CONCEPT OF CHIVALRY (FUTUWWAH) ACCORDING TO

ABD AL-RAZZAQ KASHANI: ANALYSIS ON HIS TUHFAH AL-

IKHWAN FI KHASAIS AL-FITYAN

FATEMEH TAYEFEH AGHAKHAN HASHTROODI

DEPARTMENT OF AQIDAH AND ISLAMIC THOUGHT

ACADEMY OF ISLAMIC STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA
KUALA LUMPUR

2015
 CONCEPT OF CHIVALRY (FUTUWWAH) ACCORDING TO
ABD AL-RAZZAQ KASHANI: ANALYSIS ON HIS TUHFAH AL-
IKHWAN FI KHASAIS AL-FITYAN

FATEMEH TAYEFEH AGHAKHAN HASHTROODI

DEPARTMENT OF AQIDAH AND ISLAMIC THOUGHT

ACADEMY OF ISLAMIC STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA
KUALA LUMPUR

2015
CONCEPT OF CHIVALRY (FUTUWWAH) ACCORDING TO
ABD AL-RAZZAQ KASHANI: ANALYSIS ON HIS TUHFAH
AL-IKHWAN FI KHASAIS AL-FITYAN

FATEMEH TAYEFEH AGHAKHAN HASHTROODI

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO FULFILL THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

DEPARTMENT OF AQIDAH AND ISLAMIC THOUGHT

ACADEMY OF ISLAMIC STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA
KUALA LUMPUR

2015
 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this topic of study is to examine the esoteric meaning of chivalry

(futuwwah) by Kāshānī, based on the grounds of the School of Wahdah al-Wujūd,

and to describe the theoretical classification of moral specification of chivalry.

This study will open up a relatively unexplored aspect of chivalry, that reflects

the concept of the mediocre imperfect human being, the lower level of the perfect

human as identified by Sufis. The library research, collecting and analyzing data

primary and secondary sources, makes it possible to draw a clear image of

Kāshānī’s School of thought. Indeed, the combined historical and religious

approach of chivalry clarifies improvement of the primary concept of chivalry

within Qur’ānic teaching, and its appearance as the ethical code in different

dimensions of a Muslim’s life such as public, politics and economy. A

comparative study of chivalry letters from the twelfth to sixteenth century depicts

continued development of the concept of chivalry within Sufism. It reveals the

concept of chivalry has improved from its primordial concept as forgiveness into

the spiritual school of thought, with theoretical and practical dimensions attached

to the individual and social life of humans. And, it is finally integrated to the

spiritual stage of Sufism as benefaction. The theoretical dimension of chivalry is

developed on the grounds of School of Wahdah al-Wujūd by Kāshānī, which

presents the integration of the concept of chivalry with unity, love and justice.

Chivalry is identified as the stage of appearance of the knowledge of Unity

( d), which implies the knowledge of self awareness, through which man

perceives his true nature, his dignity and potentialities. The analytical perspective

of chivalry portrays a figure of human being in terms of a human being, whose

i
journey of life begins with returning to his real being, to a greater degree of

actualizing his potentialities bestowed to him by God. It is a continuous challenge

of a human being, with all his imperfections and faults, to express God’s love to

His creation in order to satisfy Him and bring happiness in human life.

ii
 ABSTRAK

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk meneliti makna esoterik istilah “chivalry”

(futuwwah) oleh Kāshānī yang berasaskan pemikiran W d -Wujūd dan

untuk memperincikan teori berkaitan moral yang dikhususkan berkenaannya.

Kajian ini akan meneroka aspek chivalry yang mencerminkan konsep

manusia yang tidak sempurna, iaitu tahap terendah dalam konsep insan kamil

sebagaimana yang telah dikenalpasti oleh para sufi. Kajian perpustakaan yang

mengumpulkan dan menganalisis sumber data primer dan sekunder ini

membolehkan pemikiran Kashani dilakar dengan jelas. Malah, penggabungan

pendekatan sejarah dan keagamaan berkenaan chivalry menjelaskan lebih

lanjut konsep utama chivalry ini dalam kerangka pengajaran al-Qur’an dan

penampilannya sebagai kod etika dalam dimensi kehidupan seorang Muslim

yang berbeza seperti komuniti, politik dan ekonomi. Kajian perbandingan

yang dibuat mengenai konsep chivalry sejak dari abad keenam hingga

kesepuluh Hijrah, telah memperlihatkan kesinambungan evolusi konsepnya

dalam bidang tasawuf. Ia mendedahkan bahawa perkembangan konsep

chivalry telah bertambah baik berbanding konsep asalnya yang berteraskan

“kemaafan” semata kepada pemikiran kerohanian, meliputi aspek teori dan

praktis dalam kehidupan individu dan masyarakat. Dan ia akhirnya bersepadu

membentuk “peringkat kerohanian” dalam tasawuf yang memberi faedah

yang baik. Aspek teori chivalry, kemudiannya berkembang dalam pemikiran

Kāshānī berasaskan pemikiran W d -Wujūd yang menonjolkan

pengintegrasian dengan ketauhidan, kasih sayang dan keadilan. Chivalry

iii
telah dikenal pasti sebagai satu peringkat kemunculan pengetahuan tentang

tauhid yang menonjolkan pengetahuan berkenaan kesedaran diri yang

melaluinya maka manusia memahami sifat semulajadinya yang sebenar,

maruah serta potensi dirinya. Analisis yang digarapkan menggambarkan

chivalry manusia sebagai manusia dalam ertikata yang sebenarnya yang

memulakan perjalanan hidupnya untuk kembali kepada Tuhan yang Haqq

(real being), yang juga mengaktualisasikan potensinya yang dianugerahkan

oleh Tuhan kepadanya dengan lebih hebat. Ia merupakan cabaran yang

berterusan dihadapi oleh manusia yang memiliki ketidaksempurnaan dan

sering melakukan kesalahan, dimana Tuhan telah menunjukkan kasih

sayangNya terhadap penciptaanNya dengan tujuan untuk mendapat

keredaanNya dan mendatangkan kebahagiaan di dalam hidupnya.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In writing this thesis, first and foremost, I would like to express my deep feeling

of gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Wan Suhaimi Wan Abdullah, who is currently

an Associate Professor in Center of Advanced Studies on Islam, Science and

Civilization (CASIS/ UTM), whose valuable suggestion births the very

possibility of this study. It has been an honor to be his student, and I appreciate

all his contributions of time and ideas to make my study productive and

stimulating. I am particularly indebted to him for every moment of his time, so

generously offered to me after he left the University of Malaya. I am thankful

forever.

My thanks go further to my associate supervisor Dr. Che Zarrina Binti

Sa'ari, Associate Professor in Department of Aqīdah and Islamic Though

Academy of Islamic Studies, University Malaya for her generous support and

valuable advice, and for her comments on the draft of my thesis.

I would also like to express my appreciation to Dr. Tatiana A. Denisova,

Professor in CASIS UTM for her worthy counseling during the study, and also

my thanks to other honored professors of the Department of Aq d and Islamic

Thought in Academy of Islamic Studies of University Malaya, for their general

assistance and sympathies encouragement. I am grateful to have had the chance

to know them: They have always been friendly and personal to me. I truly value

their friendship and support.

It is my pleasure to acknowledge the staff of Department of the Aq d

and Islamic Thought and Academy of Islamic Studies for their courtesy and

efficient service.

v
 Special thanks to my family for all their unconditional love and

encouragement. I would not have made it this far without them. And most of all

to my precious son, whose love, support and patience during my study is so

appreciated.

And, finally, I would like to thank God, the most kind and merciful Lord,

for guiding me through all the difficulties. I have experienced Your support day

by day. You are the one who let me finish my degree. I will keep on trusting in

You for the rest of my life.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... iii

ABSTRAK................................................................................................................... 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... vii

TRANSLITERATION .............................................................................................. xii

ABBREVIATION .................................................................................................... xiv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 2

1.1 Statement of Problem ........................................................................................ 3

1.1 Reseach Questions ............................................................................................. 3

1.3 Research of Objectives ...................................................................................... 6

1.4 Significance of Research.................................................................................... 6

1.5 The scope of Research ....................................................................................... 7

1.6 Literature Review .............................................................................................. 8

1.7 Methodology ................................................................................................... 16

1.7.1 Data Collection ......................................................................................... 16

1.7.2 Date Analysis ............................................................................................ 18

1.8 The Structure of Research .................................................................................. 19

CHAPTER 2: ʻABD AL-RAZZᾹQ AL-KᾹSHᾹNĪ, HIS LIFE, WORKS AND

CONTRIBUTION

2.0 Introduction....................................................................................................... 21

2.1 The Life of Kāshānī ........................................................................................... 21

2.2 Kāshānī on the State of al-karam and al-qādir ................................................... 26

2.3 The Place of Kāshānī in Sufism ......................................................................... 29

vii
 2.3.1 Kāshānī as a Commentator .......................................................................... 30

2.3.2 Kāshānī as a Creator Author ........................................................................ 32

2.4 Kāshānī’s Impact on Persian Sufism .................................................................. 36

2.5 Kāshān’s Works ................................................................................................ 38

CHAPTER 3: THE HISTORY OF CHIVALRY

3.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 44

3.1 The Meaning of Chivalry (futuwwah) ................................................................ 44

3.2 The Origin of Chivalry ...................................................................................... 45

3.2.1 The Historical origin of chivalry ................................................................. 46

3.2.2 The Religious Origin of Chivalry ................................................................ 49

3.3 The Initial Rituals .............................................................................................. 55

3.4 The Ethic of Chivalry ....................................................................................... 58

3.5 The Chivalry Hierarchy ..................................................................................... 61

3.6 The growth and Development of Chivalry ........................................................ 62

3.6.1. Appearance of Semi Religious Bonds in Trades-Craftsmen Association ..... 68

3.6.2 Appearance of Chivalry in the Sporadic Armed Appealing Movements....... 70

3.6.3 Appereance of Sufi Chivalry (Spiritual Chivalry) ....................................... 71

3.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 76

CHAPTER 4: THE TREATISE ON CHIVALRY (FUTUWWAH) -

IKHWᾹ Ᾱ -FITYᾹN

4.0 Introduction....................................................................................................... 79

4.1 Types of chivalry letter (CL).............................................................................. 79

4.2 Introduction to Tu fah al-Ik ān F K sāis -Fi yān...................................... 86

4.3 The difference between Arabic and Persian version ........................................... 90

viii
CHAPTER 5: TRANSLATION OF -IKHWᾹ Ᾱ -
FITYᾹN

5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................. 113

5.1Translation of u fah al-Ik ān F K sāis al-Fi yān …………………….

114

5.1.0 forward ..................................................................................................... 114

5.1.1 First Introduction: On the Reality of Chivalry ........................................... 115

5.1.2 Second Introduction:The Origin and Appearance of Chivalry .................. 119

5.1.3 Third Introduction: The Foundation and Structure of Chivalry........ .…….122

5.1.4 Chapter 1: The Repentance (tawbah) ......................................................... 125

5.1.5 Chapter 2: Generosity (sakhā’) ................................................................. 129

5.1.6 Chapter 3: Humility ( ādu’) .................................................................. 132

5.1.7 Chapter 4: Security (amn) ....................................................................... 1376

5.1.8 Chapter 5: Truth (sidq) .............................................................................. 139

5.1.9 Chapter 6: Guidance ( idāy ) .................................................................. 142

5.1.10 Chapter 7: Advice (n s ) .................................................................... 144

5.1.11 Chapter 8: Loyalty ( fā’) ...................................................................... 149

5.1.12 Chapter 9: On the Blights of the Chivalry and Decay of Nobility............. 152

5.1.13 Chapter 10: The Differences between the Youth and the Disciple of
Chivalry and the Pretender ................................................................................. 155

5.1.14 First Conclusion: In the Way of Gaining Chivalry .................................. 158

5.1.15 Second Conclusion: Declaration of the Source of Chivalry and the

Beginning of its Path.......................................................................................... 161

5.1.16 Third Conclusion: The Characters of Disciple of Chivalry and their

Behavior and Manner ......................................................................................... 164

ix
CHAPTER 6: KASHANI’S CONCEPTION OF CHIVALRY ACCORDING
TO -IKHWᾹ Ᾱ L-FITYᾹN

6.0 Introduction..................................................................................................... 175

6.1 The Definition of Chivalry in Kāshānī’s Point of View .................................... 176

6.2 The Foundation of Chivalry ............................................................................ 185

6.3 The Doctrine of Chivalry ................................................................................ 200

6.3.1 Wisdom .................................................................................................... 201

6.3.2 Justice ....................................................................................................... 209

6.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 216

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION

7.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 219

7.1 Conclusion Remark ......................................................................................... 219

7.1.1 The Presentation of ʻAbd al-Razzāq Kāshānī............................................. 220

7.1.2 The History of Development of Chivalry .................................................. 221

7.1.3 The Presentation of Tuḥfah al-Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ al-Fi yān ...................... 224

7.1.4 The Development of the Concept of Chivalry within Sufism ..................... 228

7.1.5 Relation of Chivalry with Unity ( d) .................................................. 228

7.1.6 The Formation of Chivalry’s Ethic ............................................................ 229

7.1.7 Chivalrous, the Image of Human Being ..................................................... 230

7.1.8 The Relation of Chivalry with Love .......................................................... 231

7.1.9 The Relation of Chivalry with Justice ........................................................ 232

7.1.10 The Key Concept of Chivalry ................................................................. 232

7.2 Suggestions ..................................................................................................... 234

7.2.1 Kāshānī .................................................................................................... 234

7.2.2 Chivalry ................................................................................................... 235

7.2.3 Creation of the Concept of Human Being .................................................. 236

x
BIBILIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 237

APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................247

xi
TRANSLITERATION

This thesis had been used the generally American accepted transcription system.

Arab Roman Arab Roman Arab Roman

‫ء‬ ‫ا‬ a, ‫ز‬ Z ‫ق‬ Q

‫ب‬ B ‫س‬ S ‫ک‬ K

‫ت‬ T ‫ش‬ Sh ‫ل‬ L

‫ث‬ Th ‫ص‬ s ‫م‬ M

‫ج‬ J ‫ض‬ d ‫ن‬ N

‫ح‬ h ‫ط‬ t ‫ه‬ H

‫خ‬ Kh ‫ظ‬ z ‫و‬ W

‫د‬ D ‫ع‬ ‘ ‫ی‬ Y

‫ذ‬ Dh ‫غ‬ Gh ‫ة‬ h

‫ر‬ R ‫ف‬ F

The Additional Persian Letters:

Persian Roman

‫ژ‬ Zh

‫چ‬ Ch

‫پ‬ P

‫گ‬ G

xii
The Short Vowels and Diphthongs

Arabic Roman

‫آ‬ Ā

‫ای‬ Ī

‫او‬ Ū

̊‫اَو‬ Aw

̊‫اَی‬ Ay

‫و‬ Uww

‫ی‬ iy-ī

xiii
ABBREVIATION

An abbreviation is provided for the words that frequently cited in the text:

Chivalry letter CL

Spiritueal chivalry letter SCL

Guild Chivalry letters GCL

Arabic u f -Ik ān F K sāis -Fi yān ATIKF

Persian u f -Ik ān F K sāis -Fi yān PTIKF

xiv
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

This research is based on an attempt to study the chivalry (futuwwah) according

to Abd al-Razzāq Kāshānī (d. 730 /1330), on the basis of his treatise, uḥf -

Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān.

Kāshānī is one of the most influential Sufi authors of later Islamic

history. He wrote disseminated commentaries and important treatises, both in

Arabic and Persian, which are rooted in Ibn al-ʻArabī's ontological discourse. His

works made him one of the great exponents and promoters of the School of

W ḥd al-Wujūd after adr al-Dīn Qūnawī and he advocates the intellectual

discipline and School of Ibn ʻArabī. His simple, scholarly manner is used to

explain and classify Ibn ʻArabī’s teaching. His remarkable esoteric interpretation,

' ā -Qur’ān, has been published in Ibn al-'Arabī's name (Beirut, 1968);

although compatible with Ibn al-ʻArabī's basic world view, there are important

differences of perspective that mark Kāshānī as an independent thinker. 1 His

commentary on Fusūs - ik , in which he discusses the matter of W ḥd -

Wujūd, promoted Ibn ʻArabī’s teaching into the Persian speaking world. Another

feature of Kāshānī is his efforts for strengthening the principle of School W ḥd

al-Wujūd through its approximation with S r ʻah and Qur’ān. The

correspondence between him and ‘Aalā’ al-Dawlah Simnānī is evidence of his

attempt to prove the coincidence of W ḥd -Wujūd with the Qur’ān.

uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāis -Fi yān is an ethical treatise known as

chivalry letter (Risā -Futuwwah) written by Kāshānī both in Arabic and

Persian. It is a short complete journey in order to find the deep meaning of

youthfulness in chivalry. It is a theoretical discussion about deep meaning of

1
Mandal, B.N. (2009), Global Vision Encyclopedia of Islamic Mystics and Mysticism, New Delhi,
Global vision Publishing House, Vol. 1, p. 119.
2
inner aspects of chivalry, and consists of traveling a path and traversing its

stations to attain the level of subsistence-through-God. And, the outward aspect

consists of the tradition of chivalry which constitutes the development of the

attributes of perfect humans.

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Kāshānī appears in the time, when two kinds of Sufism were completed.

According to Schimmel’s classification, first, the voluntary mysticism, based on

personal taste and, second, the systematic mysticism, based on methodical

mystic. 2 On one hand, it was told in detail about the mystic demeanor and their

rules by great Sufis such as, Bāyazīd Bas āmī (d. 261/87 ), Abū ālib Makkī (d.

386/996), Abū Saʻīd Abī al-Khayr (d. 440/1048) and Abū al-Qāsim Qushayrī (d.

465/ 1072). On the other hand, the ultimate of fine and delicate Sufi’s fiction was

overcome by Sufis such a Mansūr Hallā (d. 298/910), Abū āmid Ghazālī (d.

0 / 1111), Mu yiddīn Ibn ʻArabī (d. 638/1240) and adr al-Dīn Qūnawī (d.

673/1274). However, Kāshānī is the central core of these two main class of

Sufism, but there is not a comprehensive work about his thought and spiritual

manner.

Kāshānī’s treatise on uḥf -Ik ān F K āṣāiṣ -Fi yān , like his

other treatises, has received less scholarly attention, while it presents chivalry as a

spiritual school with initiation rituals and codes, which was distributed among

Muslims more than other schools after Sufism.

In the Islamic world, chivalry is known as a quality with a combination o f

three essentially qualities: Courage (al-S ujāʻ ), generosity (al-S k ā’) and

2
Schimmel, Annemarie (2011), The Mystical Dimension of Islam, 35th Anniversary Edition, The
University of North Carolina Press, p. 15-23.
3
forgiveness. 3 Chivalry practically manifested as a social movement in order to

protect poor and weak people and to consider altruism and justice. Therefore, by

most Muslims scholars and modern western Orientalists, it is regarded as the

social movement with special culture and aims to benefit humans through

emanation of different forms as aristocratic chivalry, as well as institutionalize

professional guilds and crafts.4 However, the integration of chivalry with Sufism

credited chivalry to be recognized as the younger brother of Sufism, through

which a certain station of the path of spirituality could be attained for all class of

people. 5

The production of a number of chivalry letters during the twelfth until

sixteenth century by Sufi writers shows that chivalry was followed among people,

but no longer in its early form. The surviving of chivalry and the transformation

from its primeval institution to a spiritual school is still a question, which needs

more consideration.

Kāshānī’s treatise is good evidence that tells us trade guilds and

aristocratic chivalry in Islam is not the only forms of Islamic chivalry. In this

regard, the question arises what kind of relation is between chivalry and ethics?

Furthermore, how Kāshānī defined chivalry on the grounds of Sufism and what

distinguished his definition from other Sufis? If chivalry is considered as a

spiritual stage, what level does it placed among the way of perfection? And, what

3
Böwering, Gerhard & Crone, Patricia & Kadi, Vadad & Mirza, Mahan & Qasim Zaman,
Muhammad & stewart, Devin J. (2010), The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought,
Princeton University Press, p. 93.
4
Zakeri, Mohsen (1995), Sasanid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society-The Origin of 'Ayyaran and
Futuwwa, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz Verlag, p. 306 and Meri, Josef W. (2004), Medieval Islamic
Civilization, New York, Routledge, Vol. 1, p. 153.
5
Ridgeon, Lloyd (2010), Moral and Mysticism in Persian Sufism: A history of Sufi Futuwwat in
Iran, UK, Routledge, p. 8; Kāshānī, uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān, in the collection of
Hādī Zādeh, Ma īd (2001) j ūʻ R sā’i W uṣ nn fā ʻA d -R zzāq Kās ān , Tehran,
Mirāth Maktūb, 2th ed. p. 8 and Kāshifī Sabzewārī (2001), Fu u ā Su ān , Studied
by Muhammad afar Ma ūb, Tehran, Bunyād Farhang Iran, p. 130.

4
 are the main principles of chivalry and how are they classified by Kāshānī? What

is classification of moral specification in this school? What kind of relation is

between the spiritual stage of chivalry and region of moral, according to

Kāshānī? Thus, this research is intended to illustrate all above points.

1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

There are some questions aried according to this research as follow:

1. What is the important point of Kāshānī and his chivalry letter?

2. How can we explain the development of the concept of chivalry within the

Islamic history?

3. How can we explain the conceptual development of chivalry within Sufi’s

texts?

4. How Kāshānī defined chivalry on the grounds of School of W d -Wujūd?

5. What is difference of Kāshānī’s definition with other definitions?

6. If chivalry is considered as a spiritual stage, what level does it placed in the

path of perfection?

7. What are the main principles of chivalry and how are they classified by

Kāshānī?

8. What is classification of moral specification by Kāshānī?

9. What similarities and differences are between definitions of chivalry by

Kāshānī with other definition?

10. What kind of relation is between chivalry and ethics?

5
1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Based on the above questions, this thesis will investigate the following points:

1. To identify Kāshānī, his life and his contribution to Sufism.

2. To illustrate the growth and development of chivalry within Islamic

teaching by Sufis.

3. To translate uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān

4. To analyze the conception of chivalry according to Kāshānī, and to

interpret the foundation of spiritual chivalry, according to uḥf -

Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

Chivalry letters are learned works written by great Sufis which build up an

extraordinary, rich knowledge of human behavior in dealing with others. Among

them, Kāshānī’s treatise uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān is a brief

deliberation of the origin of chivalry and explanation of the path of this spiritual

stage. This research presents how chivalry has traversed a significant meaningful

path of development. This development was becoming fulfilled in the grounds of

Sufism on the basis of Qur’ān and Sunnah and under the hidden influence of

different culture as a part of Islamic tradition. According to early definition,

chivalry is identified as a moral quality and as actions of virtue and a manner of

ethic. Thus, chivalry letters are inextricably integrated with ethic. Especially,

chivalry of Kāshānī provides a profound perspective to reviewing and rebuilding

the foundation of social relationship. The significance of his work is the creation

of the integral spiritual and philosophical approach which is capable of shedding

light on an individual. Also significant is the social relationship of humans in

6
order to help people to succeed in the purpose of their creation in the world, if not

in terms of perfection which is the ultimate goal of Sufism, but at least in the

meaning of humanity.

Studying chivalry letters can create new structure when addressing values

that are parts of Islamic social ethos. Moreover, it provides a wide perspective to

revive and unite ethical construction in global social life not only in Muslim

context, but also in non-Muslim context. In addition, it can capture the spirit that

animated the social relationship in Sufis teaching. Furthermore, in the time of

modern era, when people are aware of the importance of the social behavior and

civilized people observe the law of citizenship, for Muslims, there could be no

better source than chivalry letters to develop the social relationship alongside the

ethical worldview.

1.5 THE SCOPE OF RESEARCH

This study focuses on the Kāshānī’s impact on Persian Sufism, his influences

further than this era is not the matter of this research. Despite the fact that

Kāshānī was a disciple of the School of W d -Wujūd, he also influenced by

the Schools of Illumination of Suhrawardī (d.587/1191). In this regard, his

thought is compared to Suhrawardī. Moreover, as the central issues discussed in

chivalry letters are ethic and moral on one hand, and on the other hand as the

major source of ethical thought and moral implication in an methodical way is

drawn by al-Ghazālī, 6 this study tried to compare chivalry letter of Kāshānī to

I yā’ -ʻU ū -D n and zān -ʻAmal, in order to present similarities of

6
Fakhri, Majid (1994), Ethical Theories in Islam, Leiden, Brill, p. 8.
7
definition of virtues and narratives. The similarities are given in the footnote of

translation the chivalry letter in chapter five.

Another central point is due to historical approach of chivalry. As

chivalry is found particularly in Southwest Asia, in the countries where their

former culture was in old Babylon and old Iran, 7 the discussion regarding the

process of historical growth and development of chivalry is, therefore, centralized

to the chivalry in Anatolia and Persia during the Sasanid and Ottoman Empire.

1.6 LITERTURE REVIEW

During the following decades, several theories about the chivalry and its origin

were brought forth. Each of them touched upon a different configuration; since,

despite acceptance of its general meaning as a human quality, its appearance is so

wide and changeable that describing it is very difficult task. Therefore, it is

advisable to distinguish between two main approaches, which have been

classified as historical chivalry and spiritual chivalry. Historical chivalry contains

all territory of historical document and evidence before and after Islam that

touches chivalry in its origin, tradition and rituals; while by spiritual chivalry, it

means chivalry in the Sufi’s text.

The identification of historical chivalry in Islamic lands, for the first time,

has been done by the Austrian Orientalist, Joseph von Hammer (1774-1856)8. He

identified and generalized chivalry as Islamic phenomenon that has preceded the

Occidental knighthood.9 His student, Gerard Salinger, in contrast, in his article

7
Old Iran is Persia; the historical documents related to chivalry found in Persia belong to the
territories, which had one belonged to the Sasanian Empire before Islam that includes Iraq and
Syria. See: Täschner (1979), Texte zur Geschichte der Futuwwa, München, Artemis Verlag, p.14.
8
Von Hammer-Purgstall, Joseph (1855) ,"Sur les passages relatifs à la chevalerie dans les
historiens arabes." Journal Asiatique, Vol. 2, pp. 282-290.
9
Zakeri, Sasanid Soldiers, p. 2.
8
“Was the futuwwah an oriental form of chivalry?”, 10 argued that there are basic

differences between the western knights of Middle age and Islamic chivalrous,

and there is not eastern equivalents of the chivalry of Christendom. Thus, he

treated any description of Islamic chivalry as knighthood for wrong.11

However, the concept of chivalry has developed after Islam and has been

enriched by the boundless ocean of Qur’ānic teaching in which the youth after

fighting with his ego, come to the service of society only for the satisfaction of

God. The different between historical and spiritual chivalry is the enquiry of

spiritual chivalry to qualify himself with the quality of God and follow the

prophet’s tradition. This kind of chivalry can be seen as a practical life course.

Sufis tried to depict the structure of a sociability behavior and interpret the

manner of youth by religious elements. Therefore, they wrote chivalry letters

based on theosophical system with interpretation every action of youth. That is

why we cannot find any sign of historical personality of chivalrous in Sufi’s

chivalry letter.

However, in the Islamic world, the ritual of historical chivalry is

intermingled with the spiritual chivalry. Therefore, this closeness led some

investigation on chivalry in the former Sasanid12 capital of Ctesiphon, absorbed

the pre-existing principles of chivalry. 13 Of prime importance here, is the study of

the French Islamic specialist, Louis Massignon (1883-1963). Although, his

investigation is relying on the oral traditions, there is no doubt that certain Iranian

10
Salinger, Gerald (19 0), “Was Futuwwa an oriental form of chivalry?” Proceeding of
American Philosophical Society, Vol. 94. No.5, p. 481-93. (www. Jstor.org/stable/1578830)
11
Togoslu, Erkan (2008), “Hizmat, From Futuwwa Tradition to the Emergence of the Movement
in Public Space”, ( .f u gu n.org › ... › Gülen Conference in Washington, DC)
12
The last pre-Islamic Persian Empire (224-651 BCE)
13
Massignon, Louis (19 2), “La Futuwwa a ou pacte d’honneur artisanal entre les travailleurs
musulmans au Moyen Age” in: La Nouvelle Clio 4, p.401, as cited by Zakeri, Sasanid Soliders, p.
306.
9
elements have survived through the ages beneath chivalry’s surface, as it is

emphasized by Massignon. A similar viewpoint is advocated by the Iranian

scholar, Mohsen Zākerī, who in 1995 presented his new survey under the title

Sasanid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society - The Origin of 'Ayyaran and Futuwwa.

He sought several prominent of the economic structure of the late Sasanid society

and the traced the continuity of change of these features into early Muslim

society. He discussed how the interaction of early follower of chivalry in Sasanid

society with Muslim conquerors coined the Arab chivalry. 14

On the other hand, the distinction between these two zones of chivalry is,

clearly, visible in Suhrawardī’s chivalry letter, who classified it as sword (s yf )

and saying (q ) chivalry.

The sword chivalry is to fight with the pagan for God and to bring victory

for Muslims, while at the same time to fights with the lust and desires of

self. 15The saying chivalry is being faithful to the oath to God, according to the

revelation:

‫ُور ِه ْم ُذ ِّر َّي َت ُه ْم َو أَ ْش َه َد ُه ْم َعلى أَ ْنفُسِ ِه ْم‬

ِ ‫ظه‬ُ ْ‫َو إِ ْذ أَ َخ َذ َر ُّبکَ مِنْ َبني آ َد َم مِن‬
َ ‫ت ِب َر ِّبکُ ْم قالُوا َبلى َش ِه ْدنا أَنْ َتقولوا َي ْو َم القِيا َم ِة إِ َّنا ک َّنا َعنْ هذا غاف‬
‫ِلين‬ ُ ْ ُ ُ ُ ْ‫أَلَس‬

Al-Arāf 7:172
When thy Lord drew forth from the Children of Adam-from
their loins- their descendant, and made them testify concerning
themselves, (saying): “Am I not your Lord (who cherishes and
sustains you)?” they said: Yes! We do testify!” (This), lest ye
should on the Day of udgment: “Of this we were never
mindful.

