 20,200 90,700 111,500 0.5 18.1 81.3
Rathmalana 600 10,100 31,600 42,300 1.4 23.9 74.7
Thimbirigasyaya 300 12,300 56,900 69,500 0.4 17.7 81.9
Kelaniya 900 23,000 40,500 64,400 1.4 35.7 62.9
Wattala 1,900 30,600 47,900 80,400 2.4 38.1 59.6
Total 6,200 146,000 439,700 591,900 1.0 24.7 74.3
Table 05 : Employment Categorization of Residents of Colombo Commercial City

Source : Department of Census & Statistics, 2012
It is evident that a considerably a large number of Managers/ Senior Oficials and

Legislators, Professionals and Technicians and Associate Professionals are residing
in Colombo Commercial City which reflects the relatively high concentration
of ofice and institutional space. Even though, there is a national policy to shift
administration establishments to Kotte Capital City area, yet there are considerable
number of state establishments such as ministries, state departments, authorities,
organizations and institutions located in Colombo.
With regard to private ofice establishments, housing the headquarters of several

national and international banking and inancial institutions, makes City of Colombo
the most prominent commercial ofice destination in the country.
It has been revealed in the report ‘Real Estate in Sri Lanka Prospects and Potential’
by Jones Lang LaSelle in 2011, that the demand for ofice space is primarily driven by
growth in the banking, inancial services, IT/ITES and tourism sectors in Colombo.
53
Chapter 02 According to the ComTrans study, the estimated commuter students and employed
Planning Context workers of Colombo will be 841,900 in 2035 which is about 59% increment than 2013.
–––
2. Colombo as the Most Sought Services
The Present Colombo Destination of the Island
Colombo as the Colombo is the most sought services destination in the country, due to existence
Commercial Capital
of many national level administrative establishments, high standard health service
Population Flows institutions of both private and public sector and number of education institutions
of national prominence. In addition, Colombo’s retail market consisting of both
local product based street markets and imported branded product based high-end
retail markets, attracts a large number of both local and foreign visitors for shopping
purposes.
Education Services
Figure 48 : Students of Sirimavo Bandaranaike Vidyalaya, Colombo 07

Image Courtesy : pmdnews.lk
Colombo Commercial City area has a high concentration of schools accounting for
total of 188 including 38 National Schools, 58 Provincial Schools, 48 International
Schools and 34 Private Schools. A considerable number of schools in Colombo fall
under the popular schools category, thus do not literally serve only the students
of Colombo Commercial City but also the students of western region and other
parts of the island who daily travel through train, buses, school service and private
transports or temporary reside in school hostels, boarding places etc. hese popular
category schools which have maintained their prominence due to long existence and
relatively high standard facilities can be identiied as one of the key elements which
attract a large population to the city permanently, temporary and daily. However, it
is important to highlight that the school students of Colombo Commercial City are
important partners of the city who make the city alive and vibrant with their presence
on streets at morning and afternoon hours and add color to the city with their own
activities such as school parades, walks, matches, exhibitions and camping etc.
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Volume I
Chapter 02
Planning Context
–––
The Present Colombo
Colombo as the
Commercial Capital
Population Flows
Figure 49 : Musaeus College, Colombo 07 | Image Courtesy : musaeus.lk
Figure 50 : Royal College, Colombo 07 Figure 51 : Ananda-Nalanda Parade

Image Courtesy : flickr.com/yimhaiz Image Courtesy : www.battleofthemaroons.lk
he high concentration of relatively large number of schools within City of Colo-

mbo, has been identiied as one of the major reasons contributing to peak hour
trafic in Colombo streets. As per the CoMTrans Study the estimated day and night
time student population of Colombo Financial City in 2035 is as follows.
Night Time Student Day Time Student

Student Category
Population per Day Population per Day
School Students
295,300 438,100
(Kindergarten to A/L)
University Students 24,000 72,900
Total 319,300 511,000
Table 06 : Estimated Student Population of Colombo Commercial City in 2035

As per the above data, it can be expected that a total of 511,000 of students will be
engaged in education activities within Colombo Commercial City in 2035 and among
them, 190,000 of students will be daily commuters.
55
Chapter 02 When considering higher education institutions, there are several state unive-
Planning Context rsities; Colombo University and Kothalawala Defense University and many other
state higher education institutions such as Technical Colleges, Research Institu-
––– tions, Post-graduate Institutions of other state universities etc. In addition, there
are number of internationally recognized private universities and educati-onal
The Present Colombo
institutions which attract large number of student population to the city.
Figure 52 : University of Colombo, Colombo 07

Image Courtesy : cmb.ac.lk
Health Services
Figure 53 : National Hospital of Sri Lanka

Image Courtesy : visitsrilanka.com
Colombo plays a major role in the country’s health sector due to the existence of the
national hospital, nationally and regionally serving 05 state hospitals and around
20 private hospitals. he National Hospital of Sri Lanka is located at the Hospital
Square of Maradana, and it acts as the main referral for most of the health issues of
the country. In addition, there are two main state hospitals serving at national level
56
Volume I
such as Lady Ridgeway Hospital for Children and De Soysa Hospital for Woman. Chapter 02
Colombo South Teaching Hospital Colombo located at Kalubowila is also one of Planning Context
the prominent state hospitals located within Colombo Commercial City area which
serves a large population of southern parts of it. Colombo is considered as one of the –––
best health services destination of South Asia, where people from India, Maldives
The Present Colombo
and other South Asian countries visit to obtain health services especially from
standard health establishments of private sector such as Nawaloka Hospitals PLC, Colombo as the
Asiri Central Hospital, Lanka Hospitals, Durdans Hospital and Hemas Hosoitals etc. Commercial Capital
Population Flows
Administration Services
Even though, there is a policy decision to shift nationally and regionally serving
administrative services to Administrative Capital of Sri Jayawardhanapura Kotte,
still there are considerable number of administrative establishments located within
Colombo Commercial City Area such as ministries, departments, state boards,
authorities and institutions. However, it is proposed to shift 214 government
institutions of Colombo Commercial City area to Kotte Administrative Capital
City Area.
In addition to the state administrative establishments, Colombo also houses number

of international institutions such as embassies, headquarters of international
and non-government organizations. Also it houses headquarters of national
organizations and private sector inancial companies, which keep attracting a
considerable number of daily commuting employees and occasio-nally commuting
service seekers from other parts of the country.
Retail & Commercial Activities
Figure 54 : A Branded Shopping Outlet at Figure 55 : Majestic City Shopping Mall,

Liberty Plaza, Colombo 03 | Image Courtesy : Colombo 04 | Image Courtesy : visitsrilanka.com
msnarchitects.lk
57
Chapter 02 Retail establishments of Colombo are largely located along the high streets, either
Planning Context in traditional retail areas like Pettah, Dematagoda or in upmarket established retail
areas like Colpity, Bambalapitiya and Wellawatta. Up-market and branded shopping
––– destinations are largely found towards the south of the City Center along Galle
Road and Duplication Roads. However, with the establi-shment of large shopping
The Present Colombo
malls such as Majestic City, Liberty Plaza, Crescat Boulevard, Arcade Independence
Colombo as the Square and recently established Colombo City Centre and similar malls coming in
Commercial Capital future, Colombo offers considerable amount of up-market retail space which caters
Population Flows both locals as well as tourists.
3. Colombo as the Most Vibrant Entertainment and

Recreational Destination of the Island
Public Outdoor Recreational Spaces and entertainment venues are special elements
of any city, which act as the points of relaxation in busy and highly congested
city life. Usually, large cities tend to have more recreational and entertainment
options due to the gathering of large population. Most of the time, these recrea-
tional and entertainment places are both designed and perceived to be as special
attractions not only for the city community but also for larger threshold inclu-ding
regional and national population. Colombo has many such vibrant enter-tainment
and recreational destinations which attract population from all over the island,
contributing to the daily and seasonal influx of commuters to the city.
The Major Public Open Spaces
Galle Face Green was initially laid out by the Dutch as a means to enable their
cannons a strategic line of ire against the Portuguese, where in meantime it had
also been used for horse racing, as a golf course and for other sports such as cricket,
polo, football, tennis and rugby. As per the historical data, the Galle Face Green had
extended over a much larger area than it exists today. It had been bounded to the
north by Beira Lake, the ramparts of Colombo Fort and the city’s cemetery and to the
south by Galle Face Hotel.
At present it is an ocean-side urban park of around 12 acres which stretches for 500m
along the coast. It is one of the city’s largest open spaces that provides a panoramic
view of the Indian Ocean within the Colombo CBD. Galle Face Green is a popular
recreational destination of all types of people, thus it can be identiied as one of
the largest public outdoor interaction space of the city. It is a popular recreational
destination of not only the city dwellers but also of both local and foreign tourists.
58
Volume I
he Galle Face Green has its unique genius loci composed of the actions of various Chapter 02
every day and occasional users such playing children, mischievous teenagers, lovers, Planning Context
uniied families, relaxing adults, vendors, beggars, sight-seeing tourists, large packs
of local tourists visiting Colombo for day trips from distanced areas. In addition, –––
Galle Face Green is used to host many national level events and functions such as
The Present Colombo
Independence Day Celebrations, Kite Festivals, Religious Events, Carnivals, Mega
Concerts and New Year Celebration events etc. Colombo as the
Commercial Capital
Figure 56 : Galle Face Green

Image Courtesy : www.alanhowden.com
59
Chapter 02 Viharamahadevi Park, which was built during British Period, was considered as
Planning Context the central point of Colombo when applying the Garden City Concept to the city by
Sir Patrick Geddes in 1921. he park was formerly known as Victoria Park, and it
––– had been occupied by the British Army during World War II. However, it had been
opened up to the public again in 1951. Viharamahadevi Park is the oldest and largest
The Present Colombo
park of Colombo which provides the experience of a small wood within the city.
Colombo as the Viharamahadevi Park consists of large garden area shaded with huge trees, walking
Commercial Capital & bicycle trails, children’s play area, open air theater, play-ground and a series of small
Population Flows ponds and mini-lakes and it also hosts many events such as out-door exhibitions,
concerts, public meetings, carnivals, camping and many other public events.
Figure 57 : Viharamahadevi Park

Image Courtesy : tripazing.com / Wikipedia / yamu.lk
60
Volume I
International & National Stadiums Chapter 02

Planning Context
Figure 58 : Sugathadasa Stadium
–––
Image Courtesy : Devaka
Seneviratne Photography
The Present Colombo
Colombo as the
Commercial Capital
Population Flows
here are number of stadiums, sports grounds and sport complexes in Colombo
which host both international and national level sports events such as cricket
matches, tournaments and athletics competitions. Sugathadasa Stadium is one
such international level multi-purpose stadiums which has the capacity to hold
around 25,000 people.
Figure 59 : R. Premadasa International Cricket Stadium

Image Courtesy : Indi Smarajiva, justgola.com
R. Premadasa International Cricket Stadium which is located at Kettarama Road,

Maligawatta is also one of the main venues popular for cricket matches which has
hosted more than 100 one day international matches. It is the largest stadium in
Sri Lanka having the capacity of 35,000 spectators. he stadium has hosted many
remarkable matches and it is usually called as the ‘Home of Sri Lankan Cricket’. Due
to the existence of these international stadiums within Colombo Commercial City,
it attracts large population to the city especially during cricket matches and other
sports seasons.
61
Chapter 02 International Conference Halls

Planning Context
–––
The Present Colombo
Colombo as the
Commercial Capital
Population Flows
Figure 60 : Bandaranaike Memorial International Conference Hall, Colombo 07

Image Courtesy : tripnino.com
Bandaranaike Memorial International Conference Hall (BMICH) which was

established in 1973 has been the oficial venue for most of the Sri Lanka’s events.
Replete with a magniicent conference & concert hall and function rooms, it was the
irst of its kind to accommodate a multitude of events both local and international.
Over the years increasingly novel features were included to further enhance the
facilities and accommodate guests looking to host splendid events. BMICH is an
iconic venue of Colombo which acts as one of the highest points of attraction where
most of the Sri Lankans have paid at least a onetime visit to attend the international
book fair, exhibitions, conferences, graduation ceremonies, meetings, cultural
events, weddings, concerts or trade fairs. he annual revenue of BMICH in year 2016
had been LKR 550 Mn.
In addition to BMICH, there are many number of international standard conference

halls maintained by many private and public sector institutions and hotels within
62
Volume I
Theaters & Cinemas Chapter 02

Planning Context
–––
The Present Colombo
Colombo as the
Commercial Capital
Population Flows
Figure 61 : Nelum Pokuna Mahinda Rajapaksa Theatre

Image Courtesy : nelumpokuna.com
Colombo has number of popular theatres and cinemas of all time which host a
large number of stage dramas, indoor concerts, movies and art exhibitions etc. he
specialty of these theaters like Nelum Pokuna Mahinda Rajapaksa heatre, Lionel
Wendt Art Centre, Elphinston, Tower Hall and John de Silva Memorial Hall etc. is
that these places have their own followers who visit from both local and distanced
areas to enjoy different kinds of entertainment events.
Figure 62 : Lionel Wendt Art

Centre | Image Courtesy :
wikipedia.org
Even though, there are number of cinema theatres around all over the places, the
cinema theatres located in Colombo still attract many number of people outside
the Colombo Commercial City due to their premium cinema experiences with
higher standards.
63
Chapter 02 Educational Exhibition Centers

Planning Context
Colombo hosts number
––– of educational exhibition
places which have been
The Present Colombo visited by most of the Sri
Lankans for at least once in
Colombo as the
Commercial Capital their lifetime. Some of such
major attraction centers
Population Flows
are National Museum of
Colombo, Sri Lanka Plan-
etarium and Dehiwala
Zoological Garden.
Figure 63 : National Museum of Colombo
Image Courtesy : lanka.com
National Museum of Colombo was established in 1877 and it is the largest museum
of Sri Lanka at present. It contains collections of much importance to the country
such as the regalia including the throne and crown of the Kandyan Monarchs as well
as many other exhibits revealing the evolution of the country.
Figure 64 : Sri Lanka Planetarium

Image Courtesy : wikipedia.org
64
Volume I
Sri Lanka Planetarium which was established 1965 by the State Engineering Chapter 02
Corporation as a special feature for the Ceylon Industrial Exhibition held in Colombo Planning Context
the same year, is still the irst and the only planetarium in the country. Due to its
unique existence, it is considered to be a compulsory destination of most of the –––
school trips in Sri Lanka. hus, it is being visited by many school children from all
The Present Colombo
over the country every day.
Colombo as the
Commercial Capital
Population Flows
Figure 65 : National Zoological Garden - Dehiwala

Image Courtesy : mountlavinihotel.com
National Zoological Garden – Dehiwala, had been initially established as a private

company by John Hagenbeck, brother of the famous animal trainer, Carl Hagenbeck.
However, since the company went bankrupt in 1963, the zoo was purchased by
the government at that time. In addition to its role as an educational exhibit, the
Dehiwala Zoo also acts as a greenish calm environment within the hustle-bustle of
city life. he Dehiwala Zoo is full of people every day. However, it becomes completely
populated during school vacation times, due to increased amounts of vacation trips
of kindergarten and primary school children. Its annual revenue of 2016 is reported
to be LKR 160 Mn whereas one third of that is composed of foreign revenues.
65
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Volume I
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
67
Chapter 03
The Need of a 3.1. Identiication of ‘Need of the Plan’
Development Plan
In line with the strategic planning process adopted in this plan, the irst strategic
––– question, to answer is the “where are we now?” or in other words, “what is the current
situation of the planning area?”. It is essential to identify the real need of a plan or
Identiication of the reasons why a plan should be prepared for the subject area, in order to determine
‘Need of the Plan’ the focus of the plan as well as the direction towards which the Plan should take the
city in future.
A need for a plan is usually felt with the existing problems of the planning area as
perceived by its inhabitants. At this stage, two types of stakeholders; the service
providers and the users (general public including citizens and commuters) were
consulted to obtain their views on any major issues of the city. Different stakeholders
view the city in different perspectives depending on their attachment with the city
in different means, and therefore, what they emphasized cover a wide spectrum of
issues. At the next stage, an in-depth analysis of the issues were carried out along
with a root-cause analysis to deine the existing problems of the planning area;
he following are the four main issues identiied through stakeholder consultation.
hey are presented in this chapter in terms of the context they emerge, their
magnitude and the signiicance.
1. Problems due to Changing Development Trends
a. Spontaneous Emergence of High Dense Developments within Colombo

Commercial City Regardless the Availability of Supporting Infrastructure
b. Current Development Trends Challenging the Existing Planning and Building

Regulations based on Land use Zoning
2. Emerging Social, Environmental and Economic Problems due to Distribution

of Underserved Settlements
3. Inconvenience and Economic Loss due to Trafic Congestion on Major Arterials

at Peak-hours
4. Lack of User-convenience within Colombo Commercial City due to Prevailing

Environmental Problems, Safety Issues and Deiciencies in Public Facilities
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Volume I
a. Lack of User-convenience due to Environmental Problems Chapter 03

The Need of a
i. Inconvenience caused due to Urban Floods / Flash Floods Development Plan
ii. Inconvenience caused due to Polluted Water Bodies
iii. Inconvenience caused due to Heat Island Effect –––
b. Inconvenience due to Safety Issues Identiication of

‘Need of the Plan’
ii. Safety Issues due to Crimes
Problems due to
iii. Safety issues due to road accidents
Changing
Development Trends
c. Inconvenience due to Lack of Public Facilities
Spontaneous Emergence
of High Dense Developments
within Colombo
Commercial City ...
3.2. Problems due to Changing

Development Trends
3.2.1. Spontaneous Emergence of High Dense
Developments within Colombo Commercial City
Regardless the Availability of Supporting Infrastructure
Context
High density development usually represented in the form of vertical development

is considered as a positive indicator of city development as it reflects the growing
demand for space. Vertical development also indirectly contributes to control
haphazard suburbanization while conserving environmentally sensitive lands and
providing more open spaces. Also, vertical development makes investments in
infrastructure development more eficient and viable.
However, high density development needs to be supported by the necessary

environmental services including the pipe borne water supply, non-interrupted
electricity, surface and waste water drainage, centralized solid waste management,
recreation facilities and open spaces and access roads for mobility. At the same time
the high-density developments need to be regulated for sanitation, public health,
safety and security. In a situation that such infrastructure is not suficiently provides
and the regulatory mechanisms are inadequate, the situations may become non-
conducive for living.
69
Chapter 03 3.2.1.1. The Origin of Vertical Development of Colombo

The Need of a
Development Plan he origin of vertical development within City of Colombo was occurred during
late 1950s’ where medium rise buildings were constructed predominantly through
–––
public sector investments. With the introduction of open economic policies in
1977, the Government aimed at maximizing private sector investments in vertical
Problems due to
developments of the city and consequently the UDA undertook necessary planning
Changing
Development Trends and regulatory measures as well as regeneration projects for releasing more urban
lands for private sector investments. Echelon Square Redevelopment Project is one
Spontaneous Emergence such regeneration project implemented by the UDA which changed the Skyline of
within Colombo Colombo’s Central Business District.
Commercial City ...
The Origin of Vertical 3.2.1.2. Condominiums and Vertical Housing

Development of Colombo
Condominiums and Condominiums by deinition characterizes the individuality and commonality

Vertical Housing where the owner of a condominium unit is granted the freehold right of it while
he has to share in common with the other condominium dwellers of the building
the ownership of elements of the building such as car park, landscaped gardens
and circulation spaces. (Understanding the Concept of Condominiums by Ajitha
Edirimane)
After 1977, majority of the medium to high rise buildings constructed with public
sector investments were housing projects for low and middle-income households
of City of Colombo whereas most of the proit oriented commercial and housing
based high rise developments were carried out by private sector. he Apartment
Ownership Law No. 11 of 1973 and its amendments and Common Amenities Board
Law No. 10 of 1973 which was amended as Act No. 24 of 2003 commonly known
as ‘Condominium Management Authority Law’ are the key laws which conduct
the promotion and regulation of condominium developments of Colombo.
Condominium Management Authority which was established in 2003 is the current
legal body to grant certiications for condominium developments in Sri Lanka.
Liberty Plaza, Unity Plaza Lucky Plaza are some of the commercial high rises
constructed in 1980s while Kings Court and Queens Court built in 1990s are the irst
high rise condominiums developed by the private sector. However, a signiicant
growth of high-rise condominium developments was observed after 1999 with the
implementation of Colombo Development Plan – 1999 which included provisions to
promote high rise developments.
Building classiication based on height is as follows.
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Volume I
Deinition No. of Floors Chapter 03

The Need of a
Low-Rise Up to 03 Development Plan
Intermediate-Rise 04 to 08
Middle-Rise 09 to 12
–––
High-Rise Over 13 Problems due to

Changing
Table 07 : Building Classiication Based on Height Development Trends
Source : City of Colombo Development Plan (Amendment) – 2008, UDA
within Colombo
3.2.1.3. The Gradual Growth of High-rise Commercial City ...
Buildings and Condominiums Condominiums and

Vertical Housing
he temporal trend of high-rise developments within City of Colombo during the The Gradual Growth of
High-rise Buildings and
beginning of 21st century can be identiied based on the following information on Condominiums
the number of approved high-rise buildings annually.
No. of Buildings Approved under Different Height Categories

Year 8-10 11-20 20 <
4-5 floors 6-7 floors Total
floors floors floors
1999 86 36 4 3 - 129
2000 86 30 5 4 - 125
2001 50 29 4 1 - 84
2002 16 10 - 3 - 29
2003 57 31 16 5 1 110
2004 51 35 17 2 2 107
2005 55 65 22 3 4 149
2006 65 61 35 5 5 171
Total 466 297 103 26 11 903
Table 08 : No. of Buildings Approved from 1999 - 2006

Source : Colombo Living High; A City in Transition, N.P Herath & D. Jayasundara, 2007
It has been observed that out of total approved high-rise building applications in
1999, 67% of them were between 4 – 5 floors while 33% were of 6 floors or above
whereas this situation was entirely changed in 2006 as 38% approved high-rise
buildings were between 4 – 5 floors and 62% were of 6 floors or above. his shows the
rapid growth of demand for high rise buildings after 1999.
71
Chapter 03 Out of total high-rise buildings approved within the period of 1999 to 2006, 70%
The Need of a consisted of residential floor space indicating the growing demand for housing
Development Plan within the city. One of the key records of Census & Statistics Department is that
the growth of housing stock of City of Colombo which was 1.5% has outpaced the
––– growth of population which was 0.5% during the period of 1981 to 2001. he growth
of housing stock from 2001 to 2011 was 0.5% whereas the growth of population was
Problems due to
-2.9% which means even though there has been a decrease in night time population
Changing
Development Trends of Colombo, housing stock of Colombo has increased.
Spontaneous Emergence he main reasons for this rapid growth of housing demand in City of Colombo has
within Colombo been identiied and explained in Colombo Living High; A City in Transition authored
Commercial City ... by Herath N.P and Jayasundara D. in 2007 as follows.
The Gradual Growth of
High-rise Buildings and • Demand for apartments by the Tamil community due to the unsettled
Condominiums
problems in the North and East.
• Demand for apartments by Sri Lankans working abroad.
• Demand for super luxury apartments from the high-income groups of
local Sri Lankans and Foreigners as an investment.
• Demand from expatriates working in Sri Lanka.
• Speculation in the housing market by investors.
As per the 2011 Census, the number of housing units coming under high rise category
of flats and condominiums is 25,320 which accounts for 4.8% of total housing units
within the planning area. As per the information gathered from Condominium
Management Authority, 1115 condominiums have been approved within the period
of 2005 to 2017. Out of them, 28% have more than 15 units while the rest of 72% have
less than 15 units which are likely to be low-rise buildings (ground plus three floors
or less).
No. of Annually Approved Condominiums (2005 - 2017)

150
120
90
60
30
0
5
7
200
200
200
200
200
201
201
201
201
201
201
201
201
No. of Approved Condominiums
Figure 66 : No. of Annually Certiied Condominiums in Colombo & Suburbs (2005 – 2017)
Source : Condominium Management Authority, 2017
72
Volume I
It can be observed that the number of condominiums has been increased gradually Chapter 03
from 2012 to 2015. However, since these records show only the condominiums which The Need of a
have been granted the CMA certiicates, it does not show the actual picture as there Development Plan
are considerable number of condominiums within the planning area which have not
been granted the CMA certiicates.
–––
Problems due to
3.2.1.4. The Present Trend of High Dense Changing
Developments in Colombo Commercial City Development Trends
within Colombo
Commercial City ...
The Gradual Growth of

High-rise Buildings and
Condominiums
The Present Trend of High

Dense Developments in
Figure 67 : Spatial Distribution of Certiied Condominiums in Colombo & Suburbs

73
Chapter 03 When consider the spatial distribution of certiied condominiums, it can be observed
The Need of a that majority of them are concentrated in Kollupitiya Wellawatta, Dematagoda,
Development Plan Kotahena and Dehiwala areas and scattered distribution can be observed within
central Colombo and towards Rajagiriya & Battaramulla areas.
–––
Problems due to
Changing No. of Approved Condominiums within City of Colombo
Development Trends
1350
1200
within Colombo
Commercial City ...
1050
Dense Developments in 900
750
600
450
300
150
0
2
5
o0
o0
o0
o0
o0
o0
o0
o0
o1
o1
o1
o1
b
b
om
om
om
om
om
om
om
om
om
om
om
om
Col
Col
Col
Col
Col
Col
Col
Col
Col
Col
Col
Col
No. of Approved Condominiums
Figure 68 : No. of Approved Condominiums within different areas of City of Colombo

As per the Building Survey carried out by UDA in 2017, the distribution of high-rise
buildings within planning area is as follows.
74
Volume I
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Problems due to
Changing
Development Trends
within Colombo
Commercial City ...

Figure 69 : Distribution of High-rise Buildings in Colombo

Source : Building Survey – 2017, GIS Division, UDA
High-rise developments taking place in Colombo at present can be identiied under

three main purposes such as commercial & residential, hotel dev-elopments and high-
rise condominiums for un-derserved settlement com-munities of Colombo. High-rise
condominiums constructed under the Urban Regeneration Project – (2010 – 2025) are
mainly concentrated in Northern Colombo area while majority of private investments
based residential, com-mercial and mixed use high rises are concentrated in Central
and Southern Colombo areas.
75
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Housing Projects for people in the
Underserved Settlement in CMC Area
Problems due to
Changing
Development Trends Figure 70 : Locations of High-rises built for Low-
income | Source : Building Approval Data - 2017,
of High Dense Developments Enforcement Division, UDA
within Colombo
Commercial City ...

Highrise Development in CMC Area

(More than 10 floors residential &
commercial)
Figure 71 : Locations of Residential & Commercial

High-rises above 10 floor | Source : Building
Approval Data - 2017, Enforcement Division, UDA
76
Volume I
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Highrise Development in CMC Area
(Hotels more than 10 floors)
Problems due to
Changing
Figure 72 : Locations of Hotel Buildings above 10 Development Trends
floors in CMC Area | Source : Building Approval
Data - 2017, Enforcement Division, UDA of High Dense Developments
within Colombo
Commercial City ...

Issues Related to
Increasing Trend of High-rise
Developments
Signiicance & Magnitude
3.2.1.5. Issues Related to Increasing Trend of

High-rise Developments
Even though it was mentioned in the beginning of this section that rapid growth
of high-rise developments of a city can be seen as a positive indicator of city
development, in preparation of the Colombo Commercial City Development Plan
the above-mentioned increasing trend of high-rise developments in Colombo is
identiied as an evolving issue within the planning context with reference to the
fact that the existing city infrastructure not having the capacity to cope up with the
demand created by high-rise developments.
he market driven high-rise developments are carried out within the city mostly
based on demand irrespective of availability of infrastructure facilities. On the other
hand, where there are infrastructure facilities, there is less market demand for high-
rise developments due to other influential factors.
77
Chapter 03 1. Inadequacy of Wastewater Management Systems

The Need of a
Development Plan Even though there is a sewerage system covering the entire CMC area which was
built about 100 years ago during British period, its capacities have now exceeded
––– with the increasing sewerage and waste water generation resulted due to increased
residential and commuter population. Wastewater system is an essential part of
Problems due to
city fabric especially a one which accommodates large high-rise developments. he
Changing
Development Trends existing practice is the laying of sewer lines at the cost of developers to accommodate
high rise developments but most of the time these lines are laid in a haphazard way
Spontaneous Emergence sometimes even blocking and damaging the main system.
within Colombo
Commercial City ...
Issues Related to
(a) Ongoing and Proposed Waste Water and
Increasing Trend of High-rise Sewerage Management Projects
Developments
• Proposed CMC Waste Water Management Project
CMC waste water project is

designed with the intention
of improving wastewater
management services to
cater the demand created
by approximately 838,000
residents within the project
area. It proposes to construct
a waste water treatment
plant with installed capacity
of 200 million liters per day
(MLD).
Figure 73 : Proposed Waste Water

Management System in CMC Area
Source : Greater Colombo Waste
Water Management Project -
colombo.mc.gov.lk, 2018
78
Volume I
• Proposed Ratmalana – Boralesgamuwa Chapter 03

Waste Water Management Project The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Problems due to
Changing
Development Trends
within Colombo
Commercial City ...
Issues Related to
Developments
Figure 74 : Proposed Waste Water Management System in Ratmalana

Source : National Water Supply & Drainage Board - 2018
he Ratmalana Wastewater Management Project is designed with the capacity

of 17,000m3 per day covering parts of DMMC and Moratuwa MC Areas. However,
the existing demand of the area is only 7000m3 per day thus this area has more
potential for high dense developments as it has more capacity in terms of waste
water management. A part of total capacity of Ratmalana waste water management
system will cover a part of Boralesgamuwa UC as well with a capacity of 6,670m3 /
day.
However, compared to CMC area, Dehiwala, the area covered by this waste water
project has relatively low demand for high-rise and dense developments and thus,
identiied as an underutilized area which should be given consideration in promoting
future dense developments.
79
Chapter 03 (b) Identiied Areas with Gaps in Demand and Supply Capacities of
The Need of a Waste Water Management Systems
Development Plan
Considering the above-mentioned proposed waste water management projects, the
––– existing demand of CMC area can be met with proposed CMC Waste Water Project.
However, there is a considerable gap in demand and supply capacity of wastewater
Problems due to management in Dehiwala, parts of Mount – Lavinia which have a signiicantly high
Changing
demand for high-dense developments.
Development Trends
Spontaneous Emergence On the other hand, it is important to note that there are no any wastewater
of High Dense Developments management systems in Peliyagoda, Wattala, Kolonnawa and Kelaniya areas which
within Colombo
Commercial City ... are also showing an increasing demand for high-dense developments.
Issues Related to
Increasing Trend of High-rise Even though not having waste water management system it is not considerably
Developments a burning issue where there are comparatively low dense developments with more
low-rise buildings, it becomes a signiicant issue when the city starts to develop
vertically resulting high-dense developments. he comparison of areas with high
demand for high-rise developments and condominiums with waste water system
coverage areas, it can be clearly identiied the locations having issues due to
deiciencies in waste water management.
Figure 75 : Areas covered with existing & Figure 76 : Spatial Distribution of Certiied
proposed Waste Water Management Systems Condominiums in Colombo & Suburbs
Source : Research & Development Unit, Source : Condominium Management
UDA - 2018 Authority, 2017
80
Volume I
2. Deiciencies in Local Area Supply of Pipe-borne Chapter 03

Water and Electricity The Need of a
Development Plan
Even though there is 100% coverage of both pipe-borne water and electricity to meet
–––
the growing demand within the planning area, the view of National Water Supply &
Drainage Board and Ceylon Electricity Board is it is required to conduct local level
Problems due to
capacity improvement projects to meet with the high demand created by growing Changing
high-dense developments. Hence, it is important to consider the possibilities of local Development Trends
level capacity improvements of both electricity and pipe-borne water supply to meet
the demands of rapidly developing areas with high-rises and to direct the high-rise Spontaneous Emergence
developments to areas which have the capacities to meet the demand. within Colombo
Commercial City ...
Issues Related to
3. The existing roads of the Colombo Commercial City not Increasing Trend of High-rise
Developments
having adequate capacities to meet the requirements of
high-rise developments
Basically, there are two aspects of this problem;
• he areas which have growing demand for high-rise developments

have narrow roads with widths which are not adequate to achieve high
FARs demanded by the market
• Medium/high-rise condominiums constructed within neighborhoods

with narrow roads causing trafic congestion and inconvenience
disturbing the peaceful neighborhood environments
As per the existing regulation requirements of CMC area (City of Colombo

Development Plan (2008–2020), the minimum road widths required for particular
FARs are as follows.
81
Chapter 03 Minimum width

The Need of a Minimum
between building Maximum
Row Minimum Land width of
Development Plan lines of a public Permissible
No. Extent (Sq.m) private street/
street/road FAR
road (meters)
––– (meters)
1 150 less than 250 - 3.0 1:1.5
Problems due to
2 150 less than 250 - 4.5 1:1.75
Changing
Development Trends 3 150 less than 250 - 6.0 1:2.0
4 150 less than 250 - 9.0 1:2.5
of High Dense Developments 5 150 less than 250 12.2 12.2 1:3.0
within Colombo
Commercial City ... 6 250 less than 400 12.2 6.0 1:3.5
Issues Related to 7 400 less than 500 12.2 9.0 1:4.5
Developments 8 500 less than 700 12.2 9.0 1:5.0
9 500 less than 700 15.0 12.2 1:5.5
10 700 less than 900 15.0 12.2 1:6.0
11 900 less than 1000 15.0 12.2 1:7.0
12 900 less than 1000 22 12.2 1:7.5
13 1000 less than 1500 22 12.2 1:8.0
14 1500 less than 2000 22 12.2 1:9.0
15 1500 less than 2000 24 12.2 1:9.5
16 2000 less than 2500 24 12.2 1:10.0
17 2500 less than 3000 24 12.2 1:12.0
18 3000 and above 24 12.2 Unlimited
Table 09 : Speciications for Development – Form C 1 – CCDP - 2008

Even though, these requirements are considered mandatory, there are some cases
where these regulations have been amended in order to facilitate the demands.
One of such cases is the land strip between Colombo Plan Road (Marine Drive) and
Galle Road which have very narrow cross roads about 12 ft widths, but having a
signiicantly high demand for high-rise developments. he existing regulations of
minimum road widths applicable to this land strip have been amended allowing the
high-rise buildings to be built with higher FAR considering the building line instead
of street line.
82
Volume I
he magnitude of this problem can be understood with the examples of Arethusa Chapter 03
Lane and Chapel Lane at Wellawatta. At the beginning, these two lanes gave access The Need of a
to about 15 and 20 housing units respectively but later due to high-rise buildings Development Plan
constructed within the period of 1999 – 2006, these lanes gave access to 216 and 207
number of housing units respectively. It is important to ensure that required road
–––
widths are maintained within Colombo Commercial City, especially where there
Problems due to
is considerably high demand for high-rise developments in order to facilitate the
Changing
market demand while avoiding any negative consequences. Development Trends
3.2.2. Current Development Trends Challenging within Colombo
Commercial City ...
the Existing Planning and Building Regulations
Current Development
based on Zoning Trends Challenging
the Existing Planning and
Building Regulations...
Existing planning and building regulations applicable to the CMC area are as per the
Case I – Demand for Change
Zoning Plan of Colombo Development Plan (2008 – 2020). As per the land use zoning of Use in Special Primary
plan of City of Colombo, there are 09 zones which are deined with permissible uses Residential Zone (SPRZ)
based on the anticipated character of the zone, maximum plot coverage, minimum
allowable plot size and maximum Floor Area Ratio (FAR). However, the current
development trends have been challenging these zoning regulations resulting
amendments to the regulations at several times, actual land use being different from
the proposed land use pattern and emergence of unauthorized developments.
3.2.2.1 Case I – Demand for Change of Use in

Special Primary Residential Zone (SPRZ)
Context
Special Primary Residential Zone which covers Colombo 07 (Cinnamon Gardens)

area has been given special regulations with the intention of conserving its special
garden based residential character. he maximum number of floors allowed within
this zone is ive storeys provided the access road is not less than 9.0m in width.
It is also speciied with the minimum plot size of 500 sq.m and maximum plot
coverage is 65%. For the sites in extent of 2500 sq.m or more, it is speciied to have
maximum plot coverage of 50%. Also, the permissible uses for this zone are speciied
with the focus of promoting residential activities and its compatible uses thus even
commercial activities are also allowed within the certain limits of site extents under
speciied conditions.
83
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Problems due to
Changing
Development Trends
Current Development
Trends Challenging
Case I – Demand for Change

of Use in Special Primary
Residential Zone (SPRZ)
Figure 77 : Zoning Plan – CCDP - 2008

For example,
a. Hotels – each having not more than 10 bed rooms within a site
exceeding 1000sq.m
b. Restaurants, banks – each within a site extent exceeding 1000sq.m
c. Professional ofices – each having a net floor area not exceeding

500sq.m and each within sites of extent exceeding 500sq.m
84
Volume I
he option available for those developers who wish to change the residential space Chapter 03
for commercial purposes is the request for Change of Use Permit issued by UDA. The Need of a
However, this permit is only issued for a period of one year thus the developer needs Development Plan
to renew it annually.
–––
Case I - Signiicance and Magnitude Problems due to
Changing
Even though the regulations are there to guide and control the developments in a Development Trends
desired manner, the ield observations reveal that the actual development is not as
conducive as expected by the regulations and thus, have gone against the anticipated Current Development
Trends Challenging
patterns of development. the Existing Planning and
As per a survey conducted by the Urban Development Authority in 2012, it was Case I – Demand for Change
revealed that there had been 394 unauthorized commercial entities within SPRZ by of Use in Special Primary
2016. And majority of these unauthorized commercial entities had been emerged in
Rosmead Place (27 constructions), Flower Road (27), Horton Place (24), Gregory Road
(20) and Barnes Place (18). It was also revealed that majority of these unauthorized
commercial entities were private ofices whereas other main uses were food &
lodging and retail establishments.
he main issue related with this demand for change of use is that the complaints by
original residents of the residential zones against the upcoming commercial uses
within the area which disturb the peaceful neighborhood environments. he main
negative impacts of commercialization within SPRZ are higher trafic movement
within neighborhood roads, noise pollution, air pollution, loss of aesthetic appeal
and loss of garden character which is considered as a part of Colombo Heritage. here
was a case in February 2012, where the residents of SPRZ submitted complaints to
the President of Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, against the emerging
commercial entities within SPRZ to which the Secretary to the President instructed
the UDA to cease of issuing approvals from non-residential conversions. However,
the UDA’s recommendation was;
• to increase the service charges of change of use process.
• to make necessary regulation changes regarding permissible uses

and alteration of zoning boundaries appropriately to balance with
on-going development demands and conservation needs.
• to introduce strict legal provisions such as sealing of premises

subject to court order in cases of non-compliance.
he change of zoning boundaries has been carried-out at several times over the years
to address the development demands.
85
Chapter 03 Examples:
The Need of a
Development Plan • Change of area bounded by D.S. Senanayake Mw, Dudly Senanayake Mw
and Bauddhaloka Mw from Special Mixed Residnetial Zone to Mixed
––– Development Zone – March, 2014
Problems due to
• Change of area Ananda Coomaraswami Mw, Col.T.G. Jayawardene Mw,
Changing
Development Trends Flower Terrace, Sir Earnest De Silva Mw and Marcus Fernando Mw
from Special Primary Residnetial Zone to Mixed Development Zone –
Current Development March, 2014
Trends Challenging
Building Regulations... However, change of zoning boundaries and regulation amendments involves a serious
Case I – Demand for Change process which includes several legal procedures, analytical and logical justiications
of Use in Special Primary and also which might lead to confusions and disputes among public and authorities.
hus, it is required to address this aspect in the proposed development plan to avoid
Case II – Demand for the problems that might result due to activity-based zoning.
commercial use along either
side of roads irrespective of
allowable uses of zone 3.2.2.2 Case II – Demand for commercial use along either side of
roads irrespective of allowable uses of zone
Context
It has been the conventional practice to demarcate zoning boundaries based on

roads. As a result, the two sides of road fall under two different zones resulting
in two types of developments with different characters. In such cases, developers
challenge the zoning regulations inquiring the reasons and justiications for not
being able to develop their plots just as the plots at the opposite side, in spite of the
same infrastructure that serve both sides.
Case II – Signiicance and Magnitude
Considering these challenges, several amendments to the regulations have been

made as follows.
• Change of the zoning at irst lot facing D.S. Senanayake Mawatha

(from Dudley Senanayake Mw up to Kanatta Junction) and Bauddhaloka
Mw (From Kanatta Junction up to Dudley Senanayake Mw) from Special
Mixed Residential Zone to Mixed Development Zone – June, 2013
• Change of the zoning at irst lot of Eastern and Western side of the
Leyards Road from SPRZ to Mixed Development Zone – December, 2015
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In addition to these, it has been identiied that following regulation changes are Chapter 03
required based on the current demand within City of Colombo. The Need of a
Development Plan
• Change of the zoning at both side of Baseline Road in Mixed
Development Zone excluding special areas
–––
Problems due to
• Change of the zoning at both side of halakotuwa Garden Road
Changing
from Primary Residential Zone to Mixed Development Zone Development Trends
• Change of the zoning at irst lot of himbirigasyaya Road from Current Development
Trends Challenging
Primary Residential Zone & Special Primary Residential Zone to the Existing Planning and
Commercial Zone Building Regulations...
Case II – Demand for

However, due to these development restrictions, it makes a considerable level commercial use along either
side of roads irrespective of
of negative impact to the city economy where the developers who are willing to allowable uses of zone
make investments are discouraged by the existing zoning regulations. hus, it is a
mandatory requirement to review the existing zoning regulations and introduce Emerging Social,
innovative alternative solutions to tap investment opportunities while preserving Environmental and
the anticipated city characters. Economic Problems...
3.3. Emerging Social, Environmental and

Economic Problems due to Underserved
Settlements
Context
It is an accepted fact that a livable city provides basic services and utilities to all
of its inhabitants with no discrimination. When a considerable share of the city’s
population does not have access to basic services and utilities the conditions become
unhealthy and unfavorable to live-in, and it affects the functions of the entire city.
Underserved Settlements (USS) - Deinitions
In Sri Lanka, the term of “underserved settlement” is used to identify shanties and
slums since last few decades. Although there is no universal deinition, the term
‘underserved settlement’ is descriptive of a community living in speciic geographical
area that lacks one or more of the following conditions.
87
Chapter 03 • Access to basic services such as safe water, sanitation facilities,

The Need of a transport / communication facilities
Development Plan • Security of tenure
• Structural quality / durability of dwelling
––– • Suficient living area in dwellings
Emerging Social,
(UN-HABITAT, CEPA & Sevanatha, 2013)
Environmental and
Economic Problems...
he Policy Paper on Slum and Shanty Upgrading in Colombo prepared by the Slums
and Shanty Division of the Urban Development Authority of the then Ministry of
Local Government, Housing and Construction in 1979, was the irst ever attempt by
the government to identify the slums for larger development program in Colombo
MC. he terms used there, are as follows:
Slums
“he term ‘slum’ refers to old tenement buildings built for influxes of migrant labor to
the city mostly in the 1930s. In the local language this type of settlement arrangement
is called Mudukku. People who live in these types of houses do not like to call their
houses by the oficial name or popular local term. hey usually call these houses ‘row
houses’ (Peli Gewal)”.
Shanties
“he collection of small, single-unit improvised structures constructed with non-

durable materials on vacant lands throughout the city are shanties. Shanties illegally
occupy state or private lands, usually with no regular water, sanitation or electricity
supply, the majorities are built on land subject to frequent flooding.
In local language this type of settlement arrangement is called Pelpath. his term
reflects a group of people who live in more dificult conditions and greater poverty
than “Mudukku” or slums according the common usage.
Watta in the local language is the common term used for both slums and shanty
settlements in Colombo by the general public. he English translation of Watta is
Garden. Captain Garden, Ali Watta, Kadirana Watta are some examples of the names
of Colombo slums and shanties.
In oficial documents, low-income settlements are mostly identiied according to the

different types of settlement arrangements as slums, shanties, upgraded settlement,
relocated settlements or low-cost flats”.
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Volume I
Chapter 03
3.3.1. Case I – Underserved Settlements The Need of a
within City of Colombo Development Plan
However, when it comes to developing world cities, Colombo is one example of a –––
city that does not it the usual text book models; no massive sprawling slums on the
periphery of the city, no rampant in migration to the city and very few houses which Emerging Social,
could be classed as extremely poor. herefore, terms like “squatter settlement” and Environmental and
“shanty town ” may not apply to the situation in Colombo. In this case, Underserved Economic Problems...
Settlements is a better term to address all settlements identiied as both slums and Case I – Underserved
shanties in Colombo. Settlements within
City of Colombo
Origin of Underserved
3.3.1.1. Origin of Underserved Settlements
Settlements within Colombo
within Colombo
Figure 78 : Underserved
Settlements along Railway
Reservations in City of Colombo
Image Courtesy : alamy stock
photo
Slums including tenement garden came into existence in Colombo with the
expansion of export trade associated with the rubber export industry after the
Second World War in 1950s. he character of Colombo changed in keeping with
the new economic demands for warehousing, workers accommodation and the
road network improvement. he core area of the city became more congested and
the elite groups moved out into more spacious residential areas in the suburbs.
Back-to-back houses were built by city elites in the large estates which they owned
in northern and central parts of Colombo and were lent out on a very low or no-
rent basis to workers of Port, warehouses and related industries. Eventually, the
extended families of these workers also started residing in these houses by adding
unauthorized physical extensions to the houses resulting in creation of slums. Soon
this trend became frequent and out of control creating huge problems in the city
socially, environmentally and economically.
89
Chapter 03 With the increased migrants to the city in 1950s, the supply of housing began to lag
The Need of a behind the demand and became unaffordable to the low-income communities. he
Development Plan expansion of shanties mainly took place based on vacant state lands such as railway,
canal and Kelani river reservations, where low income families who migrated to
––– the city in search of employment opportunities and could not afford houses from
standard residential areas, built their shelters with temporary materials.
Emerging Social,
Environmental and
Economic Problems... he Central Part of Colombo became a predominantly low-income residential area
with many slums, and the Northern and Eastern parts of the city were occupied
Case I – Underserved by shanties.
Settlements within
City of Colombo
Magnitude & Signiicance
Origin of Underserved
Settlements within Colombo
Existing Situation of 3.3.1.2. Existing Situation of Underserved

Underserved Settlements
in Colombo
Settlements in Colombo
he survey by Real Estate Exchange (Pvt) Ltd (REEL) in 1998/9 in the CMC area reported
1,506 USSs whilst Sevanatha’s survey in 2001 (Sevanatha, 2002) estimated the USSs
to number 1,615. he number of housing units in 1998/9 survey was 66,324, whilst
the Sevanatha survey in 2001 found the number of housing units to be 53,659 (77,532
households) with a population of 336,000, which then accounted for approximately
50 percent of Colombo’s population. he most recent survey by UDA in 2011 inds the
household numbers to be 68,812 and the number of settlements to be 1499. As per
the survey, the population living in these underserved settlements accounts for 53%
of the total population of City of Colombo. he highest concentration of underserved
settlements is within northern and central parts of CMC area. 900 acres accounting
for 9% of the total land extent of CMC area are found to be covered with underserved
settlements. he population of the settlements are often third or fourth generation
residents, hence, a very low level of in-migration is prevalent. Issues faced by in-
migrations such as constantly expanding of the slums are not faced in Colombo.
As per the survey conducted by Sevanatha Urban Resource Center in year 2012, the
underserved settlements in Colombo can be categorized based on settlements size
(in terms of number of houses) as follows.
• Below 10 houses -22%

• Between 11 – 20 houses - 32%
• More than 100 houses - 5%
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Volume I
Based on above classiication, it is evident that majority of the underserved

settlements within City of Colombo are small to medium size in terms of number of
houses within them.
• 57% of USS occupants not having

freehold rights to the land
As most of these settle-ments were

built up as unauthorized constructions
mostly within state lands or privately-
owned estates, they often do not have
legal basis and are categorized as illegal
housing that do not meet the housing
regulations and/or do not have the
right to the land they occupied.
Figure 79 : Locations of Underserved

Settlements of City of Colombo
Source : GIS Division, Urban Development
Authority - 2011
As a result of the exist-ence of these settlements for over two adult gen-erations, a series of state
interventions have now given most residents a right of residence, albeit not one sanctioned legally.
Of the 1614 settlements counted by the Poverty Proile in 2002 only 6% were considered ‘illegal’. Most
of the settlements considered illegal are those occupying railway, canal, or other reservation land.
As per the survey conducted by Sevanatha in 2012, it has been found that 43% of occupants living in
underserved settlements own freehold rights of their properties while 57% do not possess security of
tenure. However, 23% of the occupants are issued with user permits (enumerator cards) which grant
temporary rights to the lands they occupy.
91
Chapter 03 3.3.1.3. Problems due to Existence of