Later, a third group is added to chivalry letter of Zarkūb as drinking

(s ur ) chivalry that refers to the Prophetic tradition of his homage, with his

14
Zakeri, Sasanic Soliders, p. 57-69.
15
Zarrinkūb, ʻAbd al-Husayn (2000), Jus jū Dar Tasawwuf Iran, Tehran, Amīr Kabīr, p. 82.
10
companion and the people of Mecca. According to his order, they drank milk

with a bit salt in order to keep their oath. 16

These classifications are clarified by the most comprehensive studies

about the chivalry base of translation of some chivalry letters by doyen of

chivalry Franz Täschner. He separated the development of chivalry thought from

its social progress. These two elements became connected in the period of

Abbasid Caliph Al-Nā īr lī Dīn Allāh (577/1181– 620/1233) and never separated

from each other. According to him, chivalry was originated outside the realm of

religion proper and later adapted itself to Sufism.17Thus, he viewed chivalry as

having developed the notion in the context of Sufism, while its earlier form as

having en oyed the support of the Persian aristocracy and lesser kings, centuries

before al-Nā īr.18

Most of the modern European Orientalists are prone to regard chivalry

phenomena as purely or pre-eminently social ones. They, therefore, usually

associate chivalry with a certain social phenomenon; since, its institutional form

appeared during the reign of the Abbasid Caliph Nāsīr. One valuable work in this

field belongs to Claude Cahen (1909-1991), the French Orientalist, who raised

important issues about the purpose of Caliph al-Nā īr to transform chivalry group

as aristocratic institution. Cahen treated the role of Caliph more than being a

symbolic supreme leader for chivalrous, or to bring stability to an anarchistic

decentralized institution and to unit Sunni, S ʻ , Sufi’s Muslims, and even non-

16
Ibid
17
Täschner, Franz (1932), "Futuwwa-Studien: Die Futuwwabünde in der Turkei und ihre
Literatur," Islamica, Vol. 5, pp. 285-333.
18
Idem (19 6), “Futuwwa, ein gemeinschaftsbildende Idee im mittlealterischen Orient und ihre
verschiedene Erscheinungs Formen”, Sc iz risc s Arc iv fūr Vo kskund 52, pp. 122-58;
Zakeri, Sasanid Soliders, pp. 3-4.
11
Muslim minorities. 19According to him, the further understanding of Caliph Na īr

might be sought in the role of one of his advisors, shaykh Shihāb al-Dīn

Suhrawardī. Cahen asserted that the early ideas in reforming chivalry

organization were probably not from Caliph, but from Suhrawardī. To him,

Suhrawardī was the master-mind of religious, political and social reforms of

chivalry. Cahen, like Massignon, described Salmān as "The patron of Irano-

Mesopotamian artisans” as essential, so that he was known later as the source of

chivalry’s genealogy of Nā īr 20. However, the question why such an exalted

family tree, created only during the Abbasid Caliph al-Nā īr, and in spite of their

Sunni belief officially highlighted by the popular figures of S ʻ , stayed

unsolved.

In addition to the role of community leaders, the urban fraternities

proceeded by both Muslim and Christian in thirteenth and fourteenth century

Anatolia played an important political and social function. Despite that these

associations have been addressed in scholarship, the comprehensive study

belongs to Rachel Goshgarian (2007).21His survey presented what function these

associations performed, how they were organized, and how their relationship with

cities and with various contemporary religious and political authorities was

established.

Moreover, during the Abbasid Caliph, a variety of chivalry letters were

written by different crafts and artisans, where their activities experienced their

peaks. They developed different methods and practice attributed to the specific

19
Cahen, Claude (19 1), “Note sur les debuts de la Futuwwa d’n-Nasir”, Orien 6, p. 20- 21), as
cited by Qamar, al-Huda (2003), Striving for Divine Union, Spiritual Exercises for Suhrewardi
Sufis, London, Routledge Curzon, p. 29-30.
20
Cahen (1960), "Futuwwa," in: Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 2, Leiden, Brill, p.964.
21
Rachel Goshgarian (2007), Beyond the Social and Spiritual: Redefining the Urban
Confraternities of Late Medieval Anatolia, Ph.D Dissertation, Harvard University.
12
craft. In this regard, it is worth mentioning the works of Iranian scholar, Mihrān

Afshārī, who edited and published a number of these letters, like chivalry letters

of backers, felting, burlap weave, scale, Butcher, slaughterer, Bath keeper and

Barber. 22His latest work is published in 2012 and presents another thirty

manuscripts of these letters.23 They are valuable sources and symbols of images,

which opens the door for further investigation about chivalry among crafts and

artisans in different fields such as sociological formation, literature and arts.

A parallel study on the basis of Sufi’s writing has been, recently, done by

Lioyd Ridgon in his book, Morals and Mysticism in Persian Sufism: A History of

Sufi-Futuwwa (2010) in Iran.24 He studied the social dimension of chivalry in the

ground of Sufism, which promoted certain standards or regulations for communal

living. In this regard, he presented the pattern of chivalry on the basis of the

Persian Sufi Kharaqānī (d. 42 /1034), whose spiritual manner and path of reach

the reality was summarized to service people. 25However, he tried to depict the

connection between chivalry, spirituality, bazaars and various trades therein, but

in the pattern chivalry provided by him, it was difficult to distinguish between the

borders of chivalry and spirituality.

However, the relation of chivalry with Sufism does not limit to its social

appearance, but also identified as a set of virtues manifested in the character of

the Prophet (p.b.u.h) and his companion. In this regard, Abd al-Azīz Muhammad,

in his book Al-Fu u Fi f ū al-Is ā iyy : Dirās Fi -Ak āq -

Is ā iyy h, discussed the relation of chivalry with Sufism and came to the idea

22
Afshārī, Mihrān (2003), Fu u ā -H W R sā’i K āksāriyy , Tehran, Pa ūheshgāh
‘Ulūm Insānī Wa Mu āliʻāt Farhangī and idem (2005), ā ārd Risā D r ā Fu u
W Aṣnāf, Tehran, Nashr-e Chishmeh.
23
Afshrī, Mihrān (2011), Si Risā Dig r, Tehran, Nashr-e Chishmeh.
24
Ridgon, Liyod V.J. (2010), Morals and Mysticism in Persian Sufism: A History of Sufi-
Fu ū in Ir n, New York, N.Y., Routledge.
25
Ibid, pp. 50-53.
13
that the concept of chivalry in Sufism has crossed the limit of honor and

generosity and is defined as a kind of sacrificing. 26 In fact, after Islam, that part of

religious rules and intellectual principles related to the life of people in the

community during the centuries, has been relieved and shaped in the form of

moral rules that the believer committed himself to follow in order to satisfy God.

This kind of chivalry is distinguishing itself from the historical chivalry.

Yet, the notion of chivalry has gone beyond the code of ethic and has come

in connection with the fine, deep meaning of spirituality. This semantic evolution

that remains far from the scholarly sight, began through the creation of theory of

W ḥd -Wujūd by Ibn ‘Arabī and preserved and continued by his disciples.

This chivalry, except for some primary characters like generosity, patience and

hospitality, was different from the definition provided by earlier Sufis like Sulamī

and al-Ghazalī. Henry Corbin (1903-1987), whose interest was esoteric tradition

of Islam, tried through his short speech, to present the esoteric meaning behind

superficial conception of chivalry. 27He focused on the connection of chivalry

with the Divine spiritual testimony. He explained the inborn nature of humanity

was determined by the tone of the response to the question, “Alastu” of the

Qur’ān (7:171), and illuminated the source of eternal youth.28

Moreover, he sought the trace of the ancient religion in chivalry, which was

revived in the Suhrawardī wisdom as a cosmic vision of duality between darkness

26
Abd al-Aziz Muhammad (1998), Al-Fu u F f ū -Is ā iyy : Dirās F -
Ak āq -Is ā iyy , Alexandris, Dār al-Wafā’ Li al- ibā’ah wa al-Nashr al-Tawzi’, pp. 22-25.
27
Corbin, Henry (1973), "Youthfulness in Iranian Islam - Part 1 was published in Vol.11. Rhone
comments: "Called in at the last minute to replace another speaker, Corbin gave this two-part
lecture at the Eranos Conference of 1971. Part II, translated into English by Christine Rhone,
available in the Temenos Academy Review, Vol. 12. The French original is “ uvénilité et
chevalerie (Javânmardî) en Islam iranien”, Eranos-Jahrbuch, XL/1971, Leiden, Brill, pp 311-356.
28
Laude, Patrick (2010), Pathways to an Inner Islam: Massignon, Corbin, Guénon, and Schuon,
New York, SUNY Press, p. 160.
14
and the legend of light. The chivalrous are the warriors and defenders of the light

that evokes implicit meaning of fighting with the contamination of the soul.

In sum up, despite numbers studies of chivalry, which attached chivalry in

its origin, history and rituals, there are few surveys about the spiritual chivalry.

As noted chivalry was adapted by Sufism and Sufis wrote treatise on chivalry in

order to construct chivalry in individual and social form on the basis of religious

elements. Although, the main element of concept of chivalry, which is

determined by Sufis is stable, but there are defined in different plane of School of

Thought. The development of the concept of chivalry within the context of

Sufism is the matter of question. Even though, Corbin opened the path of

investigation to the inner meaning of chivalry, those inner dimensions reveal

many comparable forms and structures that need further investigation.

Therefore, this study will depict how the systematic theoretical chivalry is

developed within the School of W d -Wujūd by Kāshānī; in addition, it will

depict the progress of the development of the notion of chivalry from twelfth to

sixtheen by comparing the chivalry letter of Kāshānī with chivalry letters of

Suhrawardī and Wāiz Kāshifī Sabzewārī (d. 910/1504). It will show how chivalry

in the ground of School of W d -Wujūd has potentiality to deal to

knowledge of reality of human being and his dignity in term of human being.

15
1.7 METHODOLOGY

Due to the nature of the study, generally, the researcher designates the qualitative

methodology appropriate to its significant advantages. One of the advantages of

this methodology, here, is more open to the adjusting, regenerating and

administering of research ideas as an inquiry process. Aside from this, the

researcher provides rich and well-grounded descriptions and explanations as well

as unforeseen findings for new theory construction. Below are some major

methods that being used in this study. The method of translation is not yet

presented here as it will be presented in chapter five together with the translation.

1.7.1 DATA COLLECTION

The research’s main means of data collection is library research, for which the

following libraries are referred:

1. The main and Islamic Library of University of Malaya in Malaysia

2. The library of University of Tehran in Iran

3. The library of Ma lis Shawrā Islamī in Tehran/Iran

In the process of explicating of data, both primary and secondary sources

are consulted to gather the relevant information. In chapter two, by collection of

data about Kāshānī, the priority is given to primary sources. In chapter three, the

priority of data collection is given to the secondary researches, which involves

mostly the examination of Persian and Western researcher.

The original description of this treatise is lost; however, there are two copies

available in library in Iran. A copy is in the Library of Ma lis Shawrā Islamī in

Tehran and the second in the Malik library in Tehran. In addition to the Arabic

16
prescription, there is the second CL written in Persian by the same author.

Therefore, there are two CL in Arabic and Persian, which are written by the same

author and have the same title.

The Persian Prescription is in the collection of 167 different treatises in

Arabic and Persian in the library of Tehran University. It is a microfilm of the

prescription, which is kept in the diyy library in Turkey. There are three

publications of this treatise: First, is a cooperative work of Murti ā arrāf and

Henry Corbin under the title, R sā’i J ān rdān, published 1973. 29Second, is

the study of Muhammad Dāmādī, 1991. 30 And, the latest one is the study of

Ma īd Hādī Zādeh, who collected Kāshānī’s treatises in a compilation called

j ūʻ R sāi W uṣ nn fā A d -R zzāq Kās ān , and published it in

2002.31 Pages 525 through 563 contain the Arabic version. This version is the

source of translation for this research; since, it is based on the comparison of the

two above publications. In addition, the author gives suggestion in the footnote, if

some words are not clear to read or even if he found any faults in writings. It is

pertinent to mention that two later publishing contain also the Persian version of

this treatise.

29
Corbin, Henry & arrāf, Murti ā (1973), R sā’i J ān rdān, Tehran, French Institute of
Iranian Scholarly Research.
30
Kāshānī, Abd al-Razzāq (1991), uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān, Studied by
Muhammd Dāmādī, Tehran, ‘Ilmī Farhangī.
31
Hādīzādeh, Ma īd (2002), j ūʻ R sāi uṣ nn fā A d -R zāq Kās ān , Tehran,
Mirāth-e-Maktūb.
17
1.7.2 DATA ANALYSIS

In the process of the Kāshānī’s life, all historical works and Sufis writings that

touched his life, character, thought, and manner are gathered and studied in

chapter two. In chapter three, the popular theories about the origin of chivalry are

collected and critically studied. Chivalry is discussed in three appearances as

semi religious bonds in trades association, martial connotation and within Sufism.

It is a combined historical and religious approach, in order to shed light on the

growth and development of the chivalry during the Islamic history. It depicts

how, as a code of ethical qualities of human, it manifested itself as a religious-

social School.

An analogical Analysis designated in chapter four to examine and evaluate

uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān through comparing to similar treatises

written by other Sufis. As Kāshānī wrote this treatise first in Arabic and second in

Persian, they are compared in this chapter and the differences are highlighted.

For the annotated translation of uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān

which presented in Chapter Five, I translated it using Arabic language manuscript

into English Language. In order to validate the accurancy of translation, the

experts in this area, Associate Professor Dr Wan Suhaimi Wan Abdullah from

University of Technology Malaysia and Associate Professor Dr Che Zarrina

Sa’ari from University of Malaya had put their efforts in reviewing it.

Chapter six is an internal critical analysis of the concept of chivalry,

according to Kāshānī. In this regard, the emphasis has been given to the

fundamental principle of chivalry and selected doctrines such as wisdom and

justice. A comparative study between Kāshānī and Sufis from twelfth to early

sixteenth century, Suhrawardī and Wāiz Kāshifī, is necessary to illuminate the

18
development of the notion of chivalry. The researcher combines all these methods

in this research in order to provide a critical analysis of the concept and annotate

translation of the text.

1. THE STRUCTURE OF RESEARCH

In order to accomplish such critical assessing work within the requirement of

scientific research, this study is divided to seven chapters including introduction

and conclusion. Chapter one is the preliminary chapter that comprises literature

review, statement of problem, objectives, methodology and significant of the

study. Chapter two involves with Kāshānī’s life, works and contribution to

Sufism. Chapter three addresses historical background of chivalry as well as its

relation to Sufism. Chapter four presents uḥf h -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān

in its title, publication, translation, style and method of writing, division and

partition. Chapter five contains the translation of the treatise into English.

Chapter six is a comparative discussion on definition of chivalry and its

foundation and doctrine. Chapter seven deals with outcomes of the research and

brings up new questions and suggestion for the further studies.

19
 CHAPTER 2

ʻABD AL-RAZZᾹQ KᾹSHᾹNῙ:

LIFE, WORKS AND CONTRIBUTION TO SUFISM

20
2.0 INTRODUCTION

Our knowledge about Kāshānī’s life is very little. What we know about him is

limited to sporadic information, written by him in some of his treatises, according

to demands of text and not with the intention of introducing himself. In addition,

there are few historian books from which we can derive information about him.

The collection of Kāshānī’s Treatises, by Ma īd Hādī Zādeh, however, should be

mentioned, as it includes information about Kāshānī’s life. 32This paper depicts

great interest in the preparation of Kāshānī’s biography. In addition, it will

present his works and his place in Sufism, especially his impact on Persian

Sufism.

2.1 THE LIFE OF KᾹSHᾹNĪ

Kamāl al-Dīn Abū al-Fa l ʻAbd al-Razzāq Ibn amāl al-Dīn Abū al-Ghanāʻim al-

Kāshānī (6 0 /1252 to 736 /133 ) was born into a Persian family in Kāshān,

located in the province Khurāsān and 240 Kilometer south of Tehran. He,

therefore, was sometimes called Qāshī, Qāsānī, Kāshī, which all are the different

names of his birth place, Kāshān. 33

The oldest source mentioned to ʻAbd al-Razzāq Kāshānī is the

summarization of j ʻ -Ādā F uʻj -A qā , by Ibn al-Fūwa ī (d.

32
Hādī Zādeh, Ma id (2000), j ūʻ R sā’i W uṣ nn fā ʻA d -R zzāq Kās ān ,
Tehran, Mirāth Maktūb.
33
Ibn al-Fūwa ī, Muhammad, al-Kā im (1995), j ʻ -Ādā F uʻj -A qā , Tehran,
Irshād Islāmī, Vol.4, p. 180, No: 3620; Qay arī, Dawūd Ibn Mahmūd (1996), S rḥ Fuṣūs -
ik , Tehran, Elmī Farhangī, p.4 and Mudarris Tabrizī (199 ), Rayḥān -Adab, Tehran,
Khayyām, p. 34; Lory, Pierre (2004), Les Commentoires esoteriques du Quran, Persian
translation by Zaynab Pudineh Āqāī, Tehran, Hikmat p. 2 .
21
624/1227), who died sixteen years before Kāshānī. 34In addition, we can learn

about Kāshānī in the writing of his disciple, Qay arī Rūmī (d.751/1350)35, whose

commentary on Fusūs - ik is well known. He recognized the name of

Kāshānī’s fathers as Abū al-Fa l, with the title of Kamāl al-Dīn, and, therefore,

described his master as “Perfection of Nation, Reality and Religion” (K ā -

i W - qW -D n)36. This title is also confirmed by ʻAllāmah Amīn

‘Āmilī (d. 1284/190 )37, Mu addith Qumī (d. 1294/1915).38 Both Ibn al-Fūwa ī

and Qay arī identified the name of his grandfather as Abū al-Ghanā’im. 39

There are three other great masters, who possess the same name as ʻAbd

al-Razzāq, which may be confused with Kāshānī. First, Abū Fa l Kāmāl al-Dīn

ʻAbd al-Razzāq Ibn A mad, one of his contemporary Sufi, who was known as

Ibn al-Fūwa ī al-Shaybānī (d. 723/1323),40the author of j ʻ -Ādā F

uʻj -A qā . The second is Kāmāl al-Dīn ʻAbd al-Razzāq Ibn Is āq

34
Kamāl al-Dīn ʻAbd al-Razzāq Ibn A mad Ibn al-Fūwa ī was an Iraqi historian, who wrote a
great deal, but whose works have mostly been lost. His most important work is j ʻ -Ādā
F u'j -A qā in 50 volumes, which is lost its large portions, but only two volumes (4 & 5)
are survived. They are in Library virtual Damascus and library of University of Lahore in
Pakistan.S See: Singh, NK. & Samiuddin, A. (2004), Encyclopaedic Historiography of Muslim
World, Delhi, Global Vision Publishing House, p. 374.
35
Dāwūd Ibn Ma mūd Ibn Mu ammad Qay arī was the disciple of ʻAbd al-Razzāq Kāshānī. His
systematic philosophical introduction to Fuṣūṣ al- ikam itself became the object of other
commentaries. See: Rama Sankar Yadav & B.V. Mandal (2007), Global Encyclopedia of
Education, edited by NK. Singh, Vil. 1, Delhi, Global Vision Publishing House, P. 121.
36
Qay arī, S rḥ Fuṣūs - ik , p. 4.
37
ʻAllāmah Seyyid Mu sin ‘Āmilī (Born 190 in Iran) was one of S ʻ Scholars, whose
important book is Aʻyān -S ʻ in 55 volumes, which is an Encyclopedia of famous S ʻi
men as explanation of Imamiyyah Teaching. See: Amin, Haytham (2000), S r -S yyid uḥsin
al-A n, Qum, Dār al-Najm al- adīd.
38
Shaykh Abbas Qumī known as Muḥ ddi Qu was born in 1915 in Qum/ Iran. His famous
work is fā iḥ al-Jinān, which is a collection of Imamiyyah d about praying. See:
Mahdavi, Shireen (1999), For God, Mammon and country: A Nineteenth Century Persian
Merchant, Hā Muhammad Hassan Amin al-Zarb, USA, Westview Press, p. 259.
39
Qay arī, S rḥ Fuṣūs - ik , p. 4; Kāshānī, Abd al-Razzāq (1984), Iiṣ i ḥā - ūfiyy ,
Studied by ʻAbd al-Khāliq Ma mud, Cairo, Dār al-Maʻārif, 2th ed. p. 31-32.
40
alā al-Dīn Abū ‘Abd al-Allāh (1974), F ā al-W fiā , Beirut, Dār-e ār, Vol 1, p. 272; Al-
Imām Shihāb al-Dīn Abī al-Falā , S d rā -D Fi Ak ār nD , Studied by Abd
al-Qādir and Mahmūd al- Arnāu (1986), Beirut, Dār Ibn Kathīr, Vol 6, p 60; Zereklī, Khayr al-
Dīn (1986), al-ʻA ā , Beirut, Dār al-‘Ilm Lil Malāīn, Vol 3, p. 349; Āmilī, Mu sin Amīn (1983),
Aʻyān -S ʻ , Vol 8, Beirut, Dār al-Taʻarruf Lil Ma būʻāt, p. .
22
Samarqandī (d. 887/1482),41the author of ʻ S ʻd n j ʻ ḥrayn.

The third one is ʻIzz al-Dīn Ma mūd Kāshānī (d. 735/1335), the author of

iṣ āḥ -Hidāy if āḥ -Kifāy and K s f -Wujū - r ʻ n

-Dur.

The beginning of the second half of the fourteen century, when Kāshānī

started his education, was synchronized with the Mongol’s reign. Before then,

Persia, Iraq, Syria and Asia Minor were the home of culture and education. There

were hundreds of schools in Hirat, Nayshābūr, I fahān, Ba rah and Baghdād, but

after the Mongol’s devastation, these centers were completely destroyed. Most

masters and students were killed or forced to leave these centers. And, even if

some of them remained, they lost their previous glory and

importance.42Therefore, Kāshānī spent his entire life in insecure times, with

ravaging of Chinggis relatives. It was in this period that Kāshānī studied the

traditional religious science. Unfortunately, we do not have much information

about him in this period, but according to his letter to ʻAlā’ al-Dawlah Simnānī,

we can assume that he would have been an expertise in Fiqh, Had th, Tafs r and

Theology and Knowledge of Courtesy and Wisdom43. His Al-S āniḥ al-

Ghaybiyyah is proof of his proficiency in Arabic literature. Although, he did not

write any treatises about Fiqh and Had th, his works are full of knowledge of

theology and logic. His treatise d ’ W ʻād is a bare sample of his

widespread knowledge of Had th. Hence, his deciple, Dāwūd Qay arī called him
41
He is the author of Ma ʻ S ʻd n j ʻ ḥrayn, an important historical source about the
Mongol and Taymurid’s period. There are three valid prescriptions available in library of Iran and
Turkey. See: Zarrinkūb, ‘Abd al- usayn (2000), Dun ā - Jus ijū D r ṣ uf Ir n, Tehran,
Amir Kabir, p. 49.
42
‘A ā Mulk Ibn Muhammad ūwaynī (2007), ār k - J āngus ā, studied by ʻAllāmah
Qazwīnī, Tehran, Ferdaws, Vol.1, p.139; Istarābādī, Muhammd Qāsim Hindūshāh, r k -e
Fereshteh (2010), Tehran, An uman Āthār wa Mafākhir Farhangī, p.121; Saliba, George (2007),
Islamic Science and Making of the European Renaissance, USA, MIT Press, pp. 236-243.
43
See Kāshānī’s first letter to ʻAlā’ al-Dawlah Simnānī in: Hādizādeh, Ma īd (2000), j ūʻ
R sā’i us nn fā ʻA d -R zzāq Kās ān , Tehran, Mirāth Maktūb.
23
“Master of Scholars” and Sayyid aydar Āmulī (d. after 782/1380)44 described

him as “The Greatest master and Sea of Middling (al- ū -‘A am wa al-Baḥr

al-Khaḍm) also positioning him at the level of Imām Fakhr Rāzī (d. 606/1209), 45

Khawjah Na īr al-Dīn ūsī (d. 672/1273)46, Imām al-Ghazālī (d. 0 /1111) and

Avicenna (d. 428/1037).47According to āmī, he is the one, who possesses both

inward and outward knowledge.48

According to Kāshānī’s notes, some of the Sufi masters played important

roles in his life: 49Sharaf al-Dīn Ibrāhīm Ibn adr al-Dīn Rūzbahān (d. 68 /1286),

shaykh A īl al-Dīn Abd Allāh Ibn ʻAlī Ibn Abī al-Ma āsin Ibn Saʻd Ibn Mahdī

al-‘Alawī al-Mu ammadī (d. 68 /1316), shaykh Nūr al-Dīn Abd al-Ra mān

Isfarāyenī (d. ca. 698/1299) and Nūr al-Dīn Abd al- amad Ibn ‘Alī I fahānī

Na anzī (d. 699/1300) and Shams al-Dīn Mu ammad Ibn A mad al- akim Kīshī

(d. 694/1295) and shaykh Ẓahīr al-Dīn ʻAbd al-Ra mān Ibn Na īb al-Dīn ‘Alī Ibn

Buzghush Shirāzī (d.716/1316) and Nā īr al-Dīn Abū āmid Ma mūd Ibn al-

Imām Ḍiā’ al-Dīn Abū al- asan Masʻūd Ibn Ma mūd al-Shirāzī (d. 70 /1306).

In addition to these seven masters, Kāshānī also named another two masters of

44
He was the Persian jurist and Sufi, who was follower of Kubrawiyyah Order. He tried to
demonstrate that S ʻ and genuine Sufism have same source and basic origin. See: Sufism, An
Entry to Encyclopaedia of the World of Islam (2012), ed. By Ghulām ‘Alī Haddād ‘Ādil &
Muhammad afar & Tāromī, Rād, UK, EWI Press, p. 55.
45
Abū Abd Allāh Mu ammad Ibn ‘Umar Ibn usayn Ibn asan Ibn Alī abaristānī Rāzī, was a
well-known Persian Sunni Muslim, theologian and philosopher. He also wrote on medicines,
physics, astrology, literature, history and law. See: N. Hanif (2002), Biographical Encyclopaedia
of Sufis: Central Asia and Middle East, New Delhi, Sarup & Sons, Vol. 2, p. 372.
46
Khawjah Mu ammad Ibn Mu ammad Ibn asan ūsī better known as Na īr al-Dīn al- ūsī
was a Persian polymath and prolific writer, an astronomer, biologist, chemist, mathematician,
philosopher, physician, physicist, scientist, theologian. The Muslim scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332–
1406) considered him to be the greatest of the later Persian scholars. See: Boyle, J. A. (2001), The
Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge UK, University press, 4th ed., Vol. 5, p. 620.
47
Āmulī, Sayyid aydar (2008), Jā iʻ -Asrār n ʻ - An ār , Tehran, Hermes, p.498.
48
āmī, Nūr al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Ra mān (1988), Nafaḥā -Uns in ḍ rā -Quds, Tehran,
Saʻdī, p.482.
49
Lory, Les Commentoires esoteriques, Persian trans.,p. 234.
24
whom we have a few information: first Nūr al-Dīn Abar Qūhī, and second shaykh

Qu b al-Dīn Ibn Ḍīyā’ al-Dīn Abī al- asan.50

The most life of Kāshānī spent to join acompny Nūr al-Dīn Abd al-

amad Na anzī and Shams al-Dīn Kishī instead of traveling. He himself was an

experienced master of lots of students and taught the mysterious text like Fuṣūṣ

al- ikam. One of his prominent students, Dāwud Qay arī (d. 751/1350) reportet:

“As I oined to my master, al-Qāsānī, a group of my brothers was

learning about the mysterious knowledge about the beauty (al-J ā )
and glory (al-J ā ) of God through reading Fuṣū - ikam by him”.51

Qay arī, whose commentary on Fuṣūṣ - ik is the most widely read

commentary in the eastern land of Islam, undoubtedly, learned Fusūs by

Kāshānī. 52Kāshānī and his students were under the protection of Persian Sufi’s

minister, Khawjah Ghīyāth al-Dīn Mu ammad. 53

Kāshānī at the late of his life had a journey to Sul āniyyah, where he

decided to contact ʻAlā al-Dawlah Simnānī (d. 736/1336). According to āmī,

Mīr Iqbāl Sīstānī accompanied Kāshānī in this journey and their discussion about

the W ḥd -Wujūd gave him the idea to write a letter to Simnānī. 54Their

correspondences is related to the one of challenging and interesting debate about

the conception of t ḥ d, according to theory of Ibn Arabī’s teaching, called

W ḥd -Wujūd. These two letters are the representative of two different

Schools of thought called W ḥd -Wujūd and W ḥd -S u ūd, while they

50
Ibid, p. 234.
51
Qaysarī, S rḥ Fuṣūs - ik , p. 4.
52
Chittick, William C. (2000), A Short Introduction to Sufism, One World Publications, The
University of Michigan, p. 28; Ali Khan, Massood & Shaykh Azhar Iqbal (2005), Encyclopaedia
of Islam, New Delhi, Common wealth Publisher, p. 274; Sankar Yadav, Rama & Mandal, B. V.
(2007), Global Encyclopedia of Education, New Delhi, Global publishsing House, Vol. 1, p. 119)
and Na r, Seyyed Hossein (1996), History of Islam, London, Routledge, p. 518
53
Amir Ghīāth al-Dīn Mu ammad Ibn Rashīd al-Dīn Fa l Allāh, The Ministery of Ilkhanid reign.
54
āmī, ʻAbd al-Rahmān Ibn Ahmad (1991), qd - usūs F S r qs -Fusus, Tehran,
Mu’assessah Mutāliʻāt wa Tahqīqāt Farhangī, p.482 and Simnānī, ‘Alā al-Dawlah (1984), al-
ʻUr A -Khalwah wa al-Jilwah, Studied by Na īb Māil Hirawī, Tehran, Mawlā, p. 46.
25
are based on the same principle Unity (w ḥd ). Kāshānī wrote these letters as he

was settled in kāshān.55Later, he decided to go to Na anz, where the journey of

his education was started and his first master was rested in his tomb. That was the

place, where he found his way for the first and rest for ever.

2.2 KᾹSHᾹNĪ ON THE STATE OF AL-KARAM AND AL-QᾹD R

The prominent trait of Kāshānī, is his courtesy to his masters and his effort to

exonerate some of his contemporary scholars from blasphemous accusations. In

addition, his tolerant and gentle approach toward his opponents shows his high

spiritual stage in the spiritual path. This characteristic earned him the tendency

and cooperation of minister, Khawjah Ghīyāth al-Dīn Mu ammad (d.