The Need of a
Development Plan
Problems caused due to existence of underserved settlements can be viewed in three
–––
aspects such as social, environment and economic.
Emerging Social,
Environmental and 1. Negative Social Impacts due to Existence of
Economic Problems... Underserved Settlements
Case I – Underserved
Settlements within Negative social impacts resulted due to existence of underserved settlements also
City of Colombo can be viewed in two aspects such as impacts on dwellers of underserved settlements
Problems due to Existence of and overall impacts on society. he main negative impact on underserved settlement
Underserved Settlements community is the problems caused due to poor living conditions.
(a) Poor Living Conditions of Underserved Settlement Community
It has been revealed by Sevanatha Survey in 2012 that 45% of houses in underserved
settlements in City of Colombo are constructed with temporary materials and 55%
are constructed with permanent materials. Even though, a majority of underserved
settlement houses are considered to be constructed with permanent materials most
of them do not have access to basic facilities such as pipe-borne water, electricity,
sanitary facilities, proper wastewater and storm water management systems, proper
access roads and other public amenities such as public open spaces and community
halls etc. he survey on underserved settlements in City of Colombo conducted by
Sevanatha in 2012 revealed following inadequacies in basic services.
Lack of Sanitary facilities
• Overall 41% of settlements have common toilets

• 8% have no toilet facilities
• 28% of settlements of underserved settlements have serious problems in
respect of safe disposal of sewage; only 50% are connected to the city’s
wastewater network
he dependence on public services is often higher amongst poorer settlements

and the acute shortage leads to inappropriate and illegal construction of toilets.
his creates problems such as pipe blockages and sewerage overflows, diversion
of sewerage systems into canals, which in turn create health related problems
especially for children. Drainage issues come to the forefront because many of these
settlements are situated on marginal land, such as marshes and canal reservations
that are prone to flooding.
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Volume I
Deiciencies in Pipe-borne water supply Chapter 03

The Need of a
• 33% of underserved settlements have no metered water connection Development Plan
• 33% either use common facilities or rely on outside sources
• 5% of communities need safe drinking water and levels of service are
–––
rated as a serious problem in 8% of underserved settlements
Emerging Social,
Environmental and
Lack of street lighting Economic Problems...
• Most USS (98%) have electricity connection BUT lack of street lighting Case I – Underserved
Settlements within
is an issue for 34% of underserved settlement communities City of Colombo
Improper Solid-waste disposal Problems due to Existence of

• 15% of underserved settlements report irregular or no collection
Poor conditioned Access roads
• 40 % have well maintained tarred roads/pavements with good

width access
• 41% have poorly maintained tarred roads
• 19% do not have tarred roads
he condition of main access roads to, as well as by lanes (inner access roads) within
the settlements are often poor in condition and this hinders access to and within
the settlement.
Inadequate spaces
Figure 80 : A typical underserved house in Colombo

Image Courtesy : dailynews.lk
93
Chapter 03 Constrained space within the settle-ments, reflected by the size of housing units and
The Need of a lack of public space, is considered the critical negative feature of the underserved
Development Plan settlements. At the community level, the lack of space inhibits recreational activities
and movement and intensiies the spread of disease, while at the household level
––– there is lack of space for social occasions (i.e. funerals, weddings) and undertaking
home-based income-generation, as well as limited privacy.
Emerging Social,
Environmental and
(b) Relatively High Probability of Spreading Diseases among
Underserved Settlement Communities
Settlements within
City of Colombo
Problems due to Existence of

Figure 81: A solid waste dumping yard next to a slum area in Colombo – Meethotamulla
Image Courtesy: Captured by Robin Hammond, Panos – scidev.net
Poor health conditions within the settlements are caused due to the proximity to
stagnant canals, breeding grounds for mosquitoes which cause diseases such as
ilariasis. Furthermore, the congestion, high population density, and the close
proximity of the housing structures, facilitate and accelerate the spread of the
disease.
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Volume I
Figure 82 : Comparison of Diseases Spreading Areas with Distribution of Underserved

Settlements | Source : (left) Diseases Records by Local Authorities & (right) Department of
Census & Statistics, 2012
he above comparison between the distribution pattern of underserved settlements

and diseases spreading pattern shows some similarity where relatively high
concen-tration of diseases can be observed in areas having high concen-tration of
underserved settlements.
he dengue distribution pattern is also having a similar pattern just as distribution

of underserved settlements, as there is a relatively high probability of existence of
mosquito breeding sites within underserved settlement areas.
95
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Emerging Social,
Environmental and
Settlements within
City of Colombo

Figure 83 : Comparison of Dengue Spreading Areas with Distribution of Underserved Settlements

Source : (left) Public Health Department, Colombo Municipal Council – 2017 & (right) Department
of Census & Statistics, 2012
(c) Relatively high occurrence of illegal activities within underserved

settlements associated areas
It has been found a spatial relationship between the crime incidences and locations
of underserved settlements in Colombo.
he main reasons for this particular correspondence can be identiied as the relatively
high poverty and low education levels of underserved settlement communities,
marginalization of undeserved settlement community as a lower social strata of
Colombo society, higher prone for abuse of drugs and alcohol and especially spatial
arrangement of underserved settlements having enclosed enclaves, narrow alleys
which provide ideal conditions to carry out illegal deals.
Abuse of drugs and alcohol can be considered as a factor that worsens the conditions
of the urban poor. Addiction is often viewed as a main cause of low wellbeing for
individuals and house-holds. In addition, they are more prone towards marital
instability, crime and domestic violence. A livelihood assessment con-ducted for
World Bank in 2012 (UNHABITAT et al., 2012) in low income settlements in Colombo
revealed that alcohol use by family members is a reason for insecurity within the
household. he study also revealed that use of drugs and alcohol cause fear outside
the house.
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Volume I
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
However, this higher tende-
–––
ncy of occurrences of illegal
activities in association with
Emerging Social,
under-served settlements
Environmental and
created a huge negative im- Economic Problems...
pact on the image of these
areas, leading to gradual Case I – Underserved
Settlements within
deterioration of these areas City of Colombo
while discouraging future
potential investments and Underserved Settlements
developments.
Figure 84 : Crime Density

Distribution in City of Colombo
Source : Based on Data by Sri
Lanka Police - 2018
2. Negative Environment Impacts due to Existence of

here are few negative impacts on environment caused due to existence of un-
derserved settlements. hese can be elaborated as follows.
(a) Pollution of water bodies linked with underserved settlements
As majority of the under-served settlements are located in canal, river and coast
reservations, they signiicantly contribute to the pollution of water bodies. he main
reasons for pollution of inland water bodies are direct disposal of sewerage and
waste water through unauthorized connections and direct disposal of solid waste.
97
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Emerging Social,
Environmental and
Settlements within
City of Colombo

Figure 85 : A polluted canal located within an Underserved Settlement

Image Courtesy : Captured By Peter Bennett – roar.media
here is a high tendency of the occu-

rrence of above two when there is an
under-served settlement attached
to a particular water body. It has
been found that 98% of the water
bodies in Colombo are polluted and
the pollution levels and its spatial
connection with the underserved
settlements can be identiied by the
following map.
Figure 86 : Locations of Underserved

Settlements within Colombo Commercial City
Source : Urban Development Authority - 2018
98
Volume I
Kelani River
Water Quality : Medium
St. Sebastian Canal South

Kittampahuwa Canal
Water Quality : Very Bad
St. Sebastian Canal North

Dematagoda Canal
Kolonnawa Canal
Beira Lake Water Quality : Good
Water Quality : Bad
Kirulapane Canal
Torrington Canal Water Quality : Very Bad
pH
Heen Ela Total Suspended Solids
Ammonia (NH3)
Nitrate (as N)
Phosphate (PO4)
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Wellawatta Canal Biological Oxygen Demand
Total Faecal Coliforms
Water Quality : Very Bad E-Coli
Chlorophyll
Algal Diversity
Dehiwala Canal
Figure 87 : Physic-chemical water quality of water bodies in City of Colombo

Source : Technical report 4, Physical Features - Wetland Management Strategy,
Metro Colombo Urban Development Project, 2016
99
Chapter 03 (b) Flood Occurrences due to Blockage of Natural Drainages by

The Need of a Unauthorized Constructions
Development Plan
Underserved settlements are often located in low lying lands and flood plains thus
––– become automatically exposed to floods. It had been found by the survey conducted
by Sevanatha in 2012 that 31% of underserved settlements are being located in high
Emerging Social, flood risk areas especially in cases of flash floods. he reason has been identiied
Environmental and
as that 83% of internal roads within underserved settlements are not having proper
storm water drainage leading to local flash flooding and waterlogging in internal
Case I – Underserved access roads. At the same time, due to blockage of natural drainage paths and
Settlements within high vulnerability to floods, these communities often suffer from even sudden
City of Colombo
flash floods.
he occurrence of flash floods and urban floods in Colombo is more elaborated later
as a separate issue of the planning area.
Figure 88 : An underserved settlement Figure 89 : Floods in Kelani River Banks

caught in flash floods | Image Courtesy : Image Courtesy : blogspot.com
Saman Sri Wedage – dailynews.lk
(c) Degradation of city visual quality due to existence of

Figure 90 : Underserved Settlements within the Colombo City Fabric -1

Image Courtesy : Mirror Citizen, Daily Mirror
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Volume I
Physical appearance of the underserved settlements, especially the ones which are Chapter 03
constructed with temporary materials in a haphazard manner reflects a negative The Need of a
ambiance of the city which in return makes a signiicant negative impact on the Development Plan
image of the city as an international inancial hub. he unpleasant environments
associated with underserved settlements largely deteriorate the visual qualities of
–––
the area and at the same time decrease the land values as well as discourage potential
Emerging Social,
investments and modern developments.
Environmental and
3. Negative Economic impacts due to existence of Case I – Underserved

Settlements within
Underserved Settlements City of Colombo

Associated with the above discussed issue of deteriorating environmental visual Underserved Settlements
quality due to underserved settlements, emerges another issue which is the
reluctance of investors to invest in new developments in the areas in vicinity of
underserved settlements. Also, as most of these underserved settlements are located
in prime locations of the city, these lands are of high value and have the potential to
be developed with high economic returns. However, when considering the present
land values of City of Colombo, it can be observed that there is a large disparity
between values of lands located at a same radius from the city center.
Figure 91 : Underserved Settlements within the Colombo City Fabric - 2

Image Courtesy : sundayobserver.lk
It has been found out that the land values of north Colombo, where relatively high
concentration of underserved settlements can be observed is around LKR 3,000,000
per perch whereas the land values of areas towards south of Colombo located at a
similar radius from CBD are above LKR 6,000,000 per perch. It shows the signiicant
impacts of underserved settlements on city land values.
101
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Emerging Social,
Environmental and
Settlements within
City of Colombo

Figure 92 : Variation of Land Values in City of Colombo

Source : Research & Development Unit, UDA - 2018
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Volume I
3.3.1.4. UDA’s Current Intervention on Underserved Chapter 03

Settlements in City of Colombo The Need of a
Development Plan
Urban Regeneration Project is one of the current major interventions on underserved
–––
settlements by Urban Development Authority. he project was launched with
the intention of relocating underserved settlement dwellers of City of Colombo Emerging Social,
into modern houses in new housing schemes (mainly high-rise apartments) with Environmental and
standard facilities while ensuring the transformation of Colombo into a world Economic Problems...
recognized city with a clean and pleasing environment.
Settlements within
he main concept of the project is to liberate 900 acres of lands covered with 1500 City of Colombo
underserved settlements including around 68,000 households and to allocate 150
UDA’s Current Intervention
acres of lands for reservations, landscaping and open spaces for improvement of city on Underserved Settlements
environment, 300 acres of lands for rehousing (for resettlements) and 450 acres of in City of Colombo
lands for investment purposes.
As per the current status review of the project, around 4,900 housing units have
been already completed and 13,200 housing units have been commenced with
construction accounting for around 18,100 housing units in total.
Even though, this project attempts to relocate majority of underserved settlements,

with practical limitations, it has been revealed that relocation is not the ultimate
or the sole solution. hus, a planning intervention is required to view the issue
of underserved settlements with a different perspective and propose innovative
solutions. At the same time, it is required to integrate the Urban Regeneration Project
with the city development by incorporating the rehousing projects and proposing
programs to get the optimum beneits of liberated lands.
Figure 93 : High-rise apartments built for low-income families of City of Colombo

Image Courtesy : accessengsl.com
103
Chapter 03
The Need of a
3.3.2 Case II - Underserved Settlements located
Development Plan outside of City of Colombo
––– Since the planning boundary of Colombo Commercial City expands beyond the limits
of City of Colombo, there are other locations outside of Colombo city limits where
Emerging Social, small to large clusters of underserved settlements are located. Wattala, Peliyagoda,
Environmental and Kelaniya, Kolonnawa and coastal belt from Wellawatta to Ratmalana are some of the
Economic Problems... areas which have highest concentration of underserved settlements next to City of
Case II - Underserved Colombo.
Settlements located
3.3.2.1. Underserved Settlements in Wattala
outside of City of Colombo
in Wattala
Underserved settlements in Wattala are mainly based on southern outskirts of
Underserved Settlements Muthurajawela Marsh, Hamilton Canal, Coastal Belt and other canal environs.
in Coastal Belt
When considering the character of these underserved settlements in Wattala area, it
can be identiied that they are in a comparatively high deteriorated status than most
underserved settlements in City of Colombo.
3.3.2.2. Underserved Settlements in Coastal Belt
here are considerably large number of underserved settlements located in the

coastal belt of Colombo Commercial City Area spreading beyond Colombo Municipal
Council limits. A large concentration of underserved settlements is evident within
coastal stretches within Wellawatta, Dehiwala, Mount-lavinia and Ratmalana areas.
One of the main characteristics of the communities of these coastal underserved
settlements is that their main livelihood is based on ishing related activities.
Especially, the communities of underserved settlements located in Dehiwala and
Ratmalana areas are largely engaged with isheries activities. However, most of the
underserved settlement houses within the coastal stretch are built with temporary
materials and are in an improvised situation. On the other hand, there is a
considerable level of crimes and involvements in illegal activities such as drug abuse,
prostitution and vandalism reported in these areas which are proved to be having a
relationship with the existence of coastal underserved settlements.
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Volume I
3.3.2.3. Underserved Settlements in Kelani River Banks in Chapter 03

Peliyagoda, Kelaniya and Kolonnawa The Need of a
Development Plan
here are considerably large clusters of underserved settlements located in the
–––
either sides of Kelani River especially in river and railway reservations. One of the
major problems faced by the communities of these settlements is that the high Emerging Social,
vulnerability to floods as most of them are located in the flood plains of Kelani River. Environmental and
On the other hand, the existence of these underserved settlements in river & canal Economic Problems...
reservations, contribute to pollution, blockage of natural water ways and visual and
physical access to waterfronts acting as a barrier to harness the true potential of Case II - Underserved
Settlements located
Kelani River. outside of City of Colombo
However, the problems due existence of underserved settlements within these in Kelani River Banks in
areas outside of City of Colombo are also similar to the problems associated with Peliyagoda, Kelaniya and
Kolonnawa
underserved settlements in Colombo. hus, it can be concluded that they also need
special attention and sustainable solutions in order to ensure the development of all
these areas as a whole as the Colombo Commercial City.
105
Chapter 03
The Need of a 3.4. Public Inconvenience and Economic Loss
Development Plan due to Trafic Congestion on Major Arterials at
––– Peak Hours
Public Inconvenience
and Economic Loss due to
Trafic Congestion ...
Figure 94 : Peak Hour Trafic Congestion on Baseline Road, Colombo

Image Courtesy : daily-sun.com
As perceived by most residents and daily commuters of Colombo, the most burning
issue of the city is the trafic congestion. During the last decade, increased trafic
congestion on major roads in Colombo and suburbs during peak hours became one
of the most tensed issues in the country.
Context
Convenient, reliable and affordable modes of transportation is not an option but a

necessity for an eficient urban environment. Access to work, services and recreation
by the inhabitants, and to delivery of goods and services for businesses depends on
the eficiency of the modes of transportation. When the time taken to access from
one location to another is more than the affordable and the journey is not pleasant,
the inhabitants become uncomfortable, while the businesses are frustrated. It then
cause negative impacts on the city’s economy as the space, time and the human
resources are not put into effective use.
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Chapter 03
3.4.1. Heavy Trafic Flows Entering and The Need of a
Leaving Colombo Commercial City Development Plan
Colombo Commercial City is connected regionally via seven major radial corridors –––
namely Malabe, Galle, Kandy, Negombo, High-level, Low-level and Horana. As
per the CoMTrans study undertaken in 2013 the trafic demand on seven corridors Public Inconvenience
as follows. and Economic Loss due to
Heavy Trafic Flows

Entering and Leaving
Figure 95 : Trafic Demand on Seven Corridors

As it is illustrated in the above map, the largest trafic flow entering to the city limits
is observed at Borella, which is 110,000 vehicles per day.
107
Chapter 03
The Need of a 15% 15%
Development Plan Galle Negombo
––– 8%
Horana
19%
8% Kandy
High Level
Heavy Trafic Flows
Colombo Commercial City 22% 13%
Malabe Low Level
Figure 96 : Percentage of Vehicle Flows entering City of Colombo from seven Corridors
he total count per day vehicles entering

to the City of Colombo from seven
entering points namely Peliyagoda,
New Kenai Bridge, Dematagoda,
Borella, Nugegoda, Pamankada and
Bambalapitiya is 498,000. Heavy flows
are observed within CMC as well as
surrounding areas such as Kaduwela,
Sri Jayawardhane-pura Kotte, Dehiwala
and Moratuwa.
Based on the OD matrix conducted by

CoMTrans Study, approximately 705,000
trips per day ending has been estimated
inside the City of Colombo. it has also
been revealed that 20% of these trips are
accounting for around 140,000 trips that
are made within one hour of the busiest
morning peak period (07:00-07:59).
Figure 97 : Home-based Work trips (>= 2000)

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Volume I
Transport Mode Chapter 03

Items Total The Need of a
Private Public NMT Development Plan
Daily trip (‘000 trips/day) 256 443 6 705
–––
Peak hour trips (07:00-08:00) (‘000 trips/hour) 61 81 2 145
Peak Hour Ratio 24% 18% 36% 20% Public Inconvenience
Table 10 : Trips by Transport Mode Trafic Congestion ...
Heavy Trafic Flows
Figure 98 : Trip Generation Density of Trips attracted to Colombo Municipal Council Area
109
Chapter 03 he above table which is prepared based on Home Visit Survey conducted by
The Need of a CoMTrans Study in 2013, shows 36% of trips are made using private modes of
Development Plan transport which 63% of trips are made using public modes of transport. However, it
can be seen that peak hour ratio of private modes of transport is higher than public
––– mode of transport which conveys the relatively high contri-bution of private vehicles
to the Colombo’s trafic congestion during peak hours.
Trafic Congestion ... he above map shows the trip generation density of trips ending in Colombo MC area.
he map also indicates the trips produced in CMC where the highest trip attraction
Hourly Fluctuation density is observed indicating that a signiicant number of trips are made within the
of Trafic Flows
city boundary. For trips from outside CMC, their origins are mainly located in the
area surrounding CMC and along the major corridors.
3.4.2. Hourly Fluctuation of Trafic Flows

here are three peaks within a day, namely; morning peak experienced between 7 am
and 8 am, while the afternoon and evening peak periods extend about two hours from
1 pm to 3 pm and from 5 pm to 7 pm respectively. As per the CoMTrans Study, 2013,
the shares of these peak hour trips to the daily trips are 24%, 19% and 12% respectively.
he morning peak hour is dominated by home to work and home to school purposes
whereas afternoon peak hour and evening peak hours are dominated by school to
home and work to home respectively. Also, it had been revealed that the buses have
the highest share during the three peak periods.
Figure 99 : Hourly Fluctuation by Purpose at Trip Destination in the Western Province

110
Volume I
Bus frequency operating within Colombo Commercial City during the morning Chapter 03
peak hour between 7 am to 8 am is shown in Figure 100. It shows that the highest The Need of a
frequency of buses is experienced within Pettah area, Kandy corridor and Galle Development Plan
corridor in sequence.
–––
Hourly Fluctuation
of Trafic Flows
Figure 100 : Bus Frequency within Colombo Commercial City during the Morning Peak Hour
111
Chapter 03
The Need of a
3.4.3. Major Reasons behind the Severe Trafic
Development Plan Congestion at Peak Hours
––– he major reasons causing the severe trafic congestion within Colombo Commercial
City can be identiied in terms of increase in number of vehicles, issues with existing
Public Inconvenience intercity and intra-city public transport systems, problems related to existing
and Economic Loss due to coniguration of road network and the problems with existing trafic management
Trafic Congestion ... systems.
Major Reasons behind the
Severe Trafic Congestion
at Peak Hours
3.4.3.1. Rapid Increase in Number of Vehicles;
Especially the Private Vehicles
Rapid Increase in Number
of Vehicles; Especially the
Private Vehicles Parallel to the relatively high growth of household income within the last decade
and past years of this decade, a rapid increase of ownership of private passenger
cars, motor cycles and three wheelers has been experienced. he increase of private
modes of transport has directly caused the increase in trafic demand on the roads
and result in serious trafic congestion.
2000
2001
Motor Cars
2002
2003 Three Wheelers
2004
Motor Cycles
2005
2006 Buses
2007
Dual Purpose Vehicles
2008
2009 Heavy Vehicle
2010 Others
2011
2012
0
00
00
00
0
0
,00
,00
,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
00
00
00
20
40
60
80
1,0
1,2
1,4
Figure 101 : Vehicle Population of Western Province by Mode in 2013

he above graph compiled by the CoMTrans Study in 2013 shows the rapid increase
in vehicle population in Western Province during the last decade. he annual average
growth of vehicle population of Western Province is 8.5% which is signiicantly higher
compared to the annual population growth of 0.7%. Also, the number of motor cars
has been doubled during the last decade from 110,799 in 2002 to 244,636 in 2012. In
terms of number of motor cars for 100 people, it has been doubled from 2.0 in 2002
to 4.2 in 2012. he number of three-wheelers has increased at a very high space,
almost 3.5 times in the past ten years.
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Volume I
Passenger & Vehicle Share Chapter 03

The Need of a
Development Plan
Mini & Large Bus Car Three Wheeler Motor Cycle Utility
–––
62% 38%
Passenger Share and Economic Loss due to
6% 94%
Vehicle Share at Peak Hours
Rapid Increase in Number

of Vehicles; Especially the
Private Vehicles
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Problems in Existing Intercity
and Intra-city Public
Transport Systems
Figure 102 : Passenger – Vehicle Share
Source : Reduction of Trafic Congestion in Colombo; Weerawardhana W.J., 2011
he above graph shows the disparity between the passenger and vehicle share in
Colombo Commercial City, which indicates that 62% of passengers use 6% of vehicles
(Mini & large buses) based on public modes of transport whereas 38% of passengers
use 94% of vehicle share based on private modes of transport.
3.4.3.2. Problems in Existing Intercity and Intra-city

Public Transport Systems
he existing problems of intercity and intra city public transport systems can be seen
as a major reason for the rapid increase in private modes of transport. As per the
CoMTrans Study in 2013, following issues related to public transport system have
been identiied.
(a) Problems in Railway Transport System
• All railway lines converging on the Fort Area without having mass
transport systems connecting laterally force the passengers to travel a
long way to get to the destinations
• he lack of integration between railway transport and other transport

systems in terms of accessibility between railway stations and bus
stands, park & ride systems enabling easy transfer between modes and
adjustments of operational hours as suit with other public transport
113
Chapter 03 • Operational speed of trains which is around 30km/h being relatively

The Need of a slow compared to commuter railways in other countries
Development Plan
• Most trains not being air-conditioned except for the upper-class cars
––– of express trains and being highly crowded distract passengers leading
them to choose other modes of transport

at Peak Hours
Problems in Existing Intercity

and Intra-city Public
Transport Systems
Figure 103 : Crowded trains transporting daily commuters of Colombo Commercial City
Image Courtesy : (left) roar.media & (right) ft.lk
(b) Problems in Bus Transport and other Road-based Public Transport
• Low bus operation speed caused due to sharing the road space with
private motorized modes of transport thus the travel speed of bus
transport is dependent on other modes. Moreover, travel speeds of
buses are usually even slower than passenger cars as they need to stop
at bus stops and passenger cars can take the shortest paths regardless
routes
• he existing Pettah-centered bus network resulting around 8,000

round-trips from/to Pettah and Fort areas of Colombo. he radial
patterned route system creates a signiicant load on the road system
in the city center. It creates a situation where passengers cannot avoid
Pettah or Fort area when travelling to a city in another corridor
• Buses being overcrowded during peak hours and lack of passenger

convenience is also one of the major reasons why passengers are
reluctant to take buses but tend to use private vehicles instead
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Volume I
3.4.3.3. Problems with the Coniguration of Chapter 03

Existing Road Network The Need of a
Development Plan
When analyzing the coniguration of the existing road network, it can be observed
–––
that most road segments within which severe trafic congestion is experienced are
having highest betweenness values. It means that the road network is conigured in Public Inconvenience
a such a way that these road segments have high frequencies of falling in between and Economic Loss due to
when making trips via various routes. he lines in red in the above betweenness Trafic Congestion ...
analysis map, indicate the roads with higher betweenness values. he comparison
of the above two maps indicate the resemblance of roads with higher betweenness Major Reasons behind the
values having higher tendency for high trafic congestion. at Peak Hours
Problems with the

Coniguration of Existing
Road Network
Figure 104 : Betweenness Values of Road Seg- Figure 105 : Trafic Congestion at Morning Peak
ments in Colombo Commercial City | Source : Hour on Weekdays | Source : Google Trafic Maps
Research & Development Unit, UDA - 2018
he road density CMC area is 10.7% of total administrative area whereas those of
surrounding areas are in the range of 4% to 6%. However, road densities of Inner
Shanhgai, Seoul City and Greater London also have similar road densities such as
12%, 13% and 12% respectively. Hence, it can be concluded that the road density with
Colombo City is at a comparatively satisfactory level.
115
Chapter 03 When compared with the above-mentioned hourly capacities and peak hour road
The Need of a trafic capacities in terms of passenger car units, it can be identiied that there are
Development Plan signiicant capacity gaps in Kandy, Malabe, Galle and Low-level corridors which
highly contribute to the severe trafic congestions.
–––
and Economic Loss due to Peak-hour Road Hourly Capacity
Corridors Gap
Trafic (pcu) (pcu)
Malabe Corridor 5100 4400 -700
Severe Trafic Congestion Kandy Corridor 4400 3300 -1100
at Peak Hours
Negombo Corridor 4000 4400 +400
Problems with the
Coniguration of Existing Road Galle Corridor 2900 2300 -600
Network
Low Level Corridor 2900 2200 -700
Horana Corridor 2200 2300 +100
High Level Corridor 2000 2300 +300
Table 11 : Capacities of Seven Corridors in terms of Passenger Care Units (pcu)

he expertise view is that a road network designed on a well-formed hierarchy helps

to reduce the overall trafic impact. Usually it is recommended to have around four
road categories such as local streets, collector streets, sub-arterial roads and arterial
roads. When considering the national road network, it can be argued that the road
hierarchy is maintained in the national and regional scale at a satisfactory level.
However, when considering the road network within the Colombo Commercial City,
it can be identiied that there are many places where local streets are directly linked
with arterial or sub arterial roads resulting many intersections and interruptions for
major transport flows.
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Volume I
Collector streets carry no trafic Chapter 03

external to the speciic area
The Need of a
Development Plan
Sub arterial roads carry –––

trafic from multiple
speciic areas to the
Typically 500 - 1000m
speciic arterials
environmental cells
contain local streets with Major Reasons behind the
slow speed environment,
at Peak Hours
pedestrian priority
Problems with the
Coniguration of Existing
Road Network
Arterial roads carry
through trafic external to Problems with Existing
Trafic Control and
the speciic area
Management Systems
Typically 500 - 1000m
Figure 106 : Standard Hierarchy of Roads

Source : planning tank.com
3.4.3.4. Problems with Existing Trafic

Control and Management Systems
Problems associated with the existing trafic control and management system
also contribute to severe trafic congestions during peak hours. Trafic control
and management can be regarded as an essential countermeasure to tackle trafic
congestion. CoMTrans study undertaken in 2013, revealed that trafic demand
exceeds trafic capacity of the intersections in peak hours at many intersections
in CMC. he study has pointed out following issues with trafic signal system and
parking management.
• Majority of trafic signals at intersections are standing alone without

coordinating with each other
• Existing trafic signals not providing eficient trafic control as they apply
day and time speciic pattern control units
• Signals for pedestrian crossings have been installed only at limited

locations on Galle Road and Baseline Road but do not cover some hot
spots within Colombo Commercial City
117
Chapter 03 • here are some roundabouts within Colombo Commercial City where
The Need of a trafic volume exceeds capacity at peak hours but yet do not have enough
Development Plan space to accommodate enlargement of roundabout layout and circulating
lanes thus required to be converted to signal controlled intersections
–––
• Inadequacy of parking spaces especially within trade and recreational
areas along either side of major arterials, result in onsite parking by the
Trafic Congestion ... sides of roads reducing trafic capacities

at Peak Hours Signiicance & Magnitude
Problems with Existing
Trafic Control and
Management Systems
3.4.4. Severity of the Trafic Congestion in Colombo
Severity of the Trafic A key indicator of the magnitude of the trafic congestion in Colombo is the average
Congestion in Colombo
travel speed. he average travel speed during the morning peak between 7 am to 8
Travel speed during am, afternoon peak between 1 pm to 2 pm and evening peak between 5 pm to 6 pm
morning peak hour
(Inflow to City Center) is as follows.
As per the CoMTrans Study, the sections with 20km/hour or less travel speed are
deined as congested. he observations of CoMTrans study team on heavily congested
road sections during three peak hours is as follows.
3.4.4.1. Travel speed during morning peak hour

(Inflow to City Center)
During the morning peak hour from 7 am to 8 am, the travel speeds within CMC
and its surrounding area are mostly less than 20km per hour and some sections are
observed with speeds less than 10km per hour as well.
a. Maradana roundabout and Town Hall intersections are the most

remarkable congested points in the city center
b. Trafic congestion is observed at many intersections on baseline road

intersecting with radial roads since major trafic flows go from suburbs
to the city center and road trafic capacity is limited at the intersections
c. Trafic congestion is observed at flyover sections such as Dehiwala

flyover. Despite the construction of flyover, it is still congested due to
straight trafic volume is more than the one lane trafic capacity on the
flyover section.
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Volume I
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Severity of the Trafic

Travel speed during

afternoon peak hour
(School trafic hour)
Figure 107 : Average Speed during Morning

Peak-hour (0700 h – 0800 h)
3.4.4.2. Travel speed during afternoon peak hour

Trafic congestion during this hour (1 pm to 2 pm) is severe especially within city
center where a number of schools are located. his is also stimulated by business
activities in the city center.
a. Kularatne Mawatha between Maradana and Borella are heavily

congested where there are many large schools such as Ananda College
and Zahira College
b. he southern part of Duplication Road (R.A. De. Mel Mawatha),

High level road and Armour street are also congested where there
are many schools
119
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––

Travel speed during

afternoon peak hour
Travel speed during

evening peak hour (Outflow
from City Center)
Figure 108 : Average Speed during

Afternoon Peak-hour (1300h
– 1400h) | Source : CoMTrans
Urban Transport Plan – 2014
3.4.4.3. Travel speed during evening peak hour

(Outflow from City Center)
he trafic congestion during this hour (5 pm to 6 pm) is more severe than the morning
or afternoon peak. he area to the west of baseline road, many intersections and
roundabouts are congested within the city center.
a. Maradana roundabout and the Town Hall intersections are congested

in this hour as well. At these intersections, trafic flows come to this
point from various directions and trafic volume often exceeds trafic
capacity at the intersections
b. Compared to the trafic congestion in the morning peak, outbound

directions are congested at many major intersections on Baseline Road.
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Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––

Travel speed during

from City Center)
Figure 109 : Average Speed during

Evening Peak-hour (1700h –
1800h) | Source : CoMTrans
Urban Transport Plan – 2014
However, it is important to note that the signiicance of the issue of trafic congestion
is limited to only the peak hours on week days. he following illustration on google
trafic map on a week day and weekend day represents that the signiicance of this
issue is mainly based on weekdays.
121
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––

Travel speed during

from City Center)
Major Impacts of Severe

Trafic Congestion
during Peak Hours Figure 110 : Trafic Congestion within Colombo Figure 111 : Trafic Congestion within Colombo
Economic Impacts due to Commercial City at 1600 h on Monday Commercial City at 1600 h on Sunday (weekend
Trafic Congestion (weekday) | Source : Google Trafic Maps day) | Source : Google Trafic Maps
during Peak Hours
3.4.5. Major Impacts of Severe Trafic Congestion

during Peak Hours
Even though, severity of trafic congestion is experienced only during peak hours
on weekdays, it cannot be ignored because it causes signiicant negative impacts on
economy and environment. Above all, it makes a huge impact on individual lives of
both residents and commuters of Colombo Commercial City, causing inconvenience,
time loss and psychological impacts.
3.4.5.1. Economic Impacts due to Trafic Congestion

during Peak Hours
As per the scholarly arguments, comparatively low average travel speed is a positive
characteristic of an economically active city, as it indicates high functionality of
the city with large population flows associated with agglomeration of economies.
However, when comparing the average travel speeds of other developed and
developing cities which have comparatively higher vehicle volume than Colombo,
they still seem to have higher average travel speeds as indicated in the following table.
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Volume I
Even though, the severity of Chapter 03

Average Travel The Need of a
City
Sped (km/h) trafic congestion is especially
experienced during peak Development Plan
Cape Town – South Africa 49 hours, its economic impact is
signiicantly higher because
–––
Las Vegas - USA 43
the time loss it causes has a
Abudhabi – UAE 42 Public Inconvenience
comparatively higher value
Dubai - UAE 41 because it is the collective time Trafic Congestion ...
London - UK 40 of economically active population
including professionals, busi- Major Impacts of Severe
Los Angeles - USA 36 Trafic Congestion
nessmen, local and foreign during Peak Hours
Paris - France 30 investment associates which has
Economic Impacts due to
Kuala Lampur - Malaysia 27 a considerably high time value. Trafic Congestion
Bangkok - Thailand 26 he economic loss due to trafic during Peak Hours
congestion is a combination of
Singapore 26
inancial loss due to operational
New York - USA 24 costs including wastage of fuel
Jakarta - Indonesia 21 and productive cost including the
time loss. It has been estimated
Banglore - India 17
that the cost of congestion in
Colombo – Sri Lanka 10 Western Province of Sri Lanka
was 20 Billion per year accounting
Table 12 : Average travel speeds of different cities in for 2% loss of annual regional
the world | Source : Tomtom Trafic Index – 23-08- GDP during the last decade. (Prof.
2018 (based on real time data) Amal Kumarage, 2004)
However, the recent studies conducted by Colombo Municipal Council has revealed
that the present economic loss due to trafic congestion and air pollution within
Colombo MC area is approximately 40 Billion annually accoun-ting for 1.5% of
annual GDP loss. (Trafic & Road Design Division - CMC, 2014)
he severe trafic congestion resulting an average speed of 10km/h within City of

Colombo and suburbs along with associated huge economic costs makes Colombo
more distanced and dificult to reach from surrounding areas diminishing its
attractiveness as a Commercial City.
123
Chapter 03 3.4.5.2. Environmental Impacts due to

The Need of a
Trafic Congestion during Peak Hours
Development Plan
(a) Air Pollution
–––
and Economic Loss due to 450
Total Hydrocarbon
Trafic Congestion ... 400
Major Impacts of Severe 350 Benzene

Trafic Congestion
during Peak Hours 300
CO
Environmental Impacts 250
due to Trafic Congestion NOx
during Peak Hours 200
150 SO2
100
PM
50
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Figure 112 : Estimated emissions from transport sector in ‘Do Nothing Scenario’ for 1990 to 2015
Source : CoMTrans Urban Transport Plan – 2014 - (Initial Source: Urban Air Quality Management in
Sri Lanka, Air Resource Management Centre)
Congested road conditions can have a detrimental effect on the environment, in

particular air quality and noise pollution. he emissions from motor vehicles is one
of the most air polluting sources in Sri Lanka which contributes to over 60% of total
emissions in Colombo. Investigations have revealed that density of pollutants such
as NO2, SO2 and CO is in an increasing trend during peak period, thus it is inferred
that the atmospheric conditions along the roads are even worse. he Air Resource
Management Center (AirMac) has calculated the emissions from the transport
sector, the “Do Nothing Scenario” for the period between 1990 and 2015 as shown in
Figure 112.
he breakdown of each pollutant by vehicle type as calculated in 2000 is as follows

and it reveals that gasoline engines are bigger emitters of CO and Hydrocarbon while
NOx and PM are mostly emitted from diesel engines.
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Volume I
Total Hydrocarbon (Gasoline) Total Hydrocarbon (Gasoline) Chapter 03

The Need of a
Development Plan
–––

Trafic Congestion
during Peak Hours
Passenger cars < 7 seats 15.2% Passenger cars < 7 seats 8.8%
Pick-up & Dual Purposes 0.7% Pick-up & Dual Purposes 0.5% Environmental Impacts
due to Trafic Congestion
Minibus 0.3% Minibus 0.2% during Peak Hours
Motor-Cycles 47.1% Motor-Cycles 49.2%
Motor-Tricycles 34.8% Motor-Tricycles 40.6%
NO(x) (Diesel) PM (Diesel)
Cars & Light Vehicles 1.2% Cars & Light Vehicles 2.3%
Medium Bus 3.5% Medium Bus 3.3%
Minibus 0.9% Minibus 2.3%
Pick-up & dual purpose 8% Pick-up & dual purpose 19.7%
4WD 0.7% 4WD 1.7%
Heavy buses & Trucks 68.1% Heavy buses & Trucks 61.4%
Land vehicles 17.6% Land vehicles 9.3%
Figure 113 : Breakdown of each pollutant by vehicle type

Source : CoMTrans Urban Transport Plan – 2014 - (Initial Source: Urban Air Quality Management
in Sri Lanka, Air Resource Management Centre)
he above study has shown that motorcycles and three-wheelers together contribute
about 90% of the HC of gasoline engine vehicles and heavy buses and trucks together
contribute to 60% - 70% of the NOx and PM emissions of the diesel engine vehicles.
125
Chapter 03 he below table shows the maximum concentration of air pollutants within Colombo
The Need of a as measured in 2008. When comparing the measured values with CEA standards, it
Development Plan can be observed that SO2 and PM10 were occasionally exceeded the standards.
–––
Maximum
Public Inconvenience Emission Factors CEA Standards Measured Date
Concentration
CO 2.86 ppm 26.0 January 4th 2008
SO2 0.104 ppm 0.08 January 2nd 2008
Trafic Congestion NO2 0.10295 ppm 0.13 November 20th 2008
during Peak Hours
PM10 146 microg/m3 100 November 7th 2008
Environmental Impacts
during Peak Hours Table 13 : Maximum Concentration of Air Pollutants within Colombo - 2008
It has been found that PM2.5 accounts for about 50% - 60% of total PM10 in typical
cities. he average PM2.5 level (measurement of very small particles in air that are
2.5 micrometers or less in diameter) is measured by Colombo Air Quality Monitor –
US Embassy and converted to US EPA AQI for weekdays is as follows.
Average PM2.5 level

Day
(US EPA AQI)
Monday 69 - 123
Tuesday 67 - 84
Wednesday 69 - 87
Thursday 69 - 89
Table 14 : The Average PM2.5 level in
Friday 87 - 87 Colombo measured by Colombo Air
Saturday 67 - 83 Quality Monitor - US Embassy
Source : aqicn.org – Real-time Air
Sunday 69 - 88
Quality Index - 23-08-2018
As per the standard range of Air Quality Index (AQI) developed by United States
Environment Protection Agency (US EPA), it can be observed that Colombo is having
a moderate level of air quality. However, it is important to note that the average air
quality on Monday is relatively higher and reaches the category of ‘unhealthy for
sensitive groups’. It also reflects the relatively high vehicle volume flowing into the
city on Mondays.
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Volume I
Air Quality Index Chapter 03

Levels of Health Concerns Colors The Need of a
(AQI) Values
Development Plan
0 to 50 Good Green
51 to 100 Moderate Yellow –––
101 to 150 Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups Orange
151 to 200 Unhealthy Red and Economic Loss due to
201 to 300 Very Unhealthy Purple Trafic Congestion ...
301 to 500 Hazardous Maroon Major Impacts of Severe
Trafic Congestion
Figure 114 : Air Quality Index – United States Environment Protection Agency during Peak Hours
Source : Wikipedia Environmental Impacts
during Peak Hours
However, when compared the AQI level of Colombo with that of the other countries,
it can be observed that it comparatively lower than the developed cities such
as Melbourne, London, Paris and Singapore. However, the AQI level of Colombo
is higher when compared with other neighboring cities such as Mumbai and Chennai
which have unhealthy level of AQI. he reasons for this can be identiied as the
state interventions such as the compulsory vehicular emission testing program
initiated in 2008, banning the importation of Two Stroke hree-wheelers in 2008
and the introduction of low suppler? diesel in 2003.Since, exposure to air pollutants
leads to a variety of health effects in a broad range of acute and chronic health
effects varying form sub-clinical effects to pre-mature mortality, it is important
to control vehicular emissions by providing sustainable solutions to severe trafic
congestions in Greater Colombo.
City Average PM2.5 level (US EPA AQI) Level of Health Concern
Colombo 81 Moderate
Melbourne 27 Good
London 41 Good
Paris 53 Moderate
Singapore 46 Good
Bangkok 74 Moderate
Mumbai 160 Unhealthy
Chennai 186 Unhealthy
Table 15 : The Average PM2.5 level of different cities in the world

Source : aqicn.org – Real-time Air Quality Index - 23-08-2018
127
Chapter 03 (b) Green House Gas (GHG) Effect

The Need of a
Development Plan GHG are the main contributors to Global Warming. Emissions from transport
represented 22% of global CO2 emissions in 2010 and almost three-quarters of the
––– emissions from transport is from the road sector. According to the International
Energy Agency (IEA) Report, total CO2 emission from fuel combustion in Sri
Lanka in 2010 was 13.2 million tons and more than half of total CO2 emission (6.9
million tons) was from the transport system, of which the road sector contributes
the most (approximately 94%) of CO2 emission of 6.5 million. Although, Sri Lanka’s
Major Impacts of Severe contribution of GHG is very minor at the global level, the portion of CO2 emission from
Trafic Congestion road sector in the western part is signiicantly high. However, when considering the
during Peak Hours
rapidly increasing vehicle volume in Colombo Commercial City since 2009, it can be
Environmental Impacts assumed that these emission levels have signiicantly raised making a considerable
during Peak Hours effect on global GHG phenomenon.
Social Impacts due to

Trafic Congestion CO2 Emissions by Transport & Road Sectors
during Peak Hours
Total Transport Sector Road Sector
CO2 Emissions
Figure 115 : CO2 Emissions by Transport & Road Sectors

3.4.5.3. Social Impacts due to Trafic Congestion

during Peak Hours
Health impacts are the most signiicant negative effect of trafic congestion imposed
on the society. To some people, congested highways are a symptom of deteriorating
quality-of life-in a community. he amount of time that is spent on commuting
to and from work is also in reality, time that is taken away from social interactions
or pursuit of activities that have a personal value and satisfaction. (Prof. Amal
Kumarage, 2004)
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Volume I
One of the major health impact of trafic congestion is the risk of diseases due Chapter 03
to air pollution. It has been found that tendency of many more people becoming The Need of a
vulnerable to respiratory diseases such as asthma has increased with the existing Development Plan
level of pollutant concentrations in air, especially along major trafic corridors.
Stress, anxiety and frustration caused due to slow moving trafic and inconvenient
–––
trafic environments within Colombo, is also one of the major impacts which has
serious short- and long-term health implications on Colombo community including
both residents and commuters. Trafic Congestion ...

Trafic Congestion
during Peak Hours
3.5. Lack of User-convenience within
Social Impacts due to
Colombo Commercial City due to prevailing Trafic Congestion
Environmental Problems, Social Issues and during Peak Hours
Deiciencies of Public Facilities Lack of User-convenience

within Colombo
Colombo City Users Commercial City...
Residents, Commuters and Tourists can be identiied as the main users or the
associated community of Colombo Commercial City.
Residents
here is approximately 650,000 population within the Colombo Municipal Council

Area (City of Colombo) and 1,132,514 population within the Colombo Commercial
City. Since, Colombo is an international city and a business magnet in South Asian
Region booming with enhanced living standards, there is a tendency of international
population migrating to high-rise condominiums in the city.
Colombo’s community is composed of different social strata based on the income,

ethnicity, nationality, religion, education level and employment type etc. hus, the
varying needs of these communities, have to be addressed when preparing the
Colombo Commercial City Development Plan.
Commuters
Approximately 0.8 million commuters circulate within and via Colombo Commercial
City. Among them are the daily commuters who travel for work and education
purposes, those who travel frequently or occasionally to obtain administration,
health and other services and for shopping and entertainment purposes. Commuters
who visit Colombo is composed of a variety of social strata of different income
groups, nationalities, ethnicities, education levels and cultural groups etc. thus need
129
Chapter 03 to accommodate their needs within the Colombo Commercial Development Plan as
The Need of a to match with their different interests and affordability levels.
Development Plan
Tourists
–––
Sri Lanka has experienced a continuous growth in tourist arrivals since the end of
Lack of User-convenience
within Colombo civil war in 2009. he annual tourist arrival has increased from 855,905 in 2011 to
Commercial City... 2,052,832 in 2016. It has been revealed that tourists who visit Sri Lanka for more
than 10 days, tend to spend at least 02 days in Colombo expending around USD 100
Lack of user-convenience per day. However, it has been reported that the highest hotel room occupancy rate
due to environmental
problems is observed within Colombo City which had been 78.3% in 2010 and 75.18% in 2016.
hese facts suggest the relatively high tourist attraction within Colombo Commercial
Inconvenience caused
due to Urban Floods / City. his trend can be veriied further with the experienced rapid development of
Flash Floods high-end tourist star hotels of international hotel chains such as Shangri-la, ITC
hotels, etc. within City of Colombo.
he tourists visiting Colombo can be broadly categorized as international and local

tourists, whereas international tourists can be reclassiied as tourists who travel for
business, heath facilities, education purposes, pleasure and personal relationship
affairs. It is important to consider tourists and their needs as one of the major aspects
to be addressed within Colombo Commercial City Development Plan, to ensure the
overall user convenience within the city.
3.5.1. Lack of user-convenience due to

environmental problems
he major environmental problems prevailing within Colombo such as urban floods/
flash floods, polluted canals, heat island effect and visual pollution lead the city to
be an inconvenient city ultimately causing a negative impact on its image as an
international inancial city.
3.5.1.1. Inconvenience caused due to

Urban Floods / Flash Floods
Context
I. Rainfall
Colombo Commercial City which is located in the wet zone of the country, is
predominantly fed by the South-Western monsoon season from May to September,
and during the inter monsoon seasons between October to November. he mean
annual rainfall of this region is over 2500 mm, and the monsoonal rainfall is
responsible for nearly 55% of the annual precipitation.
130
Volume I
Rainfall Max Temp MIn Temp Chapter 03

The Need of a
390 50
Development Plan
312 40 –––
Temperature (ºC)
234 30
Rainfall (mm)
within Colombo
156 20 Commercial City...
Lack of user-convenience
78 10 due to environmental
problems
0 0 Inconvenience caused
due to Urban Floods /
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Flash Floods
Figure 116 : Rainfall and Temperature variation throughout the year

Source : climateand weather.com
II. Main Water Flows; Kelani River & Diyawanna Oya
CMR entails two drainage basins: Greater Colombo basin in the south and the
Kolonnawa basin in the north. he main water sources of the Colombo region are
Diyawannawa Oya and the Kelani River. Diyawannawa Oya flows within Colombo city
areas and then connects to the Kelani River. Kelani River is the second longest river
of Sri Lanka and flows through the wet zone meeting the sea at the North boundary
of the City of Colombo. It covers 80 percent of the water supply to Colombo and its
flow varies between 800-1500 m³/s during the monsoon and some 20-25 m³/s in the
dry season, depending on the operation of 3 reservoirs in the catchment. Diyawanna
Oya is connected by a canal and tunnel system to drain the storm water retained in
there to either the ocean or to the Kelani River. According to the bathymetric studies
carried out by SLLRDC, about 80% of the canals coming under this drainage system,
have beds about 1 m below the mean sea level, and the water flow is hence mainly
governed by the hydraulic gradient. (Deltares, ADPC & CECB, 2016)
III. Canal Network
he history of the canal system stems from the Portuguese Era, with improvements
undertaken during the Dutch Period and the British Period. hereafter, part of
the canal system has been maintained by the Irrigation Department and the rest
by Colombo Municipal Council. Lately, the part which was maintained by the
Irrigation Department was undertaken by SLLRDC except for the Kelani River and
its appurtenant flood protection works which are still under the jurisdiction of
Irrigation Department.
131
Chapter 03 he system has ive main