736/1336),56which depicts his respectful place and influence in Mongol

government.57

He clearly speaks about two spiritual stages, which he attained during his

life: al-kar m and al-qād r. As he explained about “al-‘I ād ” in āif al-

Aʻ ā F Is ārā -I ā , when the term slave (ʻabd) is added to one of

God’s attributions, it means that this attribution is completely manifested in the

slave.58 According to Kāshānī’s point of view, ʻa d A ā is a slave of God, who

manifested the name ʻabd, in other words, he is an image of all God’s names and

attributes, because he attained the ultimate stage of manifestation, which is the

most complete expression of God’s attributes. Hence, he has the high rank among

55
Ibid, p. 488.
56
The minister of Abū Saʻīd Ilkhān Mongol ( 1317-1336)
57
Mustawfī, Hamd Allāh (1982), ār k uz d , Tehran, Markaz Nashr Dānishgāhī, p. 610;
Kāshānī, ʻAbd al-Razzāq (1993), S rḥ nāzi -Sā r n, Studied by Muhsin Bidārfar, Qum,
Bidār, p. 2.
58
Kāshānī, ʻAbd al-Razzāq (1992), Iṣ i āḥā - ūfiyy , edited by ʻAbd al-Sharif, Cairo, Dār
al-Manār, p. 124
26
creatures and serves God in the complete form of slavery. This stage, certainly,

belongs to Prophet (p.b.u.h).59

However, Kāshānī was able to manifest two names of God: al-kar m and al-

qād r. Al-kar m is one of God’s names. Arabs call a person kar m, who forgives

the guilty and is kind to misbehavers.60According to Kāshānī, al-kar m is a stage,

in which God purifies the believer from all moral failure and gifted him ethical

adornment. He is aware of God as generous and merciful and hopes for God’s

forgiveness. In his eyes, people’s sins are worthless against the forgiveness of

God. Moreover; he is aware of his stage and does not exceed his limit. He knows

that the original owner is God and everything he has is a gift from Him; hence, he

shares his assets with other people and forgives their failures.61 He wrote:

The whole matter is that I am your slave (ʻabd),

The slave of a generous would never be mistreated,
It is true that I committed many sins,
But forgiveness is a custom of generous.62

In his point of view, abd al-qādir is a person, who manifests the name al-

qād r. He observes God’s mighty anywhere and God’s power is beyond

others.63Therefore he argued:

“… This slave (ʻabd al-qādir) strongly believes the strength of God’s

assistance to creations; therefore, he finds the mortality of himself and
the humility and worthless of stage of believers; as he saw the power

59
Ibid, 126.
60
Samʻānī, Shahāb al-Dīn A mad (1989), Rūḥ al-Ar āḥ F S rḥ As ā’ - u k -F āḥ,
Tehtran, Na īb Mā’il Hirawī, Bunyād, p. 367.
61
Kāshānī, Iṣ i āḥā - ūfiyy , p. 133-134
62
Kāshānī (2001), La āif -Aʻ ā F Is ārā -I ā , Studied by Ma īd Hādī Zādeh, Tehran,
Mirāth Maktūb, p. 0 .
63
Kāshānī,, Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , p. 139.
27
 of God existing in everything, he finds himself more needful than the
slightest person”.64

He is aware that the entire mighty belongs to God and His might cover all of

creation. All actions and reactions are the manifestation of His mighty and

nothing is beyond it; therefore, he portrayed God’s power that nothing can be a

barrier to Him from doing the right thing. On the other hand, he finds himself a

humble and needful person and subsequently has understanding and tolerance

towards his opponents. He wrote about the stage of al-qādir:

I am slave to the power of Allāh,

When it appears in the action of resident,
Hence, I am characterized by humiliation and disability,
needful of the slightest being. 65

According to Sufis, the supreme ethics is attainable by gaining these two

stages. Kāshānī’s conduct against mistreatment of his opponents shows us the

manifestation of these two ethics in his personality. For example, ʻAlā al-Dawlah

Simnānī excommunicated him and claimed that he is far of pure food and right

saying; however, Kāshānī wrote him:

“… To great shaykh of Islam, guardian of shar ʻah, whose inner is

illuminated of light of faith and peripatetic, are the resident of his
glory marquee and… ”.

Then, politely continues:

“… After praying for you, I should confess that I, as a poor Sufi,

never mentioned your name without full of curtsey … I thought you
may not agree with it and it may bother you…”

64
Ibid.
65
Kāshānī (2001), La āif -Aʻ ā F Is ārā -I ā , p. 512.
28
 So, it is clear that he did not lose his courtesy and tolerance against his

opponents; since he is aware that every action is not out of his power and might;

rather, he tried to answer with respect and covers their mistakes. In one of his

treatises about a famous person,66He wrote:

“…One of great master, a guardian of shar ʻah, whose piety is basis

of his knowledge calls one of pervious scholars as unawareness and
lost, and claimed that he deserves punishment because of doing some
mistakes, while he was a knowledgeable scholar …”67.

The courtesy, tolerance, acceptance and interaction according to all

groups of Sufis, theologian and jurisprudence, are the prominent qualities of his

character. Study Islamic literatures from fourteenth century onward, depict the

polemical discussion around Ibn Arabī’s legacy. It is not surprising, when Aw id

al-Dīn Kirmānī (d. 63 /1238) was called innovative by Shihāb al-Dīn

Suhrawardī68or ʻAlā al-Dawlah Simnānī, clearly, held no respect for shaykh

Akbar. In this regard, some Sufis took it upon themselves to protect his teaching

vis-à-vis the controversial Muslim masters. In this regard, Kāshānī, as a

commentator of Ibn ʻArabī’s teachings, chose a different way from others. It is

clear, who finds himself more needful than the slightest person, can never

disrespect other masters.

2.3 THE PLACE OF KᾹSHᾹNĪ IN SUFISM

Kāshānī, certainly, is one of most prolific writers in the history of Sufism.

Although he is mostly known as a commentator, but in this part we will describe

those characteristic features of his writings that help to presents him as an aspired

66
He might be Ibn ʻArabī.
67
Lory, Les Commentoires, Persian trans., p. 229.
68
Suhrawardī, Shihāb al-Dīn (1987), Rashaf al-Naṣā’iḥ al-I āniyy K sf -F d ā’i -
Yūnāniyy , Tehran, Na īb Mā’ail Hirawī, Bunyād, p. .
29
Sufi author and to explain his great influence on Sufism, especially in Persian

Sufism, not only as a commentator, but also as an independent thinker.

2.3.1 KᾹSHᾹNĪ AS A COMMENTATOR

In the Muslim world, Kāshānī’s name is knotted to Ibn Arabī as a commentator

of his teachings. His interpretations bewildered both his Muslim and non-Muslim

readers. Although, Ibn Arabī’s works has been interpreted by some other Sufis

like Qūnawī (d. 673/1274), Tilmisānī (d. 690/1291), andī (d. 691/1292) and

Furghānī (d. 699/1300), Kāshānī’s commentaries possess a unique place among

them.69 In this regard, the Persian Professor Bidārfar has a comparison study

between Kāshānī and Tilmisānī commentary on Fuṣūṣ al- ikam.70However,

Kāshānī’s commentary is not as long as Tilmesānī, but it is a comprehensive

interpretation written in simple literature. Actually, Kāshānī’s style of

classification is the prominent point, which differ his commentaries from others. 71

It is worthy of mention that,- almost one century after Ibn Arabī,- the

School of W ḥd -Wujūd was in ultimate widespread by his disciples, and its

vocabulary and related subjects were fixed. Therefore, Kāshānī could use more

creative allegories and spiritual terms without religious apologies, and he tried to

regularize the metaphysical theories founded by Ibn ʻArabī.

In addition, Kāshānī’s tendency to write simple and keeping away from

complex literary expression, absorbed not only academics, but also a broad band

of non-specialists, who were interested in Sufism;72even contemporary scholars

69
Sankar Yadav, Global Encyclopedia of Education, p. 119.
70
Kāshānī, ʻAbd al-Razzāq, S rḥ nāzi -Sā r n, Mohsin Bidārfar, Tehran, Bīdār, p. 32.
71
Lory, Les Commentaries, Persian trans., p. 34.
72
Āmulī, Sayyid aydar (1992), Naṣ al-Nuṣūṣ, Introduction by William Chittik, Tehran,
Mū’ssisah Mutāliāt wa Ta qiqāt Farhangī, p. 13 and Morris, ames Winston (1987), “Ibn Arabi
30
like Izutsu called Kāshānī the greatest figure emerging from Ibn ʻArabī’s School.

Current scholars recognize his commentary the second source after Fuṣūṣ and

frequently refer to it in order to explain the Ibn ʻArabī’s teaching. 73

Kāshānī’s commentary is not limited only to Fuṣūṣ, his explanation on

nāzi -Sā r n of Khaw ah Abd Allāh An ārī (d. 481/1089) is also well

known to all exponents. shaykh aydar Āmulī (d. 787/138 )74 wrote about it:

“ … And there are some commentaries on nāzi -Sā r n; however,

the greatest and best investigation among them belongs to great master,
Abd al-Razzāq Kāshānī, the complete theist (mū ḥḥid), the king of
Sufis, honor of nation, righteousness and religion”. 75

Moreover, Kashanī’s extraordinary accuracy of text, solutions to

problems, mastery of Persian-Arabic literature and methods of writing; in

addition to his spiritual experience, made his works unique. His teachings are, as

well, taught in courses at some universities and traditional Islamic academics.

Kāshānī himself said about his commentary:

“There was different version of nāzi -Sā r n, in which the phrases

were dissimilar. In some part of it distortion and wrong phrases were
clearly observed, while some other phrases were misleading; therefore, it
was difficult to distinguish the right sentence from the wrong. Until with
God’s help, I received a correct version confirmed by s yk ’s writing in
475 H. So, I started to correct and safely interpret book; since, I felt in
this way shaykh has shown me his permission to work on his book”.76

Generally, the style and method of Kāshānī’s commentaries made them an

extraordinarily archetypal. His explanation of theoretical Sufism, showing the

and his interpreters” , part II, Jornal of American Oriental Society, Vol. 106, pp. 733-756.
(www.ibnarabisociety.org/articlespdf/hi_interpreters3.pdf)
73
Izutsu, Toshihiko (1983), Sufism and Taoism, University of California Publ., p. 23.
74
Sayyid aydar Āmulī was a S ʻi Sufi, philosophers and an early representative of Persian
Imamite theosophy and one of the most distinguished commentators of Ibn ʻArabī, during the 14th
century.
75
Āmulī, aydar (2009), Jā iʻ -Asrār n ’ -An ār, corrected by ‘Uthmān Ismāil
Ya yā and Henry Corbin, Qum, Markaz Mutāliāt wa Madārik Islami, 2th ed., p.326.
76
Kāshānī, S rḥ nāzi -Sā r n, p. 622.
31
individual spiritual realization, can be used as an example by beginners on the

spiritual path.

2.3.2 KᾹSHᾹNĪ AS A CREATOR AUTHOR

Kāshānī is a creative Sufi author making an archetype of guidance for better

understanding of Sufis’ idioms. Ibn al-Fuwa ī expressed on his proficiency and

skills of writing. 77His book, Iṣ i āḥā - ūfiyy , is a key guide for

understanding the different stages of spiritual path (Su ūk).78 It the comprehensive

and most read work in Sufism. It contains 760 Sufi’s technical terms. The sum of

technical terms in Risā Qus yriyy (47 terms), Kashf al- jū (85 terms),

Iṣ i āḥā - ūfiyy of Ibn ‘Arabī’ (251 terms) and the technical terms in Futūḥā

al-Makiyyah (164 terms) is 547 terms, which less than terms in Iṣ i āḥā -

ūfiyy .

Kāshānī’s prayer at the beginning of the book depicts his motivation of

writing this book. He is thankful to God for His mercy for being needless from

reasoning and arguments. Why did Kāshānī begin his prayer with blessing God

for liberation of theologian disputes? His blessing mentions the unending

challenge story between formal theologian and spiritual experiences. 79In fact, we

can find the main aim of Iṣ i āḥā - ūfiyy in this perpetual conflict.

According to Sufis, the Philosophical thought and quoted works are not a reliable

source for discovering truth; therefore, no theologian can attain the real

knowledge. The spiritual knowledge is higher than rational knowledge; since, it is

77
Ibid.
78
Lory, Les Commentaries, Persian trans., p. 34.
79
Kāshānī, Iṣ i āḥā -Sūfiyy , p.3.
32
derived from inspiration, a kind of knowledge beyond the intellect. 80 Hence, the

Sufis talk about this knowledge in an encoded language and conceal the truth

under terms and idioms. According to Kāshānī, these truths are secrets; even

scholars cannot understand them correctly. And if they knew them, they would be

hurt or mislead.81

As it was mentioned before, Kāshānī considered the heritage of two Sufi

zones in order to give a comprehensive image of Sufism. He, however, went

further and analyzed Sufi’s origin in his work Tuḥfah al- Ik ān F Khaṣāiṣ al-

Fi yān. He found the origin of Sufism in futuwwah (chivalry), which was initiated

by Prophet Abraham; about which we will discuss in later chapters. In this

regard, he was more influenced by Khurāsān School; since, chivalry was more

considered and studied by Khurāsān’s Sufis, such as Abd al-Ra mān Sulamī and

Shihāb al-Dīn Suhrawardī, than Sufis in Andalusia and Egypt.

On one hand, Kashānī was familiar with the theology and philosophy of

School of Illumination, His works, on the other hand, not only present the

teaching of Ibn ʻArabī, but also reflect Suhrawardī’s philosophy. Although, in

Kāshānī’s cosmology, the trace of philosophy can be seen, yet it is different from

Fārābī’s and Avecina’s view. For example, from Kāshānī’s cosmology

standpoint, the intellect agent possesses the second stage of determination,

descent, or first stage, after the presence of essence, while it has the tenth stage

according to Fārābī’s and Avecina’s point of view.82

80
Kāshānī, Iṣ i āḥā -Sūfiyy , p. 30; Heon Choul Kim (2008), The Nature and Role of Sufism
in Contemporary Islam: A Case Study of Life and Thought and Teaching of Fethullah Gulen,
United State, ProQuest, p. 199 and Titus Burckhardt (2008), Introduction to Sufi Doctrine,
Indiana, World Wisdom Inc., p. 82-85.
81
Kāshānī, Iṣ i āḥā -Sūfiyyah, p. 3
82
Lory, Les Commentaries, Persian trans., p. 41.
33
 In addition, Kāshānī’s works are providing a set of spiritual worldview in

the origin and resurrection (m d ’ ’ d) treatise. He also has a

comparative analysis to basics principle of religion and Sufism in his Tashr qā

treatise. Another prominent feature of Kāshānī is his efforts for strengthening the

scientific principle of Sufism through its approximation with shar ʻah and

Qur’ān. His remarkable esoteric interpretation ’ ā -Qur’ān, is a proof of

this claim. 83

Kāshānī’s numerous compilations show his high grade knowledge; in

addition, popularizing his writings depicts his importance place in history of

Sufism. According to his disciple, Qaysārī, he taught some of his student

mysterious, delicate and accurate Sufis texts.84Because of his high degree

knowledge and talent to organize difficult subjects and make them

understandable for all classes of people, his students asked him to write a

commentary on Fuṣūṣ -Hik nd nāzi -Sā r n.85

Kāshānī’s several short treatises were mostly written according to request

of his students or state authorities. For example, due to extremely controversial

arguments around origin (m d ’) and resurrection (maʻād), some of his

disciples and authorities asked him to write about it.86 Similarly, his S āniḥ -

Ghaybiyyah was written in order to answer the questions of people of convent

(k ānqā )87, which contains his spiritual experiences. 88

83
Lory, Les Commentaries, Persian trans., p.6; Singh, Global Encyclopedia of Islamic Mystic
and Mysticism, Vol. 1, p. 119.
84
Qay arī, S rḥ Fuṣūs - ik , p. 4.
85
Kāshānī, S rḥ Fuṣūṣ al- ik , p. 3
(www.sufi.ir/books/download/arabic/kashani/Qashany_fusus[1].pdf).
86
Ibn al-Fuwa ī (199 ), j ʻ -Ādā F uʻj -A qā , Tehran, Irshād Islamī, Vol.4, p.
181
87
The Sufi’s covent is called K ānqā . See: Kuban, Duǧan (1974), Muslim Religious
Architecture: Development of Religious Architecture in Later Periods, Part II, Leiden E. J. Brill,
Vol. 3, p. 37.
88
Ibn al-Fuwa ī, j ʻ -Ādā , p. 181.
34
 Despite of this fact that Kāshānī’ works reflects Ibn ʻArabī’s teachings,

we can observe some small different views, which marks him as an independent

thinker. For example, according to spiritual stages, Ibn ʻArabī believed in a stage

above the ultimate honest (qurb). This is a stage of immanency (qurbat), of

which the pervious Sufis were not aware. He allocated chapter 161 of al-Fu ūḥā

al-Makiyyah to this stage, which is a stage between truth and prophecy. 89

According to ‘A ārif -Maʻārif, the ultimate stage of spiritual stage is truth

(sidq), so that even sometimes it is recognized as one of four basic principles of

faith.90 Sufis, usually, accept that the last stage of spiritual journey is behind the

stage of prophecy. Kāshānī, indeed, speaks about truth in details and tells about

different kinds of it in La āif -Aʻ ā . He also gives a similar meaning of the

ultimate honest (r ’s -siddiq n) with the greatest pole (qu b akbar). According

to his teaching, the last and the ultimate stage for a peripatetic is the ultimate

honest and attaining this stage means that the peripatetic has passed the stage of

faith (imā ) and is called pole.

Undoubtedly, after Ibn ʻArabī, al-Ghazālī and Sulamī, Kāshānī is one of

the most influencial writers in the history of Sufism. amī called him a great

scholar, who gathered all inner and outward knowledge in himself. 91 Kāshānī’s

specific interpretation on School of W ḥd -Wujūd with the back ground of

Suhrawardī’s Philosophy, including his personal spiritual experience, made him

an independent Sufi author. The above features are enough to distinguish his

works from others and make them always at the center of scholars’ interest.

89
Ibn ʻArabī (2010), Al-Futuwhā -Makiyyah, Corrected by ‘Uthmān Ismāīl Ya yā, Beirut, Dār
ār, Vol.2, p. 260.
90
amūyah, Saʻd al-Dīn (1983), Al- Miṣ āḥ i -Taṣ ūf, Studied by Na īb Māyil Hirawī,
Tehran, Mawlā’, p. 94 and Suhrawardī, ʻA ārif - ʻārif, p. 532.
91
āmī, Nafaḥā -Uns, p. 482.
35
2.4 KᾹSHᾹNĪ ‘S IMPACT ON PERSIAN SUFISM

As previously mentioned, Kāshānī is one of the foremost and certainly one of the

influential representatives of what may more rightfully be called School of

W ḥd -Wujūd.92Through his commentaries and teachings this theory was

promoted in the eastern Islamic world, especially in Persia. He is a central core of

two main components of Sufism arising from different areas: First, practical

Sufism and spiritual rules from Khurāsān till Baghdād, which ultimately can be

observed in nāzi -Sā r n and ‘A ārif - ʻārif. Second, creation and

explanation of delicate spiritual concepts by Ibn ʻArabī and his disciple Qūnawī

from Andalusia and Egypt untill Konya. Kāshānī’s equal understanding of these

two mystics’ zones and assimilation of them has given a complete image of

Sufism. Kashanī’s commentary on Fusūs -Hik was the starting point of

further development of Ibn ʻArabī’s teaching in Iran. This later appeared in the

new spiritual movement in Persian Sufism through his indirect successors, like

Sayyid aydar Āmulī (d.787/1385) and Niʻmat Allāh Walī (d. 834/1431), whose

works frequently refer to Kāshānī and present the vitality and deep influence of

him.

Among Sh 'ite Imāmiyyah, Āmulī was especially important in bringing

Ibn al-ʻArabī’s teaching into the mainstream of Sh 'ite thought in Iran. He wrote

enormous commentary on the Fuṣūṣ, called ṣṣ - uṣūṣ and edified the

abstract of Kāshānī’s Iṣ i ḥā - ūfiyy , which later was translated into Persian

in detailed explanation. He investigated the meaning of the Fuṣūṣ on three levels:

The Qur’ān and narratives (naql), Theology and Philosopy (ʻaql), and the own

92
Morris, “Ibn ‘Arabī and his Interpreters”, p.106-108.

36
spiritual experience (kashf).93In Amulī point of view, the reality of Sufism and

S ʻite Imāmiyyah are the same and true Sh ʻite is Sufis; therefore, he recognizes

the Imāmiyyah infallible leaders (i ā ) as Sufi. 94

It is worthy of mention that Persian commentaries on the Fuṣūṣ are

frequently based on the Arabic commentary of Kāshānī. He taught Fuṣūṣ to

Dāwūd Qay arī (d.7 1/13 0), the author of dozens of works in Arabic and

Persian. His systematic philosophical introduction to Sharḥ al-Fuṣūṣ itself

became the object of later Persian commentaries. An approval for it is the first

Persian commentary on Fuṣūṣ, uṣūṣ -K uṣūṣ, written by his student Bābā

Rukn-al-Din Shirāzī (d. 769/1368).95

The poet and Sufi master, Shah Ni'mat-Allāh Walī, followed closely in

the tracks of Kāshānī and Qay arī. In addition, of over one hundred treatises on

theoretical and practical Sufism, which are directly rooted in W ḥd -Wujūd

School, he wrote Risā ’rifā , which is the Persian translation of Kāshānī’s

Iṣ i āḥā -Sūfiyyah.96

In Persia, even some Sufi authors like ʻAla’-al-Dawlah Simnānī (d.

736/1336), who had a critical view to Ibn al-ʻArabī’s world view, credited

markedly from terminology established by Kāshānī and his immediate

followers.97 Sometimes Sufis did not take the criticisms of these authors too

seriously. Typical are the remarks of Sayyid Ashraf ahāngīr Simnānī (d.

93
Āmulī (1969), Naṣ al-Nuṣūṣ, edited by Henry Corbin & ‘Uthmān īslmāil Ya yā, Tehran,
Mu’assessah Ilmī wa Farhangī Iran wa Francea and Morris, “Ibn ‘Arabī and his Interpreters”, pp.
106-08.
94
ʻĀmulī, Mo sin Amīn (1982), Aʻyān -S ʻ , vol. 6, Beirut, Dār al-Ta’āruf Lil Ma būāt, p.
273.
95
Rukn al-Dīn Shirāzī (1980), uṣūṣ -K uṣūṣ F - rju -Fuṣūṣ, Tehran, Ra ab ‘Alī
Ma lūmī Publ.
96
Ibn Muhammad Ibn Kāmql al-Dīn Yahyā Kirmānī, Ni'mat Allāh Walī (1978), R sāi S ā
Ni'ma A ā W , Studied by awād Nūrbakhsh, Tehran, Khānqāh Ni'mat Allāh, p. 3.
97
Landolt, Herman (1973), “Der Briefwechsel zwischen Kāshānī und Simnānī über Wahda al-
Wujūd”, Der Islam 50: 93-111.
37
829/1426)98, who studied with Semnānī but sided with Kāshānī in his defense of

Ibn al-ʻArabī against Simnānī’s criticisms. 99According to him, Simnānī had not

correctly understood what Ibn al-ʻArabī was saying. Kāshānī might have the main

role to change Simnānī’s opinion towards Ibn ʻArabī. However, Simnānī

retracted his idea about Ibn ʻArabī before his death and recognized him as

“People of the Right”, but remained constant against the theory of W ḥd -

Wujūd.100

2.5 KᾹSHᾹNĪ’S WORKS

There are more than forty treatises related to Kāshānī; however, for some of them

is a question if they were really written by him, such as al-Sirāj -W āj and

Risā F dāy K q Insān nd - uṣūṣ. Despite of Kashānī’s numerous

treatises in Arabic and Persian, he generally is famous because of his

commentaries on Fuṣūṣ - ik and nāzi -Sā r n and Iṣ i āḥā -

ūfiyy . In addition, his most read work is ’ lāt al-Qur’ān, which is

frequently published under the name of Ibn ‘Arabī.

’ lat al-Qur’ān, undoubtedly, is one of the valuable esoteric

interpretations. It is in two volumes: The first volume begins with the

commentary of Sūr Fā iḥah till end of Sūr K f, and the second volume

contains commentaries of Sūr ry untill end of the Qur’ān. His book is

published under the title of the Ibn ʻArabī’s commenraty on Qur’ān ( fs r Ibn

98
Sayyid Ashraf ahāngīr Simnānī was one of famous Sufi in India and founder of Ashrafiyyah
Order, the suborder of Kubrawiyyah order. His important book is La ā’if As r f , which is
collected by his disciple Ni ām ā ī Yamanī.
99
Ma mūdiān, amid (1993), “Waḥdah al-S u ūd in ʻAlā al- Dawlah Simnānī’s point of view”,
Irfān, 18: 187.
100
ʻAlā’ al-Dawlah Simnānī (198 ), Chihil Majlis, Corrected by Na īb Mā’il Hirawī, Tehran,
Adīb, p.137, 3 3.
38
‘Ar ).101In this regard, the French scholar, Pierre Lorry discussed the

questionable subject whether the author of ’ lāt al-Qur’ān is Kāshānī or Ibn

ʻArabī? He argued that ’ lat belongs to Kāshānī; since the most available

manuscripts of ’ āt al- Qur’ān belongs to him. 102

There are many argumentation that proofs ’ ā al-Qur’ān belongd to

Kāshānī. In the introduction of Iṣ i iḥā - ūfiyy , Kāshānī mentioned to

’ ā -Qur’ān al-Kar m:

“…After, I have finished S rḥ nāzi -Sā r n and S rḥ Fuṣūṣ

- ik and ’ ā -Quran, I started to write Iṣ i iḥā -
ūfiyy …”103

Kāshānī, sometimes, mentioned to his ’ ā in S rḥ Fuṣūṣ - ik :

“…Who wants to confirm, can check with the ’ ā -Qur’ān,

which I wrote….”104

“… Who wants to study the truth of this story and its similar tales,
revise it in ’ ā , which I wrote about Qur’ān…”105

In addition in ’ ā -Qur’ān, when Kāshānī explained the story

about “Bilquis Throne”, cited from Ibn ‘Arabī. 106 On the other hand, in the

second volume of ’ lat al-Qu’ān, the author by interpreting the verse thirty of

Sūr -Qiṣāṣ called Nūr al-Dīn Abd al- amad Na anzī (d. 699/1300) as his

shaykh or pole. 107 It is clear that Na anzī was one of the Suhrawardiyyah

patriarchs and Kāshānī’s master.108 Plus the proof of other great masters like

shaykh Haydar Āmulī, āmī and Shams al-Dīn Muhammad Ibn amzah Fanārī

101
Ibn ‘Arabī (2001), fs r I n ‘Ar , studied by shaykh ‘Abd al-Wārith Muhammad, Beirut,
Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah.
102
Lory, Les Commentaries, Persian trans., p. 65-66.
103
Kāshānī (1992), Iṣ i iḥā - ūfiyy , p. 42.,
104
Kāshānī, S rḥ Fuṣūṣ - ik , p. 309.
105
Ibid, p. 206, 320.
106
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Vol. 2, p. 110.
107
Ibid, p.228.
108
Ibid, pp. 37-38 and Lory, Les Commentaries, Persian trans., p. 66.
39
(d. 834/1431),109 we can conclude that ’ ā -Qur’ān, without doubt,

belongs to Kāshānī. The list below is an index of Kāshānī’s works. Some of them

are small treatises, which are written according to answer a question.

2.5.1 THE PERSIAN COMPILATION

1. Risā F idāy K q -Insān

2. Risā uk ṣ rD r d ’ ʻād

3. Risā s r qā

4. Risā D r fs r Qwl al- : r x r in ion nd r

salvation ( ā u k unjiyyā )

5. Pāsukh bi Pursish yeki az Buzurgan (Letter on answering to the

Question of one of Great Sage )

6. Kās ān ’s r o Si nān I

7. Kās ān ’s r o Si nān II

8. ’ ā -Qur’ān

9. u f -Ik ān f K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān

10. Harmonized Persian Compilation

11. F āid F rs :

i. In the Reality of Gratitude

ii. On the Qu s ion fro ‘A Ibn A

āi ou Justice and liberality

iii. On the Inner Heterogeneity between the

od’s ord for nd f r

109
Āmulī, J iʻ -Asrār n ʻ -An ār, p. 0, 498; Fanārī, Hamzah (1995), Miṣbaḥ al-
Uns Bayn al- ʻqū - s ūd, studied by Khaw awī, Tehran, Mawlā’, p.279, 280, 369 and
āmī, (2007) f ḥā -Uns in ḍ rā l-Quds, 5th ed., Tehran, Sukhan, p. 383.
40
2.5.1 THE ARABIC COMPILATION

1. ’w lat al-Qur’ān

2. Iṣ āḥā -Sūfiyyah

3. S rḥ Fuṣūs - ikam

4. S rḥ nāzi -Sā r n

5. S rḥ āqi’ - ujū ā i’ A i -Asrār -‘U ū

6. Risā h F ’ is i A ā

7. Risā ʻIrfāniyy

8. Risā -As āiyy

9. Risalah Muʻādiyy

10. Risalah F Q ḍā’ wa Qadar

11. Al- Sunnat al-Sirrmadiyyah wa Taʻ n iqdār Ayyā -Ru ū iyy

12. Al-S āniḥ al-Ghaybiyyah wa al- ā i -‘Eyniyy

13. Tazkirah al-F āid

14. Rashaḥ al-Zu ā F Sharḥ al-A fā al- u idā i yn Ar ā -

A āq al-Aḥ ā

15. uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān

16. Fawāid al-‘Ar iyy

17. Tafs r Āy -Kurs

18. Al- Sirrāj -W āj

19. Al- Muʻādiyy

20. Tafs r Sūr -Jumʻah

21. F Taḥq q aq qah al-D ā -Aḥadyyiah

22. ḥq q F Maʻn A if ā

41
23. Al-Durrah al-Far dah

24. Harmonized Arabic Compilation

25. Treatise on:

i. The Prophet’s saying: “Those who are merciful,

God may have mercy upon them”

ii. The relationship between God and the human

iii. The dependency the soul to the body

iv. The meaning of “God offers trust to creature”

v. The logic knowledge

vi. The fact that the entire creation is the

manifestation of God

vii. The different types of the spiritual path

viii. The Arabic knowledge

42
 CHAPTER 3

THE HISTORY OF CHIVALRY

43
3.0 INTRODUCTION

The domain of study of chivalry in the Islamic world, under the general name of

chivalry, is a very wide, since its cognition is combined with the cultural-

religious and social situations in which it is used. The development of this term in

the different periods of history made it especially complicated to study. This

chapter, therefore, studies the origin of chivalry according to two historical and

religious approaches. By the historical approach, this chapter discusses the main

ideas of the historical origin of chivalry. And, by the religious approach, it

portraits the origin of chivalry on Sufi’s point of view based on the Qur’ān and

Had th. In the next step, this chapter will demonstrate the ethical outlines and the

historical process of growth and development of chivalry. Because of the diverse

manifestation of chivalry and its wide-spread activity throughout the Muslim

community on one hand, and on other hand the historical documents related to

chivalry mostly found in Persian110and Anatolia,111 the discussion regarding the

historical approach is limited to the chivalry in Anatolia and Persia based on

Persian and western references.