The Need of a outlets to the sea and many
Development Plan small outlets of storm water
drains. Four of the main
––– outlets directly discharge
into sea: Dehiwala Outfall,
Wellawatte Outfalls, Mutwal
within Colombo
Commercial City... Tunnel and the spill of the
Beira Lake. he St. North
Lack of user-convenience Lock which is one of the
problems outlets of St. Sebastian
Canal discharges in to the
due to Urban Floods / Kelani River and the river
Flash Floods discharges to sea through
its Modera Outfall. he spill
waters of the Beira Lake,
takes place via a man-made
circular weir near the old
Parliament.
Figure 117 : Canal Network

Colombo | Source : Sri Lanka Land
Reclamation & Development
Corporation
When the Kelani River water level is high, the gate at the North Lock outlet to Kelani
River is closed, so that reverse flow (from the river into the system) cannot take place.
his operation is now carried out by the Department of Irrigation. Mutwal Tunnel of
diameter 1.8 meters, functions as the outlet of the Main Drain. he head of the canal
system could be considered as Parliament Lake, to the East of Kotte Lake. Under dry
weather conditions the North Lock, Wellawatte and Dehiwala outfalls are the major
outflow points. In a flood situation, with the North Lock closed due to high water
level in the Kelani River, the system has to rely on mainly Wellawatte and Dehiwala
sea outlets. Also, the Mutwal Tunnel helps ease the drainage problems of North
Colombo to a great deal at times when the North Lock is closed.
IV. Flooding in Colombo
he area around Colombo the commercial epicenter of Sri Lanka, is naturally prone
to riverine flood risks as it is located along the plains of the Kelani River (Niroshinie
et al., 2011). Colombo is frequently affected by floods as a result of high monsoon
rainfall, flash floods due to intense rainfall in the upper catchments, and cyclonic
floods (due to development of low-pressure systems in the Bay of Bengal).
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Volume I
Water levels of the Kelani River, as recorded at the Nagalagam Street river gauge, Chapter 03
are shown in Figure 118. When the water level of Kelani River (as recorded at the The Need of a
Nagalagam Street river gauge) is between 5.0 – 7.0 ft, a minor flood situation occurs, Development Plan
whereas when the level exceeds 7.0 ft a major flood situation takes place. Water level
exceeding 9.0 ft, at this location is considered as a dangerous flood.
–––
within Colombo
10
Commercial City...
9
8 Lack of user-convenience
7 due to environmental
problems
6
5 Inconvenience caused
4 Flash Floods
3
0
5
0
196
196
196
197
197
197
197
197
198
198
198
198
198
199
199
199
199
199
200
200
200
200
200
200
201
Water levels of Kelani River as recorded at Nagalagam Street Gauge
Figure 118 : Water levels of Kelani River as recorded at Nagalagam Street Gauge (1965 – 2010)
Source : Flood Hazard Assessment & Hydraulic Modelling; deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017
Severe flooding has been recorded in the Greater Colombo basin in the last few
decades on several occasions, particularly on the following days:
• 4-5 Juvne 1992, when a rainfall amount of 494 mm in 19 hrs. was

recorded, with maximum clock hour intensities up to 90 mm/hrs.
(< 10-year return period)
• 13-21 May 2010, when in 9 days 616 mm was recorded, though the daily
value never exceeded 155 mm/day nor did the hourly rainfall exceed 56
mm/hrs. (the latter two are average annual maxima)
• 10-11 November 2010, when 440 mm was recorded in 16 hrs. with hourly
values up to 123 mm/hrs. (50-year return period)
• 15 May 2016, when 329.5mm (which is equal to 10-year rainfall) was

recorded from 0000h on 15th to 1400h on 17th. he water level of Kelani
River recorded to be 3.9m on 15th and 5.6m on 16th and water level of
Parliament lake was recorded to be 2.1m on 16th.
133
Chapter 03 Signiicance & Magnitude

The Need of a
Development Plan he magnitude of floods in Colombo Commercial City area is such that 50mm –
100mm above rainfall per day creates flash floods and holds it about 1 - 2 hours.
–––
V. Damages due to past severe rainfall events
within Colombo
Commercial City... • 10-11, November 2010
Lack of user-convenience One of the most signiicant and devastating flood events in the recent history was the
problems flood event that took place during the evening of 10 November to approximately noon
on 11 November, 2010. As a low-pressure area developed over the city, up to 490 mm
due to Urban Floods / (19.3 in) of rain fell during the short period of 15 hours overnight, causing widespread
Flash Floods damage and flooding in the area. his was the highest amount of rainfall recorded
in 18 years. According to the Disaster Management Centre (DMC) the heavy rains
displaced over 260,000 people in Colombo and suburbs. Heavy rains also submerged
the National Parliament (by about 122 cm of water) and damaged 257 houses, while
completely destroying 111. Most of the schools were closed during the period and
many of the government ofices could not report for work and Government was
compelled to grant paid leave for them. Multiple grid sub-stations had to be shut
down in various locations in Colombo due to the risk of being submerged, leading to
power outages in multiple areas. he May 2010 flooding, with losses as high as $100
million, also demonstrated the realities of high flood risk in Colombo Metropolitan
Area.
• 15-16, May 2016
According to the Disaster Management Centre, 301,602 people have been affected
by the floods and landslides. An estimated 21,484 people were displaced as a result
of the disaster and estimated 623 houses have been destroyed and 4,414 have been
damaged. hese are reportedly the worst floods in 25 years. On 25 May the Government
of Sri Lanka estimated that a total of 128,000 families could have been impacted
by the disaster, with 30,000 in need of inancial assistance for reconstruction or
rehabilitation. Colombo is the worst affected district in the country with 190,349
people affected by the floods; this is mostly as a result of large numbers of people
living on reclaimed marshy land that is highly susceptible to flooding. According
to Government estimates, 25,000 to 30,000 businesses may have been impacted
by the disaster. hese are primarily small enterprises such as stores, three-wheeler
drivers and petty traders. Most of the people in the Kolonnawa basin have become
refugees. Some upstream cities along the Kelani River were fully inundated and at
some locations the water rose up to the roof level of houses, as per the information
released by the department of Irrigation.
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Volume I
Further, since the quality of water at a number of locations in the canal system is
in an extremely bad level, it aggravates the flood impacts by spreading diseases in
inundated areas. Flood depth map of May 2016 and November 2010 flood incidents
are as follows.
Figure 119 : Flood depth Map of May 2016 Figure 120 : Flood depth Map of November 2010
Source : Flood Hazard Assessment & Hydraulic Source : Flood Hazard Assessment & Hydraulic
Modelling; deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017 Modelling; deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017
Figure 121 : Partially inundated houses on left Figure 122 : Inundated Colombo – Hanwella Low
bank of Kelani River on 20th May 2016 Level Road near New Kelani Bridge
(approx. 2.2m flood water level) Source : Flood Hazard Assessment & Hydraulic
Source : Flood Hazard Assessment & Hydraulic Modelling; deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017
Modelling; deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017
135
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
within Colombo
Commercial City...
problems Figure 123 : Partially inundated improvised Figure 124 : Partially inundated improvised
buildings on the left bank of the Kelani River – buildings on the left bank of the Kelani River
Closure Look | Source : Flood Hazard Assessment Source : Flood Hazard Assessment & Hydraulic
Flash Floods & Hydraulic Modelling; deltares, adpc & cecb, Modelling; deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017
2017
VI. Flood Risk Assessments – Forecasts
Several flood risk assessments have been carried out by various public and private
academic and professional organizations for Greater Colombo catchment and other
sub catchments in response to the increased flood risks during the last decade.
he flood risk (Risk = Product of Hazard, Exposure & Vulnerability) has increased
with the increase of severity of flood hazard which has been reflected by relatively
high precipitation intensities and increase in exposure due to relatively high
population densities, intensiied agglomerations of international, national and
local economic activities and high valued properties. Relatively high vulnerability
levels are observed especially in the cases where underserved settlements are
located within flood prone areas.
Figure 125 : Flood depth for

return period of 10 years
Source : Flood Hazard Assessment
& Hydraulic Modelling; deltares,
adpc & cecb, 2017
136
Volume I
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
within Colombo
Commercial City...
Figure 126 : Flood depth for
return period of 50 years Lack of user-convenience
Source : Flood Hazard Assessment due to environmental
problems
adpc & cecb, 2017 Inconvenience caused
Flash Floods
he above maps show 10 Yr and 50 Yr flood depth maps developed by Deltares, ADPC
& CECB in 2016 under Detailed Flood Risk Assessment for Metro Colombo Region.
As per the detailed flood risk assessment conducted by Deltares, ADPC & CECB in
2016 the existing flood risk of Metro Colombo area is as follows.
Figure 127 : Existing Flood Risk in

Metro Colombo Area
Source : Flood Hazard Assessment
adpc & cecb, 2017
As per the above Flood Risk Map, the highest flood risk within Colombo Commercial
City can be experienced in the south-ern valley of Kelani River, either sides of St.
Sebestian Canal, Dematagoda and Kinda Canals. he existence of a large number
of underserved settlements within these areas cause blocking of natural water
ways, encroachments of reservations, narrowing of canals, discharging of solid
and sewer waste which act as main reasons for overflowing and flooding in these
areas. In addition, the existence of underserved settlements increases the exposure
and vulnerability to flood hazard, directly causing a signiicant increase in
flood risks.
137
Chapter 03 VII. Major Reasons for Flooding in Colombo

The Need of a
Development Plan he following observations have been made by Sri Lanka Land Reclamation &
Development Corporation as referenced in ‘Detailed Flood Risk Assessment for
––– Colombo Metropolitan Region’ by Deltares, ADPC and CECB in June, 2016.
• Storage capacity in the basin has reduced considerably in the last decade
within Colombo
Commercial City... due to uncontrolled landill and flood plain encroachments by illegal
settlements.
problems • Conveyance capacities of the canals are limited by solid waste, floating
debris and bottlenecks in the canals. he sewers are discharged to the
due to Urban Floods / canals creating floating waste and depositing waste on the river bed.
Flash Floods A number of hydraulic bottlenecks have been identiied in the canals,
like encroaching structures, unguided bridge piers and rock outcrops
limiting the conveyance of the flow.
• The outflow capacity of the drainage system being too small,

particularly in the north.
• The existing Mutwal tunnel outfall has a limited capacity, which

was earlier further reduced by rock at the outlet.
• The capacity of the North Lock sluice at the outlet of St. Sebastian
North Canal to Kelani River is inadequate, which was particularly felt
during the November 2010 flood.
• he capacity of the pumping station at South Lock in St. Sebastian South

Canal, which drains to Beira Lake, is reduced to 30% of its original value
as only one of the three pumps is operational.
• he outflow from the basin being further limited during monsoon and
inter-monsoon season floods when high rainfall amounts in the city
coincide with high levels in Kelani River. When this occurs discharge via
North Lock is not possible.
• Localized floods often taking place in the micro-drainage system,

operated by the municipalities of Colombo (CMC), Kotte and Mt Lavinia
due to unauthorized constructions and waste dumps obstructing free
flows. It has been revealed by CMC that only 60% of the micro-drainage
system functions well where 40% remains problematic.
138
Volume I
• he drastic increase in rainfall intensities of short period rainfalls Chapter 03

during past decade. The Need of a
Development Plan
• Encroachments of River & Canal Reservations and Wetlands as a Major
Reason for Flooding in Colombo
–––
within Colombo
Wetlands Commercial City...
Approximately 15.4% of the CMR is covered by different types of natural and heavily Lack of user-convenience
modiied wetlands, including paddy land and marshes. hese wetlands provide a problems
valuable service in mitigating flooding in the downstream area. Ecological changes
in the wetlands are driven by population growth, and caused these wetlands to due to Urban Floods /
reduce their water storage capacity. Furthermore, increasing water velocities due Flash Floods
to channelization and urbanization of the watershed have also decreased their flood
mitigation potential.
Wetlands are a promising green investment because they act as natural water
storage, serving as a retention area for flood waters (Hettiarachchi et al., 2014b;
World Bank, 2013c). However, the Greater Colombo Basin lost about 30 percent of its
water storage capacity over the last decade due to city growth. Hydrological scenario
analyses conclude that, if the CMA’s urban wetlands were lost, the flooding observed
in 2010, once considered a 50-year event, may now occur every 25 years (World Bank,
2015). he rapid and partly ad hoc urbanization in the past decades, for example,
has caused degradation of wetlands and their traditional ecosystem services (World
Bank, 2013c).
Historically, the city of Colombo has developed around wetlands. However, over
time these wetlands have been degraded and lost (Signes, 2016b). Degradation
dramatically affects their hydrological cycle and the services they provide (Hettiarachi
et al., 2014b). Nowadays rapid urbanization, illegal waste disposal and illing are
between the major causes of ecosystem degradation and disappearance (Ibid.; CEA
et al., 2006).
he storage available in the wetlands of Metro Colombo system is an essential part of

the flood prevention mechanisms. he Metro Colombo basin area consisting of Metro
Colombo basin and Kollonnawa basin consists of several wetlands and waterbodies
to an extent of 16.64 km2. his is approx. 13.07 km2 of wetland area and 3.57 km2
of water body area. In the projection on wetland degradation and encroachment
the flood risk will increase eventually by approx. 90%. It has been predicted that
projected that 90% of these wetlands (about 12.41 km2) will be encroached in future
and may be urbanized.
139
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
within Colombo
Commercial City...
problems
Flash Floods
Figure 128 : Existing wetlands as provided Figure 129 : Wetland Encroachments considered
by SLLRDC | Source : Flood Hazard for Probabilistic Model | Source : Flood Hazard
Assessment & Hydraulic Modelling; Assessment & Hydraulic Modelling; deltares,
deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017 adpc & cecb, 2017
he areas shown in red in above map show the possible future encroachments that
have been predicted by Detailed Flood Risk Analysis conducted by Deltares, ADPC
and CECB in 2016. Even though, future risk of encroachments is comparatively lower
in Colombo Commercial City area than the Capital City, inill of wetlands in Capital
City has a direct impact on floods in Colombo. In addition, the encroachments in
river and canal reservations due to illegal constructions especially underserved
settlements make a severe impact on increased flood risks in floods plains of
Colombo.
It has been found out that total wetlands and paddy in the planning area, which was
1026.87 ha in 2010 has reduced to 627.59 ha in 2018 resulting a decrease of 399.28 ha
accounting for 38 .9% of total decrease.
140
Volume I
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
within Colombo
Commercial City...
problems
Flash Floods
Figure 130 : Wetlands within Colombo Figure 131 : Wetlands within Colombo
Commercial City in 2010 Commercial City in 2018
Source : Research & Development Unit, UDA Source : Research & Development Unit, UDA
Wetland Category Extent (ha) in 2010 Extent (ha) in 2018

Low Lying Potential Development Zone 214.79 122.97
Special Paddy Cultivation Zone 1.21 1.21
Wetland Agriculture Zone 0.95 0.95
Wetland Nature Conservation Zone 187.65 77.26
Wetland Protection Zone 622.27 425.20
TOTAL 1026.87 627.59
Table 16 : The reduction of wetland extent from 2010 to 2018 within Colombo Commercial City
Source : Sri Lanka Land Reclamation & Development Corporation - 2018
he above statistics show the signiicant decrease of wetlands within Colombo

Commercial City from 2010 to 2018. It is important to note that the larger portion
of wetlands within Colombo Commercial City fall under the categories of Wetland
Protection and Wetland Nature Conservation Zones. hese encroachments have
already caused the increase in flood risk, thus it is mandatory to manage this issue,
by discouraging encroachments and introducing active and passive conservation of
wetlands, canal and river reservations.
141
Chapter 03 3.5.1.2. Inconvenience caused due to

The Need of a
Polluted Water Bodies
Development Plan
––– Context
Lack of User-convenience he water network of Colombo Commercial City includes, 19Km length of Kelani
within Colombo River 1.67km perimeter length of Beira Lake, 89Km length of canals and 34km stretch
Commercial City... of coast. here are 16 number of canals within the Colombo Commercial City canal
network.
problems
Inconvenience caused due to

Figure 132 : Inland Water Bodies within Colombo Commercial City

Source : Research & Development Unit, UDA
142
Volume I
Water Level Chapter 03

Length Avg. Width
Water Body
(km) (m)
The Need of a
Dry Wet Development Plan
1 Kelani River 7 100
–––
2 St. Sebestian Canal South 5 20 1.37 1.6
3 Wellawatta Canal 3.1 20 1.09 1.19 Lack of User-convenience
4 Dehiwala Canal 6.8 25 1.3 1.29 within Colombo
Commercial City...
5 Bolgoda Canal 10 12 1.3 2.35
6 Kirulapana Canal 1.3 25 1.7 1.79 Lack of user-convenience
7 Kotte Canal 6.4 35 1.89 1.99 problems
8 Heen Ela 2.2 20 1.19 1.83 Inconvenience caused due to

9 Torrington Canal 1.6 12 1.4 2
10 Dematagoda Canal 2.7 20 1.9 1.83
11 Kolonnawa Canal 1.6 30 1.91 2.01
12 Dematagoda Diversion 4.7 30 1.3 1.61
13 St. Sebestian North Canal 1.3 20 1.14 1.6
14 Madiwela East Diversion 3.8 1.5 (drain)
15 Hamilton Canal 4.1 20
Table 17 : Physical Dimensions of Inland Water Bodies in Colombo Commercial City

Source : Sri Lanka Land Reclamation & Development Corporation
I. The Pollution of Surface Water Bodies of Colombo
Considering the origin and important uses of past and present (which will be
elaborated under environmental potentials), the present status of majority of
the surface water bodies is not satisfactory in terms of water quality due to high
pollution levels.
Signiicance & magnitude
(a) Surface Water Pollution of Canal network
One of the recent studies on water quality of Colombo water bodies is the ‘Assess
ment of Water Quality in the Inland Waterways and Lakes within Metro Colombo A
rea’ conducted under Metro Colombo Urban Development Project in 2015 to 2016.
According to the study, following observations have been made with reference to
the UE Water Framework Directives (WFD) scores for the Canal Network in Metro
Colombo Area.
143
Chapter 03 • Very bad quality found in 50% of the network

The Need of a • Bad water quality found in 15% of the network
Development Plan • Medium quality found in 15% of the network
• Good quality found in 20% of the network
–––
Kelani River
Water Quality : Medium
St. Sebastian Canal South

Kittampahuwa Canal
St. Sebastian Canal North

Dematagoda Canal
Kolonnawa Canal
Beira Lake Water Quality : Good
Water Quality : Bad
Kirulapane Canal
Torrington Canal Water Quality : Very Bad
pH
Heen Ela Total Suspended Solids
Ammonia (NH3)
Nitrate (as N)
Phosphate (PO4)
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Wellawatta Canal Biological Oxygen Demand
Total Faecal Coliforms
Water Quality : Very Bad E-Coli
Chlorophyll
Algal Diversity
Dehiwala Canal
Figure 133 : Physic-chemical water quality of water bodies in City of Colombo

Source : Technical report 4, Physical Features - Wetland Management Strategy,
Metro Colombo Urban Development Project, 2016
144
Volume I
It has been found out that the reduction in quality is mostly due to the discharge of Chapter 03
domestic waste water. However, the water quality is seemed to have been increased The Need of a
since 2014 due to interventions made by Metro Colombo Urban Development Development Plan
Project and other relevant state agencies to rehabilitate the canal network of Metro
Colombo Area.
–––
he above map shows the synthesis of physico-chemical water quality combining
within Colombo
the water quality indicators such as Total Suspended Solids (TDS), Ammonia (NH3), Commercial City...
Nitrate (as N), Phosphate (PO4), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD), Total faecal coliforms, Coliforms and E.coli. As per the results of Lack of user-convenience
the above study, Kittampahuwa, Dematagoda, Kirulapana, Dehiwala, Heen Ela problems
and St. Sebestian Canals indicate a very bad level of water quality whereas Kinda
Canal indicates a bad level of water quality. he water quality of Kolonnawa Canal is Polluted Water Bodies
comparatively better as it indicates medium to good level of water quality.
As per the above study, TDS is at a very bad level in Kittampahuwa, Dematagoda
and Norris Canal and Free Ammonia as N is at a very bad level in Kittampahuwa,
Dematagoda, Kirulapana, HeenEla, Dehiwala and St. Sebestian Canal. Also,
it is important to note that Phosphate concentration is at a very bad level in
Dematagoda Canal.
Figure 134 : The inal result of

Water Quality Assessment – May
2015 | Source : Technical report
4, Physical Features - Wetland
Management Strategy, Metro
Colombo Urban Development
Project, 2016
However, as per the Water Quality Assessment undertaken in 2015, the reco-
mmendations are given such that even though, the actual water quality of over 90%
water bodies within Metro Colombo are in a poor level, the anthropogenic pollution
sources can be easily identiied and reduced with an eficient management plan.
It further states that a larger time-scale, 5 years can even be considered as a short-
time pollution, with a natural ecological potential still remaining on the watershed.
145
Chapter 03 (b) Surface water pollution of Beira Lake

The Need of a
Development Plan As per the ‘Assessment of Water Quality in the Inland Waterways and Lakes within
Metro Colombo Area’, the physic-chemical water quality of Beira Lake is at a bad
––– level as it indicates relatively high COD level and Chlorophyll level. However, the total
Phosphate level of South West Beira Lake is relatively high.
within Colombo
When considering the physic-chemical parameters of sediment water of Beira Lake,
Commercial City...
it can be identiied that Nitrite and total Nitrogen as N is at a relatively high level
Lack of user-convenience in all parts of Beira Lake including Floating market, South West Beira and East
due to environmental Beira. he most important factor is that Iron (as Fe) is signiicantly high in Floating
problems
Market area and Manganese (as Mn) is also considerably high. Also, Zinc (Zn) and
Inconvenience caused due to Lead (as Pb) is also very high in all parts of Beira Lake. hus, it is important to note
that sediment level of heavy metals is considerably high in Beira Lake and it needs
appropriate attention and controlling mechanism in order to ensure a standard
water quality in the lake.
Figure 135 : Inlets to Beira Lake

Source : Technical report 4, Physical Features - Wetland Management Strategy, Metro Colombo
Urban Development Project, 2016
he main source of pollution of Beira Lake is the direct connections of storm water
and waste water inlets to the lake. he map produced as a part of the above-mentioned
water quality assessment, of such storm water and sewer outlet connections is
shown in Figure 135.
146
Volume I
As per the study, the sediment of Beira Lake does not show major micro‐pollutan Chapter 03
t contamination. However, the sediment contains medium to bad heavy metal con The Need of a
tamination (in particular lead and zinc). Hence, it is recommended to regulate Development Plan
dredging activities and prohibit ishing strictly during such works.
–––
II. Impacts of Polluted Water Bodies Lack of User-convenience
within Colombo
he impacts of polluted water bodies can be broadly identiied as impacts on respective Commercial City...
ecological systems and impacts on society meaning the possibilities of spreading
diseases, odor, degrading visual quality and imageability of the surrounding area, Lack of user-convenience
increase of flood risk, reduction of land values and demotion of developments in problems
surrounding areas.
(a) Impacts on ecological system
he polluted canals and water bodies are contaminated and bear lower water quality
levels which is highly harmful for the inhabitant flora and fauna species. Especially
lower level of BOD and COD levels and relatively high metal concentrations are not
favorable for the inhabitant species.
(b) Possibilities of spreading diseases
he polluted water canals which contain flowing debris cause blocking and reducing
the speed of natural flows creating environments for mosquito breeding and create
habitats for harmful animal species. In addition, the ishing of these polluted canals
is also considered to be harmful where the contaminated or infected ish species
can cause serious illnesses in people who consume it. Another negative effect is the
consumption of water from polluted water bodies, especially Kelani River can result
in serious diseases and even bathing and other activities associated with polluted
water can harm people who consume them in numerous ways.
(c) Inconvenience due to odor and unpleasant environments associated with

polluted water bodies and impacts on city image and economic value
One of the strongly felt impact of polluted water bodies is the bad odor associated
with them which signiicantly affect the city image. Bad odor is common experience
associated with most of the polluted water bodies in Colombo. However, the
worsened situation which prevailed during last decade has somewhat lessened due
to interventions made by MCUDP project and other relevant agencies on cleaning
and rehabilitation of certain parts of Beira Lake and other canals. However, at
present it can be observed that bad odor is a problem even in water bodies which
were cleaned few years back due to lack of continuous monitoring, maintenance
and management. However, the bad odor and unpleasant environments associated
with polluted water bodies create a negative image of the city making it unattractive.
147
Chapter 03 his can be identiied as one of the reasons which cause drastic reductions in land
The Need of a values and discouraging investors for future developments in the area. herefore,
Development Plan polluted water bodies which are treated as backyards of the city can be identiied as
one of the root causes which exclude some important parts of city from developments
––– and lead them to be left out as deteriorated areas.
within Colombo
Commercial City...
problems


Heat Island Effect
Figure 136 : Polluted Canal in Colombo Figure 137 : Beira Lake - 2016
Image Courtesy : roar.media Image Courtesy : archives.sundayobserver.lk
(d) Increase in flood risks
As explained in the previous section on flood risk in Colombo, polluted water canals
which contain large amount of debris and solid waste is one of the major reasons for
blockage and slowing of natural discharge of canal network.
3.5.1.3. Inconvenience caused due to Heat Island Effect
I. Heat Island Effect
Impervious surfaces and built structures in urban areas alter local climate through
the urban heat island (UHI) (Oke, 1987). he UHI refers to the relatively higher surface
and air temperatures that occur in urban areas as a result of land cover changes and
waste energy arising from urbanization (Oke, 1995). Conversion of vegetation cover
(Pervious surfaces) into concrete or asphalt surfaces (Impervious surfaces) increases
surface heat storage and decreases nocturnal urban cooling. he resulting warmer
temperatures likely results in greater air-conditioning demand, thus increasing
energy use and latent mechanical heat output.
As urban areas develop, changes occur in the landscape. Buildings, roads, and other
infrastructure replace open land, water catchment areas and vegetation. Surfaces
that were once permeable and moist generally become impermeable and dry, where
iniltration reduces and runoff increase. his development leads to the formation of
urban heat islands - the phenomenon whereby urban regions experience warmer
temperatures than their rural surroundings (EPA, n.d.).
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Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Figure 138 : Conceptual representation of UHI Proile in Colombo
Source : Dissanayake W.M.P.L., 2017 (Original source: Syrios, K. and Hunt, G.R., 2008) Lack of User-convenience
within Colombo
Commercial City...
Context
II. Reasons for Heat Island Effect in Colombo due to environmental
problems

Heat Island Effect is a sub-result of rapid urbanization taken place in Colombo which Heat Island Effect
is attributed with factors such as considerable conversion of green cover into built-
up area, use of construction materials which have less heat absorption and high heat
reflection capacities and disturbances to airflow and blocking of urban ventilation
due to Street Canyon Effect. (Street Canyon Effect: A street canyon is a place where
the street is flanked by buildings on both sides creating a canyon-like environment.
Street canyons effect temperature, wind speed, wind direction and consequently the
air quality within the canyon
Figure 139 : Heat Canyon Effect

Source : Dissanayake W.M.P.L.,
2017 (Original source: Syrios, K.
and Hunt, G.R., 2008)
III. Reduction of Vegetation Cover due to Rapid Urbanization
As a result of the waves of Colombo urbanization moving towards east of City of

Colombo, the vegetation cover has been reduced gradually over the years as shown
in following maps.
149
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
within Colombo
Commercial City...
problems

Heat Island Effect
Figure 140 : Reduction of Vegetation Cover from 1995 to 2016 (NDVI Analysis Based on Landsat
Data of 1995, 2005 and 2016) | Source : Dissanayake W.M.P.L., 2017
IV. The Status of Heat Island Effect in Colombo
Signiicance & magnitude
As per a study conducted by Department of GIS & Remote Sensing of University of

Sri Jayawardanepura, the Land Surface Temperature Distribution and Heat Island
Effect of Colombo District is as shown in Figure 141 & 142.
When analyzing the variation of land surface temperature within Colombo District
over last two decades, it can be identiied that the temperature levels have been
comparatively increased in 2015 compared to 1995. Also, it can be identiied that
the area indicating high temperature levels also have been increased drastically
especially towards the east and south of Colombo.
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Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
within Colombo
Commercial City...
problems

Heat Island Effect
Figure 141 : Variation of Land Surface Temperature- Colombo District

Source : Dissanayake W.M.P.L., 2017
Figure 142 : Urban Heat Islands in Colombo District based on Landsat Data - 2016
Source : Dissanayake W.M.P.L., 2017
151
Chapter 03 As per the above study, the heat island effect of Colombo analyzed based on Landsat
The Need of a Data of 2016 is shown in the Figure 142. According to the above analysis, it can be
Development Plan understood that the highest heat effects are recorded in north Colombo, including
areas such as Bloemandhal, Dematagoda and Kotahena etc. and Ratmalana area
––– where large warehouses and industries are located. he map clearly shows that the
heat island effect is relatively lower in coastal stretch and Colombo 07 area which
is currently designated as Special Primary Residential Zone. he present planning
within Colombo
Commercial City... intervention on this area is such that to conserve its original garden character
which has been created as a result of Garden City Concept of Patrick Geddes in 1921.
Lack of user-convenience herefore, this area contains more green cover and less high-rise buildings, which
problems has been clearly implicated with relatively low heat island effects.

Heat Island Effect From the above example, it can be identiied that the heat island effects of City of
Colombo can be managed by increasing the green cover of Colombo and allowing
due to Safety Issues wind corridors as to facilitate the required air circulation and urban ventilation. It
is a mandatory to give due attention to this issue in order to ensure convenience
Safety Issues due to Crimes
for the city users as increased temperatures generated by higher heats within a city
make a huge impact on psychology of the city dwellers and commuters. Continuous
exposure to high heat levels may cause depression, anxiety, aggressiveness and
serious events such as heatstroke, heat exhaustion and heat cramps especially in
elderly and children.
3.5.2. Lack of User-convenience due to Safety Issues

3.5.2.1. Safety Issues due to Crimes
Context
As an international city of business and tourism and as the commercial capital of

Sri Lanka, safety is a prime requirement which should be ensured in order to attract
more people to the city. As a country, Sri Lanka has been designated as a free and safe
country since the end of civil war in 2009.
As stated by the international website on travel guide; Rough Guide (https://www.

roughguides.com/destinations/asia/sri-lanka/crime-safety/), “Sri Lanka is a
remarkably safe place to travel in, and violent crime against foreigners is virtually
unheard of. he only bad news is that scams and aggressive touting are widespread
in a few places.”
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Volume I
Signiicance & Magnitude Chapter 03

The Need of a
I. Crime levels of Colombo Development Plan
–––
As per the Numbeo indicators, which is an online information analyst based on global
visitor perceptions, the level of crime in Colombo is 40.37 which is at moderate level.
Also, crime increasing trend in past three years as at September 2018 is 42.74 which within Colombo
is also in a moderate level. he other crime related statistics are as follows, based on Commercial City...
Numbeo indicators.
Crime rates in Colombo, Sri Lanka
Level of crime 40.37 ••••••••••••••••••••••• Moderate

Crime increasing in the past 3 years 42.74 •••••••••••••••••••••• Moderate
Worries home broken and things stolen 43.95 •••••••••••••••••••• Moderate
Worries being mugged or robbed 35.48 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Low
Worries car stolen 32.79 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Low
Worries things from car stolen 38.32 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Low
Worries attacked 34.43 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Low
Worries being insulted 40.04 ••••••••••••••••••••••• Moderate
Worries being subject to a physical attack because of your
skin colour, ethnic origin or religion 29.3 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Low
Problem people using ir dealing drugs 48.35 ••••••••••••••••• Moderate

Problem property crimes such as vandalism and theft 45.93 ••••••••••••••••••• Moderate
Problem violent crimes such as assault and armed robbery 35.98 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Low
Problem corruption and bribery 67.28 ••••••••• High
Figure 143 : Crime Rates in Colombo as at September 2018

Source : Numbeo Indicators (https://www.numbeo.com/crime/in/Colombo
As per the above statistics, it can be identiied that the indicators such as worries
of being mugged or robbed, worries of being insulted, problems due to using or
dealing drugs and property crimes such as vandalism and theft are at a moderate
level ranging from 40% to 50% while problems due to corruption and bribery being
high accounting for 67.28%.
However, as per the above indicators, the safety in walking alone during daylight is
at a high-level accounting for 78.66% and safety in walking alone during night is at a
moderate level accounting for 57.26%. his information conveys that night safety in
Colombo is at a relatively low level.
153
Chapter 03 As per the grave crime abstract for the year 2017 by police divisions from 1st January
The Need of a to 31st December 2017, the total number of crimes in separate police divisions of
Development Plan Colombo Commercial City Area is as follows.
–––
Police Division Total Number of Crimes
within Colombo North Colombo 1105
Commercial City... South Colombo 905
Table 18 : Crime Records of
Lack of User-convenience Central Colombo 678 Police Divisions within Colombo
due to Safety Issues Commercial City | Source :
Mount-lavinia 2026
Safety Issues due to Crimes Respective Police Divisions, Sri
Kelaniya 1895
Lanka Police
As per the above statistics, it can be identiied that there is a signiicantly high level
of crimes is reported in Mount-lavinia and Kalaniya police divisions. However, there
is a comparatively higher level of crimes reported in North Colombo than South and
Central Colombo. Central Colombo which is consisted of Colombo 07 area including
special primary residential zone conserved with garden character seems to indicate
low level of crimes. he reason for higher level of crimes in North Colombo is
attributed to existence of Underserved Settlements which has been elaborated in the
previous section on issues related to USS. Comparatively higher level of crimes in
Mount-lavinia has some correlation with the co-existence of tourism activities and
underserved settlements in coastal belt and inner clusters of USS such as Badowita,
Attidiya and Angulana etc.
Issues related to city spatial coniguration such as enclosed areas or less exposed
areas with less accessibility, deserted areas due to deteriorated built-environments
and lack of activities and human interactions and dark narrow streets/ alleys make
ideal environments for occurrence of crimes and other illegal activities. It is a
responsibility of city planners to manipulate the city coniguration in a such a way to
avoid the existence of such environments in order to ensure the safety of Colombo.
II. Impacts of Crimes
(a) Downgrading city image as an international city
he major impact of crimes in Colombo Commercial City is that it creates a negative

image of city and it affects the economic activities of Colombo as an international
city. Higher level of crimes automatically distracts international and local tourists
entering Colombo. Since Colombo is the commercial capital of the country, the
higher level of crimes conveys a negative image on not only Colombo but also the
whole country. Higher level of crimes also downgrades the city in international
154
Volume I
standards of livability and disgraces its image as an international business hub. he Chapter 03
investors, who look forward for business opportunities in Colombo get discouraged The Need of a
when hearing about higher crime levels in Colombo. Development Plan
(b) Threatening the safety of Colombo City Users; residents, –––

commuters and tourists
within Colombo
A safe city is a dream of all city dwellers and visitors. A city corrupted with higher
Commercial City...
crime levels can harm its people and properties in numerous ways resulting in
serious effects such as injuries, psychological disorders and even fatalities to people Lack of User-convenience
due to Safety Issues
and large economic loss due to property damages.
3.5.2.2. Safety issues due to Road Accidents
Context
Road safety and pedestrian safety is again one of the standard requirements of any
city. When it comes to capital cities, road accidents can be resulted due to large
vehicle flows circulating within the city if due attention is not given to take necessary
technical and planning mitigatory measures.
Road No Junction within 10 meters T Junction 4-leg Junction

Y Junction Entrance, by-road Roundabout
Railway Crossing Multiple road junction N/A Others
Location Type
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Aggressive / negligent driving Speeding Error of judgement

Influenced by alcohol / drugs Fatigue / fall asleep Others
Not known / NA
Human pre-
crash factor
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Figure 144 : Location type and crash type of fatal accidents in Colombo
155
Chapter 03 Signiicance & Magnitude

The Need of a
Development Plan he number of people injured in trafic accidents has continuously increased in last
ive years, in the Western Province. Especially, the number of pedestrians injured
––– and killed in trafic accidents is signiicant compared to other areas in Sri Lanka.
As per the above graph, it can be identiied that the number of accidents has
within Colombo
Commercial City... increased gradually during the period of 2009 to 2012 within Western Province. A
large amount of total accidents of Western Province occur within Metro Colombo
Lack of User-convenience Area as large vehicle flows circulate within the area.
Safety Issues due to Crimes As per the CoMTrans Study, 2013, around 70% of accidents occur on road with no
junctions located within 10 meters and the major reason is aggressive/ negligent
driving. However, around 10% of road accidents occur at T-Junctions.
Fatal Accident - Pedestrian
Less
0.005 - 0.015
0.005 - 0.025
0.025 - 0.035
0.035 - 0.045
0.045 - 0.055
More
Figure 145 : Location and heat map of pedestrian fatal accidents in Western Province
156
Volume I
he heat map of pedestrian fatal accidents in the Metro Colombo area is shown Chapter 03
by the above map. According to the map, it can be observed that the occurrence of The Need of a
fatal-accidents is signiicantly high throughout Colombo Commercial City area and Development Plan
especially in North Colombo.
–––
As per the recommendations of CoMTrans Study – 2013, improvements of pedestrian
crossings, sidewalks, trafic lights, centre medians, development of fast lane and no-
within Colombo
passing zone, setting-up of speed traps and enhancing awareness are some of the Commercial City...
mitigatory measures recommended to reduce pedestrian and motor accidents.
3.5.3. Inconvenience due to Lack of Public Facilities
One of the most felt problems faced by Community of Colombo Commercial City is the
lack of public facilities such as public toilets, restrooms, seating areas, street lights,
information centers and shady areas and parking places etc. his issue is mostly
felt especially in highly congested nodes such as Pettah, Maradana, Dematagoda,
Kollupitiya, Bambalapitiya within Central Colombo and many other nodal centers
within Colombo Commercial City. Since, Colombo is a place where around 1 Mn
commuters daily circulate within and as it as place of both foreign and local tourists
given its role as a popular tourism destination and a booming inancial hub, it is
important to ensure that above basic public facilities are provided suficiently within
the city.
157
Chapter 03
The Need of a 3.6. Perceiving City’s Potentials as address
Development Plan the Issues of Colombo Commercial City
––– As elaborated in the previous sections, existing issues of Colombo Commercial City
are as follows.
Perceiving City’s
Potentials as address
1. Issues due to changing development trends
the Issues of Colombo
Commercial City
a. Spontaneous emergence of high rises within Colombo Commercial
City regardless the availability of supporting infrastructure
b. Current development trends which are challenging the existing

planning and building regulations based on zoning
2. Emerging social, environmental and economic problems due to distribution of

3. Public inconvenience and economic loss due to trafic congestion on major

arterials at peak hours
4. Lack of user-convenience within Colombo Commercial City due to prevailing

environment problems, safety issues and deiciencies in public facilities
a. Lack of user-convenience due to environmental problems
I. Inconvenience caused due to Urban Floods/ Flash Floods

II. Inconvenience caused due to polluted water bodies
III. Inconvenience caused due to Heat Island Effect
b. Inconvenience due to Safety Issues
I. Safety Issues due to Crimes

II. Safety issues due to road accidents
c. Inconvenience due to lack of public facilities
City Potentials
he main potentials of Colombo Commercial City can be viewed in terms of economic

potentials, environmental potentials and on-going and proposed projects.
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Volume I
Chapter 03
3.6.1. Economic Potentials The Need of a
Development Plan
As per the Central Bank Report – 2016, the growing economic sectors of Colombo are
tourism, wholesale & retail, inancial services, transport & logistics, construction –––
and real estate & housing.
Perceiving City’s
THE FASTEST
GROWING Commercial City
Colombo's position among the fastest growing
SECTORS Wholesale
& Retail
IT & Telecommunication
Tourism Economic Potentials
Financial
industries in the nation
Services Real Estate Market in

Professional Colombo
Services
Transport &
Logistics Construction
Real Estate &
Housing
Agriculture
Mining &
THE SLOWEST Electricity
GROWING
SECTORS
WEAK STRONG
Sri Lanka's strength according to international standards
Figure 146 : Comparison of Colombo’s Position among the Fastest Growing Industries in Sri Lanka
Source : Central Bank Report - 2016
3.6.1.1 Real Estate Market in Colombo
As per the report, ‘Real Estate in Sri Lanka – Prospects & Potential’ by Jones Lang
LaSalle in 2014, during the last few years, due to increased service sector activities
in Colombo, the city’s real estate market has witnessed heightened activity and has
drawn interest from both national and international investors.
As explained in the section ‘Colombo as an International Business Hub’, Colombo is

having considerably high demand for real estate in international market especially
for ofice space. he high demand is due to relatively high affordability due to less
costs compared to other outsourcing destinations.
According to the Asian Development Bank, Colombo ranked irst in the City Com-
petitiveness Rankings among the top cities of Sri Lanka, India and Bangladesh, and
above the Indian cities of Mumbai, Bangalore and New Delhi.
159
Chapter 03 City Country Rank Level of Competitiveness

The Need of a
Development Plan Colombo Sri Lanka 1 International
Mumbai India 2 International
––– Bangalore India 3 International
New Delhi India 4 International
Perceiving City’s
Potentials as address Chennai India 5 International
the Issues of Colombo Dhaka Bangladesh 6 International
Commercial City Hyderabad India 7 International
Economic Potentials Kolkata India 8 National
Real Estate Market in Gampaha Sri Lanka 9 National

Colombo
Ahmedabad India 10 National
Pune India 11 National
Surat India 12 National
Kalutara Sri Lanka 13 National
Chittagong Bangladesh 14 National
Kanpur India 15 National
Table 19 : City Competitiveness Ranking (39 South Asian Cities), Competitive Cities in the 21st
Century, Asian Development Bank (2011) | Source : On Point – Real Estate in Sri Lanka - Prospects
and Potential, Jones Land Lasalle - 2012
7
Beijing
6
Average Rents (USD p sq ft pm)
5
Ho Chi Minh City
4
Hanoi Guangzhou
3
Chengdu Manila
2
Kuala Lumpur
Gurgaon
1
Colombo Chennai Bangalore
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Ofice Stock (million sq ft)
Figure 147 : Availability and Affordability of Ofice Space in Outsourcing Locations

Source : On Point – Real Estate in Sri Lanka - Prospects and Potential, Jones Land Lasalle - 2012
160
Volume I
3.6.1.2. Increasing Ofice Space Chapter 03

The Need of a
he future demand for commercial ofice space in Colombo will be closely correlated Development Plan
with the industries that have the prospects of maximum growth. Growth in inance,
–––
insurance and information and communication technology sectors would lead
directly to demand generation for quality ofice space. As of 2011, there were 22
Perceiving City’s
banks (including 11 foreign) operating in the Colombo Metropolitan Region (CMR),
with over 632 branches and 897 banking outlets. the Issues of Colombo
Commercial City
As per the Lang LaSalle’s report on real estate, by 2015, the central and secondary
business districts of Colombo (CBD and SBD) have nearly 2.5 million sq ft of Grade Economic Potentials
A multitenant leasable ofice space. he total stock, including the stand-alone self- Increasing Ofice Space
owned ofice space and Grade B ofice space, is estimated to be around 5 million sq ft.
The Boost in Retail Market
of Colombo
Figure 148 : Ofice Space at Trace Expert City, Maradana

Image Courtesy : Echelon Magazine
3.6.1.3. The Boost in Retail Market of Colombo
Retail establishments in Colombo are largely located along the high streets, either in
traditional retail areas like Pettah, Dematagoda (Northern Colombo) or in upmarket
established retail areas like Kollupitiya, Bambalapitiya and Wellawatte (Southern
Colombo). Given Sri Lanka’s prominence in textiles, tea, spices, gems and jewellery,
the traditional wholesale areas in Northern Colombo are busy throughout the year
with continuous patronage from domestic as well as export-oriented business units.
Up-market and branded shopping destinations are found towards the south of
the city centre along the Galle and Duplication Roads. Majestic City, Liberty Plaza,
Crescat Malls, ODEL and recently established Colombo City Centre are popular
161
Chapter 03 with the locals as well as tourists. Prime high street activity in Colombo is largely
The Need of a concentrated to Galle Road, Duplication Road and Sri Jayewardene Mawatha along
Development Plan with mostly un-organized wholesale markets in North Colombo like Pettah (Lang
LaSalle, 2015)
–––
Perceiving City’s
Commercial City
Economic Potentials
The Boost in Retail Market

of Colombo
High-rise Residential
Apartments
Figure 149 : Crescat Boulevard Shopping Mall, Kollupitiya

Image Courtesy : cinnamonheotels.com
3.6.1.4. High-rise Residential Apartments
he recent upswings in the service sector including from the inance, tourism and
the IT/ITES industry in Colombo have triggered a healthy demand for residential
space in the Colombo Commercial City. he development of premium condominium
projects is most prominent in the CBD, whereas sub-divided developments, row
houses and villas in the peripheral suburbs have emerged as preferred assets for
investment amongst the middle-income group. As per the residential market analysis
conducted by Lang LaSalle in 2015, it has identiied 05 segments of residential
markets in Colombo.
Lower Mid-Level Segment: he lower mid-level segment has the largest supply
as well as absorption share in the apartment market. Projects are predominantly
concentrated in the peripheral and old city areas. Many of them fall into the un-
organized real estate sector with an average of 5 - 20 units each. he average unit
cost is approximately LKR 10 million with minimum speciications and unit sizes
and a clear focus on affordable pricing.
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Volume I
Mid-Level Segment: he mid-level segment has speciications and product mix Chapter 03
similar to premium segment apartments, but is located in the suburbs. Most of the The Need of a
projects in this category are located in the upcoming suburbs of Rajagiriya and Sri Development Plan
Jayawardenepura Kotte. Units are available from LKR 10-25 million and the segment
has a share of 26% in the supply of condominiums.
–––
Perceiving City’s
Premium Segment: his is the most popular segment within the city limits of
Colombo and is primarily in close vicinity to the CBD area, with pricing in the the Issues of Colombo
range of LKR 25-45 million per unit. Speciications are superior with large unit sizes Commercial City
ranging 1,250-1,800 sq ft.
Economic Potentials
Luxury Segment: he luxury segment consists primarily of already established High-rise Residential
projects with resale values of more than LKR 45 million per unit. he Emperor at Galle Apartments
Road and a few units from premium segment projects qualify for this categorization
based primarily on their larger floor area (above 1,800 sq ft).
Ultra-Luxury Segment: Colombo doesn’t have any projects with average unit value
above LKR 60 million, although every project in the premium and luxury segments
has a few units of the ultra-luxury segment with considerably higher speciications,
furnishings and larger floor area. In most projects, these units are either penthouses
or higher floor duplex units with private terraces etc.
In Colombo, residential real estate offers an ideal investment option. Over 70% of
the 4,100 condominiums sold during 2007–2011 in Colombo were for the purpose of
investment.
Figure 150 : Altair Building (Mixed Development) located at Gangaramaya, Colombo in

Construction | Image Courtesy : skyscrapercity.co
163
Chapter 03 Possibility of directing Real-Estate Demands to wider areas of

The Need of a Colombo Commercial City
Development Plan
he growing demand for real estates in Colombo in terms of ofice space, retail space,
–––
tourism space and residential space can be seen as a signiicant economic potential
which can be enhanced to increase Colombo’s GDP contribution to the national
Perceiving City’s
Potentials as address economy. However, the issue is that the growing real estate demands are limited to
the Issues of Colombo certain areas which have high land values. And in some cases, the areas with high
Commercial City demand are not having required infrastructure facilities to cater the demand as
explained in the previous section. hus, it is required to propose strategic actions to
Economic Potentials distribute the growing demands equally into a wider area of Colombo Commercial
High-rise Residential City based on carrying capacities of each areas.
Apartments
Tourism as a Growing 3.6.1.5. Tourism as a Growing Economic Sector in Colombo