3.1 THE MEANING OF CHIVALRY (FUTUWWAH)

Futuwwah is the infinitive form of the word f ā (pl. fi yān), an Arabic word,

which is equivalent with the English term Juvenis/ young man.112 Before Islam, a

f ā was attributed to a man, who was featured in two traits, courage and

generosity. It was applied for an individual’s behavior, whose ambition was

110
The territory of the Persian was included Iraq and Syria.
111
Zākerī, Sasanid Soliders, p. 303.
112
Richard C. Martin (2004), "Fatā," in: Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, New
York, Macmillan, Vol. 1, p. 263-264.
44
defending the honor of himself and his tribe (ird).113 However, fi yān (chivalrous)

in over eight centuries of life was exposed to different changes, but customarily it

is identified as a range of movements and constitution that, until the beginning of

the modern era, were wide-spread throughout all the urban communities of

Muslim East.114 Derived from the concept of young man, chivalry implicates

important qualities of good conduct and a significant aspect of humanity. 115

3.2 THE ORIGION OF CHIVALRY

There are number of individuals and groups appeared in the history of Arabic-

Persian speaking zone before and after Islam which was described by the quality

of chivalry. The wide range of studies about chivalry makes it difficult to offer a

sealed origin for chivalry. However, a common theme is solidity that chivalry as

a noble character, regardless of the reign in which it is used, was applied by

people who shared the same style of characters as generosity, bravery and

altruism. Therefore, by discussing the origin of chivalry, we provide a scheme of

its historical origin, while its origin and development within the Islamic teaching

is the center of this part.

113
Cahen, Cl. (1991), “Futuwwa” in: The Encyclopedia of Islam, Leiden, E. J. Brill, New Edition,
Vol. 2, p. 961-2; Houtsma, M. (1993), The First Encyclopedia of Islam, Leiden, Brill, p. 80 and
Zākeri, Mo sin, “ avānmardi”, in: Encyclopedia Iranica, Routledge & Kegan Paul, Digitalized
2009, Vol. 14, p. 599 (www.iranicaonline.org/articles/javanmardi)
114
Cahen, “Futuwwa” in: The Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 961.
115
Unal, ‘Ali (2008), The Quran: With Annotated Interpretation in Modern English, USA,
Tughra Books, p. 601.
45
3.2.1 THE HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF CHIVALRY

There are two main ideas about the origin of chivalry, which sought its origin in

the cultural tradition of Arab and Persian before Islam.

The origin of chivalry in pre Islamic history by Arabs, goes back to the

‘Antara Ibn Shaddād al-Absī (d. 608/1211), whose courage and power on the

battlefield was persistent among the Bedouin tribe of the Arabian Peninsula. 116

However, there is no sign of the use of the word chivalry for a regular social

situation with certain manners and customs in the pre Islamic period. Yet,

according to the enough findings of small youth groups as an organizational

association outside the Arabian Peninsula, the suggestion was raised that chivalry

might be rooted in Persia, including Iraq and Syria.117

Regarding the earliest verification of the term chivalry in Islamic culture,

found in the poetry of Bashshār Ibn Burd (95-167 Hijrah)118, an Arabic poet of

Persian descent, it is suggested that the Persian Shuʻūbī such as Bashshār tried to

popularize chivalry in the Islamic milieu as an organization inherited from the

Sasanian119 (224 to 651 AD). In this respect, chivalry was rooted in the social and

ethical code practiced by Āzādān, a class of lower rank of Persian nobility which

consisted of small landholders and warriors who served as lower ranking military

commanders, administrators and court bodyguards. Their ethics implied courage,

brotherhood and willingly helping the defenseless. 120Their chivalry included an

abstract meaning of spiritual morality and nobility, since they were mostly
116
Josef W. Meri & Jere L. Bacharac (2006), Medieval Islamic Civilization, An Encyclopedia,
Vol. 2, New York, Taylors and Francis Group LLC., p. 153.
117
Baldick, ulian (1999), “The Iranian Origin of Futuwwa” Istituto Iniversitario Orientale di
Napoli 0 Seminario di Studi Asiatici Ufficio Pubblicazioni a Redazione degli “Annali”, pp. 34 -
346. (opar.unior.it/824/1/Annali_1990_50_(f4)_J.Baldick.pdf)
118
Zākerī, Mohsen (199 ), “From Iran to Islam: Ayyārān and Futūwwah”, Proceeding of the
Second European Conference of Iranian Studies, Rom, pp. 745-57.
119
The last pre-Islamic Persian Empire
120
Nicolle, David (1996), Sasanian Armies: The Iranian Empire early 3rd to mid-7th century AD,
England, Montvert Publ., p. 11; Zākerī, “ avānmardi”, p. 2.
46
 121
horsemen dispersed in Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BCE), who should

have specific qualities: They must belong to a prominent family with their names

registered in an official court, they must be brave and truthful and, most

importantly, they must be chivalrous.122

Consequently, through some early western studies, the trace of chivalry

is found in Middle Persian commentaries such as V ndidād (3: 41). For example,

those who thought robbing the rich people and giving to the poor is a

praiseworthy action, or S ā ā (The Book of Kings),123in which the

chivalrous character is a kind of spiritual knighthood of Sasanid Persian

Zoroastrian124 ideas. Here, Rostam125the best known Persian hero is a

prototypical chivalric idol, who was prepared to overcome extraordinary

obstacles. 126

In this regard, the likeness of chivalry with the zd k’s (d.

524/1130)127social movements, which evolved in thirty years (494- 525 AD) on

the basis of chivalry by avoiding falsehood and being kind to people and helping

them. And, comparing the specific character of Anatolian chivalry of assisting

121
The First Persian Empire in Southwest Asia, founded in six century BEC by Cyrus the Great,
See: Kuhrt, Amelie (2007), The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid
Period, London, Routledge, Vol. 1, p. 177.
122
Zākerī, “ avānmardi”, p. 2.
123
It is an enormous poetic opus written by the Persian Poet Ferdowsī around 1000 AD. It tells
the mysthical past of Iran from the creation the world until the Islamic conquest of Persia in the
7th century.
124
The Persian religion and philosophy based on the teachings of Zoroaster in some time before
the 6th century BCE, See: Urubshurow, Victoria Kennick (2008), Introducing world Religion,
London, Routledge.
125
He is the most famous hero of the Persian epic of Shāh Nāmeh, See: Hillenbrand, Robert
(2004), Shahnama, The visual language of the Persian Book of Kings, Edinburgh, Ashgate
Publishing Ltd.
126
Deveral, D. George (1977), “Zurkhaneh, The Persian Hosuse of Strength, Black Belt,
RainBow, p. 56 and Liyod Ridgeon (2008), Iranian Intellectuals 1997-2007, New York,
Routledge, p. 79.
127
Mazdak was a proto-socialist Persian reformer and religious protester who gained influence
under the reign of the Sasanian Empire. He claimed to be a prophet of God, and instituted shared
possessions and social interest programs, See: Houtsma, M. Th (1987), E. J. ri ’ Firs
Encyclopedia of Islam, Leiden, Brill, p. 430.
47
travelers and foreigners, with the emphasis on kindness toward caravans in Arād

Wirāz ā , 128 had strengthened the possibility the origin of chivalry must be

sought in the ancient Iranian myths, which evolved after Islam and rose as

Islamic chivalry in Khurāsān.129

It is worthy of mention that these investigation have been based more

on the rituals theory, which viewed chivalry as merely an historical phenomena,

and would not go further than an analogy between chivalry’s rituals and ancient

myth. While, there has been less perspective on its association with religious

teaching. Undoubtedly, there is enough evidence that the chivalry

behavior,130which always has been associated with the virtues of courage and

generosity existed before Islam. ātim al- ā’ī,131 the Arab symbol of generosity,

and the Persian hero Rostam can prove this idea. However, they are fundamental

characters of chivalry, but whenever these qualities were influenced by spiritual

notion and embraced the hereafter meaning, the concept of chivalry has gone

further than historical and ritual phenomena. The association of courage with

nobility and generosity with a kind of munificence without any expectation

affirms chivalry as perdurable phenomenon, whose personage became as popular

moral examples.

128
The Book of Ardā Wirāz is a Zoroastrian religious text of Sassanid era in Middle Persian
language. It describes the dream-journey of a devout Zoroastrian through the next world. It is
believed that Dante inspired from this book to write Divine Comedy describing heaven, hell and
purgatory, See: Stausberg, Michael, Zoroastrian ritual in context, Leiden, Brill, p. 336.
129
Bahār, Mihrdād (2006), z ū s D r Asā r Ir n, Tehran, Āgāh Publishing, th ed. p. 274.
130
Qamar-ul Huda, Striving for Divine Union, p. 25-30.
131
‘Abd Allāh Ibn Saʻd Abū Saffāna, the poet, who is traditionally the most finished example of
the Pre-Islamic knight, See: Van Arendonk, C. (1986), “ ātim” in: The Encyclopedia of Islam,
Leiden, Brill, p. 274.
48
3.2.2 THE RELIGIOUS ORIGIN OF CHIVALRY

On the basis of the view that chivalry is not a temporary historical phenomenon;

rather, it is a Divine gift and manner that was offered to the Adam and he was

pleased to accept it, its origin goes back to the prophets Adam and Abraham. In

other words, chivalry is kindness and mercy of God to humanity and its origin is

as wide as humanity.

According to ‘Abd al-Ra mān Sulamī (d. 325/937) who allocated an extra

treatise about chivalry, God has gifted chivalry to humans on the first day of his

creation, and Adam was the first one who accepted it.132 In his point of view,

chivalry began from the prophet Adam and gradually is testate to later prophets:

“The first to follow the call of chivalry to honor munificence and good
conduct was Adam, whose name is fixed in the will of Allah. Adam
made chivalry testate to the Prophet Sheeth. He protected it from
everything that was improper, then to Noah, who suffered for his
devotion to chivalry and thus became illuminated by it… The Prophet
Hūd showed the beauty of loyalty to his people with chivalry and Sālih
saved himself from evil with the help of chivalry… Afterward, the
remaining secrets of chivalry are revealed in the time of Moses, who
transmitted it to Aaron and it appeared to esus, who shone with purest
of the light through it and came to be called the spirit and the Messiah
through chivalry and lastly the entire victory was given to the prophet
Mu ammad (p.b.u.h) and the brothers Abū Bakr and Umar and his
uncle’s son ‘Alī become the guardian of chivalry.” 133

Nā ir Siwāsī134in his chivalry letter attributed chivalry to Adam and said

in his chivalry letter:

Inevitable, he (Adam) was ordered to descend

he came down from the paradise to this world
he was crying days and nights for his sin for 360 years
he was right to cry
so, he received the chivalry in this world.135

132
Al-Sulamī, Mu ammad Ibn usyn (1983), Ki ā -Futuwwah: The Book of Sufi Chivalry,
Lesson To a Son of the Moment, English Trans. to English by shaykh Tosun Bayrak al-Jerrahi al-
Halveti, New York, Inner Traditions International, pp. 6-9.
133
Ibid, p. 33-34.
134
He is the famous Persian poet. He composed his chivalry letter in 1290.
135
Nā īr Sīswāsī, (2006), Fu ū ā nzū , studied by Nīrūmand Karīm, Publ.
Farhang Iran Zamīn, Vol. 10, p. 240.
49
 Although, the word futuwwah does not appear in the Qur’ān, we

encounter its derivative words such as f ā (12: 60 – 30; 12), fatayān (36: 12),

fityah (13: 18 – 10: 18 – 61: 59, 18), f yā (33: 24 – 29: 14) and fi yān (33: 24 –

29: 4) in the Qur’ān.136The lack of use of chivalry’s infinitive in the Qur’ān, may

be found in lack of application of different forms of verbs and nominate

derivatives of chivalry, and its later abstract spiritual conception in the current

Arabic literature.

F ā is used in the Qur’ān, when God wants to refer to the history of

Abraham, oseph and “People of the Cave” (As ā -i Kahf). According to

chivalry texts, on the basis of Qur’ānic verse (al-Anbiyā’, 21:60), Abraham is the

first chivalrous person, who stepped to experience the world of chivalry and

achieved perfect chivalry in his community. Thus, he is titled as Father of

Chivalrous (A ū -Fi yān).137 The definition of Unity (ta ḥ d) is released by

him, as God said about him in the Qur’ān: “But only he (will prosper) that brings

to God a well sound heart.138

On the basis of this view, Kāshānī presents chivalry as manifestation of

the inborn nature, in its pureness and delicate qualification, in accordance with

development on human beings. The inborn nature (fitrah) is a character, which

follows its perfect talent,139and is necessary for the pure Abrahamic inborn

nature. The story of Abraham’s chivalry is a presentation of his Unity and a

sample of the effect of a chivalrous to change the whole situation of false

136
Kāshānī Sabziwārī, usayn (2000), The Royal Book of Sufi Chivalry (Fu ū
Su āni), Trans. Jay R. Crook. Chicago: Great Books of the Islamic World, p. 15.
137
Gülen, Fathullah (2006), Key Concept in the Practice of Sufism, Vol. 1, UAS, Light, Inc., p.
81.
138
Al- S uʻ rā’, (26: 89).
139
Al-Shuʻ rā’, (26: 89); Abū al-Fadl Maybudī, Rashīd al-Dīn (1993), Kashf al-Asrār ‘Idd
al-A rār, Vol 7, Tehran, Amīr Kabīr, th ed., p. 115.
50
worship. He, therefore, became a symbol of rebellion against all evil and the

endeavor for sincere servant hood to God.

Abraham sacrificed his son by power of chivalry because of friendship

with God, and avoided earthly desires and suffered to combat with imposters and

oppressors. He broke the idols and endured any difficulty and hardship; so that

his enemies certified his chivalry. That is the reason God has given him the title

of khal l (friend of God).140As Qur’ān said:

ْ
ِ ‫َقالُوا َفأ ُتوا بِ ِه َع َلى أَعْ ي ُِن ال َّن‬
‫اس لَ َعلَّ ُه ْم َي ْش َه ُدون‬

Al-Anbiyā’ 21: 61

They said: Then bring him before the eyes of the people, that they
may bear witness.

Abraham is a symbol of chivalry not only because of his challenge to put

down the idols, but also his strength to break down the inner idols of self. 141He

was the first one, who established the base of hospitality and made an oath to not

eat alone; thus, he always had guests at dinner. 142

It is quoted that Abraham attained much fortune late in his life. Gabriel

asked God how he could keep true friendship with such fortune. God answered:

“Although he possesses many properties, his heart is with me. If you want you

can try him”. Gabriel came to Abraham and said: “Praise the holy Lord, the Lord

of angels and sprits”. Abraham said: “I sacrifice my life for my friend, so ask me

one more time!” Gabriel asked him: “If you give me one third of your property, I

will repeat it again”. Abraham did what he wanted. So, Gabriel repeated this holy
140
PTIKF, p. 529; According to al- isā’, (4: 21).
141
Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Muhammad Husayn (2009), Futuwwat Nameh Su ān , studied by
Mu ammad afar Mah ūb, Tehran, Bunyād Farhang Iran, p. 6.
142
Roger, J. M. (2004), Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World,
Leiden, Brill, p. 162.
51
praise, but as Abraham heard it again, he told Gabriel: “Repeat it again and I will

give you my entire wealth”. 143

The second chivalrous one recognized by the Qur’ān is the prophet

Joseph. His chivalry is manifested in forgiving his brothers. The story of his life

depicts that he experienced jealously and hate, cruelty of his brothers, and passion

and dishonesty of Zulaykhā, the wife of the king Hykosos Dynasty in Egypt. His

chivalry appeared in qualities such as patience, loyalty, nobility, compassion and

forgiving his brothers.144Through these qualities, he could attain the real Unity

and overcome all obstacles, as God said:

َ ‫ّللا الَ يُضِ ي ُع أَجْ َر ا ْلمُحْ سِ ن‬

‫ِين‬ َ ‫ا َّن ُه َمن َي َّت ِق َو ِيصْ ِبرْ َفإِنَّ ه‬

Yūsuf 12: 90

Those, who keep from evil and endure with fortitude, will never be
denied their reward by God.

The Sūr K f is the story of a group of young men who wanted pure Unity:

ِ ُ‫إِ َّن ُه ْم فِ ْت َي ٌة آ َم ُنوا ِب َر ِّب ِه ْم َو ِز ْد َنا ُه ْم ُه ًدى َو َر َب ْط َنا َع َلى قُل‬

‫وب ِه ْم‬

Al-Kahf 18: 13-14

They were young men, who had believed in their Lord, and we led them
with guidance, and we strengthened their hearts.”145

They did not worship the idols, but prepared to take refuge in the cave.

Thus, they left their home. This story is the first description of chivalry by the

Qur’ān, in which the idea of chivalry is raised with specific features. It would be

143
PTIKF, p.228-229.
144
Iftikhār, Ahmed Mehar (2003), Al-Islam, USA, al-Islam, p. 76-79.
145
Al-Kahf, (18: 13-14)
52
later taken as a symbol for chivalry as depicted by a group of young men,

rejecting the corrupt authority, devoting and sacrificing to God, leaving home,

and enduring danger for the sake of God.

The chivalry, which began when Abraham arrived in the hand of the

Prophet, Muhammad (p.b.u.h), so that the God said about Him:

‫َوإِ َّنکَ لَ َعلى ُخلُ ٍق َعظِ ٍيم‬

Al-Qalam 68: 4

You possess the great mood

According to the Sufi Abu Alī Daqqāq, (d. ca. 40 /101 ), no one

possesses the character trait of chivalry to perfection except the Prophet

Muhammad (p.b.u.h); since, on the Day of Resurrection everyone will say “My

soul, my soul”, but he will say: “My community, my community”. 146Therefore,

the chivalrous identity was preserved as perfection of ethics in the manner of

Muhammad (p.b.u.h).

Chivalry, as a manner of behavior, became an Islamic tradition and

practiced after Prophet (p.b.u.h). As it is reported that Abū Bakr came to the

prophet with a large sack of all his fortune, at the time the prophet asked for

donations. When the prophet asked him why he has not kept something for his

family, he answered: “My family is in the care of God and His messenger.” 147

Indeed, regarding loyalty, it is quoted during the caliphate of ‘Umar, a

man committed a murder unintentionally. When the caliphate wanted to punish

146
Al-Qushayrī (1994), Al-Risā -Qushayriyyah, Sharh Fārsī by Abū ‘Alī asan Ibn A mad
ʻOthmān, 4th ed., Tehran, Ilmī Farhangī, p. 3 6 and Sachiko Murata (1992), The Tao of Islam: A
source book of Gender Relationship in Islamic Thought, New York, Sunny Press, p. 336.
147
Al-Sulamī, Ki ā -Futuwwah:The Book of Sufi Chivalry, Lesson to a Son of the Moment,
English Transl. by Shaykh Tosun Bayrak al-Jerrahi al-Halveti, p. 8
(archive.org/.../TheBookOfSufiChivalrykitabAl-futuwwahByMuhammadi)
53
him according to the law, he asked for three days to go to his village and attend

his duty. ‘Umar said to him that his request could not be accorded unless

somebody takes his place and vouches for his life. Therefore, the man looked to

the companions of the prophet, who gathered around the caliph who chose at

random and pointed to the Abū Dhar al-Ghifarī and asked him to accept the

guarantee. Abū Dhar agreed to replace the man without hesitation. Somebody

condemned Abū Dhar because he guaranteed the man, who did not know him.

However, the man came back and when he asked why he lost his opportunity to

escape, he said: “The man of faith is loyal to his word. Do you think I was going

to disappear and make people say, the Muslims do not keep their word

anymore?”And when Abū Dhar asked if he may know the man, he answered:

“Not at all, but I could not refuse him as it would not have been in keeping the

law of generosity. Should I be the one to make people say that there is no more

kindness left in Islam?” 148

As we have noticed; chivalry is identified as a manner of behavior in which

its principle is being supported by the religious elements. In general, we can

conclude that chivalry is defined as the noble morals and treatments, which have

warlike qualities that could be deal with two aspects: First, the great seeking of

humans to achieve the way of inner salvation through fighting with the inside

evils and ,second, its manifestation as human efforts to quest for justice, equality

and brotherhood. This battle, generally, has been highlighted whenever a royal or

clergymen King were attended. Regarding the latter, the early chivalry before

Islam and at the beginning of the Islamic period onward, owed the chivalrous,

148
Ibid. p. 11-12
54
which created scenes of courage and warriors. And because of these battles, the

chivalrous were registered in the history and remained in the memory of people.

3.3 THE INITIAL RITUALS

The initiation of novice into the chivalry required the performance of specific

rituals at specific ceremonies that made him obliged to observe expected manners

in order to be formally known as a chivalrous. The people of chivalry gathered in

a safe place called m ḥfi and the shaykh gave the bowl of water and salt to the

novice to drink. The theological significant behind the symbolic of this rites is

described by the Sufis. In this regard, Kāshānī quoted that one day a person came

to the Prophet (p.b.u.h) and said to him that a man and a woman are alone in the

house committing immorality and asked the Prophet (p.b.u.h) to send someone to

get them. Thus, some of his companion volunteered to bring them. But the

Prophet (p.b.u.h) rejected all of them. Then, ‘Alī (a.s) came to the Prophet

(p.b.u.h). The Prophet (p.b.u.h) asked him to go to find them. So,‘Alī (a.s) went

to the door of the house while closing his eyes walked around spying in the

house. Therefore, they could manage to escape. Then, he went out with open eyes

and returned to the Prophet (p.b.u.h) and said: “I saw no one at all in that house!”

So, the face of the Prophet (p.b.u.h) became indulgent while he knew it with the

light of his prophecy what the matter was. He said to ʻAlī: “O ‘Alī! You are

youth (f ā) of this community”.149 Then, he asked Salman to prepare for a bowl

of water. The Prophet (p.b.u.h) took palm of salt and threw it to the water and

said: “This is the legislation (s r ‘ah)”. He, again, took palm of salt and added

to the water and said: “This is the spiritual path ( r qah)”. For the third time, he

149
The similar story is quoted by Suhrawardī in his Fu u ā , p. 108-109. See: R sāi
J ān rdān, Corrected by Murti ā arrāf (1993), Tehran, Muʻīn Publ., 2th ed.
55
took palm of salt and put it in to the water and said: “This is the truth (ḥ q qah).”

Afterwards, he gave it to the ‘Alī to drink and said: “You are my friend and I am

the friend of Gabriel and he is the friend of God. He, indeed, asked Salmān to be

friend with ‘Alī and to drink from the water and asked udhayfah al-Yamānī to

be friend of Salmān and he drank from the bowl in hand of the Prophet

(p.b.u.h).150

This story tells us that by the initiation ritual, the new member should

drink from the bowl of the water and salt. Water was the symbol of wisdom and

knowledge, which everyone could attain according to his talent and divine inborn

self. The appearance of this hidden potential capacity is the origin of real life;

since the origin of spiritual life is knowledge like water, which is the origin of

material life.151 This ritual is supported by the Qur’ānic verse:

َ ‫َو َج َع ْل َنا م َِن ا ْل َماء ُك َّل َشيْ ٍء َحي أَ َف ََل ي ُْؤ ِم ُن‬
‫ون‬

Al-Anbiyā’ 21: 30

We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?

The salt is referring to the justice, which is the primitive condition of the

inward balance of humans. Through justice the place of legislation and spiritual

path and truth will be estimated. The legislation is religious law restoring the

balance of relationship between Human and God. The spiritual path is the way of

releasing the inborn self of all corruptive desires and lusts, and truth is the

perception of Unity through inward and outward knowledge. 152 The usage of

water and salt can refer also to the matter that the chivalrous should be pure like

150
ATIKF, p. 557.
151
Ibid.
152
ATIKF, p. 531.
56
water and reserve the right of salt. Qā ī Shahāb al-Dīn (1188/1245) told in his

book, ār k u ff r , that water depicts the base of life and gives it strength

and consistency. It cleans all dirt and impurity and salt is added to water in order

to keep it from spoiling and any changes. Eating salt; therefore, shows the

chivalry one is stable and endures all difficulties, accompanies his friend in all

situations, and is thankful to God.153

Another important rite of chivalry initiation is to wear chivalry’s trousers.

The chivalrous used to wear baggy trousers (s rā l) bound by a belt known as

shadd (knot). This is the most important rite of chivalry initiation. The novice is

required to wear S rā l and then to bend down. The master (shaykh) binds the

knot on his waist with a knot of material a shawl of silk or wool. There are

usually four knots or turns are made in honor of the Gabriel, Muhammad, ‘Alī

and Salmān. During this time, the initiate is required in the recitation of Sūr

Fā iḥ and seven greeting in honor of the Prophet (p.b.u.h),154other participants

are recited prayers at each twist.155

To wear baggy trousers, is referring to chastity, the necessary step of the

path in avoiding lust. The binding belt refers to courage and honor, the essential

chivalrous’ qualities, which made him always ready to rise to serve to others, and

is the sign of a perfect chivalrous one. 156

After binding the knots, the initiate is sometimes shaved and then took his

place with his brethren on the carpet of initiation for the traditional meal. 157After

153
Kāshifī Sabzewārī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 48.
154
The shadd is binding the initiate, whether be Muslim, Christian or Jews to the corporation as a
body, brotherhood. By the initiation of non-Muslim, they took a preliminary oath instead of
reading Qur’ān, See: Massignon, Lois (1993), “Shadd”, in: First Encyclopedia of Islam: 1913-
1936, Leiden, Brill, p. 245.
155
Ibid.
156
ATIKF, p.558.
157
Massignon, “Shadd”, in: First Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 245.
57
finishing this ceremony, the novice officially becomes one of the chivalrous and

has to follow the chivalry’s ethic.

3.4 THE ETHIC OF CHIVALRY

Generally, chivalry’s ethic covered the main human value and ethical principles,

which later were recognized by Sufism. We mention the most important of them,

according to Sufis’ chivalry letter:

1. Loyalty: The chivalrous is a perfect manhood, who keeps the

promise and fulfills the covenant. He is true to his covenant with God and friends

and never changes his determination. 158He believes that the salvation truly is the

entire righteousness and final authority, as mentioned to it and described Ismāil,

when He said:

‫صا ِدقَ ا ْل َوعْ ِد‬ َ ‫إِ َّن ُه َک‬

َ ‫ان‬

Maryam 19: 54

He was true to what he promised

َ ُ‫ا ْلمُوف‬
‫ون ِب َع ْه ِد ِه ْم إِ َذا َعا َه ُدوا‬

Al-Baqarah 2: 177

To fulfill the contracts which ye have made.159

2. Generosity: It is the most important quality of chivalry. The stress on

this character might be rooted in their reaction against the modesty of rulers.

According to Suhrawardī’s chivalry letter, he who gives without expectation of

158
A -Aḥzā , (3: 23); ATIKF, p. 559.
159
Sulamī, The book of Sufi Chivalry Futuwwah, p. 83-97.
58
any reward (karam) is much more valuable that who gives but wanted to be

considered as generous. (sakh ).160

3. Nobility: This character of chivalry is to protect the respect of

people, in order to not be disgraced at the time of difficulties and situations of

lowness. He has sociability with poor and weak believers, and he is strict with

rebellious, sinful and powerful unbelievers. It is told about the excellent tolerance

of the Prophet (p.b.u.h), that he never blames any food and never turns away with

angry word to his employees. Kāshānī told the story of Ḍam am, who was

praised by the Prophet because he said every morning by his prayers: “My God,

today I truly believe to my honor to those, who treated me un ustly, so I don’t

beat who beat me, and I don’t abuse who abused me, and I don’t oppress, who

oppressed me.”