Economic Sector in Colombo
Tourism is also one of the main economic potential of Colombo. During the last
decade, the tourism sector had indicated a rapid growth which has been reflected
by recent establishments of international hotel brands, star restaurants, pubs,
cafeterias, casinos, night clubs, spas and other entertainment and recreational
centres.
As per the recent records, the tourism industry of Sri Lanka has reached a new limit
of over 2 million (2,050,832) arrivals in 2016, which is an increase of 14.0 per cent over
last year’s 1,798,380 arrivals.
Resort Region 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Colombo City 2,209 3,209 3,188 2,190 3,141 3,086 3,054 3,170 3,633 3,966 4,319
Greater Colombo 2,520 2,555 2,651 2,494 2,640 2,573 2,856 2,913 2,883 3,041 3,184
South Coast 5,112 5,505 5,370 4,940 5,099 5,037 5,660 5,868 6,717 6,787 8,437
East Coast 184 184 230 230 23 238 296 628 842 895 1,121
High Country 726 734 772 928 847 940 743 838 889 1,035 1,178
Ancient Cities 2,467 2,417 2,582 2,679 2,749 2,779 2,901 3,217 3,595 3,601 3,990
North Region 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 51 51 107
All Regions 14,218 14,604 14,793 14,641 14,714 14,653 15,510 15,655 18,510 19,376 22,336
Table 20 : Accommodation Capacity (Rooms) in Tourist Hotels and their Regional Distribution
within the Country 2006 to 2016 | Source : Annual Report – Sri Lanka Tourism Development
Authority - 2016
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Volume I
As per the above table, it can be observed that City of Colombo and Greater Colombo Chapter 03
altogether stand second only to south coast in terms of Accommodation Capacity The Need of a
(Rooms) in Tourist Hotels. Also, a signiicant growth of accommodation capacity Development Plan
within City of Colombo can be observed from 2010 onwards. Occupancy Rate of
tourist hotel rooms in City of Colombo and Greater Colombo are 76.75% and 75.18%
–––
respectively in 2016.
Perceiving City’s
A clue on how Growth in Tourism Sector can be incorporated for the Issues of Colombo
Overall City Development Commercial City
Economic Potentials
Growth in tourism sector is also one of the major economic potentials of Colombo,
where it attracts a large number of international and local tourists to the city resulting Tourism as a Growing
Economic Sector in Colombo
a large flow of income to the city. In Colombo, tourists have variety of means to spend
their money for activities such as shopping, dining, entertainment and pleasure
activities etc. hus, this trend and potential can be further enhanced to distribute its
beneits to a wider area of Colombo. Currently, the coastal stretch, Colombo CBD and
Beira Lake area acts as the main tourist focal points due to existence of star hotels
and other tourist attractions. However, it is important to note that there are many
other natural landscapes such as river, canal eco-systems and wetlands which can be
transformed into attractive tourist points. his, natural potentials of Colombo will
be further elaborated in a following section.
Figure 151 : Shangri-la Hotel – Colombo Fort

Image Courtesy : shangri-la.hotelsincolombo.net
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Chapter 03
The Need of a
3.6.2. Environmental Potentials
Development Plan
he main environmental potential of Colombo is the availability of 160 km length of
––– variety of water fronts including 7 km length of Kelani River, 7.7 km perimeter length
and 0.78 km2 area of Beira Lake, 53 Km length of canals and 31 km stretch of coast.
Perceiving City’s Colombo Commercial City canal network consists of 16 number of canals.
the Issues of Colombo 3.6.2.1. Kelani River
Commercial City
Environmental Potentials
Kelani River
Colombo Canal Network
Figure 152 : Kelani River

Image Courtesy : picture.lk
Kelani River is one of the main rivers in Sri Lanka. Although it is not the largest in
the country, the river is considered highly important for the water requirements of
Colombo. Kelani River supplies approximately 80% of the water used in Colombo.
he starting point of the Kelani River is the Sri Pada mountain range whereby its
travels through the hill country and ultimately flows in to the ocean at Colombo.
3.6.2.2. Colombo Canal Network
I. Origin & Early Use
he system of canals of Colombo dates back to the time of King Veera Parakramabahu
VIII of Kotte, the country’s capital for some time in the 15th century. he canals led
to Negombo on the Western Coast of Sri Lanka, then a busy seaport and there is
evidence that countries such as China, Burma, Rome and Greece traded with the
rulers of Lanka at that time. he purpose of the original waterways was to transport
the export produce to seafaring ships leaving from the port of Negombo.
During the Colonial Period, Dutch seized "the opportunity to establish lines of
waterways which provided both easy and cheap transport of goods from outlying
areas to their ports. (Links between Sri Lanka and he Netherlands, R L Brohier) he
canals which meander through the City of Colombo and its suburbs, connect the
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Kelani River to Puttalam in the North, through the Negombo and Chilaw lagoons, Chapter 03
with a cut across to Kalpitiya. he connection to Kalutara and Beruwala in the South The Need of a
is through the Kotte Lake, Kirulapone, Dehiwala and Nedimale canals to Bolgoda Development Plan
Lake and then to the Kalu Ganga.
–––
Grandpass, as the name denotes, was the centre for all canal trafic in Dutch
Perceiving City’s
and, later, British times where, there was a ferry on the Kelani River. It was often
congested with the flat-bottomed "padda" boats used for the transport of goods such the Issues of Colombo
as copra, pepper, cinnamon and arrack from the distilleries. A branch flowed past Commercial City
Lake House to join the harbour while another section, now blocked up, joined the sea
at Galle Face, beside the beautiful old parliament building now used as a Secretariat. Environmental Potentials
One of the main canals was the San Sebastian Canal which began at Grandpass and Colombo Canal Network
flowed through the Bloemendhal marshes, past the bottom of Hulftsdorp Hill to
flow into the Beira Lake. It is interesting to note here that Hulftsdorp Hill, named
after the Dutch Governor Hulft, is now the centre of the judicial system housing the
splendid colonnaded old buildings of the Dutch Courts as well as the magniicent
new Superior Courts.
South of Colombo city, the Dehiwala and Wellawatte bridges are built across further
extensions of the canal network in those two suburbs and the British had added a cut
later for flood control. he Hamilton Canal was originally constructed by the Dutch
and later improved and strengthened by the British, hence its Anglicized name.
(Main source: http://lankalibrary.com/geo/dutch/dutch4.htm)
II. The present use of Canal Network of Colombo
(a) For flood management
At present, the main use of canal network is its role as a part of the drainage network
of Colombo. he canal system plays a signiicant role in mitigating the flood risk of
Colombo. he Colombo drainage network is a combination of rivers, canals, small
tributaries and large and small open drainages.
(b) Habitat for special flora & fauna species
Another main role of canal network is that these canals and surrounding eco-systems
act as habitat for special species of different flora and fauna. he canal banks are also
home to 16 species of snakes, such as the python, cobra and water snakes, the latter
too being near extinction. he Ibis, Purple Coot, Kingisher, Grebes and Cormorants
have been seen feeding along the Kolonnawa Canal as well as in the Dutch Canal
by the Muthurajawela Wetlands Centre. he Common Sandpiper is often seen
along edges of canals. he Heen Marsh is popular with the Pond Heron and Red
Wattled Lapwing.
167
Chapter 03 (c) For shallow water ishing

The Need of a
Development Plan Inland ishing also takes place in several canals in Colombo. Hamilton Canal is one
of the main canals which is used for shallow water ishing and anchoring of boats.
––– Fleets of ishing boats, painted in bright colour and bearing unusual names are
berthed along this section of the canal in Hendala. Hamilton Canal which stretches
Perceiving City’s
from Colombo to Puttlam provides water for about 900 shrimp farms which are
the Issues of Colombo major foreign exchange earners as well as generating employment for about 40,000
Commercial City persons. Shallow water ishing is carried out even now in Wellawatte, Dehiwala,
Kolonnawa Canals and tributaries of Bolgoda Lake.
Environmental Potentials
Colombo Canal Network (d) For pleasure activities
During the past years, especially under the Metro Colombo Urban Development
Project, undertook under the Ministry of Megapolis & Western Development several
canals of Colombo were rehabilitated and opened up for recreational activities with
the development of wide service roads, landscaped footpaths, linear parks, cycle
paths and walking trails etc. his rehabilitation process has enabled water sports
such as rowing, boating, sailing, water-skiing and paddle boating.
Figure 153 : Weras Ganga Park - Bellanwila

Image Courtesy : timeout.com
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3.6.2.3. Beira Lake Chapter 03

The Need of a
I. Origin & Early Use Development Plan
–––
he Beira Lake was initially built by the Portuguese by digging the marshy land
which was around the fort in all direction other than west and connecting it with the Perceiving City’s
stream (today known as St. Sebestian Canal) that was flowing between the mount of Potentials as address
Dematagoda and Mount of St. Sebastian. hen the purpose of the Beira Lake was to the Issues of Colombo
act as a moat providing protection to Colombo Fort from local kings. he lake was Commercial City
built in such as way that it is connected with the sea from both sides, separating
the Colombo Fort from the mainland. During that time, all means of transportation Environmental Potentials
between the mainland and the fort have been done using boats. Original area of the Beira Lake
lake had been 1.61km2 he primary outflows of the lake had been the kayman gates to
the east and St. John’s Canal to the west.
During the Dutch period, they, expanded the lake was expanded by reducing the fort
by 1/3 of the previous and created several islands such as Slave Island. he British,
during their governance removed the crocodiles of the lake and developed the area
surrounding the lake for recreational activities such as rowing and yachting. he
area around the lake had been a popular destination for functions and recreation
purposes including the Grand Ball which was held to celebrate the news of British
Victory in Waterloo.
Figure 154 : Beira Lake in 1915 (The Norris Cana, the lake & Pettah by Slinn & Co. – 1915)
Image Courtesy : exploresrilanka.lk
169
Chapter 03 II. The present role of Beira Lake

The Need of a
Development Plan By the 19th century, land reclamation for development began and the area of the lake
gradually reduced. At the same time, pollution of Beira Lake began as a result of
––– treating it as a backyard and direct discharging of solid waste and sewer into the
lake. Lined with many large warehouses, reminiscent of its past when tea used to be
Perceiving City’s
transported to the port of Colombo on barges via the port access canal, the lake now
the Issues of Colombo is very quiet with many of the warehouses been abandoned.
Commercial City
However, in ecological terms, Beira Lake is still home to flora and fauna species such
Environmental Potentials as storks, pelicans, monitor lizards and various species of ish. he present extent of
Beira Lake Beira Lake is 0.78 km2 where originally it was 1.61km2 before 100 years back.
(a) Beira Lake as a popular recreational destination
As a result of the Beira

Lake Restoration Project,
Southwest Beira Lake was
cleaned and rehabilitated.
he periphery of the Beira
Lake bounded by Perahera
Mawatha, Nawam Mawatha
and Sir James Pieris
Mawatha has been land-
scaped and paved making
Figure 155 : Swan Boat Rides at Beira Lake, Gangaramaya it a beautiful space to walk
Image Courtesy : archives.dailynews.lk through, with the giant
trees and the view of the
sparkling lake. he small
island located within the above boundaries of Beira Lake has been designed as a
recreational resting area and is famous as ‘lovers’ island’. he place offers swan boat
rides and is famous recreational destination especially during holidays and festive
seasons.
he Beira Lake becomes a vibrant public open space during festive seasons such as
Vesak Festival and Perahera of Gangarama Temple. he Seema Malikaya on the lake
is also a popular destination of tourists and also a famous photo and ilm location.
(b) Beira Lake as a High-end Investments Attraction Centre
As a result of the rehabilitation of Beira Lake a signiicant change of surrounding

land use was occurred resulting in rapid growth of surrounding land values
and attaraction of high-end investments. his can be understood as one of the
major turning points of Colombo, from where it started the trend of high-end
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Volume I
investments and exclusive urbanization encircling Beira Lake. Today, this trend had Chapter 03
continued to grow attracting more and more high-end investments such as Altair The Need of a
Project, CTC etc. Development Plan
At present, another project named ‘Beira Lake Intervention Area Development Plan’
–––
jointly conducted by UDA, SLLRDC, NHDA and line agencies with the technical
Perceiving City’s
support of Singaporean Experts. his project focuses on East Beira on which none
of the interventions on rehabilitation have been made so far. With this project, it is the Issues of Colombo
expected to attract more high-end investments to the area encircling Beira Lake. Commercial City
A clue on how Environmental Potentials can be used as Environmental Potentials
Solutions for City Issues Beira Lake
When considering the example of Beira lake, where its modern transformation
attracted a signiicant number of high-end investments resulting an enhanced
image of exclusive character and an increase in land value in the overall area, it gives
a clue on how other deteriorating and less exposed areas of Colombo Commercial
City with similar environmental potentials can be transformed interlinking with city
economic potentials. Accordingly, it gives a clue on how to reduce the disparity of
land values of different areas of Colombo Commercial City by enhancing the values
of hidden lands associated with riverscapes, canals and wetlands which are currently
being treated as backyards of the city. By doing that, many issues explained above
can be strategically solved by utilizing the city economic potentials to the fullest.
Figure 156 : High-end Developments encircling the Beira Lake

Image Courtesy : tripadvisor.lk
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Chapter 03
The Need of a
3.6.3. Ongoing and Proposed Mega Projects of
Development Plan Colombo Commercial City
––– When utilizing above mentioned city potentials to manage existing issues of
Colombo Commercial City, it is also important to integrate ongoing and proposed
Perceiving City’s projects of numerous sectors conducted by various stakeholders to maximize their
Potentials as address beneits to the city.
Commercial City
3.6.3.1. Transport Projects
Ongoing and Proposed
Mega Projects of Colombo
Commercial City I. Roads
Transport Projects
(a) Port Access Elevated Highway Project (PAEH) – (2018 – 2030)
he trace of Port Access Elevated Highway (PAEH) starts from Ingurukade Junction
and ends at Port City which lies through the Colombo Port. he project is implemented
by Road Development Authroity.
Figure 157 : Port Access Elevated Highway Project – (2018 – 2030)

Image Courtesy : Road Development Authority
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Volume I
II. Railway Chapter 03

The Need of a
(a) Railway Electriication from Polgahawela to Kalutara Development Plan
Railway Department of Sri Lanka has proposed a project to electrify the railway line –––
from Polgahawela to Kalutara.
Perceiving City’s
Commercial City

Commercial City
Transport Projects
Figure 158 : Image of a similar electriied railway in Greater Britain

Image Courtesy : homesecurity.press
II. Light Rail Transit (LRT)
Light Rail Transit System is a project implemented by Ministry of Megapolis &

Western Development of Sri Lanka. he proposed LRT system of Colombo is
consisted of two major lines such as JICA line and Megapolis Lines based on funding
source and construction works of JICA line has already been commenced.
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Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Perceiving City’s
Commercial City

Commercial City
Transport Projects
Figure 159 : Proposed LRT Lines and Stations

Source : Ministry of Megapolis & Western Development
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Volume I
3.6.3.2. Mega Mixed-Development Projects Chapter 03

The Need of a
I. Colombo International Financial City Project (Port City) Development Plan
–––
Colombo International Financial City is a collaboration project of Ministry of
Megapolis & Western Development, Urban Development Authority, Sri Lanka Ports Perceiving City’s
Authority and CHEC Port City Colombo. he vision of the project is to ‘Build a World Potentials as address
Class City for South Asia’. he city is proposed to be built on reclaimed land of 221 the Issues of Colombo
hectares adjacent to Galle Face Green – Colombo. It is proposed to have 173 hectares Commercial City
of marketable land and to accommodate around 75,000 population.
Commercial City
Mega Mixed-Development
Projects
Figure 160 : Proposed Colombo International Financial City Project (Port City)
Image Courtesy : portcitycolombo.lk
II. Beira Lake Development Project
At present, ‘Beira Lake Intervention Area Development Plan’ jointly conducted by

UDA, SLLRDC, NHDA and line agencies with the technical support of Singaporean
Experts. he objective of the project is to clean the East Beira Lake and transform its
surrounding area through strategic interventions.
175
Chapter 03
The Need of a
Development Plan
–––
Perceiving City’s
Commercial City

Commercial City
Mega Mixed-Development
Projects
Figure 161 : Beira Lake

Intervention Area Development
Plan - 2017–2025
Source : Urban Development
Authority - 2018
III. Maritime City Development Project
Figure 162 : Proposed Beach Nourishment by Maritime City Development Project

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Maritime City Development Project is coordinated by the Ministry of Megapolis Chapter 03

& Western Development and it aims at developing a recreational beach area The Need of a
(approximately 6.2km long beach strip of 85 ha) from Colpity to Wellawatta. Development Plan
–––
3.6.3.3. Port & Logistics related Projects Perceiving City’s

I. Colombo Port Expansion Project the Issues of Colombo
Commercial City
Sri Lanka Ports Authority implements ‘Colombo Port Expansion Project (CPEP)’, in
order to cater to the increasing demand of services in the international shipping Mega Projects of Colombo
industry. he Colombo Port Expansion Project is situated west to the existing port Commercial City
of colombo comprising an area of approximately 600 hectares. he new harbour Mega Mixed-Development
has 3 terminals each having 1,200m length and facilities to accommodate 3 berths Projects
alongside. he small boat harbour at the end of secondary breakwater has 400m Port & Logistics related
length of quay wall. he Port of Colombo which had a capacity about 4.5 million TEUs Projects
and to be increased the total capacity by another 7.2 million TEUs in two separate
phases under this development.
Figure 163 : Proposed Colombo Port Expansion Project

Source : Sri Lanka Ports Authority
177
Chapter 03 II. Development of Bloemandhal Area for Port Related Logistics

The Need of a
Development Plan Development of Bloemandhal Area for Port Related Logistics is jointly conducted
by Sri Lanka Port Authority (SLPA), Sri Lanka Customs (SL Customs) and Ministry
––– of Megapolis & Western Development with the intention of increasing capacity to
handle port-bounded logistics related activities, extensively.
Perceiving City’s
Commercial City

Commercial City
Port & Logistics related

Projects
Figure 164 : Proposed Port Related Logistics Development at Bloemandhal Area

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3.7. Conclusion Chapter 03

The Need of a
Development Plan
In the above sections, the issues of Colombo Commercial City area were analyzed
in terms of the context, the magnitude and their signiicance. hen, the existing –––
city potentials were studied in detail to identify the possibility of harnessing them
strategically and to address the prevalent issues of the Colombo Commercial City. Conclusion
he possible linking between city potentials and issues indicate that most of the
issues can be addressed directly or indirectly by harnessing the environmental
potentials of the city.
Among many of its potentials, availability of variety of water bodies and wetland
environments, rapidly developing market driven economic sectors and ongoing
and proposed mega development projects are the major ones. Out of the preceding
analysis it is evident that in terms of catering to most pressing issues, the most
important environmental potential of the city is the existence of 4.7km2 hectares of
water bodies and approximately 100 km of waterfronts of variety of experiences.
If these waterfronts which are currently being treated as backyards of the city are exposed
and transformed into front yards, it will enable a dramatic transformation of the city,
exposing deteriorated areas to cater the market demands and opportunities created by
economic potentials and the ongoing and proposed projects.
Thus, the need of Colombo Commercial City Development Plan is to realize the above with
strategic interventions to manage the existing issues of Colombo and to promote its role as
an International Business Hub of South Asia
179
List of Tables
Table 01 Declaration of Local Authorities of Colombo Commercial City as 03

“Urban Areas” Source: Urban Development Authority – 2018
Table 02 Section Details of Major Roads in Colombo Commercial City 40

Source: RDA, Western Province Council Ministry of Road Development, CMC
Table 03 Origins and Destinations of Export and Import Cargo 45

Source: NIPPON KOEI CO. LTD & Engineering Consultants (Pvt) Ltd
Table 04 Number of Daily Passengers entering CMC 52

Source: CoMTrans Urban Transport Plan – 2014
Table 05 Employment Categorization of Residents of Colombo Commercial City 53

Source: Department of Census & Statistics, 2012
Table 06 Estimated Student Population of Colombo Commercial City in 2035 55

Table 07 Building Classiication Based on Height 71

Source: City of Colombo Development Plan (Amendment) – 2008, UDA
Table 08 No. of Buildings Approved from 1999 - 2006 71

Source: Colombo Living High; A City in Transition, N.P Herath &
D. Jayasundara, 2007
Table 09 Speciications for Development – Form C 1 – CCDP - 2008 82

Source: City of Colombo Development Plan (Amendment) – 2008, UDA
Table 10 Trips by Transport Mode 109

Table 11 Capacities of Seven Corridors in terms of Passenger Care Units (pcu) 116
Table 12 Average travel speeds of different cities in the world 123

Source: Tomtom Trafic Index – 23-08-2018 (based on real time data)
Table 13 Maximum Concentration of Air Pollutants within Colombo - 2008 126

Table 14 The Average PM2.5 level in Colombo measured by

Colombo Air Quality Monitor - US Embassy, 126
Source: aqicn.org – Real-time Air Quality Index - 23-08-2018
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Volume I
Table 15 The Average PM2.5 level of different cities in the world 127
Source: aqicn.org – Real-time Air Quality Index - 23-08-2018
Table 16 The reduction of wetland extent from 2010 to 2018 within Colombo 141
Commercial City, Source: Sri Lanka Land Reclamation & Development
Corporation - 2018
Table 17 Physical Dimensions of Inland Water Bodies in Colombo Commercial City, 143
Source: Sri Lanka Land Reclamation & Development Corporation
Table 18 Crime Records of Police Divisions within Colombo Commercial City, 154
Source: Respective Police Divisions, Sri Lanka Police
Table 19 City Competitiveness Ranking (39 South Asian Cities), Competitive Cities 160
in the 21st Century, Asian Development Bank (2011), Source: On Point –
Real Estate in Sri Lanka - Prospects and Potential, Jones Land Lasalle - 2012
Table 20 Accommodation Capacity (Rooms) in Tourist Hotels and their Regional

Distribution within the Country 2006 to 2016, 164
Source: Annual Report – Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority - 2016
List of Figures
Figure 01 Planning Area – ‘Colombo Commercial City’ 02
Figure 02 Western Region Structure Plan - 2030 04

Source: Western Province Division, UDA - 2017
Figure 03 National Physical Plan - 2050 05

Source: National Physical Planning Policy – 2050, 2017
Figure 04 Stakeholder Consultation Process 07
Figure 05 Administrative Boundaries within Colombo Commercial City 09
Figure 06 Planning Process (Where area we now?) 11
Figure 07 Planning Process (Where do we want to go?) 12
Figure 08 Planning Process (How do we go there?) 13
Figure 09 The irst Portuguese Port of Colombo - 1518 16

Source: sirimunasiha.wordpress.com
181
Figure 10 A drawing of Colombo Fort in Portuguese Period 17

Source: http://lankapura.com
Figure 11 Settlements Distribution in Early Portuguese Period 18
Figure 12 Settlements Distribution in Dutch Period 19
Figure 13 Dutch Colombo (1775), Sri Lanka. Johannes Kip c. 1775 20

Source: http://www.colonialvoyage.com
Figure 14 Dutch Houses in Pettah, Colombo 20

Source: http://www.serendib.btoptions.lk
Figure 15 Settlements Distribution in Early British Period 21
Figure 16 Settlements Distribution in Late British Period 21
Figure 17 Prince Street – Colombo Fort in 1800s - British Streets 22

Source: http://www.lankapura.com
Figure 18 City Plan by Sir Patrick Geddes 1921 23

Source: Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan – UDA, 1998
Figure 19 Regional Plan by Patrick Abercrombie - 1948, Source: Colombo Living 24

High; A City in Transition, N.P Herath & D. Jayasundara, 2007
Figure 20 UNDP Assisted Colombo Master Plan - 1978 25

Source: UNDP Colombo Master Plan - 1978
Figure 21 City of Colombo Development Plan 1985 27

Source: City of Colombo Development Plan 1985
Figure 22 Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan 1998 28

Source: Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan, 1998
Figure 23 Colombo Core Area, CMRSP- 1998 29

Source: Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan, 1998
Figure 24 City of Colombo Development Plan 1999 30

Source: City of Colombo Development Plan
Figure 25 Western Region Megapolis Plan 2004 – Zoning Plan 32

Source: Western Region Megapolis Plan - 2004
Figure 26 City of Colombo Development Plan - 2008 33

Source: City of Colombo Development Plan (Amendment) - 2008
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Volume I
Figure 27 Sri Lanka’s location in Maritime Shipping Routes 35

Source: https://transportgeography.org; Maritime Shipping
Routes & Strategic Passages, Geography of Transport Systems
Figure 28 A collection of photos of Port of Colombo 36

Image courtesy: securityspeciiers.azurewebsites.net, ft.lk by Shehan Gunasekara,
Lloyd's List Maritime Intelligence Informa, dailymirror.lk
Figure 29 A collection of various tourist attractions in Colombo 38
Figure 30 The major modes of transport connecting City of Colombo 39

with other regions
Figure 31 Seven Corridors Source: CoMTrans Urban Transport Plan – 2014 39
Figure 32 Vehicle Flows entering City of Colombo from seven Corridors 41

Figure 33 Vehicle Flows entering Colombo Commercial City from 41

Seven Corridors, Source: CoMTrans Urban Transport Plan – 2014
Figure 34 Railway Network in Sri Lanka 42
Figure 35 Domestic Air Routes Source: www.srilankan.com/airtaxi 43
Figure 36 Sri Lankan Air Taxi Flight Schedule 43

Source: www.srilankan.com/airtaxi
Figure 37 Destinations of Import Cargo 44

Figure 38 Origins of Export Cargo 44

Figure 39 Logistic Related Activities in North Colombo 46

Source: Western Province Division, UDA
Figure 40 A busy street in Pettah Bazaar 47

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/nazly/
Figure 41 Manning Market, Pettah 48

Image courtesy: gettyimages by Peter Stuckings,
Tale of Pettah by Vidumina Ihalagedara Photography
Figure 42 Peliyagoda Fish Market 49

Image Courtesy: exploresrilanka.lk
183
Figure 43 Panchikawatta Roundabout 49

Image Courtesy: flickr.lk by ceylonerana
Figure 44 Maliban Biscuit Factory - Ratmalana 50

Image Courtesy: malibanbiscuit.com
Figure 45 Kolonnawa Petroleum Reinery 51

Image Courtesy: ceypetco.gov.lk
Figure 46 Kelanitissa Power Plant 51

Image Courtesy: lntsnl.com
Figure 47 Train carrying morning commuters to Colombo 52

Image Courtesy: alamy.com
Figure 48 Students of Sirimavo Bandaranaike Vidyalaya, Colombo 07 54

Image Courtesy: pmdnews.lk
Figure 49 Musaeus College, Colombo 07 55

Image Courtesy: musaeus.lk
Figure 50 Royal College, Colombo 07 55

Image Courtesy: info.shalanka.com
Figure 51 Ananda College Parade, Maradana 55

Image Courtesy: info.shalanka.com
Figure 52 University of Colombo, Colombo 07 56

Image Courtesy: cmb.ac.lk
Figure 53 National Hospital of Sri Lanka 56

Image Courtesy: visitsrilanka.com
Figure 54 A Branded Shopping Outlet at Liberty Plaza, Colombo 03 57

Image Courtesy: msnarchitects.lk
Figure 55 Majestic City Shopping Mall, Colombo 04 57

Image Courtesy: visitsrilanka.com
Figure 56 Galle Face Green 59

Image Courtesy: olankatravels.com
Figure 57 Viharamahadevi Park 60

Image Courtesy: Wikipedia / yamu.lk
Figure 58 Sugathadasa Stadium 61

Image Courtesy: Devaka Seneviratne Photography
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Figure 59 R. Premadasa International Cricket Stadium 61

Image Courtesy: Indi Smarajiva, justgola.com
Figure 60 Bandaranaike Memorial International Conference Hall, Colombo 07 62

Image Courtesy: tripnino.com
Figure 61 Nelum Pokuna Mahinda Rajapaksa Theatre 63

Image Courtesy: nelumpokuna.com
Figure 62 Lionel Wendt Art Centre 63

Image Courtesy: wikipedia.org
Figure 63 National Museum of Colombo 64

Image Courtesy: lanka.com
Figure 64 Sri Lanka Planetarium 64

Image Courtesy: wikipedia.org
Figure 65 National Zoological Garden - Dehiwala 65

Image Courtesy: mountlavinihotel.com
Figure 66 No. of Annually Approved Condominiums in Colombo & Suburbs (2005 – 2017), 72
Source: Condominium Management Authority, 2017
Figure 67 Spatial Distribution of Certiied Condominiums in Colombo & Suburbs 73

Figure 68 No. of Approved Condominiums within different areas of City of Colombo 74

Figure 69 Distribution of High-rise Buildings in Colombo 75

Source: Building Survey – 2017, GIS Division, UDA
Figure 70 Locations of High-rises built for Low-income 76

Source: Building Approval Data - 2017, Enforcement Division, UDA
Figure 71 Locations of Residential & Commercial High-rises above 10 floor 76

Figure 72 Locations of Hotel Buildings above 10 floors in CMC Area 77

Figure 73 Proposed Waste Water Management System in CMC Area 78

Source: Greater Colombo Waste Water Management Project - colombo.mc.gov.lk, 2018
Figure 74 Proposed Waste Water Management System in Ratmalana 79

Source: National Water Supply & Drainage Board - 2018
185
Figure 75 Areas covered with existing & proposed Waste Water Management Systems 80
Source: Research & Development Unit, UDA - 2018
Figure 76 Spatial Distribution of Certiied Condominiums in Colombo & Suburbs 80

Figure 77 Zoning Plan – CCDP - 2008, Source: City of Colombo Development Plan 84
(Amendment) – 2008, UDA
Figure 78 Underserved Settlements along Railway Reservations in City of Colombo 89

Image Courtesy: alamy stock photo
Figure 79 Locations of Underserved Settlements of City of Colombo 91

Source: GIS Division, Urban Development Authority - 2011
Figure 80 A typical underserved house in Colombo 93

Image Courtesy: dailynews.lk
Figure 81 A solid waste dumping yard next to a slum area in Colombo 94

Image Courtesy: Captured by Robin Hammond, Panos – scidev.net
Figure 82 Comparison of Diseases Spreading Areas with Distribution ofUnderserved 95

Settlements, Source: (left) Diseases Records by Local Authorities & (right)
Department of Census & Statistics, 2012
Figure 83 Comparison of Dengue Spreading Areas with Distribution ofUnderserved 96

Settlements, Source: (left) Public Health Department, Colombo Municipal Council
– 2017 & (right) Department of Census & Statistics, 2012
Figure 84 Crime Density Distribution in City of Colombo 97

Source: Based on Data by Sri Lanka Police - 2018
Figure 85 A polluted canal located within an Underserved Settlement 98

Image Courtesy: Captured By Peter Bennett – roar.media
Figure 86 Locations of Underserved Settlements within Colombo Commercial City 98

Source: Urban Development Authority - 2018
Figure 87 Physic-chemical water quality of water bodies in City of Colombo, 99

Source: Technical report 4, Physical Features - Wetland Management
Strategy, Metrocolombo Urban Development Project, 2016
Figure 88 An underserved settlement caught in flash floods 100

Image Courtesy: Captured by Saman Sri Wedage – dailynews.lk
Figure 89 Floods in Kelani River Banks 100

Image Courtesy: blogspot.com
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Figure 90 Underserved Settlements within the Colombo City Fabric -1 100

Image Courtesy: Mirror Citizen, Daily Mirror
Figure 91 Underserved Settlements within the Colombo City Fabric - 2 101

Image Courtesy: sundayobserver.lk
Figure 92 Variation of Land Values in City of Colombo 102

Figure 93 High-rise apartments built for low-income families of City of Colombo 103
Image Courtesy: accessengsl.com
Figure 94 Peak Hour Trafic Congestion on Baseline Road, Colombo 106

Image Courtesy: daily-sun.com
Figure 95 Trafic Demand on Seven Corridors 107

Figure 96 Vehicle Flows entering City of Colombo from seven Corridors 108
Figure 97 Home-based Work trips (>= 2000) 108

Figure 98 Trip Generation Density of Trips attracted to Colombo Municipal Council Area 109
Figure 99 Hourly Fluctuation by Purpose at Trip Destination in the Western Province 110
Figure 100 Bus Frequency within Colombo Commercial City during the Morning Peak Hour 111
Figure 101 Vehicle Population of Western Province by Mode in 2013 112

Figure 102 Passenger – Vehicle Share 113

Source: Reduction of Trafic Congestion in Colombo; Weerawardhana W.J., 2011
Figure 103 Crowded trains transporting daily commuters of City of Colombo 114
Image Courtesy: (left) roar.media & (right) ft.lk
Figure 104 Betweenness Values of Road Segments in Colombo Commercial City 115
Figure 105 Trafic Congestion at Morning Peak Hour on Weekdays 115

Source: Google Trafic Maps
187
Figure 106 Standard Hierarchy of Roads 117

Source: planning tank.com
Figure 107 Average Speed during Morning Peak-hour (0700 h – 0800 h) 119
Figure 108 Average Speed during Afternoon Peak-hour (1300 h – 1400 h) 120
Figure 109 Average Speed during Evening Peak-hour (1700 h – 1800 h) 121
Figure 110 Trafic Congestion within Colombo Commercial City at 1600 h on 122
Monday (weekday), Source: Google Trafic Maps
Figure 111 Trafic Congestion within Colombo Commercial City at 1600 h on 122
Sunday (weekend day), Source: Google Trafic Maps
Figure 112 Estimated emissions from transport sector in ‘Do Nothing Scenario’ for 124
1990 to 2015, Source: CoMTrans Urban Transport Plan – 2014 - (Initial Source:
Urban Air Quality Management in Sri Lanka, Air Resource Management Centre)
Figure 113 Breakdown of each pollutant by vehicle type 125

Source: CoMTrans Urban Transport Plan – 2014 - (Initial Source: Urban Air Quality
Management in Sri Lanka, Air Resource Management Centre)
Figure 114 Air Quality Index – United States Environment Protection Agency 127
Source: Wikipedia
Figure 115 CO2 Emissions by Transport & Road Sectors 128

Figure 116 Rainfall and Temperature variation throughout the year 131
Source: climateandweather.com
Figure 117 Canal Network Colombo 132

Source: Sri Lanka Land Reclamation & Development Corporation
Figure 118 Water levels of Kelani River as recorded at Nagalagam Street Gauge (1965 – 2010) 133
Source: Flood Hazard Assessment & Hydraulic Modelling; deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017
Figure 119 Flood depth Map of May 2016, Source: Flood Hazard Assessment & 135
Hydraulic Modelling; deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017
Figure 120 Flood depth Map of November 2010, Source: Flood Hazard Assessment 135
& Hydraulic Modelling; deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017
188
Volume I
Figure 121 Partially inundated houses on left bank of Kelani River on 20th May 2016 135
(approx. 2.2m flood water level), Source: Flood Hazard Assessment & Hydraulic
Modelling; deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017
Figure 122 Inundated Colombo – Hanwella Low Level Road near New Kelani Bridge 135
Figure 123 Partially inundated improvised buildings on the left bank of the Kelani River 136
– Closure Look, Source: Flood Hazard Assessment & Hydraulic Modelling;
deltares, adpc & cecb, 2017
Figure 124 Partially inundated improvised buildings on the left bank of the Kelani River 136
Source: Flood Hazard Assessment & Hydraulic Modelling; deltares,
adpc & cecb, 2017
Figure 125 Flood depth for return period of 10 years Source: Flood Hazard Assessment 136
Figure 126 Flood depth for return period of 50 years, Source: Flood Hazard Assessment 137
Figure 127 Existing Flood Risk in Metro Colombo Area, Source: Flood Hazard Assessment 137
Figure 128 Existing wetlands as provided by SLLRDC, Source: Flood Hazard Assessment 140
Figure 129 Wetland Encroachments considered for Probabilistic Model, 140

Figure 130 Wetlands within Colombo Commercial City in 2010 141

Source: Research & Development Unit, UDA
Figure 131 Wetlands within Colombo Commercial City in 2018 141

Figure 132 Inland Water Bodies within Colombo Commercial City 142
Figure 133 Physic-chemical water quality of water bodies in Colombo Commercial City 144
Source: Technical report 4, Physical Features - Wetland Management Strategy,
Metrocolombo Urban Development Project, 2016
Figure 134 The inal result of Water Quality Assessment – May 2015 145
189
Figure 135 Inlets to Beira Lake 146

Figure 136 Polluted Canal in Colombo 148

Image Courtesy: roar.media
Figure 137 Beira Lake - 2016 148

Image Courtesy: archives.sundayobserver.lk
Figure 138 Conceptual representation of UHI Proile in Colombo 149

Source: Dissanayake W.M.P.L., 2017 (Original source: Syrios,
K. and Hunt, G.R., 2008)
Figure 139 Heat Canyon Effect, Source: Dissanayake W.M.P.L., 2017 149
(Original source: Syrios, K. and Hunt, G.R., 2008)
Figure 140 Reduction of Vegetation Cover from 1995 to 2016 (NDVI Analysis Based on 150
Landsat Data of 1995, 2005 and 2016), Source: Dissanayake W.M.P.L., 2017
Figure 141 Variation of Land Surface Temperature- Colombo District 151

Source: Dissanayake W.M.P.L., 2017
Figure 142 Urban Heat Islands in Colombo District based on Landsat Data - 2016 151
Source: Dissanayake W.M.P.L., 2017
Figure 143 Crime Rates in Colombo as at September 2018 153

Source: Numbeo Indicators (https://www.numbeo.com/crime/in/Colombo
Figure 144 Location type and crash type of fatal accidents in Colombo 155
Figure 145 Location and heat map of pedestrian fatal accidents in Western Province 156
Figure 146 Comparison of Colombo’s Position among the Fastest Growing Industries in 159
Sri Lanka, Source: Central Bank Report - 2016
Figure 147 Availability and Affordability of Ofice Space in Outsourcing Locations 160
Source: On Point – Real Estate in Sri Lanka - Prospects and Potential,
Jones Land Lasalle - 2012
Figure 148 Ofice Space at Trace Expert City, Maradana 161

Image Courtesy: Echelon Magazine
Figure 149 Crescat Boulevard Shopping Mall 162

Image Courtesy: cinnamonheotels.com
190
Volume I
Figure 150 Altair Building (Mixed Development) located at Gangaramaya, 163

Colombo in Construction, Image Courtesy: skyscrapercity.co
Figure 151 Shangri-la Hotel – Colombo Fort 165

Image Courtesy: shangri-la.hotelsincolombo.net
Figure 152 Kelani River 166

Image Courtesy: picture.lk
Figure 153 Weras Ganga Park - Bellanwila 168

Image Courtesy: timeout.com
Figure 154 Beira Lake in 1915 (The Norris Cana, the lake & Pettah by Slinn & Co. – 1915) 169
Image Courtesy: exploresrilanka.lk
Figure 155 Swan Boat Rides at Beira Lake, Gangaramaya 170

Image Courtesy: archives.dailynews.lk
Figure 156 High-end Developments encircling the Beira Lake 171

Image Courtesy: tripadvisor.lk
Figure 157 Port Access Elevated Highway Project – (2018 – 2030) 172
Image Courtesy: Road Development Authority
Figure 158 Image of a similar electriied railway in Greater Britain 173

Image Courtesy: homesecurity.press
Figure 159 Proposed LRT Lines and Stations 174

Source: Ministry of Megapolis & Western Development
Figure 160 Proposed Colombo International Financial City Project (Port City) 175
Image Courtesy: portcitycolombo.lk
Figure 161 Beira Lake Intervention Area Development Plan 176

Source: Urban Development Authority - 2018
Figure 162 Proposed Beach Nourishment by Maritime City Development Project 176
Figure 163 Proposed Colombo Port Expansion Project 177

Source: Sri Lanka Ports Authority
Figure 164 Proposed Port Related Logistics Development at Bloemandhal Area 178
191
A Quick Recap on Volume I
Capturing the overspill of Colombo Urbanization, Urban Development

Authority has prepared an integrated plan merging 08 Local Authority Areas;
Colombo Municipal Council, Dehiwala Mt- Lavinia Municipal Council,
Boralesgamuwa Urban Council, Kolonnawa Urban Council, Peliyagoda
Urban Council, Wattala Urban Council, parts of Kelaniya Pradeshiya Sabha
and Wattala Pradeshiya Sabha into a single planning area named ‘Colombo
Commercial City’.
Planning Process
he preparation of ‘Colombo Commercial City Development Plan – 2019-2030’ is

a collaborative exercise undertaken by UDA with the consultation of relevant
stakeholders and general public. he plan has been formulated in the ‘Strategic
Planning’ approach.
Planning Context
Colombo Commercial City identiied as a competitive ng International City in the

South Asian context as;
- One of the busiest Maritime Hubs

- A blooming Business Hub
- A highly sought-after Tourism Nest
Colombo Commercial City is the Commercial Capital of Sri Lnaka and therefore,
is the focal point of the national economy.
The Need of a Plan
Out of the detail analysis, given in the preceding sctions of this report, the
Colombo Commercial City has been identiied as place with a variety of potentials
which can be used to address many of its prevailing issues.
the reasonably ladge extents of water fronts, has been perceived as its
most signiicant potential, which can be harnessed to induce a positive
transformation into the city.
192
Volume I
Boundary of the Planning Area
Colombo Commercial City Development Plan
2019 – 2030

December 2018
Legend
Local Authorities within the Planing Boundary
Colombo MC
Dehiwala Mount Lavinia MC
Kolonnawa UC
Borelasgamuwa UC
Peliyagoda UC
Wattala - Mabola UC
Wattala PS
Kelaniya PS
Local Authority Boundary
Prepared By
Research & Development Unit
Data Source
Survey Department of Sri Lanka
193
References
Anon., 2014. Urban Poverty in Sri Lanka - 2013. Colombo, Centre for Poverty Analysis.
ATKearney, 2012. Competitive Bench Marking: Sri Lanka Knowledge Services, s.l.: ATKearney, Inc.
D.U.A., E., 2014. Managing Trafic Congestion in Colombo and its Suburbs, s.l.: Sri Lanka Institute of Development
Administration.
Deltares/ ADPC & CECB, 2017. Detailed flood risk analysis and impact of mitigation interventions for the Colombo
Metropolitan Region, s.l.: Metro Colombo Urban Development Project: Ministry of Megapolis & Western
Development.
Deltares/ ADPC/ CECB, 2017. Flood Hazard Assesment and Hydraulic Modeling of the Colombo Metropolitan
Region, Colombo: Metro Colombo Urban Development Project; Ministry of Megapolis & Western
Development.
Deltares/ADPC & CECB, 2017. Consultancy Services for Conducting a Detailed Flood Risk Assesment for Colombo
Metropolitan Region - Data Collection and Development of Damage Functions, s.l.: Metro Colombo Urban
Development Project.
Deltares/ADPC & CECB, 2017. Consultancy Services for Conducting a Detailed Flood Risk Assessment for Colombo
Metropolitan Region - Inception Report, Colombo: Metro Colombo Urban Development Project.
Department of Census & Statistics, 2016. Sri Lanka Labour Force Survey - Annual Report - 2016, Colombo:
Deaprtment of Census & Statistics.
Dissanayake, W. & Nayomi, H., 2017. Spatial Pattern of Urban Heat Islands in the Colombo District. s.l.,
University of Colombo.
Gunetilleka, N. & Cader, A., 2004. Urban Poverty in Sri Lanka. Colombo, A Centre for Poverty Analysis.
Gunetilleke, N., Cader, A. & Fernando, M., 2004. Understanding the Dimensions and Dynamics of Poverty
in Underserved Settlements in Colombo. CEPA Working Paper Series No. 3 - 2004.
Herath, N. & Jayasundera, D., 2007. Colombo Living High. Colombo: The Institute of Town Planners Sri Lanka.
I.G.P.K., W., 2013. Review on Origin and Expansion of Colombo Urban Area; Sri Lanka - Planners' Perspective.
International Journal on Physical and Social Sciences; Volume 03 - Issue 11.
I., P., 2015. Forced Evictions in Colombo: High Rise Living, Colombo: Centre for Policy Alternatives.
Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2014. Urban Trasnport System Development Project - For Colombo
Metropolitan Region & Suburbs; CoMTrans Urban Transport Master Plan, Colombo: Ministry of Transport,
Sri Lanka.
Jones Lang LaSalle, 2012. Real Estate in Sri Lanka - Prospects & Potentials, Colombo:
On.Point - Jones Lang LaSalle.
194
Volume I
Kumrage, A., 2004. Urban Trafic Congestion - The Problems & Solutions. Economic Review, Sri Lanka.
Metro Cololmbo Urban Development Project, 2016. Wetland Management Strategy - Physical features;
Water Quality, Lake, Sediment & Soil Issues, s.l.: Metro Cololmbo Urban Development Project.
Metro Colombo Urban Development Project, 2016. Metro Colombo Wetland Management Strategy,
Colombo: Metro Colombo Urban Development Project.
Metro Colombo Urban Development Project, 2016. Wetland Management Strategy - Physical Features;
Hydrologic & Hydraulic Issues, s.l.: Metro Colombo Urban Development Project.
Metro Colombo Urban Development Project, 2016. Wetland Managemnet Strategy - Ecological Status,
s.l.: Metro Colombo Urban Development Project.
Rajapaksha, R. & Jayaweera, N., 2018. Condominium Development in Sri Lanka, Colombo:
University of Moratuwa.
Schot, P., Achitsaikhan, A. & Berger, B., 2016. Sustainable Flood Protection in the Colombo Metropolitan Area,
s.l.: Universiteit Utrect.
Sevanatha, 2002. Urban Slums Report - The Case of Colombo, Sri Lanka,
Rajagiriya: Sevanatha Urban Resource Centre.
Sevanatha, 2012. Proile of Underserved Settlements - City of Colombo, Sri Lanka, Colombo: Sevanatha Urban
Resource Centre.
Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority, 2017. Annual Statistics Report - 2016, Colombo: Sri Lanka Tourism
Development Authority.
The National Physical Planning Department, 2017. National Physical Planning Policy - 2015 (Updates 2017),
Colombo: The National Physical Planning Department.
UN-Habitat, CEPA & Sevanatha, 2013. Colombo City - Livelihood Assesment of Flood-Prone Low Income
Settlements, Colombo: s.n.
Urban Development Authority, 1998. Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan - 1998, Colombo: UDA.
Urban Development Authority, 1999. City of Colombo Development Plan - 1999, Colombo: UDA.
Urban Development Authority, 2008. City of Colombo Development Plan (Amendment) - 2008, Colombo: UDA.
W.J., W., 2011. Reduction of Trafic Congestion in Colombo City by Improving Public Bus Transport. Economic
Review, Sri Lanka.
Western Region Megapolis Planning Project, 2017. Western Region Megapolis Master Plan, Colombo: Ministry
of Megapolis & Western Develoment.
195
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Colombo Commercial City

Development Plan – 2019-2030

Ministry of Megapolis & Western Development

Colombo Commercial City Development Plan 2019–2030

Published in July, 2019

Direct Supervision by:

Honorable Minister’s Forward

Having established under the provisions of the Urban Develop-ment

Colombo is the administrative, commercial and inance hub of Sri Lanka

Hon. Patali Champika Ranawaka

UDA Chairman’s Forward

Dr. Jagath Munasinghe

Message from Mayors and Chairmen of

1.1.1. Legality in Planning 02

1.3.1. Scope in Terms of Scale of the City 08

1.4.1. Where are we now? 10

Chapter 02 – Planning Context 15

2.1. Evolution of Colombo 16

2.1.1. Portuguese Period (1505 – 1656) 16

2.2. Interventions to Plan Colombo 22

2.2.1. City Plan by Sir Patrick Geddes – 1921 23

2.3. The Present Colombo 35

2.3.1. Colombo as an International City 35

Chapter 03 - Need of the Plan 67

3.1. Identiication of ‘Need of the Plan’ 68

3.2.1. Spontaneous Emergence of High Dense Developments within Colombo

3.3. Emerging Social, Environmental and Economic Problems due to Distribution of

3.3.1. Case I – Underserved Settlements within City of Colombo 89

3.5. Lack of User-convenience within Colombo Commercial City due to prevailing

3.5.1. Lack of user-convenience due to environmental problems 130

3.6.1. Economic Potentials 159

3.7. Conclusion 179

List of Tables 180

Figure 01 : Planning Area – ‘Colombo Commercial City’

Table 01 : Declaration of Local Authorities of Colombo Commercial City as “Urban Areas”

Figure 02 : Western Region Structure Plan - 2030

Figure 03 : National Physical Plan - 2050

Planning of Colombo Commercial City has been a collaborative exercise where a

he co-implementation authorities such as the 08 Local Authorities; Colombo

Focused Group Meetings Public Open Forums

Transport Sector Surveys at Public

Infrastructure Sector Public Meetings

Figure 04 : Stakeholder Consultation Process

1.3.2. Scope in Terms of Geography

1.3.3. Scope in Terms of Influenced Population

1.3.4. Scope in Terms of Sectors

Figure 05 : Administrative Boundaries within Colombo Commercial City

1.4.1. Where are we now?

Data collection & processing Historical Evolution

Public / Stakeholder Consultation

Initial identiication of problems & potentials

Problems & Potential Deinition

In terms of Context, Magnitude & Signiicance

Need of the Plan

Figure 06 : Planning Process (Where area we now?)

Formulation of Vision & Concept

Detail Analysis – SWOT (Evaluation of the Vision)

Formulation of Goals & Objectives

Figure 07 : Planning Process (Where do we want to go?)

1.4.3. How do we go there?