4. Courage: To be pure, honest, truthful, and listen to the truth and be

satisfied to lose for his friend, to help prisoners and poor people, to prevent the

harm of good people by bad people, to not upset someone who was good to him,

and to avoid hurting women.161

5. Chastity and purity: The disciple of chivalry was pious persons, so

that it is quoted they were so fanatic to preserve their honor and chastity, when

their sisters or daughters were falsely accused; they immediately killed them

without any investigation or questioning of them. 162

6. Reputation and popularity: In the early period, the significant

motivation of being chivalry one was becoming famous among people; even if

160
Ibid, p. 96 and Murti ā arrāf & Henry Corbin (1973), R sāi J ān rdān, Tehran, Institut
Faransawī Pizhūhish hā-yi ʻIlmī Dar Irān, p. 97.
161
Kāshifī Sabzewārī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 201 and ‘Un ur al-Maʻālī, Kaykāwūs Ibn
Iskandar (1983), Qā ūs ā , corrected by Ghulām usayn Yūsefī, Tehran, Amir Kabīr, p. 247.
162
Abū al-Fara Ibn awzī (1989), Talbis Iblis, Persian trans. by ʻAlī Rezā Erkāwatī, Tehran
University, p. 277 and Kāshifī Sabzewārī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 198 and Al-Qushayrī, Al-
Risā , p. 237.
59
they had endured the most torture in order to show their strength to people. In this

regard, al-Ghazālī said about them that they are people, who are proud of being

patient of torment and cutting hands. 163Na īr al-Dīn ūsī (d. 653/1255) also

referred to disciple of chivalry, who can tolerate every persecution to become

famous, even if to be lashed or have their hands cut.164

7. To be fair and to fight with oppression: They tried to be just and kind

to people and resisted those who suppressed people. 165

8. Have good mood and benefaction: The chivalry one helped people

without any expectation from them and surpassed others in doing a good job. 166It

is quoted from Abū Saʻīd al-Khurdī that as he was traveled with the Prophet

(p.b.u.h), he felt that none of Muslims had right to extra property; since, the

prophet said that whoever has an extra riding should give it to someone who has

none and whoever has extra food should give it to those who do not have any. 167

9. Self devotion and sacrificing: They en oyed their friend’s company,

so that they were satisfied to lose their rights because of their friend. 168

10. Unpretentious hospitality: The chivalrous take the guest welcome

and humbly prepares him whatever he had at home. 169 It is told that Anas was ill

and his friend came to visit him. Anas asked his servant to serve the gust

163
Al-Ghazālī, Abū āmid Mu ammad (2001), K iyā’-i-S ʻād , Elmī wa Farhangī, 9th ed.,
Vol. 2, p. 12.
164
Abū afar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Hasan, Na īr al-DīnTūsī (2000) , Ak āq āṣir ,
Tehran, Iqbāl, p. 126.
165
ārrāf, Murti ā (1991), R sāi J ān rdān, Tehran, Muʻīn Publishing, p. 80.
166
Kāshifī Sabzewārī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 199; Sulamī, The Book of Sufi Chivalry
Futuwwah, p. 80-83 and Al-Qushayrī, Al-Risā , p. 238.
167
Sulamī, The Book of Sufi Chivalry Futuwwah, p. 41.
168
Āmulī, Sham al-Dīn Mu ammad Ibn Ma mūd (2003), fā’is -Funūn F ‘Arāis -‘Uyūn,
Qum, Islāmiyyah publ., p. 82.
169
Kāshifī Sabzewārī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 12.
60
whatever they have, even if it is a piece of bread; since, the Prophet said that the

generosity is the character of the people of paradise.170

11. Forgiveness: Although the chivalrous are not afraid of anyone, the

beauty of their courage comes to shine more by their forgiveness of people’s

mistakes or hostility. 171It is cited who forgives while he has the power to revenge

is forgiven in his turn by God, when he deserve punishment. 172

12. To preserve secrets: The chivalrous keeps the secrets of his friends.

He never reveals the secret of his friends, even if he would be threatened by death

or tortured by fire. Even if he is separated from his friend, his secrets remain safe

by him. 173 It is quoted from the prophet (p.b.u.h) if you have these four things, it

does not matter if you lose everything else in this world: Protect what is entrusted

to you, tell the truth, have a noble character and earn your income lawfully. 174

3.5 THE CHIVALRY HIERARCHY

The chivalrous was divided in different groups, which were called as izb (party)

or bayt (house). Bayt was bigger than izb and sometimes a bayt consisted of

several iz . The most famous of them are Riāḍ iyy , S ḥniyy , Khuldiyyah,

Muslimiyyah and i ā’iyy .175 Disciples of different rank of chivalry was

supposed to do different tasks as follows:

1. Jad: It is a spiritual position, like the pole (qu ) by Sufis, that all

chivalrous sects are his disciple.

170
Sulamī, The Book of Sufi Chivalry Futuwwah, p. 38.
171
Al-Qushayrī, Al-Risā , p. 237.
172
Sulamī, The Book of Sufi Chivalry Futuwwah, p. 0; Suhrawardī, ‘A ārif - ’ārif, Persian
trans., p. 62.
173
Al-Qushayrī (2007), Qus yri’s E is on Sufis , translated by Alexander Kynsh, reviewed
by Muhammad Eissa, UK, Garner Publi., p. 242.
174
Sulamī, The Book of Sufi Chivalry Futuwwah, p. 42.
175
Afshārī, Mihrān (2003), Fu ū ā Hā R sāi K āksāryy , Tehran, Pa uhishgāh
wa Mu āliāt Farhangi, p. 32.
61
 2. Kab r: He is like spiritual master pir and murshid by Sufis. He has

many disciples and in the converting ritual, he is the one who gives his disciples

or sons the bowl of salty water. He is also known as father pidar, shaykh,

muqaddam, qā’id and r ’s - izb.

3. Zaʻ m: He is one of the great chivalrous; whose duty is to give

advice to disciple of chivalry.

4. Wak l: He sometimes was chosen as k r’s representative.

5. q b: He was chosen by the head of family and was responsible for

considering the functions of disciple of chivalry and preparing for their demands.

The chivalrous is free to choose his master but he has to consider five

conditions for him: true and good repentance, shunning the earthly interests,

devotion to God, sincerity, and follow only one master.176

3.6 THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHIVALRY

As dessussid, the history of chivalry goes back to a distant past. The oldest group

of chivalry goes back to the time of Sasanid Dynasty in Iran called Ayyārān

(plural form of Ayyār), who used banditry and gave stolen things to the poor

people. They sometimes cut a part of their own body to depict their sympathy to

the pain and suffering of people.177They were loyal to their group and never

betrayed each other. Helping oppressed people by ruthless rulers was their main

task.178 āhir Dhulyaminīn, 179 Abū Muslim Khurāsānī (d. 13 4)180 and Yaʻqūb

Laith al- affār (1462-1474)181 belong to this group.

176
Kāshānī, Abd al-Razzāq (1991), uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān, Studied by
Muhammd Dāmādī, Tehran, ‘Ilmī Farhangī, p. 230.
177
Na īr al-Dīn ūsī, Ak āq- āsir , p. 126.
178
Bouhdiba, A., Abdelwahab & al-Dawālibi, M. Mʻrūf (1998), The Different Aspects of Islamic
Culture: The Individual and Siciety in Islam, France, Unesco Publishing, p. 227.
62
 Outside of Sasanid empire, there was in Baghdad a group known as

ʻā k (singular: Saʻ ūk), who was called Sā uk in Persian. They, also like

Ayyārān, used to rob rich people and believed that this is their right to take their

own share from the public fund. 182 The word Sā uk is frequently used in Persian

literature; for example, in Mathnaw of Khusraw and Shīrīn of Ni āmī and The

ook of Sind ād, ūs ān of Sadī.183Saʻ ūk means poor and is also used in Arabic

literature as a specific name as it is quoted from A mad Ibn Ismāīl Shanfarī that

Saʻ ūk was assigned to ruler of apūristān.184 In addition, the author of ā yy

al-Arab was one of Saʻā k,185 and according to al- isān -Arab, ‘Urwah Ibn al-

Ward Ibn Zayd al-‘Abasī (d. 30/650) was called ‘Ur -Saʻā ik or A r -

179
āhir Ibn Husayn knowm as Dhūl Yaminīn (The possessor of two hands) is the famous
general of the Abbasid Caliph, Ma’mūn, an Iranian of Arab origin, who was is the first founder of
an independent Islamic dynasty in Iran, See: Hareir, Idris & Mbaye, Ravane (2011), The Spread
of Islam Throughout the World, France, UNESCO press, Vol. 3, p. 499.
180
Ibrāhīm Ibn ‘Ūthmān Ibn Bashshar Muslim Khurāsānī is one of the key leaders in Abbasid
revolution, See: Najeebabadi, Akhbar Shah (2001), History of Islam, Riyadh, Darussalam, Vol. 2,
p. 259.
181
The founder of a kingdom that came to be named after him, the affarid dynesty, See:
Adamec, Ludwig W. (2009), Historical Dictionary of Islam, 2th ed., United State, Scarecrow, p.
332.
182
Ibn Isfandyār (1936), ār k S s ān, ed. by Muhammad Taqī Bahār, Tehran, Zawār Publ. 2th
ed., p. 224.
183
Nazāmī Gan awī, K usr S r n, Part of Calling Hakīm Nezāmī by the Kinf Tughrul,
edited by Amīn Bābāī Panāh, p.376-383
(www.chamanara.net/KhosroVaShirin[ebook.VeyQ.ir].pdf); Sa’dī, us ān, p. 60
(www.irane7000saale.com/pdf-Iran-7000/.../SAADI/2-Boostan-Saadi.pdf); Bosworth, Clifford
Edmund Bosworth & Osimī, Muhammad (2000), History of CivilizTapation of Central Asia,
Delhi, Unesco Press, Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 355; R. R. Bowker Publishing & R. R. Bowker Company
(1993), Bowkers Complete Video Dictionary 1999, Mishigan, Bowker Publishing, Vol., 1, p. 27;
Mashhadī, M. A., Abbāsī, A. W & Ᾱrifī (2014), “Rūykard Tahlilī bi ʻAnāsur Dāstānī Sinbād
Nāmeh”, in: n S inās Ad Fārs , Isfahān, University of Isfahān, No: 1 & 21, p. 61-76;
Ni āmī Gan awī (2006), K usr S r n, Studied by Wa īd Dast erdī, Tehran, Nashr-e-Qa reh
Publ., 6th ed., p. 149, 363; Saʻdī Shīrāzī (2002), ūs ān, studied by Ghulām usayn Yūsefī, Eng.
Trans., 2th ed., Tehran, Khawrazmī and Saʻdī Shīrazī (2006), us n of S ʻdi, Adam
Publishing, ch. 2: In benefaction & ch. 8: In bless God for giving healthy.
184
Nafīsī, Saʻīd, As ʻār Rūd k , Tehran, Ibn Sīnā, p. 379. Tapūristān is the north province of Iran,
the native inhabitants of the reign before the migration of Aryan, which turns to Tabristan in the
early Islamic century and then to the present Mazandaran, See: Zonn, I. S. (2010), The Caspian
Sea Encyclopedia, Berlin, Springer, p. 394.
185
Dilshād, afar & afar Ᾱbādī, Kāzim (2014), “Al-qīyam al-Akhlāqiyyah Lil Shanfarī Fī
Lāmiyyah al-Arab, in: u ū F -Lughah al-ʻArabiyyah wa Ᾱdā i ā, Isfahān, āmiʻah Isfahān
Publi., No: 8, p. 81-94.
63
Saʻā k.186 It seems that Arab’s Saʻ ūk divided in two groups: A group of them

was under the command of rulers like ‘Alī Ibn A mad Ibn Sahl (d. 548/1153) in

Saljuk dynasty,187who was assigned to rule over Bam at the time of the King

Bahrām. The other group consisted of poor people like ‘Urwah Ibn Abasī.

Saʻā ik, generally, was a group of disciple of chivalry, whose number in ninth and

tenth century was a thousand people, distributed around all Islamic lands. 188

Chivalry in Baghdad was known as S ā ir. According to Kāmil al-Shaybī,

chivalry was formed in Kūfa in eight century and later came to Baghdad. Those

chivalrous wore yellow robes and Ibrāhīm Ibn Yazīd Nakhaʻī (d. 95/714) was one

of their shaykh. 189They sometimes, like other groups of chivalrous, robbed

caravans. Ibn Athīr quoted from some of their turbulence and breaking law in the

city: When āhir Dhulyaminīn (d. 207/822) attacked Baghdad to defend Ma’mūn

and ousted Amīn from the kingdom, the Baghdad’s chivalrous made chaos,

robbed the city and sometimes fought with āhir’s soldiers to protect Amīn.190

It seems that the early chivalrous before the twelfth century, appeared as

trouble-makers, ready to break down the authority. They were an uncontrollable

faction who conducted disorderly public behavior and disrupted state

business.191One of these groups was Aḥdā (youth), which rose in Syria. They

186
Meisami, J. & Starkey, P. (1998), Encyclopedia of Arabic Litrature, Vol. 2, New York,
Taylors and Francis, p. 796.
187
Seljuk was a Turkish Sunni Muslim dynasty that gradually contributed to the Turkish-Persian
tradition in the medieval West and Central Asia.
188
Bonner, Michael David, Ener, Mine & Singer, Amy (2003), Poverty and Charity in Middle
Eastern Contexts, State University of New York Press, p. 26 and Al- abarī (1985), His ory of A -
r : Abbasid Revolution, English Trans. By John Alden Willams, State University of New
York, Vol.27, p. 189
189
Kāmil Mu afā Shaybī (1969), A - i yn - ṣ ūf - s yyu”, Tehran
University Publishing, p. 195-196.
190
Upham Pope, Arthur & Ackerman, Phyllis (1964), A Survey of Persian Art, from Prehistoric
Times to the Present, Oxford University Press, Vol. 1, p. 83; Elton, L. Daniel (2012), The History
of Iran, 2th ed., California, ABC-CLIO, p. 79.
191
Qamar al-Hudā, Striving for Divine Union, p. 22-25.
64
had power over election and disposal of rulers. 192 In 1185 century, the

Nabawyyah group, one of Ahdā ’s parties, fought with Syrian ā iniyy and

defeated them. 193 Unlike them, there was a group of chivalry who were followers

of Fatimid in Egypt, of which Abd al-Qādir Hāshimī was one of their shaykh,

who possessed the title of “Author of Chivalry”.194

At this point, chivalry entered a new era and all local chivalry with

different titles named themselves chivalrous. From this time onward, we

encounter the use of the term futuwwah and their manner in Islamic literature.

Many chivalrous were absorbed in public administration and in policing function,

but with the decline of Saljuk dynasty, they reemerged as an unstable and

disruptive element in the urban centers of Iraq and Persia, who fiercely competed

to gain authority.

At this time, chivalry was reformed and rebuilt as an aristocratic chivalry

by Abbasid Caliph Nāsir Li Dīn Allāh (d. 553/1158).195 Nā ir was aware of

European interest in the Mediterranean lands and North of Africa, and the Islamic

borders are threatened by Rum. On the other hand, in Iran, Seljuk was planning to

conquer Baghdad.196 Hence, Nāsir, instead of objecting chivalry, joined chivalry

two years after becoming caliph, and constituted an official chivalry. He extended

and consolidated his influence among people by bringing all groups of chivalrous

under his control, and banned all other groups except the official chivalry. His

action had a dual connotative target: First, to unify Islamic lands, however

temporary, at the time that religious, political and racial conflict was at its

192
Aflākī, Shams al-Dīn (1987), nāqi -Ārif n, Tehran, Khāneh Kitāb, Vol. 2, p. 7 8.
193
Afshārī, Fu u ā ā R sāi K āks iyy , p. 25.
194
Gripp, H. A. R. (1962), r v s of I n ū , 1325-1354, Trans. H.A. R. Gipp, Cambridge
University Press, Vol.1, p. 315.
195
Abū al-Abbās al-Nā īr Li Dīn Allāh Ahmad Ibn al-Hasan al-Musta ’ī
196
Ohlander, Erik S. (2006), “Chivalry”, in: Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach, Medieval Islamic
Civilization: A-K, Index, Vol. 1, United State, Taylor & Fransic, p. 153.
65
culmination in Islamic lands. And, second, to rescue the Abbasid Caliphate from

threatened hostile invention. 197 He took chivalry’s robe by the shaykh Mālik Ibn

‘Abd al- abbār anbalī (d. 83/1187), and gave him and his child some gifts, and

officially established Nā irī’s chivalry. Thereafter, all groups of chivalry in

Baghdād oined him. In addition, he encouraged the lords to bond chivalry and

institutionalize it in their reign. The lords included: Asāmih Abū Mu affar Shāmī

and al-Malik al-‘Ādil Ayyūbī in Syria, and Sul ān aladin Ayyūbī.198 Sul ān ‘Aziz

al-Dīn Kaykāwūs (607/1210-616/1219), the king of Rum. The king of Rum

received chivalry’s robe and institutionalized chivalry in his country. Chivalry

remained even three centuries after his death and is approximated with the

cavalier ethics of medieval Europe.199

Nā ir’s policy reflected in Asia Minor; however, the Anatolia became an

important center for chivalry. Nā ir declared himself as the central authority for

chivalry and later set forth the code of behavior for chivalrous, declaring that God

designated him as having sole responsibility to maintain legislation (shar ʻah).200

This typical standard rule embodied the Nā irī’s conduct and ritual known as

aristocratic chivalry. The hierarchical structure and ceremonies of initiation of

Nā irī chivalry, was described in the chivalry letter of Ibn Miʻmār Baghdādī (d.

642/1244).

The association of Nā ir with chivalry was one of the greatest events in the

history of chivalry. The rapid growth of chivalry’s community in the twelfth and

197
Fawzī, Farūq ‘Umar (1998), Al-K i āf -‘A siyy , Beirut, Dār al-Shurūq, pp. 42-60 and
Kqshifī Sabsiwārī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 61.
198
Ma ūb, Introduction of Fu ū ā Su ān , p. 83-84.
199
aʻfarī, Sayyid Naqīb Husain & Muzzamil, Seyed Hasan (2010), Essays on Literature, History
& Society, Delhi, Primus Books, p. 19 and Guy le Strange (2011), Baghdad: During the Abbasid
Caliphate, New York, Cosimo Inc., p. 270-4.
200
Musa, Matti (1987), Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat sects, United State, Syracuse University
Publishing, p. 170-2 and Hodgoson, marshal G. S (2009), The venture of Islam, Vol. 2: The
Expansion of Islam in the Middle Period, University of Chicago Press, p. 280-4.
66
thirteenth century was beholden on absorbing the idea of chivalry by Sufi

orders.201 In this regard, Abū Haf ‘Umar Suhrawardī, played a great role in the

convergence of popular chivalry with Sufism. 202 In twelfth century, when Ibn

Ba ū a visited Asia Minor, the Anatolian chivalrous known as Akh (brother),

must have been dispersed widely among every city and village of that country.

He speaks greatly of the noble behaviors of Akh s, of their hospitality and

supports the strangers: “Chivalrous are unique in provision of hospitality to

strangers, community service and charity in whole world. Every group of them

has their own convert equipped with carpet, light and other accessories; I have

never seen better people than them in the world”. 203They had equipped places for

welcoming travelers. They gave their wage to his master in order to invest for

visitors.204 Ibn Ba ū a states that the Akh was also called chivalrous and that

nowhere in the world could you find people who could match their chivalry. 205

There is evidence that some of chivalrous in Iran became followers of the

Sufi order shaykh afī al-Dīn, ancestor of f id King. The follower of f id

in Iran and Anatolia came to be known as Qizi ās (redheads). Those in

Anatolia may have been the groups who joined King Ismail in his struggle

against Othmans.206

The political institutionalizing of chivalry, in general, with the excuse to

organize their activities and establish security around the Islamic lands, gave

201
Peacock, Andrew & Yildiz, Sara Nur (2013), The Seljuks of Anatolia Court and Sociert in the
Medieval Middle East, London, Tauris & Co. Ltd., p. 203.
202
Qamar ul-Huda, Striving for Divine Union, p. 184.
203
Ibn Ba ū a, Al-Ri , Vol. 1, p. 348.
204
Ibid, p. 315.
205
Matti, Mossa (1988), Extremist Shiite: The Ghulat Sects Moosa, New York, Syracuse
University Press, p. 171.
206
Ibid, p. 172.
67
Nā ir to struggle with the murders and plunders caused by some deviated groups

of chivalrous.207

After Nā ir, and the end of Abbasid caliphate by Hulagu Khan in 655/1251,

the official chivalry was ended in Iraq, but remained in the Roman Seljuk for

three centuries, and it continued in Iran and Egypt. Later, in the Safawid period, a

group of chivalry appeared as P ānān (heroes), whose dominant feature was

their physical power and proficiency in fighting. Their ethics and manner is

preserved and practiced in Zūrk āni in Iran until today. This kind of chivalry

presents the idea of Islamic masculinity as courage, strength, honesty and

generosity. They also were known as Mufrad, Yat , ā ā, ādur.208

It is remarkable that the degenerating of Abbasid caliph was only the end

of the Aristocratic chivalry; yet the spirit of chivalry still remained among people

and appeared effectively in three dimensions of their life. The center of such

activities mostly was in the East of Islamic lands, especially in Iran more than

other areas, and it was popularized among people. 209

3.6.1. APPEARANCE OF SEMI RELIGIOUS BONDS IN TRADES-

CRAFTSMEN ASSOCIATION

Chivalry gave the different guilds existing in the cities of Islamic Orient from

three centuries onward, but probably did not link to religion, an inner spiritual

meaning, so that their works was supported by religious base. 210 Hence, the moral

and symbolic rituals particular to each guild were written in a chivalry letter, such

207
Ibd, p. 315.
208
Ibn Miʻmār anbalī (1960), al-Futuwwah, Introduction by Mu afā awād, Baghdad, p. 5-6;
Afshārī, Fu ū Aṣnāf, p. 23 and Flaskerud, Ingvild (2010), Visualizing Belief and Piety in
Iranian Shiism, London, Continuum International Publishing, p. 44-48.
209
Zākerī, Sasanid Solider, p. 308.
210
Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization, p. 153.
68
as the chivalry letter of shoemakers or the chivalry letter of weavers. They consist

of a set of simple practical teaching, depending on the occupations of the guilds

for which they were composed.211 The most prominent guild’s chivalry letters

that clearly explains the guilds and chivalry’s connection is the chivalry letter of

textiles. According to this letter, the seal of guild of weavers is afar ādiq, who

learned this craft for the first time from Gabriel and then taught others. 212 In the

textile guild, the whole stages of textile processing is done by reading Qur’ān and

praying, so that entire activities is accompanied with the ethical and spiritual

aspects. Thus, the textile is not considered an earthly job and it is not licensed

without cognition of its spiritual aspects. 213

Such chivalry letters present the importance of the role of master to teach

crafts and to transmit the hidden spiritual spirit of chivalry within the craft. It is to

mention that chivalry not only rejoined the individual members within the guilds,

but also made a connection between other association of guilds and trades.214

Consequently, through association of the guilds with chivalry, we see the

development of profession and crafts with a system of teaching, learning, and

apprenticeship and, finally, the extent of nobility, which was depended on the

degree of service to the society. 215The main inference of rising chivalry guilds

was building a sacred face of the crafts and services, and connected them to

heaven; in order to show the importance of those crafts and to gain more respect

from the workers. Thus, by the use of a job’s instruments, they edified the names

211
Fluidity & leverage (2004), Guilds Dynamics in Seventeenth Century Istanbul, Leiden, Brill,
p. 8.
212
Afshārī, Mihrān (2002), ā ārd Ris d r ā -i Fu u Asnāf, Tehran, Nashr
Cheshmeh, p. 11-25.
213
Ibid, p. 15.
214
Lucassen, Jan, De Moor, Tine & Luiten van Zanden, Jan (2008), The Return of Guilds, New
York, University of Cambridge press, pp. 76-78.
215
Tauris, I. B. (2002), Money, Land and Trade: An Economic History of the Muslim
Mediteranean, ed. Nelly Hanna, London, I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd, p. 158.
69
of God by memorization and recitation (zikr). According to the chivalry letter, the

origin of these crafts was affiliated to the prophets and they were chosen to be

patron of the guild. 216 For example, the prophet Noha is patron of carpenters

because he built a ship, Abraham of butchers because he rose to sacrify his son,

Jesus of the deceased because of his sacrifice, and Salmān Fārsī of stylists

because he cut the hair of Holy Prophet.217The helpful information can be found

in Qā ūs ā of ‘Unsur al-Maʻālī Kaykāwus Ibn Iskandar.218

3.6.2 APPEARANCE OF CHIVALRY IN THE SPORADIC ARMED

APPEALING MOVEMENTS

After the end of Abbasid caliphate through Mongols, chivalry was demonstrated

as popular, appealing to groups to fight with fiscal exaction of the Mongols; in

order to change the society. An example of this is the uprising of S r dārān,

who rose against Mongols in the thirteenth century in Iran, under the command of

heroes from Bāshtīn, Amir Abd al-Razzāq. Ibn Ba ū a described him as a man of

the type known in Iraq as S u ār and in Maghrib as Soqura.219This kind of

chivalry in form of S r dārān is also identified by some modern scholars like

Ilya P. Petrushevsky as a type of popular redevelopment.220

216
See chivalry letters of fourteen different guilds collected by Mihrān Afshārī in ā ārd
Ris d r ā -i Fu u Asnāf.
217
Andrea L. Stanton, Edward Ramsamy, Peter J. Seybolt, Carolyn M. Elliott (2012), Cultural
Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, United State, SAGE
Publications, p. 190.
218
ʻUnsur al-Maʻālī, Kaykāwus Ibn Iskandar (1383), Qā ūs ā , edited by Ghulām Husayn
Yūsefī, Tehran, Ilmī wa Farhangī, pp. 372, 376, 464, 468, 475, 555, 585.
219
Ibn Ba ūta (1960), al-R ḥ , Beirut, Dār Sār, p. 383.
220
Petrushevsky, Ilya (1985), Islam in Iran, Trans. Hubert Evans, State University of New York,
Albany, pp. 304-309) .
70
3.6.3 APPEARANCE OF SUFI CHIVALRY (SPIRITUAL CHIVALRY)

Chivalry as moral perfection, was in close relation to Sufism with early Sufi, like

asan Ba rī (d. 110/728), who was known as the master of chivalry (sayyid of al-

fityān). This meeting is getting more highlighted in ancient Iranian-Anatolia with

their archaic tradition, where chivalry was absorbed by Sufism. Some great Sufis

were even known as a chivalrous before they became a Sufi, like A mad

Khazrawiyyah Balkhī (d. 240/8 4), Abū afs ‘Umar Ibn addād Nayshābūrī (d.

26 /879), ‘Alī Ibn A mad Pūshangī (d. 348/959), shaykh Najm al-Dīn Kubrā (d.

616/1219), ‘Alā al-Dawlah Simnānī (d. 736/133 ), shaykh asan awrī (d.

743/1342) and sayyid ‘Alī Hamidānī (d. 786/138 ).

This relation was so close that chivalry has being considered as one of

Sufi’s aspect. Consequently, parallel to the prevalence of Sufism on one hand,

and on the other hand the increase of rapprochement of people with Sufism,

brought Sufis to establish ethics regulation and to write chivalry letters, whose

direction was practical and executive for all kinds of people. Their practical

teaching to refine the soul was not difficult as Sufi’s path; since, the Sufi

chivalrous like Sufis did not have to leave their family and jobs in order to live in

the convent; rather, he could maintain his normal life and profession, while he

practiced the path of chivalry. In fact, the teaching of Sufi chivalry reflected the

renewal of the motivation of people, in order to consider special principles in

different dimension of life. Thus, along with the spread of Sufism, chivalry was

popularized among people. 221 While Sufism belonged to the special people,

chivalry mostly dealt with ordinary people. 222

221
The importance of eleventh and twelfth century in the history of Sufism is not covered by any
scholars, as the establishment of organized Sufi orders with their genealogy and systematization
of convents as an official social institution. Furthermore, Sufism was supported by some of
71
 However, the prominent point of the teaching of chivalry appeared in its

principles which concerned the behavior and commitments of the chivalrous to

society. Therefore, the association of chivalry with Sufism brought the social

moral qualities of Islam more in to the light, indeed, it gave to Sufism new

dimensions.

One of the central topics of this teaching was humility, by definition to see

himself lower than everybody, while his concern is to be at service for others,

especially the poor and oppressed people. 223 With respect of this quality

comparing to ā iyy , with its doctrine on the basis of the negation of an

ethic’s system, in which it is recommended to avoid presenting virtues, some

scholars developed the idea that chivalry’s teaching is more appropriate to

ā iyy teaching.224‘A ār Nayshabūrī (d. 618/1221)225 mentioned to the

dialog of amdūn Qa ār, the founder of ā iyy , in his Tadhkirah al-

Awliyā’ with the ‘Ayyār Nayshaūrī about the secrets of chivalry. 226

Abbasid Caliphs like Nā ir Li Dīn Allāh, as he adapted Shihāb al-Dīn Suhrawardī as his
representative. Even more, after invasion of Turkish tribes to Islamic lands, Sufism was protected
by some of the Sal uk minister like Nizām al-Mulk ūsī, who built many convents. The Sufi’s
influences were so much that In the west of Islamic lands, governors like Salā al-Dīn Ayyūbī (d.
589/1193) and his children, also supported the building of convents. See: Negendra, Singh (2004),
Encyclopedia Historiography of the Muslim World, edited by NK. Singh, New Delhi, Global
vision publishing House, p. 367; Qamar-ul Huda, Striving for Divine Union, p. 32; Duiker, W. J.
& Spielvogel, J. (2012), The Essential World History, 7th ed., USA, Cengage Learning, p. 178 and
Lewisohn, Leonard (1993), Classical Persian Sufism: from its Origin to Rumi, Michigan,
Khaniqahi Nimatullahi Publication, p. 158.
222
Qamar-ul Huda, Striving for Divine Union, p. 31and Black, Antony (2011), The History of
Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present, Edinburgh University Press, p. 228..
223
Al-Qushayrī, Al-Risā , p. 103-4.
224
See Comparing of The Book al-Futuwwah of al-Qushayrī with al-Risā - ā iyy of
Sulamī in: ‘Afifī, Abū al-‘Alā’ (2007), ā iyy , ūfiyy Fu u , Persian Trans.
Nusrat Allāh Furūhar, Tehran, Payām, pp. 4 -50.
225
Farīd al-Dīn ‘A tar Nayshabūrī was a Persian poet, theoretician of Sufism, and hagiographer
from Nishapur.
226
Abū Hāmid Muhammad Ibn Ibrāhīm Ibn Ishāq ‘A ār Kadkanī Nayshābūrī, Tadhkirah al-
A iyā’, p. 401-402. (www.sufism.ir/books/download/farsi/attar/tazkera_olia.pdf).
72
 227
It is quoted that amdūn Qa ār (d. 271/884) asked a robber chivalrous,

‘Ayyār Nayshābūrī about the meaning of chivalry. ‘Ayyār answered him: “My

chivalry is to take of what I wore now and to put on the robe of Sufi and act in the

way it is suited the way of Sufi and to not commit sin because I shay the people;

however, your chivalry is to take of your robe and be careful that the people’s

attention caused no deceipt and indeed the people are not deceived from your

appearance. So, my chivalry is to follow the outward shar ʻah and your chivalry

is to follow the inward the path of truth.228

One of Malāmatiyyah principles is that the ā avoid showing off

something that he does not really believe in his inside. He avoids looking for

people’s faults and, in contrast, his effort is to find his own faults. Qushayrī also

quoted that when a ā was asked about the chivalry, he answered: “The

chivalrous is someone, who possesses the repentance of Adam, the strength of

No a, the loyalty of Abraham, the truth of Ismail, the serenity of Moses, the

patient of Ayyūb, the cry of David and the generosity of Muhammad, kindness of

Abū Bakr, the manliness of ‘Umar, the chastity of ‘Uthmān and the knowledge of

‘Alī. After he attains all these qualities, he must always look to his faults and

defects and consider the dominance of others. 229

In general, chivalry was recognized by Islamic scholars and jurisprudences.

In this regard, the chivalry letter of al-Ghazalī was recognized as a valid form of

chivalry in Islamic societies. Some Sufi authors, like Najm al-Dīn Zarkūb (d.

712/1312), defined chivalry very close to Sufism: “Chivalry is spending your

227
He is the founder of the Malamtiyyah school in nine centuy.
228
Ibn ʻUthmān Ibn ʻAlī alābī Hu wīrī, K s f - ḥjū , p.113.
(www.sufi.ir/books/download/farsi/hojviri/kashfol-mahjoob.pdf).
229
Al-Qushayrī, Al-Risā , p. 103.
73
time to worship God, to comfort people and to preserve God’s word and tradition

of His prophet and talking to people of God”.230

As stated before, chivalry was a prominent quality of human’s culture

among ordinary people and it is also approved as a value feature of Prophets by

the Qur’ān. The fourteenth century is the semantic and rational boom of chivalry

through its association with Sufism. In this respect, chivalry was identified with

the religious roots and was evaluated and purified by Sufis. According to this

concept, the peak of human’s perfection, which was included in qualities as

courage, generosity and forgivness evaluated to a set of moral ethics. Moreover,

the inner meaning of chivalry was defined by Sufi chivalrous as liberation of all

inward and outward desires and achievement the stage of heart, which is the stage

of youth.231

Related to Sufis, there are three approaches of chivalry: first, the encounter

of man with himself. In this regard, chivalry is defined as an inner battle of soul

against evil and egoism, that its highest rank is manifested as despising himself

against others. As Jafar Khuldī said: “Chivalry is to despise yourself and respect

others”.232In respect of this concept, we observe that the quality of the good

reputation of chivalrous, which was very important, has been changed to humility

after chivalry became one of a subset of Sufism. It is quoted that one day Abū

af Umar Nayshābūrī went to Baghdad. Some Sufis asked him about the

meaning of chivalry. He asked unayd to answer it. unayd answered: “A

chivalrous one does not see and refer to his chivalric and what has he

done”.233 unayd’s words might have been a reaction to the chivalrous desire of

230
Afshārī, Fu u ā ā R sāi K āks iyy , p. 178.
231
ATIKF, p. 526-7.
232
ʻAttār Nayshābūrī, Tadhkirah al-A iyā’, p. 327.
233
Hu wīrī, K s f - ḥjū , p. 1 4 and ʻAttār Nayshābūrī, Tadhkirah al-A iyā’, p. 394.
74
reputation. The Sufi’s modesty, which unayd spoke about, was replaced with

quality of reputation in chivalry. In this relation, Qushayrī said that chivalry

means when you don’t consider yourself superior to others. 234

The second approach is the action of chivalry towards people. According to

chivalry letters, chivalry is appearance of the pure heart.235 This battle is

continued until it will be reflected in man’s deed as preferring the needs of other

to his own request and being always ready to assist others and forgiveness of their

mistakes. According to Qushayrī, chivalry is continuous effort to meet the needs

of people.236And unayd Baghdādī defined chivalry as assisting people and

giving their own property.237 Third, chivalry is identified as devotion to God.

Sahl Ibn ʻAbd Allāh Tustarī defined it as following Islamic tradition

(Sunna).238 asan Ba rī said that chivalrous is one, who is identified by his

actions and not his words.239

However, the mile stone of the conceptual development of chivalry can be

found by Suhrawardī. He, officially, identifies chivalry as Sub-Sufism and

considered it as the core of the spiritual path ( ar qah) with particular qualities,

which has to be attain by disciple of chivalry by the following the master

(shaykh).240After Suhrawardī, chivalry has been integrated with the different

School of thought and the inner meaning of chivalry has been expressed through

beautiful and delicate mystical conception of Sufism.

234
Al-Qushayrī, Al-Risā , p. 356.
235
ūs ān S ʻd , p. 82.
236
Al-Qushayrī, Al-Risā , p. 355.
237
ʻAttār Nayshābūrī, Tadhkirah al-A iyā’, p. 445.
238
Ibid, p. 319.
239
ākemī, Ismāīl (2003), A’ n Fu ū J ān rd , Tehran, Asā ir, p. 185.
240
Suhrawardī, Fu u ā in: R sāi J ān rdān, Corrected by Murti ā arrāf (1993),
Tehran, Muʻīn Publ., 2th ed. p. 93-166.
75
 3.7 Conclusion

This chapter presented that chivalry, before Islam, was applied as a noble

character by people who shared the same style of characters as generosity,

bravery and altruism. However, after Islam, its principles developed and

supported by the religious elements. Abraham, People of the Cave (As ā -i Kahf)

and Joseph became the symbol of chivalrous character as pure Unity, rejecting

the corrupt authority, and forgiveness for the sake of God. The ultimate of

chivalry’s character can be seen in Prophet (p.b.u.h), who is the symbol of great

mood and ethic.

According to the history of chivalry after Islam, this chapter presented

different chivalry groups who were distributed in the Islamic lands as Ayyārān in

Sasanid period, ʻā k and S ā ir in Baghdad, Aḥdā in Syria. They, mostly,

were banditry, which main intention was to help oppressed people. They were

loyal to their group and followed their rules and rituals. Yet, in thirteenth century

by Abbasid caliph al-Nāsir, these sporadic groups reformed and became a united

organized aristocratic chivalry called Ak . Chivalry officially became one of

Sub-Sufism with initial rituals. Many chivalrous were absorbed in public

administration and in policing function. The degenerating of Abbasid caliph led

to end the aristocratic chivalry, while chivalry remained among people and

affected three dimensions of people’s life. First, it affected their works, as

chivalry appeared as a system of teaching, learning, apprenticeship of different

crafts, in which the extent of chivalry was depended on the degree of service to

the society. Second, it affected the social life by appearance the appealing

movement against oppression of rulers. Third, it affected the individual’s life as it

transformed to a subset of Sufism with simple structures.

76
 Therefore, parallel to the prevalence of Sufism, chivalry raised and Sufis

wrote many chivalry letters in order to establish ethics regulation of chivalry,

which can be applied by all kinds of people. With respect of this, chivalry was

identified with the religious roots and was evaluated and purified by Sufis. Thus,

the chivalry’s character, which was constructed of courage, generosity and

forgiveness developed to a set of moral ethics. Moreover, the inner meaning of

chivalry was defined by Sufi chivalrous as liberation of all inward and outward

desires and achievement the stage of heart, which is the stage of youth. this

respect, by referring to Sufi’s words, it is depicted how the notion of chivalry is

purified and developed through its integration with Sufism and how Sufis brought

the social moral qualities of Islam more in the light by spiritual chivalry.

However, the mile stone of the conceptual development of chivalry can be

found by Suhrawardī. He, officially, identifies chivalry as Sub-Sufism and

considered it as the core of the spiritual path ( r q ) with particular qualities,

which has to be attain by disciple of chivalry by the following the master

(shaykh).241After Suhrawardī, chivalry has been integrated with the different

School of thought and the inner meaning of chivalry has been expressed through

beautiful and delicate mystical conception of Sufism.

The chivalry letter of ʻAbd al-Razzāq Kāshānī is the ultimate development

of the notion of chivalry as it is grounded on the School of dah al- Wujūd

with theory and practical approach. The final development of notion of chivalry

can be finding in chivalry letter of Waiz Kāshifī Sabzewarī in sixteenth century,

as chivalry transformed to the little Sufism.

241
Suhrawardī, Fu u ā in: R sāi J ān rdān, Corrected by Murti ā arrāf (1993),
Tehran, Muʻīn Publ., 2th ed. p. 93-166.
77
 CHAPTER 4

THE TREATISE ON CHIVALRY (FUTUWWAH) -

IKHWᾹ Ᾱ -FITYᾹN

78
4.0 INTRODUCTION

As chivalry letters are valuable collections for historic investigation, and

encompass spiritual nature; this chapter, therefore, before discussing uḥf -

Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān, will display a brief outline of types of chivalry

letters. In this regard, it should be noted that chivalry letter are written in Arabic,

Persian and Turkish. Most of them, however, are in Persian; since, historical

documents recorded that at the beginning of writing chivalry letter, their activities

were placed generally in Iran. 242In this regard, as the researcher is not familiar

with the Turkish language, the following explanation contains only chivalry

letter, which are in Arabic and Persian or even those, which are translated into

these languages.

After the type of uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān is estimated, this

chapter will demonstrate the necessary data about the title, editions and the

design of the division and partition the text. And, the end of this chapter will

depict the outline of the base theme discussed by the author.

4.1 TYPES OF CHIVALRY LETTER (CL)

Sufis gradually began to write about chivalry from eleventh century and allocated

a part of their treatises to chivalry. Thus, despite they contain valuable

information about chivalry, but they are not known as CL. They focus on the

ideas and morality that was promoted by the chivalrous in order to depict that

chivalry is not in conflict with Islamic teachings, rather it complements them.

For example, we can mention to ʻAbd al-Karīm Ibn Hawāzin Qushayrī (d.

465/ 11073). Despite the fact he did not write an independent CL, he assigned

242
The territory of old Iran includes Iraq and Syria, See: Na r, Seyyed ossein (1991), Islamic
Spirituality: Manifestation, New York, Crossroad, p. 306-7.
79
chapter thirty-four of his work, al-Risā , to the chivalry. 243 Al-Ghazālī (d.

505/1111) also allocated a part of the Ihyā’ ʻUlūm al-Dīn to the love and

brothethood.244Another source is Qā ūs ā 245

of ‘Un ur al-Maʻālī Kaykāwūs

Ibn Iskandar Ibn Qābūs (d. 47 /1082).246 The author dedicated chapter forty four

of his book to chivalry and wrote that the basis of chivalry is three actions: To do

what you say, to tell the truth and to have patience”. 247

However, particular treatises calling CL began to develop from twelfth

century. They are known in Arabic as Ki ā -Futuwwah, in Persian as

Fututwwat- ā , and in Turkish as Fütüvvet- ā . The chivalry letters can

be categorizing in two groups:

1. Spiritual Chivalry Letter (SCL)

The SCL, usually written by Sufis, reside a diffuse space of ethics. They have

ascetic characteristic and repeatedly talk about fighting with the lusts, while they

stress on an ascetic mixed with sociability, and benefit to people. This form of

ascetic mixed with sociability can be observed in all CL as a common principle,

which clearly is in contrast to the early Sufi’s figures with their rough piety and

isolation. Although the history of chivalry is tied with fighting injustice and cruel

rulers, there is not a direct approach to this subject in the CL; rather, the center of

attention in the CL focuses on inside purification. That is the remarkable point for

243
Al-Qushayrī, ʻAbd al-Karīm Ibn Hawāzin (1999), A -Risā -Qus yriyy F ‘I -
ṣ uf, Beirut, Dāral-Ii yā’ al-Turāth al-‘Arabī, English Trans., Alexander D. knish &
Reviewed by Muhammad Eissa (2007), al- Qushayris Epistle on Sufism, UK, Garnet Publ,
German Trans., Richard Granlich (1989), Das Sendschreiben Qushayris, Stuttgart, Richard
Granlich, F. Steiner Verlag.
244
Al-Ghazālī, Ihyā’ ʻUlūm al-Dīn, English trans. By Fazl-ul-Karam, Karachi, Darul Ishaat, Vol.
2, pp. 87-101.
245
It is a major Persian language works of fiction of 11th century.
246
He is one of Persian prince of the Ziyārī dynasty, See: Van Dozel, E. . (1994), Islamic Desk
Reference, Leiden, Brill, p. 200.
247
Kāshifī Sabzewārī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 16.
80
CL, the ethical issues, which even sometimes goes beyond ethics and addresses

the different stage of spirituality. They, gradually, submit a profound

understanding of the meaning of chivalry further than time and sexuality, so that

the later CL are not only colored with ethics and spirituality, but also provide a

practical way of self purification. This kind of CL, instead of restriction to any

certain Sufi orders or spiritual leaders, took shape in the vicinity of selfhood,

while considering the borderline of sociability. Therefore, they can be categorized

as the spiritual chivalry letter containing the code of principles and instructions

for those, who want to follow the way of chivalry. 248

The first SCL is written by Abd al-Ra mān al-Sulamī (d. 412/1021).249 He

wrote an extra treatise in Arabic to present chivalry’s characters and manners. On

the basis of the Qur’ān, he proved that the ancestors of the chivalrous, goes back

to the prophet Adam. 250He identified chivalry as an essential universal generosity

and extended it even to feeding stray dogs. He presented it as the renunciation of

one’s own rights because of others and considering himself as inescapably lower

than all other creatures.251

The most comprehensive SCL is written during the reign of Caliph Nā ir by

Mu ammad Ibn Abū al-Makārim, known as Ibn Miʻmār anbalī Baghdādī (d.

642/ 1070). His CL is in Arabic and affords considerable insight into chivalry

248
Ivanow, V. I. (1927), “Étudessur les corporations musulmanes indo-persanes,” Revue des
étudesislamiques 1, pp. 249-72, as cited in: Zākerī, Mo sin, “ avānmardī”, in: Encyclopedias
Iranica, Vol. 14, Fasc. 6, p. 594-601 (www.iranicaonline.org/articles/javanmardi) and Hathaway,
S. l. & Kim, D. W. (2012), Intercultural Transmission in the Medieval Mediterranean, UK, A &
C Black, p. 69.
249
Abū ʻAbd al-Ra mān Sulamī (2002), Al-Futuwwah, studied by I sān Dhunnūn al-Thāmerī &
Mu ammad Abd Allāh al-Qada āt, Jordan, Dār al-Rāzī, English trans. by TosunByrak al-Jerrahi
al-Halveti (1983), Futuwwah, London, Ease West Publ.
250
A manuscript of this treatise exists in Ayāsofyah library in Istanbul under the No: 2049 and a
microfilm is in the center of document and a manuscript in Jordan under the No: 1267.
251
Ridgeon, Lioyd V. J. (2009), Moral and Mysticism in Persian Sufi: A History of Sufi-
Futuwwat in Iran, London, Routledge, p. 30.
81
hierarchical structure and ceremonies of initiation. According to him, the

followers of chivalry are all bound together as companions or comrades (rafīq or

rufaqā'). In addition, he gave notice to the interest and association of Abbasid

Caliph Nā ir to chivalry and his efforts to unite all groups of chivalrous.252

However, the most important development of SCL was nominated by

Shihāb al-Dīn Suhrawardī (d. 587/1191) through his attention to the relation of

chivalry with Sufism. This relation is revealed in his CL and determined Sufism

as the substructure of chivalry, and considered chivalrous interdependent. There

are two CL attributed to him: Al-Ki ā -Futuwwah and al-Risā -

Futuwwah. 253Both of them are in Persian and give clear explanation about

chivalry chronicles and initial rituals. As he was an influential consultant of

Caliph Nā ir, his work is considered a valuable source for the political condition

in Baghdad in the early twelfth century.254

The CL of Najm al-Dīn Zarkūb Tabrizī (d. 712/1312)255: He was one of

Suhrawardī’s disciples and wrote his CL in Persian, which contains a comparable

survey of the chivalry with Sufism. This feature distinguished it from other CL.

According to him, chivalry is dependent on three things: First, it is the chivalry of

tongue, which is to prevent backbite, accusation and abuse. Second, it is the

chivalry of heart, which is to purify the heart from greed and meanness. And,

third, is the chivalry of eyes, which is to avoid looking at dirty and abhorrent

things. On the basis of this classification, Tabrīzī compares chivalry with the right

speaking (S rʻ ), the right seeing and right action ( riq ) and the

252
Ibn Miʻmār (19 8), al-Futuwwah, al-Maktabah al Muthannā, Baghdad, First Publishing, p. 67.
253
arrāf, Murti ā (1973), R sāi J ān rdān, Tehran, An uman Irān Shināsī Farānseh, Iran
and Paris.
254
Renard, John (1998), Windows on the House of Islam: Muslim Sources on Spirituality and
Religious Life, University of California Press, p. 236.
255
He is one of the Persian Sufis of twelfth century and disciple of Saʻd al-Dīn amūyah.
82
manifestation of God’s attribution in human ( qiq ). He, therefore, considers

chivalry in three levels: First, chivalry for ordinary people, second chivalry for

special people as prophets and saints, and third, chivalry for the most special

people as the Prophet of Islam (p.b.u.h). 256 The CL of ‘Abd al-Razzāq Kāshānī

(d. 730/1330), uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān, will be discussed later in

this chapter.

The CL of Shams al-Dīn Muhammad Ibn Ma mūd Āmulī in fourteen

century. He composed a large Persian encyclopedia on the classification of

knowledge entitled fā'is -Funūn F ‘Ar 'is -‘Uyūn. He presented Sufism

according to five techniques, of which the fifth technique is the knowledge of

chivalry. 257

The CL of Kamāl al-Dīn usayn Ibn ‘Alī Bayhaqī Kāshifī Sabzewārī,

known as Mullā usayn Wāi Kāshifī Sultānī (d. 910/1504):258For the first time,

he studied chivalry as a science. His CL contains three introductions, in which he

explained about the knowledge of chivalry lexically and technically. The main

body of his book contains of seven chapters and twenty nine sections, in which he

describes the origin of chivalry, condition of masters and disciples and its manner

and ritual.

Some CLs are composed in poems. The CL of ‘Attār Nayshābūrī (d.

618/1219)259 is a sample of a literary CL, in which the seventy two conditions of

chivalry are prescribed, including moral values to purify the soul, and conduct

256
arrāf, Mortiza (1992), R sāi J ān rdān, 2th ed., Tehran, An uman Irān Shināsī
Farānseh.
257
Shams al-Din Muhammad Ibn Ma mūd Āmulī (2001), fā'is -Funūn F ‘Ar 'is -‘Uyūn,
Vol. 2, Qum, Islamiyyah.
258
Kāshifī Sabzewārī, usayn Wāiz (2001), Fu u ā Su ān , Corrected by Mu ammad
afar Ma ūb, Tehran, Tawfiq Publ., 2th ed.
259
Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm was a Persian Sufi poet, theoretician of Sufism and
hagiographer from Nayshābūr.
83
toward others.260Besides, we can refer to CL of Mawlānā Nā irī (689/1290)261in

eight hundred bites in Persian. 262

2. Guild’s Chivalry Letters (GCL)

There are some CL that emphasizes the relationship between ethics, profession

and human being. They can be considering as a kind of guild’s chivalry letter

(GCL), as each of them belongs to the specific guild and trade, like GCL of

builders. They, mostly, are dealing with the guilds of Ottoman Dynasty. In such

kind of GCL, the profession is considered as a sacred affair; so that the ethical

principle is considered in carrier.263Therefore, the innermost issue discussed in

such GCL letters is the ethic in profession, craft and art. Citing the Prophecy

narratives, which demonstrate the importance of laboring and work in order to

obtain lawful living and business, the chivalrous considered the occupation as a

kind of worship and spiritual issue. 264 With respect to this, the masters of

different professions started to write GCL, in order to teach the spiritual

dimension of that certain field. The training manner of GCL led masters to write

them in a method of question and answering. They are written in simple prose

and told about its origin, the necessary garment and tools of the profession. For

example, we can refer to the chivalry letter of bakers, in which at the beginning it

260
‘A ār Nayshābūrī (1988), Fu u ā , Tehran, āwidān.
261
The Persian Poet, who lived in the Anatolia at the late of twelfth century.
262
Gūlpinarly, Abd al-Bāqi (2001), Fu u D r Kis r ā y Is i, Persian Trans. by
Hāshimpūr Sub ānī, Tehran, Rūzbeh Publ., p. 24. This book is a translation of an article under the
title “Illerinde Futuvvet Teskilative Kaynaklarl Islam ve Turk”in : Journal of School of Economic,
Vol. 11, No: 14 Istanbul. The Greman Trans. of this CL is done by Täschner, Franz (1944), D r
An o i n Dic r āṣiriund s in Fu uvv ā , Leipzig, F. A. Brockhouse. There are two
description of it available in Köprülü and Ayasofyah libraries in Turkey.
263
Gūlpinarly, Fu u D r Kis r ā y Is i, Persian trans., p. 24.
264
Frithjof Schuon (2005), The Transfiguration of the Man, United States, World Wisdom Book,
p. 84.
84
is told about the origin of the bakery, and after that the proper quality that the

master of bakers and his students should have:

“The origin of the bakery goes back to Gabriel, who taught to

Adam and he taught to Shith and Noa , Solomon, Elias and Abraham
until at the time of the Muhammad (p.b.u.h), the Gabriel taught it to
him , and he baked bread by enthusiastic guidance for thousand thirty
one of his friends…..Be aware that the necessary garment of the baker
is submission to God’s orders and his belief is to pray, his Kaaba is
God, his ablution is to avoid from the lust. The spirit of his garment is
talking and its pray is purification. The base of his garment is
knowledge and its treasure is wisdom. The collar of his garment is
kindness and its arm is to cover and its skirt is to service to people.
….If it is asked, what is essential for the master of baker, the
answer is: To be washed continual (wuḍū’), to pray five times a day,
to fast the month of R ḍān and the noble days, to be firm by
following the shar ʻah, to be on the straightway, to know about the
truth, to remember his previous masters honorably, to follow the
master of the path of truth, do not treat people with arrogance, to be
kind to ever one, to teach and guide his students, to start his work by
reading the k u of the bakery, to try always to open the bakeshop,
before start to bake, read Sur F ḥ for the master the previous
bakers, to be patient, do not backbite and do not abuse….”265

Among other GCL, we can mention the wad makers, burlap weaver and

scale. The connection of chivalry ideology with profession and the social

practices were always at the center of scholarly interest. Some of these precious

treasures are collected by Henry Corbin and Murti ā arrāf, but the most

prominent work belongs to Mihrān Afshārī, who collected fourteen chivalry

letters.266He recently published another thirty GCL. 267 However, chivalry has

received scholarly scrutiny, but GCL have not generally brought acquisitive

analysis.

Regardless of the type of CL, they are considered as a collection of

historical documents, which are based on the transmission of a series of affiliated

265
Afsharī, Mihrān (2009), Fu u Aṣn f, Tehran, Chishmeh, 3th ed., p. 154-163.
266
Afshqrī, Fu u Aṣn f.
267
Afshārī, (2012), Si Fu u ā D g r, Tehran, Cheshmeh.
85
stable codes and ethical conception in order to designate the way to spirituality in

a normal life. Thus, cognition the CL is very significant for the survey of the

history of Islamic culture and civilization. They are the most authentic sources for

studying chivalry. And as long as all of them are not identified, the investigation

about chivalry will be defective and incomplete.

4.2 INTRODUCTION TO T - Ᾱ Ᾱ - YᾹ

uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān, written by Kāshānī in the fourteenth

century, is about chivalry in Islam. Although, it is not as major as chivalry letter

of Ibn al-Miʻmār, but it discusses chivalry in theoretical and practical approach. It

includes a wide range of Qur’ānic verses, narratives, poetry, rational arguments

on epistemology, different levels of spirituality and proper etiquette; thus, it is

consider as an important source for those who are striving to understand the

proper spiritual chivalry.

It is not surprising that Kāshānī’s works often appear as highly authentic

sources for later Islamic authors; since, they are sort of theology and practicing

Sufism and focus on the conceptual exposition of Ibn ʻArabī’s teaching.

Therefore, they were always at the center of consideration with other authors, and

are considered as a valid source for their writings. uḥf -Ikh ān f K sāis

al-Fi yān is also not an exception. For example, Āmulī gave many references in

his book fāis -Funūn F ‘Arāis ‘Uyūn to it.

Furthermore, Wāi Kāshifī, in addition to other sources, paid attention to

the uḥf - Ik ān f K sāis -Fi yān and discussed in detail about some of

the concepts that Kāshānī briefly cited. 268

268
Kāshifī Sabzewārī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 131.
86
 Additionally, Muhammad Maʻsūm Shīrāzī (d. 1293/1876)269 in the first

volume of his work rā’iq - qāyiq, for interpreting the story of “People of

the Cave” (As ā -i Kahf), exactly quoted from uḥf - Ik ān. 270The CL of

‘Alā al-Dawlah Simnānī is very similar to Kāshānī’s; while the only considerable

difference is the index of chivalry terminology at the end of Simanānī’s treatise.

To systematically examine the treatise, this research begins to present the

title, editions and differences between Arabic and Persian version. Later, it will

describe the style of writing and argue how the concept of chivalry is supported

by the School of W d -Wujūd and School of Illumination. At the end, this

chapter will clarify the method and partition of the treatise and the proto type of

the fundamental ideas of chivalry according to Kāshānī.

4.3.1 THE TITLE AND EDITION

uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān means “A gift to brothers on the character

of young men”, which indicates the purpose of the author to write this treatise, in

order to fulfill his brotherhood. In the forward of this treatise, the author implied

that one of posterity of Shihāb al-Dīn Suhrawardī, ʻAlī Ibn Ya yā, asked him to

write what he had collected about chivalry. 271Although Kāshanī found his

strength not enough to write this treatise, he felt that the acceptance of his request

was noble. He, thus, wrote this treatise and called it uḥfah al-Ikhwān F K ṣāiṣ

al-Fi yān.272However, the title of treatise is significant for the understanding of

269
Muhammad Maʻsūm Ibn Zayn al-‘Ābidīn was one of famous Persian Shaykh of Niʻmat Allāhī
sect of eighteenth century in Shīrāz. As he seldom spoke, he was known as “Shaykh of Silence”
and “Maʻsūm ‘Alī Shāh”. His book is a comprehensive encyclopedia of Sufis and their orders in
three volumes.
270
Shirāzī, Muhammad Maʻsūm (2000), T rāiq - qāiq, Studied by Muhammad afar
Ma ūb, Vol. 1, Tehran, Bārānī, p. 117,118.
271
uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān in Arabic, p. 525.
272
ATIKF, p. 526.
87
its meaning and teaching. As Kāshānī was interested to deal with esoteric

dimension of Islam, making this title of the chivalry’s terminology penetrates the

aim of the author to involve the reader to the essential character of chivalry as

brotherhood. He did not mention the reason, but it might be in the style of his

writing, which is short and compendium compared to CL of Suhrawardī.

The original description of this treatise is lost; however, there are two

copies available in library in Iran. A copy is in the Library of Ma lis Shawrā

Islamī in Tehran, the collection No: 369, section 12, in j ūʻa R sāi

uk ā’ (The collection of treatises of sages), which is written during the 1672

till 1674.273Pages 389-414 contain uḥf -Ikh ān.274Another copy is available

in the Malik library in Tehran. This copy is in a collection of different treatises in

417 pages, and mostly includes treatises from adr al-Dīn Qūnawī. Pages 411-

434 contain the text of uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān.

In addition to the Arabic prescription, there is the second CL written in

Persian by the same author. Since, in the introduction of the Persian version, the

author clearly explained that after he finished the Arabic text according to the

request of some Persian students, whose Arabic knowledge was inadequate to

understand it, he decided to rewrite it into Persian.275Therefore, there are two CL

in Arabic and Persian, which are written by the same author and have the same

273
Shaykh Āghā Buzurg ehrānī (d.1389/1969) named it in his al-D r ʻ under the index of
thirteenth treatises known as uḥf -Ik ān. ( -D r ʻ I ā ṣān f -S ʻ is one of
comprehensive encyclopedia about the S ʻi authorships in 27 volumes. See: Āghā Buzurg
ehrānī (1983), -D r ʻ I ā ṣān f -S ʻ , Beirut, Dāral-A wā’, Vol.3, p. 413-417.
274
The description is 25 pages. Each page has 24 rows and is written in s ʻ q, the main script
style used in writing Perso-Arabic-Persian script. It is written with the black ink; however, for the
heading and the title of chapters and the Qur’ānic verses are written with the red ink. It has white
and blue paper and is in dimension of 19×9, 15×26. The cover is cardboard covered with goat
tonnage in brown color. Each page is designed with the frame of fine golden and azure lines. The
top of the page that the treatise is started is decorated with the rectangle that its background is
blue color surrounded with the golden and red flowers. This kind of decorating is traditionally the
predominant style in Persian calligraphy called ḍ .
275
PTIKF, p.222.
88
title : 1. uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān in Arabic (ATIKF) 2. uḥf -

Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān in Persian (PTIKF)

The Persian Prescription is in the collection of 167 different treatises in

Arabic and Persian in the library of Tehran University under the registrations no:

2832 through 2834. It is a microfilm of the prescription, which is kept in the

diyyah library in Turkey. Pages 363 till 372 contain the Persian prescription,

which is written with very small font.

There are three publications of this treatise: First, is a cooperative work of

Murti ā arrāf and Henry Corbin under the title, R sā’i J ān rdān,

published 1973.276Second, is the study of Muhammad Dāmādī, 1991.277 And, the

latest one is the study of Majīd Hādī Zādeh, who collected Kāshānī’s treatises in

a compilation called j ūʻ R sāi W uṣ nn fā A d -R zzāq Kās ān ,

and published it in 2002. 278 Pages 525 through 563 contain the Arabic version.

This version is the source of translation for this research; since, it is based on the

comparison of the two above publications. In addition, the author gives

suggestion in the footnote, if some words are not clear to read or even if he found

any faults in writings. It is pertinent to mention that two later publishings contain

also the Persian version of this treatise.

276
Corbin, Henry & arrāf, Murti ā (1973), R sā’i J ān rdān, Tehran, French Institute of
Iranian Scholarly Research.
277
Kāshānī, Abd al-Razzāq (1991), uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān, Studied by
Muhammd Dāmādī, Tehran, ‘Ilmī Farhangī.
278
Hādīzādeh, Ma īd (2002), j ūʻ R sāi uṣ nn fā A d -R zāq Kās ān , Tehran,
Mirāth-e-Maktūb.
89
4.3 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARABIC AND PERSIAN VERSIONS

As Kāshānī stated in the introduction of the Persian version, it is clear that the

Persian version is not a direct translation of the Arabic and the author has cut off

the additional explanation in the Persian version. Therefore, the Persian version is

almost an abstract form of the Arabic version, which is limited to presentation the

necessary principles, while the additional comments, poems and narratives are

written off by the author.279 The concept and central subjects, however, are the

same in both versions, although there are some differences in the structure of

arrangement in the chapters. For example, the introduction of the Arabic version is

divided into three parts, while the introduction of the Persian version is divided

into four parts. The additional chapter in the introduction of the Persian version is

about the source and origin of initial rituals. This chapter in the Arabic version is

set as the second conclusion. However, the conclusion in both Arabic and Persian

versions is divided into three parts, but the third part of Arabic conclusion (The

Character of Holder of Chivalry and Their Behavior and Manner) is set as the

second conclusion in the Persian version. And, the third conclusion of the Persian

version (At the Service of Hospitality) is set inexplicitly in the third part of Arabic

conclusion without an independent title.

4.3.3 THE STYLE OF WRITING

As we know, Kāshānī is famous because of his commentaries of Ibn ʻArabī’s

teaching. Ibn ‘Arabī, undoubtedly, is considered as one of the most difficult

authors,280while Kāshānī, as one of his commentators, presents the high level

279
PTIKF, p. 222.
280
Morris, ames Winston (1987), “Ibn ‘Arabī and his Interpreters”, Part II A, Journal of the
Amerian Oriental Society, Vol. 107, p. 35; Chittick, p. 2.
90
 discourses through a simple and understandable style. However, it is to notice,

when it is said that he wrote simple, it means that compared to the Ibn ‘Arabī’s

works, his style of writing is considered as simple; since, the author avoids to use

complicated compound sentences. Although, the text is full of philosophy and

spiritual issues that are not easy to understand. For example, we mention in the

first paragraph of the second introduction of ATIKF as it is said:

‫ الن نهايتها بداية‬،‫ فحیث ظهرت الوالية کملت الفت َوة‬،‫لما تقرر أن الفت َوة مبنی الوالية و أساسها‬
‫ کما أن نهاية المروة بداية الفت َوة؛ إذ طريق الوالية أخالق و معامالت و أحوال و‬،‫الوالية‬
‫ و طريق الفت َوة تج َرد االخالق و‬.‫مکاشفات و علوم و مشاهدات تنتهي الی الفناء فی هللا‬
،‫ و لما خلصت الفطرة حصلت البغییة‬،‫المعامالت و ينتهی الی خالص الفطرة عن قید الجبلَة‬
‫ " لها‬:-‫ تعالی‬-‫ و ينبیء عنها قوله‬.‫إذ الفضائل الزمة لها ذاتیَة و الرذائل خارجة عنها عارضیَة‬
‫ فإن االكتساب إتَخاذ بالقصد و النَیة و الکسب حصول کیف‬."‫ما کتسبت و علیها ما اکتسبت‬
‫ ألنها مقتضیاتها و لوازمها عند التج َرد و الشرورال‬،‫ فالخیرات نافعة لها کیف ما حصلت‬،‫إتَفق‬
‫تضرها إال تو َجهت الیها بالقصد و اتَخذتها لنفسها و إالمحیت عنها و ذهبت ألنَها عوارض‬
َ ‫غريبة عنها و عن عاملها صاعدة إلیها من ظلمات النَفس و معادن‬
281
.‫الرجس‬

It is obvious the text contains deep meaning of Sufi's teaching, like

annihilation in God282 as well as philosophical issues, like the matter of the

essence of good and vices. We face with compound conception, the manner in

which the author wrote, is a clear, direct literature that brought description of the

complex subjects to a more understandable form. The mastery of the manner of

281
ATIKF, p. 529.
282
The annihilation in God is the last level of spiritual school. Although, there are different
interpretation of the technical words of School of W d - ujūd, but the researcher will explain
shortly; since, it is out of the realm of this research. The annihilation in God is the last step of spiritual
path according to School of Wa dah al-Wu ūd. The nature of f nā’ is not destryinh physical human,
rather it means to change so that, there can be no sign in the new condition from the past. Therefore,
f nā’ in human refers to his change from his situltaion to other situation. In other word, annihilation is
referring to annihilation of ego (nafs). By annihilation ego, the man will transform, all misery will
disappear as if it had never existed. It refers to disregarding everything in this world because of love
towards God. When a person enters the state of f nā’ it is believed that he does not see any distance
between him and God; since, in reality he does not see him anymore. Everywhere, he perceives God.
The process of change will be in three levels: First, annihilation of action, second, annihilation of
attribution and third annihilation of essence. This classification has constructed by the three level of
d, which are Unity of action, Unity of attribution and Unity of essence. In this stage, man does
not see himself and his will. God is the source of every action and will, so he is the stage of absolute
submission. He saw only God as the real existence
91
 partition and classification of the context into logical order makes them easier to

understand. Not only is the mastery of the author important, understandability

also depends on the creativity and talent of writing that can be observed in all

treatises of Kāshānī.

In this treatise, the notion of chivalry and its ethical principles are very well

organized and expressed in a simple and abstract form. The method of classification

of chivalry in three parts as introduction, main body and conclusion, sequentially

discusses the origin, path and character of chivalry, and depicts an appropriateness

rational thought in the text. Sometimes, however, the author applies short sentences

so that the reader needs additional explanation but, in general, the sentences are

long.

Moreover, the solidarity and beauty of the text along with the concept and

meaning is preserved. Additionally, the author integrated the content with

appropriate Qur’ānic verses; therefore, a pragmatic unity and coordination within

the text is clearly observed. Another prominent feature of the text is the

application of a wide variety of rhetorical devices through the entire text. For

example:
283
.‫ هاجر الی ّللا عن االهل و االغزه و االوطان و المألوفات الملذة‬-
.‫ الداعية الی الکبر العجب و الحقد و التهور باالفراط أو الجبن و الخور و الخوف و الفشل بالتفريط‬-
284

‫ حدها محدودا و أمدا ممدودا و لموتة وقتا معلوما و قدرا مقدورا فَل يخاف من عاداة و اليبالی بمن‬-
285
.‫ناواة‬
286
.‫ الب هشاشه بحضورهم و المؤانسة بوجودهم و و الموالکة معهم‬-

This style of writhing requires mastery of the language by the author, in

which the author preserves the intellectual and metaphysical frame work, while

283
ATIKF, p. 529.
284
ATIKF, p. 537.
285
ATIKF, p. 541.
286
ATIKF, p. 547.
92
providing a musical rhythm that leads the text to be read with the more interest

and appeal.

Moreover, the symbols used in the chivalry initiation ceremony are

described by the author, and an esoteric interpretation and heavenly commentary

is given by him. 287Although some of them do not possess authentic historical

sources, they generally provide a good position for esoteric interpretation. 288

4.3.4 THE SOURCES

The numerous Qur’ānic verses (65 Qur’ānic verses) and narratives used in the

text, depicts the author tried to construct his writing on the ground of Qur’ānic

teaching. This characteristic is so obvious that it gives the reader the concept that

the essential point of chivalry letter is not its adequate, integrated view to

chivalry’s method and practice. The effort of the author bears the roots of

chivalry in the Qur’ān and presents the connection of Qur’ān with its action and

rituals. On the basis of Qur’ānic teaching and prophetic narratives, Kāshānī

sought the relation between shar ʻ nd ar qah with chivalry. In this regard, he

explained the sensual strength and the virtues and the vices of human treatment.

He, extensively, refers to the Qur’ān in verses and the prophetic tradition in

support of his view about the doctrine and path of chivalry.

In addition to the Qur’ān and narratives, we can find the trace of influence

of the Schools of W d -Wujūd and School of Illumination in the chivalry

letter of Kāshānī. Foremost, Kāshānī have benefited from the School of W d

287
Titus, Bruckhardt (2001), Sacred Art in east and West: Its principles and Morals, Translated
by Lord Northbourune, USA, World Wisdom, pp. 75-76.
288
Guenon, Rene (2004), Symbols of Sacred Science, English trans. by Henry D. Fohr, Hilldale
NY. Sophia Perennis, 2th ed., pp. 7-11.
93
al-Wujūd; since, as follower of this School of thought, he tried to present the

theoretical and philosophical dimension of chivalry. 289

Moreover, Kāshānī discussed about the three key conceptions of chivalry as

the reality of chivalry, second the source of chivalry and third, the foundation of

chivalry. By comparing them to that of Ibn ʻArabī’s and Suhrawardī’ definition,

we find that Kāshānī’s conception of the reality of chivalry is grounded on the

integration of the Schools of thought of Ibn ʻArabī and Suhrawardī. On one hand,

Ibn ʻArabī identified chivalry in Fusūs -Hik as the spiritual stage of human

strength (al-quwwah).290 Ibn ʻArabī presented chivalry as the ultimate stage of the

perfection of every human being according to his strength. He explained that as

long as human is under the control of the material desires, he would be consider

as a boy; however, when he is released from all temptation of the soul, he would

reach to the stage of young man (f ā), in the sense that his strength are achieved

to their perfection and the virtues would appear in him. Ibn ʻArabī called this

stage as the stage of the heart, which is known as pure heart (qalb al- s ).291

On the other hand, Suhrawardī, clearly, presented chivalry as spiritual path

( rq ),292keeping in mind that the Illumination School is grounded on the

combination of intellect (ʻaql) and witnessing (shuhud). With respect of this,

Kāshānī identified the reality of chivalry as the appearance of innate potentiality

of human being.293 His argument implies an individual spiritual experience,

which is based on the intellectual cognition integrated with spiritual experience.

289
Kristen E. Kvam, Linda S. Schearing, Valarie H. Ziegler (1999), Eve and Adam: Jewish,
Christian, and Muslim Readings on Genesis and Gender, USA, Bloomington, Indiana University
Press, p. 199.
290
Ibn ʻArabī, Fu ū ā -Makiyyah, 42: 146, 147.
291
Ibid.
292
Suhrawardī, Fu u ā , p. 93.
293
ATIKF, p. 527.
94
He discussed about a kind of understanding which its pivot is not the mind but it

is centralized in the human’s heart.

According to the source of chivalry, the Prophet Abraham is recognized as

its source by Kāshānī, Suhrawardī and Ibn ʻArabī. It is certainly that chivalry as

the spiritual path possesses a particular chain. Suharawdī portrayed a

comprehensive chain of chivalry begins from the prophet Seth to the Muhammad

(p.b.u.h) and handed to ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tālib.294 In his chivalry letter, ʻAlī is

presented as the manifestation of the God’s manificence. 295 However, ʻAlī as the

heir of chivalry became the pole of chivalrous by Kāshānī, while Ibn ʻArabī

mentioned only to the Abraham. According to the foundation of chivalry, they are

agreeing that chivalry is based on nobility, which means the purification of the

soul from whole vice and material pleasure.

As chivalry, officially, recognized as the sub-Sufism in chivalry letter of

Suhrawardī, it contains ethical instruction for the master and disciple of path of

chivalry, yet Kāshānī generalized this instruction and counted qualities as barriers

and blights which threatened every disciple of chivalry.

Moreover, Suhrawardī counted different characters for chivalrous without

particular classification, but they can classified into three dimensions of human’s

life. First, qualities which are related to the human intellect as intelligence,

thought, acknowledgement and intuition. Second, qualities which are concerned

to the practical traits or spiritual path as repentance, humility, chastity, piety and

reliance. Third, qualities which are linked to society as loyalty, sanctity and

conduct. However, most of these qualities are discussed by Kāshānī in a

organized classification of virtues, while Ibn ʻArabī focuses on the quality of the

294
Suhrawardī, Fu u ā , p. 100.
295
Ibid, p. 112.
95
precedence (i ār). Therefore, although Kāshānī is influenced by Ibn ʻArabī and

Suhrawardī, but he retained his creativity to develop the concept of chivalry and

described the process of becoming one chivalrous in an organized form.

The substantial difference of chivalry letter of Kāshānī with other chivalry

letters is appearing in the classification of chivalry’s ethic. He enumerated eight

virtues for chivalry on the basis of a narrative quoted by the pole of chivalry, ʻAlī

Ibn Abī Tālib; while he classified them according to the four cardinal virtues.

This unique character makes his chivalry letter to be considered as an ethical

source and comparable to other authentic ethical sources such as al-Ghazalī.

According to al-Ghazalī, there are four principles of virtues which are based on

the analysis of the faculties of the soul. Three virtues, wisdom, courage and

temperance, are related to the different faculties of the soul. The fourth virtue is

justice, which has the task of properly ordering these faculties in relation to one

another.296

As noted, these four main virtues, indeed, are the basic classification of

Kāshānī’s ethic of chivalry. Although, they possess different subsets, but they

both are sharing the idea that there is a connection between knowledge and

action. This knowledge is related to the knowledge of self. They are agreeing that

ethic is a process of acquiring noble character and leads to vision and love of

God.297 According to al-Ghazālī, the knowledge of self leads to discover the truth

of humans being which this is the part of truth of God. As God is the source of

296
Al-Ghazālī (1993), I yā’ ‘U ū -D n, English Trans. by Fazl-Ul. Karim, Karachi, Darul-
Ishaat, Vol. 3, pp . 50-2.
297
ATIKF, 531 and Paya, Ali (2014), The Mystery lands of Ideas and the light of Dialogue, An
Anthology of Comparative Philosophy, Western and Islamic, London, ICAS, p. 3.
96
love and His essence is love, truth of human being is compounded with love of

God; thus, who becomes a lover of God, will go back to his real being. 298

Kāshānī; however, described it with mere Suhrawardī philosophical aspect,

as he make a connection between intellect, certainty and action. According to

Suhrawardī, God created intellect as the first thing, which it was capable to know

God, itself and creatures. The knowledge of self leads to love, which is

recognized as kindness of God.299To Kāshānī, this knowledge is the spirit of

action, which is given to the human only through God’s mercy. The human being

is created in darkness, and then God shined upon him from His light. So, whoever

gained that light is led and whoever missed it is misled. 300

Although, Kāshānī tried to followed the classification of virtues but it differ

itself in the subject of justice from that of al-Ghazālī. When we study deeper the

subordinate of ustice, advice and loyalty, we realized that Kāshānī considers the

concept of justice as the balance between virtues as the general policy for the

ustice at the beginning of the chivalry’s ethic.301 However, the ultimate of justice

is the appearance of the human strength in its perfection. 302 It is no wonder that as

the follower of School of W d -Wujūd, he remained loyal to the ontology

which is based on the system of appearance and manifestation. In this system, the

intensity and perfection of the God’s existence is source of His desire to be

manifest. Therefore, the starting point of the ethic of chivalry by Kāshānī, is

appearance of inborn nature in its perfect strength and the end of chivalry’s

character is the highest level of justice. Therefore, the concept of balance by al-

298
Al-Ghazālī, S āniḥ -‘Us s āq, 0: 130-1; idem, 1:115, 116, 188, 189.
299
Renald, John (1998), Windows on the House of Islam: Muslim Sources on Spirituality and
Religious Life, University of California Press, p. 180.
300
ATIKF, 544.
301
ATIKF, 545.
302
ATIKF, 549.
97
 Ghazālī is presented by Kāshānī as the appearance of human nature in the perfect

strength, which bestowed by God to human and is different in every human

being.

4.3.5 THE METHOD OF DIVISION AND PARTITION

Kāshānī, systematically authored his treatise in three parts: introduction, main

part and conclusion. The introduction is divided into three sections, which

highlight subjects as:

1. On the reality of the chivalry

2. The origin and appearance of the chivalry

3. The principles and structure of the chivalry

The main body is arranged by the author in ten chapters. Chapter one to

eight are carried out in detail virtues that need to be achieved by the man on the

path to chivalry. As Kāshānī reconfirmed four cardinal virtues as chastity,

courage, wisdom and justice, thus, he studied each of two virtues beneath one of

the cardinal virtues as:

1. Repentance and generosity beneath the chastity

2. Humility and security beneath the courage

3. Truth and guidance beneath the wisdom

4. Loyalty and advice beneath the justice

The rest of virtues are classified and described under these eight essential

qualities as follows:

98
 1. Repentance (tawbah): Patience (sabr), complacency (daʻah), dignity

(waqār), pious (waraʻ), to love what perfects the soul ( s n -samt), regularity

(in izā ), contentment (qanāʻah), freedom ( urriyah).

2. Generosity (s k ā’): Forgiveness (musamaha), magnanimity

(s āḥ ) equality (mu āsā ), tax (z kā ), munificence (karam), magnanimous

(nabal), sacrifice (i ār)

3. Humility (t āḍuʻ): Gentleness ( ilm), friendliness (rifq),

toleration (mudārā ), stability (t u ā ), sagacity (s ā ), magnitude

of the soul (kibar al-nafs), forgiveness (‘ fw), gentleness (riqqah), zeal

( amiyyah), great endeavor (himmah)

4. Security (amn)

5. Truth (sidq): Truth in intention, truth in action, Pureness (s fā’),

excellent understanding and intelligence (fahm/dhakā’), mind (lubb)

6. Guidance (hidāy ): Guidance to knowledge of God, Guidance to

His orders/ obligation/ permissible and forbidden, obtaining correct thought and

faith

7. Advice (n ṣiḥ ): Trustworthiness (a ān ), compassion

(shafaqah), connection to relatives (si -r ḥi ), to keep straight between

enemies (iṣ ā d ā -bayn), good participation ( usn shirkah), fairness and

demand justice from himself and others, reward (mukāfā ), excellence judgment

(husn al-q ḍā’), friendship (t ddūd), intimacy (ulfah), sincere friendship

(sidāq )

8. Loyalty (w fā’): Salvation of the pure inborn self from the peel of

birth (lubb), the covenant (‘ hd), loyalty with people.

99
 Continuing on, chapter nine and ten explain important points that need to

be considered by the chivalrous as:

9. The pest of the chivalrous and the slander of nobility: To consider

the virtues of soul, domination and pride, lying and pretending about the virtues,

dissipation and intemperance, recklessness, lethargy, humbleness and injustice.

10. The differences between the chivalry one and the pretentious.

At the end, the conclusion of this chapter deals with three sections as:

1. The path of gaining chivalry

2. Declaration of chivalry’s sources and the beginning of its path

3. The qualities of the chivalrous and their conduct and manner

4.3.6 THE PROTOTYPE OF THE FUNDAMENTAL IDEAS OF

CHIVALRY

The introduction delves in to theoretical chivalry. In the first section of the

introduction, the author, Kāshānī, submitted an idiomatic definition of chivalry

and argued that it related to the inborn nature and pure heart (qalb sal m), and its

notion is transformed as the fundamental conception of chivalry in Islam.

According to Kāshānī, chivalry is a spiritual condition in which the innate

human being with its potentialities will be appearing. 303To describe this

condition, the author explained necessary qualities that need to be obtained before

gaining chivalry. The first stage is nobility (muruwwah), a quality that leads man

to reach the virtues of humanity. The nobility is not completed without chastity

and courage. Courage is the prominent character of the chivalrous; since, he has

to stand any sufferings and difficulties on the path of chivalry, and not be afraid

303
Kāshānī (199 ), S rḥ nāzi -Sā r n, p. 137.
100
of anything. Through courage and chastity the foundation of guidance and justice

will be established. When the courage is completed, the chivalry will be

achieved. In this regard, for expressing the reality and the roots of chivalry,

Kāshānī refers to the Qur’ān 18:12; since, the “People of the Cave” (As ā -i

Kahf) were a complete example of courage, chastity and chivalry.

The second section of introduction is allocated to the origin of chivalry and

its manifestation. In this regard, the author discusses about the matter of sanctity

(w āy ), which is manifested by the prophet Abraham. Accordingly, the author

counted some characters that made Abraham qualified to be a friend of God, such

as to release from earthy desires, to isolate from his father and tribe, to sustain all

difficulties, to separate from his home, and to be patient and courage by breaking

the idols. In this respect, the author asserted that the light of the pure inborn self

shines only through refinement of the soul. Through self purification the light of

inborn self will change from potential to actual.

In the third section of the introduction, he elucidates the principles and

structure of chivalry. According to him, the principle of chivalry is pure soul,

genuine heart, good deeds, graceful conduct, admirable habits, excellent

pretension, correct thoughts and sincere intents. In this regard, he presents the

importance of the role of shame ( yā’) and chastity (ʻiffah), which are the

foundation of chivalry and nobility.

Therefore, Kāshānī classified chivalry’s qualities in ten chapters on the

basis of the narrative quoted from the ‘Alī Ibn Abī ālib. They are loyalty

(w fā’), honesty (sidq), security (amn), generosity (s k ā’), humility (t āḍuʻ),

advice (n ṣ ḥ ), guidance (hidāyah) and repentance (tawbah). Thereafter, he

discusses about each in separate chapters. It is noteworthy to mention that he

101
changed the order of the above qualities, so that the first chapter started with the

quality of repentance.

Kāshānī started with repentance, because on his point of view it is the base

and principle of chastity, which leads to moderation of bestiality strength.

Accordingly, the author depicts the evil attributions and its effects on human

character that cause iniquity, greed and avidity, and shame and ugliness.

According to Kāshānī, chivalry is not valid without repentance. It is returning

from what is forbidden, according to legislation (sharʻ), and from what is

honorably contempt by intellect, including saying, practice and intention.

However, the repentance should be done with a sincere heart, so that he never

commits the sin again. Therefore, Kāshānī, by referring to the Qur’ānic verse,

explains how a successful repentance needs patience and resistance against the

orders of caprice; since, patience leads to complacency, through which the soul

reaches peace.

Therefore, chivalry means returning to the original nature of inborn self.

This return is the matter of repentance. It is not only asking for forgiveness, but it

is the acceptance of comprehensive transformation into the pure inborn nature

through avoiding from pleasures, desires and affections. Hence, determination,

strength, patience and stability are necessary elements. In order to use to do good

deeds, the man needs information about actions, which will complete the soul and

give the ability to distinguish the proper time of the implementation. This needs

contentment, in the meaning that to live simple and be satisfied with what God

has given to him and finally. This quality leads man to freedom, which is the

head of nobility. The second chapter is related to the generosity. After the author

gives a definition of generosity, he presents the different kinds of it.

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 The third chapter is about humility. The author explained about the relation

of courage with humility, and through Qur’ānic samples he discusses about the

related qualities as: gentleness, forgiveness, stability, sympathy and zeal.

According to Kāshānī, humility is the first sign of courage; since, courage is to

direct anger toward correct notion and clear the mind by acting bravely in the

state of fears and in the face of misfortune and difficulties. In this regard, the

author gives sample from the prophecy narrative, which depicts that God loves

the people of courage. The courage is the completion and straightness for

sevenfold of a human’s power, which needs forgiveness; especially in the time

the man possess power and authority. In addition, Kāshānī stresses on forgiveness

as the most important quality for chivalry. Hence, he describes its perquisite as

sympathy, a kind of feeling caused when others get hurt. Other virtues will follow

this feeling as zeal, stability and patience, which are the powers of resistance

against suffering and difficulties.

To gain these qualities magnanimity is needed. It is to strive for great

matters and sorts of glory and noble things, to despise the comfort, and to have

the ability to take humbleness; on the basis of the worldview that the enjoyment

of this world is short and finite.

The fourth chapter is about security. It is the self confidence and the

peacefulness of the soul, so that the man does not feel worried by fear and does

not lose his courage by ruining it, because he is assured by God’s word that says:

“Verify, for all things has God appointed a due proportion” 304Therefore, the level

of security is the stage of peacefulness, certainty, and baring the cover through

obvious light. Security also covers a subsidiary meaning of courage; since, he

304
āq, (65: 3).
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who feels secure by God, believes that nothing will happen to him except what

God has decreed for him. 305

The fifth chapter is about truth. The truth is the lower stage of wisdom;

thus, the author discuses about the wisdom, through which the human is

distinguished from other creatures and becomes superior to the whole of

existence. To obtain wisdom, purity of heart, understanding and discernment are

needed. Wisdom here means the knowledge of the existent as they are, and to

exactly define the proper aspects of actions in the manner it should be done. The

quality of truth is the result of entitlement of the heart, and it would be manifested

in three levels as:

1. Truth in intention: It is the sincerity of intention to do everything for

the satisfaction of God and do nothing in exchange and reward.

2. Truth in word: It is to speak according to the reality. In this regard,

the author refers to the Qur’ānic verses to depict the ugliness of lies by God.

3. Truth in action: It means that the action must be the same as the

intension. In other word, the inside and outside the man is same and he is not

afraid and shameful, if his action is unfolded for everybody.

Chapter six is about the guidance. It is opening the vision through

reconciling. The guidance here means the knowledge of certainty emanated to the

slave (ʻabd) through hyper serenity immediately after vision. Kāshānī also

mentioned the differences of the knowledge of certainty (‘ilm al-y q n) which,

derived from logical proof, does not admit defect and doubt. And, there is

appointed certainty (‘ yn -yaq n) that is derived from spiritual contemplation.

Additionally, there is right certainty ( q -yaq n) that is derived of real

305
Tawbah, (9: 51).
104
significance of what is observed. Subsequently, he classifies guidance in two

levels:

1. Guidance to knowledge of God that is to believe in His existence and

His unification and the devotion to Him. And, to know His attributes and actions

and His prophets, and to have friends, especially sincere friends.

2. Guidance to His orders on obligation, permission, and the detestable

and forbidden. Also, to be honorable and virtuous, to have excellent character,

ethics and merits and possess beautiful qualities.

Chapter seven is about advice. It is the beginning of the ustice’s light and

its key, and the basis of trust and its main issue. The justice is the emotional form

of exposing the self in order to conciliate these powers with each other. And it is

worthy and noble because it is the social form for entire virtues.

The advice is to want to benefit people and to awaken them by the method

of rightness, and to justify and keep them away from what is harmful. In respect

to this, Kāshānī sketches the necessary virtues as:

1. Trustworthiness: It is the perseveration of the trust and secrets, and

to return what belongs to God and to protect it from what is alien.

2. Compassion: It is to endeavor to remove the detested things from

people.

3. Connection to relatives: It is to share the earthly benefits with

kinship.

4. Conciliation between enemies: It is to mediate between people and to

reconcile between them.

5. Good participation: It is the balance in social life.

6. Rewarding: It is to reward the goodness with goodness or more.

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 7. Friendship: It is the amity to people of virtues and noble persons. It

leads to familiarity and unity, the ideas based on love and harmony of sprits in

eternity, which leads to brotherhood. It is the great gate of chivalry and the base

of its structure and the principle of its concern.

Chapter eight is about loyalty. Kāshānī discusses loyalty from two points of

view:

1. The loyalty to God: It is the faithfulness to a pre-existing covenant

between God and man. It is perfection of man’s potential strength, identified as

inborn nature, which must be pure from darkness of temper and vices, as God has

described the man’s inborn nature pure and preserved it according to his word

( 3: 37). Thus, the loyalty in this level contains the man’s convents with God and

his declaration to His unity and his commitment to worship God, and to complete

his duties according to the legislation (shar ʻah).

2. The loyalty to people: It is to preserve his brother’s vow, to keep the

friendship and to care for their right.

Chapter nine is about the characters that cause chivalry to fall:

1. The arrogance: The great pest of chivalry is to consider the virtues of

one’s own soul by following the desire. Referring to the Prophet’s word, the

worse sin is to behave arrogantly and be overbearing. As the holder of virtues is

identified as His Caliph, and it assigns authority to him, he may feel an

irresistible temptation of appropriating of divinity, which belongs exclusively to

God. An overly proud person would presumably be more serious than that of evil

(ibl s) himself; since, pride is not only related to other people, but also to God.

2. Lie: Through lies, the base of nobility is destroyed and the basis of

chivalry is ruined.

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 3. The dissipation and intemperance: The way of virtue is difficult and

a chivalrous has to hold the middle way.

4. The recklessness: There is no doubt in the meanness of cowardice,

but perhaps the seeker of chivalry asks for praise for his ignorance and embarks

on risks not for protection of religion and people, and not for zeal of people. He

meets danger with his authority and counts himself as brave, while in truth he is

isolated from it.

Chapter ten is about the differences between the real chivalrous, the

demander and pretender. The author distinguishes the chivalrous into three

classes and describes the feature of each group. The chivalrous is someone whose

virtue is complete, and is kept away from lowness and vices of soul through the

vision of his Lord. This is the stable step in which the soul possesses peace.

Kāshānī identifies a real chivalrous with four signs: First, his character would not

change and transform, second he is aware of pests and difficulties, third his soul

is overwhelmed by enjoyment and beauty, and fourth, his soul would yield to

every beautiful action without thinking.

However, the demander of the way of chivalry tries to attain its qualities

and blames himself by defeating. He is not exactly pure and perfect by

suppression of his soul. He is satisfied by practicing and strains himself to fight

for the path of chivalrous. The pretender is dressed in the manner of the

chivalrous; while his inside and appearance is not equal, and his secret and public

do not match.

The conclusion contains three sections. The first conclusion is about the

way of attaining chivalry. Those who want to attain chivalry must apply with a

real true demand. The next step is to avoid from what corrupts the chivalry and its

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deviation, like: lies, slander, greed, avidity, evil, treachery, treason, oppression,

ignoble, stinginess, boasting and following pleasures. He must further avoid

suspicious people and intercourse with evils, and not accompanying the sly and

people of libertine; since, all these qualities defile the base of nobility and destroy

its principle. Finally, Kāshānī explains that everything which dishonors the

religion and slights the chastity is against chivalry. He also mentioned essential

practical points, such as that chivalry must be started in the period of youth; as it

will be difficult to obtain at old age. And, second, to take friends and brothers,

whose endeavor is to obtain and consider chivalry.

The second conclusion is about declaration of chivalry sources and the

beginning of its way. The author refers to the story that happened at the time of

the Holy Prophet (p.b.u.h), and presents how covering the secret of people and

avoidance of its disclosure is very important according to chivalry ethics. He

attributes the initial ceremony of chivalry to that event, which is drinking the

bowl of water and salt and wearing the special trousers and belt, and explains the

secret and esoteric meaning beyond the surface of the tradition.

Drinking water refers to the knowledge that is achieved by the pureness of

eternity and is vital for the human as the water is the essential pillar for a human’s

life. The salt refers to the meaning of justice, which balances our actions and

makes the heart strong and complete. Wearing the robe refers to the virtue of

chastity. It is a symbol to cover the defectiveness and prevent from the lust.

He presents that the perfection of knowledge is action, and discusses the

superiority of the man of action to the man of knowledge. At the end of this part,

Kāshānī has an outlook to the level of sanctity of master and argued that the

achievement of ethical stages is the level of spirit, while the ultimate spiritual

108
perfection leads to the annihilation, which is the stage of the master. In addition,

he describes the stage of heart that is the ultimate spiritual strength, while the

perfection of the human inborn is lower than spiritual stages. Therefore, he

concludes chivalry is the final corporal power and the perfect face of a human,

not the intellect power.

The third conclusion is about the characteristics of the chivalrous:

1. To keep promise and to fulfill the covenant.

2. To preserve secrets even if they would be frightened with sword or

threatened by different kind of harm and tortured by fire. Nothing would be

revealed by him except concealment.

3. Magnanimity that is to protect holiness and to consider modesty in

the occasion of accusation and situations of lowness.

4. Patience in order to release their souls from worldly attachments and

lift their ambitions from uncertain ways, so that wishes don’t mislead them, and

their fortune and abilities do not decrease.

5. The lack of envy and hatred.

6. Loyalty: They are faithful and don’t blame others. They fight in the

way of God and are never are afraid of the reproaches of such who find fault.

7. Kindness and tolerance and sociability with poor and weak believers,

and avoidance of rudeness.

8. Ruggedness. It is to use the power of defeat because of exaggeration

of violence.

9. Glory. There are two kinds: first, to erect the soul from being low to

the enemy and, second, the human’s knowledge of the capacity of his soul and its

honor.

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 10. To adorn oneself. It is the presentation of wealth and comfort that

presents the glory of soul and the stage of thankfulness.

In summary, the whole discussion of the treatise is about ethic of chivalry

in theory and practice. The author, Kāshānī, particularly tried to emphasize the

relation of this character with the human essence. The character and moral

constitution of the soul and enumerating the stages of the way of chivalry, and the

method of its attaining is explained.

In fact, chivalry is a spiritual stage contained of collective levels of about

forty qualities, in which a certain balance between the individuals and society is

observable. The whole qualities are classified under eight principles of chivalry.

Kāshānī, however, accepted the origin of virtues in four cardinal categories as,

chastity, courage, wisdom and justice, and also added eight principles of chivalry

beneath these four categories. Therefore, the repentance and generosity is placed

beneath the chastity and the humility, and security is placed beneath the courage

and the truth and guidance is placed under the wisdom, and loyalty and advice is

placed under justice.

Beginning the discussion with human nature and its growing, and the

manifestation of the inborn nature in its pureness and delicate qualities depicts

that its structure is based on the positive elements found in the nature of humans.

Kāshānī displays originality for chivalry through an analytical insight into the

human being, which presents his psychological approach to ethic.

On the other hand, regardless if the man is a Sufi or belongs to common

people, as far as theoretical method is concerned, the knowledge of self is

necessary. Since, the whole success and salvation is dependent on the knowledge

of oneself and cognition of the vices, from which the man should preserve

110
himself. Thus, Kāshānī defined a sort of knowledge of oneself and certitude, both

which are necessary for the man on the path of chivalry to attain.

In addition, Kāshānī provides the initiatory path that can be identified as his

methodology employed everywhere in his treatise. Although it is limited to

description of essential points, it is systematic and holistic. However, two key

features of the structure of the text are that they are concerned with theory and

method. The phenomenology of the spiritual path of chivalry on one hand, and on

the other hand the practical method employed by the author, elaborate the text to

clarify the conceptual problem within its philosophical and spiritual entity.

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 CHAPTER 5

TRANSLATION

-IKHWᾹ Ᾱ -FITYᾹN

112
5.0 INTRODUCTION

The method used for translation of the text is a faithful translation. Despite the

spiritual feature of the text, the cardinal intention of the translation is to convey

the meaning, while it tries to keep the style of the author, to write simple and

avoid from complex sentences in the process of translation. In case of complex

sentences, the supplementary declaration is given in brackets, in order to be

confident that the original text is accurately conveyed to the reader. It also tries to

keep consistency in the use of the terminology and style of the translation.

The Persian version was used to assist understanding of the meaning of the

Arabic original text; thus, the additional comments are mentioned in the footnote

of translation. The translation is based on the edition by Hādī Zādeh, Ma īd

(2000), j ūʻ R sā’i W uṣ nn fā A d -R zzāq Kās ān , Tehran,

Mirāth Maktūb.

To translate the Holy verses of Qur’ān, the The Holy Quran (2000), English

translation by Abdullah Yūsuf ‘Alī, Malaysia, Saba Islamic Madis, is used. In the

process of translation, the references of narratives and poems used by the author,

is given. In order for it to be easy to access and compare the translation with the

text, the number of pages in the original text is mentioned at the end of translation

the same page.

Although, the Arabic and Persian version are written by Kāshānī himself,

the Persian version clearly is not the direct translation of the Arabic version by

Kāshānī; thus, there are differences between both versions that are mentioned in

the footnote of the translation. The name of characters mentioned in the text are

identified and suggested with the complete title. In this regard, the Kāshānī’s

book S rḥ nāzi -Sā’ r n (2001), Tehran, Maktabah āmidī al-‘Ilmiyyahm,

113
is used. The stories quoted in the text that are not popular in the Islamic world,

are described. In case of similar tales and narratives with ʻA ārif - ʻārif of

Suhrawardī and Iḥyā’ -ʻU ū al-Dīn of al-Ghazālī, it is mentioned in the

footnote.

5.1TRANSLATION OF TUHFAH AL-IKHWᾹN FĪ KHASᾹIS AL-FITYᾹN

5.1.0 Forward

IN THE NAME OF ALLᾹH, THE BENEFICENT, THE MERCIFUL

IN HIM MY TRUST AND ON HIM MY RELIANCE

Praise be to Allāh, who prettifies the hearts (nufūs) of youth (al-fi yān) with

beauty of virtues and honored them with beautiful qualities. In order to praise

Him genuinely in the mornings and evenings while through His glorious grace,

they sought His help to follow on the way of beauties. Blessing and peace be

upon the chosen one from the most honorable tribe, Mu ammad, the guide to the

creations with the most apparent proofs; and greeting upon his progeny, the

forerunners in venerable traits compared with those before and after them,

especially to the youth of the Arabs, who give without any demand, the victorious

lion of Allāh ( s d A ā ), ʻAlī Ibn Abī ālib, blessing to be the best means.

The learned, knowledgeable, perfect investigator shaykh, the forefront of

Sufi’s sect, the leader of Muhammadian Nation, the heir of chivalry (futuwwah)

and sainthood ( āy ), [who belongs to] the People of beginning and the end,

the remainder of the predecessor and purity of the successor, accepted by people

and religion, the pillar of Islam and Muslims, Alī Ibn Ya yā Ibn Mu ammad the

son of great master (shaykh al-k r), the star of truth and religion, ‘Umar al-

114
Suhrawardī, Allāh sanctifies the souls of those who passed away and continues

his blessing on the remaining ones,- asked me to write what I collected about

chivalry. Therefore, I found his reply as necessities of nobility. And for me it was

lack of reward and weak strength. [525]

Thus, I completed it with importance and the below introduction, for a little

is better than nothing, and named it “A gift to brothers on the character of the

young men”, and I arranged it with introduction, ten chapters and conclusion. The

introduction contains three sub-sections. [526]

5.1.1 FIRST INTRODUCTION

ON THE REALITY OF CHIVALRY (FUTUWWAH)306

Be aware that chivalry is appearance of the inborn nature (fi r ), in its pureness

and delicateness and to control it in accordance with the required development

by. The chivalry is an attribute that follows the readiness of perfection, [and]

necessary for the pure Abrahamic inborn nature, as the Most High Allāh said

about it in Qur’ān: “But only he (will prosper) that brings that brings to Allāh a

wealth sound heart.”307

When a human’s inborn nature stays pure from plagues temptation and its

qualities, and when it is pure and shiny and released from the natural veils and

corporal desires, and is ready to gain [quality of] perfections [of the inborn

nature] and is eager to reach its ultimate and defeated the ego, and overcame its

enmity, and broken its dignity and prevented his movements, and released from

materialistic things and law qualities, and raised to the brilliant levels through

306
Futuwwah literary means youth, adolescent and chivalry, See: Maa Z. Madina (2007), Arabic
–English Dictionary of the Modern Literary Language, Malaysia, Hizib Sdn. Bhd., p. 493.
307
Al-S u‛ rā’, (26: 89).
115
excellent will and noble stations, and ascended from sensuality costume, lust and

anger to the ultimate human’s virtues, and avoided all immoral qualities, and

sought every good traits and abstained from law things and evils, and infatuated

noble characters and virtues, then nobility (muruwwah) will be attained. When

the virtues related to chastity (ḥ yā’)308 and courage is won, and the basis of

guidance and justice is established, the chivalry will be achieved. Therefore,

nobility is the purity and clarity of inborn nature and chivalry is its brilliance and

glory. It (chivalry) is the base and beginning of sainthood. As nobility is the base

and foundation of chivalry, the one who does not possess nobility, does not have

chivalry, and the one who does not hold chivalry does not have sanctity. Since

nobility is the result of connection between Allāh and His servant through the

pure inborn self, in this regard, the Prophet (p.b.u.h) said: [527]“Condone the

noble person’s faults; since, none of them commit mistakes unless his hand is in

Allāh’s hand and He enhances him”. 309

It’s [nobility] axis is chastity, when the chastity is perfect, the nobility is

completed. The chivalry is the singe of being close to Allāh and its axis is

courage. When courage is completed, the chivalry is accomplished. [However],

the courage is not complete, unless through certainty, which caused the safety.

Therefore, fear is the root of uncertainty. The Most High Allāh said about people

of chivalry:

308
Chastity is a Divine reality of the nature quality for the human that it is survived in the hidden
light, se cited by Kāshānī (1992), Iṣ i āḥā - ūfiyy , Studied by ‘Abd al-’Ᾱl Shāhin, Cairo, Dār
al-Manār, first ed., p. 348.
309
In Persian version, Kashānī has quoted this di from ʻAlī ībn Abī ālib. In the meaning
that by Allāh’s grace the young boy will succeed to correct their faults, See: ‘Alī Ibn Abī ālib,
Nahj al- āg , ikmah 19, by Fay al-Islam, Tehran, Faqīh Publ., p. 109 ; Bahā’ al-Dīn al-
Abshīhī, A - us r f, Vol. 1, p. 272. (www.ahlalhdeeth.com/vb/showthread.php?t=161426); In
this regard, Suhrawardī quoted a narrative form Muhammad (p.b.u.h) in his chivalry letter that the
one who does not persist to commit sin, but he dose and repents, his repentance is accepted even
for sventy times. See: Suhrawardī, Fu u ā , p. 133.
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 “… They were youth, who believed in their Lord, and we advanced them

in guidance. We gave strength to their hearts: behold, they stood up and said:

“Our Lord is the Lord of the heavens and of the earth: never shall we call upon

any Allāh other than Him: if we did, we should indeed have uttered an

enormity!”310

The phrase “who believed in Allāh” means that they became believers

because of their clarity, preparation and integrity of inborn nature, and the

cardinal light of guidance.311 The phrase “we advanced them in guidance” refers

to their certainty that Allāh succeed them to request for it.312The phrase “We gave

strength to their hearts” means that Allāh gave their hearts power and patience to

leave their wealth and homes behind to escape to caves for saving their belief.

Allāh gave them courage to present their belief in “Unity of Allāh” ( ḥ d) and

to appear Islam, when “They stood up” against indifferently force of oppressor

Decius313, and they abandoned worshiping idols by saying “Our Lord is the Lord

of the heavens and of the earth”.314

It is quoted that People of the Gospel (Inj )315 acted sinfully and their kings

exceeded (in this way), so that they praised idols and forced people to worship

them. This became firm by Decius, when he wanted some of a noble group of

citizen to run his commands and threated them to death; but they refused to

310
Al-Kahf, (18: 13-14).
311
In PTIKF is written: The cardinal light is necessary for pure inborn self.
312
PTIKF: The stage of witnessing and source of certainty (‘ayn al-y q n).
313
Gaius Messius Quintus Decius Augustus (ca. 250 C.E.), was Roman Emperor, who issued
edict for suppression of Christianity, See: Martin Novak, Ralph (2001), Christianity and Roman
Empire: Background texts, London, Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 121.
314
Al-Kahf, (18: 14).
315
The word Inj is used to refer to the scripture of the Gospel meaning the Christian; however,
as the People of the Cave were the only Christian in the time of Decius, it seems that In īl could
not be appropriate term here and it may be “A - y ”, the residence of a state. See: Leaman
Oliver (2005), Encyclopaedia of the Quran, USA, Routledge, p. 297; Leeming, David Adams
(1998), Mythology: The Voyage of the Hero, USA, Oxford University.
117
accept it. Instead, But, they presented their belief in Allāh and t ḥ d,316 and

escaped to the cave, as the story is well known.

This will happen, when man attains chivalry or sanctity, they believe in

their Lord with the certainty faith, 317and theoretically by inference (is id ā ) or

opening ( ukās f ),318 “We advanced them in guidance” refers to the guidance

to vision of certitude 319 (‘ yn al-y q n) and the station of witnessing

( us ā d );320 “Gifted their hearts strength” means that we (Allāh) gave them

strength by patience for doing deep struggle (mujahadah) and to leave common

bodily desires and related sense behind, 321indeed, we (Allāh) gave them courage

to fight the devil ( -S y ān) and resist against desire and pleasure ( ā’),322by

carrying out the Unity ( i k i - ḥ d), against giant soul who demands

evil by being detached and unconcerned when he is blamed for leaving the

obedience of the God of pleasure, and call them to worship the idols of body (self

desire). When the oppressor ruler of the demanding soul (n fs ār ),323lead

them to evil, they re ected her call to praise Allāh by obsession and worshipping

corporal idols. As they said, “Never shall we call upon any Allāh other than Him:

if we did, we should indeed have uttered an enormity. 324 Otherwise, if we recede

316
According to Kashānī, ḥ d in ethic means to consider that the entire kingdom and
appearance and the whole actions are from Allāh, as cited in Iṣ i āḥā - Sūfiyy , p. 378.
317
Al-Kahf, (18: 13).
318
According to Kāshānī, ukās f is to witness the substances and their states in reality and
the right achievement by the study the manifestation of the Allāh’s attributions; however, he
defined it in ethic as to know the manner of gaining Divine attributions, as cited in Iṣ i āḥā -
ūfiyy , p. 346.
319
Al-Kahf, (18: 13).
320
Al-Kahf, (18: 13).
321
PTIKF: This is the stage of attendance (ḥuḍūr).
322
H ā’ is the tendency of the soul to the appropriate temper and to recede from the correct
direction to the incorrect, as cited in Iṣ i āḥā - ūfiyy , p. 72.
323
The sensuality self is the faculty that leans to the corporal nature and commands to the
pleasures and sensational lust and absorbs the heart to the law direction, which is the home of the
evils and the source of the alien characters and bad actions. As it is said in the Qur’ān, Yūsuf, (12:
3): “Undoubtedly the soul excessively commands towards evil”, as cited in Iṣ i āḥā -Sūfiyy ,
p. 115.
324
Al-Kahf, (18: 13).
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and retreat the unity (shirk), then we committed a great sin. As Quran said:”…

For false worship is indeed the highest wrong-doing.”325[528]

5.1.2 SECOND INTRODUCTION

THE ORIGIN AND APPEARANCE OF CHIVALRY 326

As we said before, chivalry is the basis and foundation of sainthood. When

sainthood has appeared, the chivalry is complete; since the end of chivalry is the

beginning of sainthood as the end of nobility is the beginning of the chivalry.

And, the way of sainthood is based on morals, conduct, states, opening,

knowledge and witnessing, which leads to annihilation in Allāh (al-f nā’ fi

A ā ).327 The way of chivalry is isolation of morals and conduct, which leads to

liberate inborn nature from the limitation of nature (temper). When the inborn

nature is free [from all impurity], the goal is attained. The virtues are necessary

within human beings but the vices are accidental obstacles from the human

inborn nature. We know about it by His (Allāh) word –the Most High-:” … It

gets every good that it earns, and it suffers every ill that earns….” 328 Therefore,

ik isā is a kind of gaining with intention and purpose [for himself], while kasaba

is a kind of getting coincidentally; hence, the goodness (k yrā ) benefits the

inborn nature regardless how it has been achieved. Since, they (k yrā ) are

necessary and required for the inborn nature, and the vices could not harm it (the

inborn nature), unless the goodness is considered with intension, if they (vices)

are attained [with intention], the inborn nature dies and carries off peculiarity

325
Al- uq ān, (31: 12).
326
This chapter is set as the fourth chapter of introduction in PTIKF.
327
According to Kāshānī, annihilation to Allāh in ethic means the annihilation of whole human’s
qualities in to the Divine ethics, as cited in Iṣ i āḥā - ūfiyy , p. 367.
328
Al-Baqarah, (2: 286).
119
obstacles; since, it is ascending from the darkness of oneself and sources of

dirt.329

The beginning and the key of sainthood, from which spreads union and on

which appears chivalry and sainthood—the beginning of sainthood is the sacred

Abrahamic oneself. The Abraham, the friend of Allāh, (k -A ā ), (a.s)330

was the first one, who released from the world its pleasure, was devoid from its

beauty and lust, and isolated from his father and his tribe, and sustained all

difficulties and troubles for the love of his Lord. He traveled his journey towards

Allāh, leaving his family, his deares, homes, usual pleasures for Him, and he

endured being away from home and was patient in battle. He presented his

courage by breaking the idols and resisted against his tribe until his enemies

testified his chivalry, as Allāh said:” They said, “We heard a youth talk of them:

he is called Abraham.”331

And so his enemies affirmed his superiority! 332

Therefore, he is the source of strengths and the appearance of chivalry both

in inward and outward. He also set its foundation and rules, and developed it

329
PTIKF: As the vices have not the same essence with the soul, they would not establish in the
soul except by doing it frequently with intention; otherwise, the soul would be pure by the
repentance and to avoid committing it again. So, the soul will return to its initial pureness. It is
like water that its essence is required to be cold and it becomes warm by the fire, but as long as it
distances from the fire, it become again cold. However, after transfusion it would be difficult, like
sulfur water spring that its sulfur cannot be separated from the water.
330
K is the highest kind of friendship. It is higher than and s f ’; since, k is
someone, whose entire heart is covered with the love of Allāh and it never links to anything
except the love of Him, See: Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyā’ -‘U ū -D n, Vol. 2, chapter: The rights of the
Muslims, relative and neighbors, p. 117.
331
Al-An iyā’, (21: 61).
332
This verse is a part of poem, which is known as Jaljaliyyah (‫ )الجلجلیه‬written by ʻUmar Ibn ʻᾹs
to Muʻāwiyyah Ibn abī Sufyān. ( . k f .n › ... › ‫) قسم الشعر الفصیح‬, Ibn Abī al-Hadīd (2007),
S r j - āg , Studied by Muhammad Ibrāhīm, Dār al-Kitāb al-ʻArabī, Vol. 4, p. 77.
120
from the beginning to the end. He traditionalized the feast and hospitality. 333 He

made a vow not to eat alone until his death, and accomplished his chivalry by

scarifying his son and leaving all his fortune behind, while he was enjoyed that he

was called by Allāh the firend (k ) and he disdained himself as he became

closer to glorification [529] of His (Allāh) great Name. 334

The pole of chivalry, through him its deviation was rectified and its

curvature was stabled, is my master, Amīr al-M’ūminīn ‘Alī Ibn Alī ālib

(blessing and peace upon him), who reached the ultimate stage of asceticism and

piety and attained the final stage of courage and endurance, and he insisted after

three days [of fasting], to give the food [to others] until he became the one to

whom Allāh revealed the verse: ”And they feed, for the love of God, the indigent,

the orphan, and the captive”. 335

He rescued Prophet with his life in the night when Prophet left Mecca, and

he gave up his life to people who wanted to kill him. And, because of his high

stability and perfect certainty, he endured his spirit for fighting with Islam’s

enemies; so that Gabriel (a.s) said about him:” There is no youth save ‘Alī”. 336

The relation of Abraham’s chivalry to ‘Alī (a.s), is like the slaughter of the

son for redemption of himself. It will be complete by the seal of sainthood means

333
Al- Ghazālī, Iḥyā’ -‘U ū -D n, Vol. 1, Ch. Fasting, p. 180.
334
PTIKF: It is quoted that Gabriel asked the Allāh how Abraham is attained the high level of
nobility, while he possesses lots of fortune. Allāh said: “His heart is with us, not with the money,
if you want you can prove him.” Gabriel has appeared to Abraham while he praised Allāh with
pleasing song:”The most glory and holy is the Lord of the angles and spirit.”Abraham liked
Gabriel’s pray very much and asked him to repeat it again. Gabriel told:” If you give me one third
of your fortune I will song it again.” Abraham gave to him and Gabriel song one more time.
However, Abraham was so delighted to hear his pray as he again give him another one third of his
fortune and at the end give all his possession in order to hear his pray again.”
335
Al-Insān, (76; 8).
336
ūsī (2000), A ā S yk - āy f , Qum, Andisheh Hādī, p. 88; adūq Abū aʻfar
Mu ammad Ibn ‘Alī Ibn usayn Ibn Bābūyah Qumī (1979), ʻān -Ak ār, Beirut, Dār al-
Maʻrafah, p. 40; Ma lisī Muhammad Bāqir, i ār -An ār, Tehran, Islāmī Publ., 3th ed., Vol.
32, p. 487, 29, 617; Vol. 38, p. 269 and Ibn Athīr, ‘Izz al-Dīn Abū al-Hasan ‘Alī Ibn Abī al-
Karam (1965), al-Kā i F - ār k , Beirut, Dār ār, Vol. 2, p. 107.
121
Mahdī in the Last time (a.s). As the first point of prophecy was Adam, the serene

friend of Allāh (a.s), and its pole was Abraham, the friend of Allāh (a.s) who was

assigned to follow him. And, the seal of it was Prophet Muhammad, the beloved

one (p.b.u.h).337

The relation of chivalry of ʻAlī (a.s) to Abraham is like the relation of the

prophecy of Abraham to Adam (a.s). Thus, the one who adheres to him, and his

heart beats for him, is qualified to overflow by his graces and to be flourished by

him. Therefore, it is necessary to follow and obey him and to ask for help from

his sacred spirit and to abound from his pure oneself, until he is prepared to take

some of his states ( ḥ ā ). Then, he can benefit from the lumen of his lights by

his power of love; in order to be complete, according to the [own] talent and to

attain his ultimate goal and ambition, when his love is deeply rooted in him (‘Alī)

and the perfect obedience and submission toward him is accomplished. Allāh

knows better! [530]

5.1.3 THIRD INTRODUCTION

THE FOUNDATION AND STRUCTURE OF CHIVALRY338

As it is explained, chivalry is appearance of the light of inborn nature from the

veil of potentiality to utterance of actuality. Thus, its principles would be things

that purify the soul and refine the heart by good deeds and graceful conduct,

satisfactory character, admirable habits, praiseworthy habits, excellent pretension,

correct thoughts, sincere intents and everything that discourages man from evils

and keeps him away from bestial acts, plus eliminates the veils of self darkness

and unveil the luminous truth of belief.

337
PTIKF: It is referred to the isā’, (4:12 ).
338
PTIKF: This chapter in Persian version is set as the fourth introduction.
122
 This matter is related to shame ( -ḥ yā’). It is self limitation and fear to

commit shamefulness. Therefore, it implicates the dignity of the essence of self

and purification of inborn nature in its origin, and [depicts] the ability of

distinction between beauty and ugliness, and to reject ugliness to rise for

worthiness; as if, the preparation of the pureness of chivalry needs to know the

defect of self and to escape from evils and to request the virtues. Thus, the holy

Prophet (p.b.u.h) said: “The shame is the sign of belief” 339 and Amīr al-Mu’minīn

(the leader of believers) (a.s) said: “People do not see the fault of the man, who

has the character of shame.” 340The poet said:

For your father, there is no goodness in his life in this world,

if the shame is gone”341

The beginning of the virtues is chastity (al-‘iff ), which is the basis of

nobility. Its principles and doctrine is mentioned by its pole, who transcended its

quality and stabilized its basis. As ‘Alī Ibn Abī ālib (a.s), leader of believers

said: “The basis of chivalry is loyalty, honesty, security, generosity, humility,

advise, guidance and repentance.”342

The one, who does not possesses these characters, does not deserve

chivalry. He (a.s) taught its perfection, when he was asked about chivalry:

“Chivalry is forgiveness, when you are in power, and it is humility at the time of

339
Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyā’ -ʻU ū -D n, Vol. 3, p. 312; Kulaynī, Muhammad Yaqūb (2006), al-
Uṣū al-Kāfi, Tehran, Islāmiyyah Publ., Vol. 2, p. 106; Ma lisī, Baḥār -An ār, Vol. 51, p. 358;
Al-Naysābūrī, al-Mustadrak , Vol. 1, p. 52,53,153 and Al- Tarmadhī, Sunan al- r d , Vol. 4,
p. 321.
340
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , ikmat 223, p. 508.
341
Al-Ba rī al-Māwardī (19 ), al-Adab al-Dunyā -D n, 3th ed. Egypt, Maktabah al-
Mu afā al-Bābī al- alabī wa Awlādah, p. 224-228.
342
The reference of this narrative is not founded in the authentic sources.
123
wealth, and it is generosity when you are in a state of deficiency and donate

without any expectation.

Therefore, chivalry is attained, when all these moral virtues are settled in

self and the soul is void of evil qualities.

The virtues are limited in four famous categories: chastity (‘iff )343,

courage (s jāʻ ), wisdom (ḥik )344, justice (‘ d ).345 [531]

Each two characters of the eight principals mentioned by the founder of

chivalry (a.s) are gathered in one of four categories. The cardinal category [of the

virtues] is the basis and origin and the rest [of virtues] will follow it. As long as

the later follows the cardinal category, which is the rank of ultimate purpose and

degree, which when ever it reaches, then all of them are united and none of them

are omitted. So, the repentance and generosity is in the category of chastity, the

humility and security in the category of courage, honesty and guidance in the

category of wisdom and loyalty and advice in the category of justice. 346

343
Chastity is to seek the breaking the incitation of the closeness and to seek the incapable of the
soul and frightened form the love, as cited in Iṣ i āḥā -Sūfiyy , p. 252.
344
Wisdom is the knowledge of the reality of the things and their characters, features and
provision. It is the system and organizes of the creation and to act according to it. Qur’ān said (2:
269): “He gives wisdom to whom He wills, and whoever has been given wisdom has certainly
been given much good” (Iṣ i āḥā -Sūfiyy , p. 83)
345
Al-Ghazālī, izān -ʻAmal, p. 70.
346
According to the Akhlāq Nā irī of Kaw ah Na īr al-Dīn ūsī, the base of virtue is recognized
as the moderation the virtue and the virtues are studied in the categories of genus ( jnās), type
( n ʻ), class ( ṣnāf) and members ( frād). In fact, according to virtue, some of them are
identified as genus and the rest are categorized as type, class and members. On the basis of this
classification, Khaw ah ūsī explained fifty qualities of human virtues, See: Kaw ah Na īr al-Dīn
ūsī (1981), Ak āq- āsir , ed. Mu tabā Minūī & Haydarī, 2th ed. Tehran, Khawrazmī, p. 27;
Fahrī, Magid (1991), Ethical Theories in Islam, Leiden, Brill, p. 133.
124
5.1.4 CHAPTER ONE

THE REPENTANCE (TAWBAH)

We started with repentance because it is the base and principle of the chastity

(ʻiffah).

The chastity is to turn desire from required passion to necessary right

thought, and to leave its devotion to win freedom. This is the perfection and

modesty of bestial faculty, which is the first faculty that appeared from faculty of

the soul and behaves according to the pleasure, in order to perish. Passion calls

to evil, greediness, ravenousness, curmudgeon, and to change men’s

determination. Passion descends him to the stage of women, and covers him with

shame and ugliness, and negates347 his honor and power, dismisses the zeal, and

overcomes the security.348

The repentance is returning from what is forbidden, according to legislation

(s rʻ), and from what is honorably contempt by intellect including saying,

practice and intention. In this regard, Ibn Abbās (my God be pleased with him)

interpreted His (Allāh) Most High word: “Turn to Allāh with sincere

repentance”.349The repentance should be done with the sincere heart, in the

meaning that the repentant should repent with his heart and ask orally for

forgiveness. He separates from the body and mind and decides never turn back to

them.

347
Here, it is used the word (‫ )لبس‬two times wrongly. The second word must be (‫)سلب‬, which is
corrected by the researcher after referring to the copy of description.
348
ʻIffah is the virtue for the faculty of passion and its control is easy for the faculty of intellect.
The indulgence of this virtue is to wanton of pleasures which are faulty according to the intellect
and the side of wastage is to be lazy to achieve what is appropriate according to the intellect, as
cited in Al-Ghazālī, izān -ʻAmal, p. 77.
349
Al-Taḥr , (66: 8).
125
 The innocent Imām, Zayn al-ʻĀbidīn ‘Alī Ibn usayn (a.s)350 told:” The

repentance is not [532] orally, rather it is returning from the sin practically”. 351

The repentance is the first step of chivalry and the basis of its principles and

the beginning of its path ( r q ). A real chivalrous is one who intends to turn

away from things and never go back; since, the determination of men and faculty

of stability are necessary; so that chivalry could not be valid without them. Thus,

repentance needs patience (ṣabr)352with avoiding pleasures, desires and

affections.

The patience means self-imprisonment from submission and lust, and

resistance against his orders.353 Allāh, the Most High said:” And no one will be

granted such goodness except those who practice patient and self-restraint none

but persons of the greatest good fortune”. 354There is a composition from Amīr al-

Mu’minīn (a.s), which says:

I saw and experienced,

for patience is an end, which is praiseworthy
there are a few, who seriously struggle to gain it
while who requests for patience, his end is certainly victory

It (patience) leads to complacency (d ʻ ); in the meaning that the soul is in

peace at the time of the fever of the carnality. Therefore, Allāh, the Most High,

said:” Nor strain thine eyes in longing for the things We have given for

350
Abū al- asan ‘Alī Ibn al-Husayn Ibn ‘Alī Ibn ‘Abī ālib known as Zayn al-ʻĀbidīn (38/6 9-
93/712) was the grandson of the Muhammad (p.b.u.h).
351
The source of this H d is not found in the authentic sources and it is not mentioned in the
Persian version.
352
Patience in ethic means the virtue of perseverance to hold chastity and piety and to resist at
time of difficulties, as cited in Iṣ i iḥā Sūfiyy , p. 246.
353
Al-Ghazālī also classified patience beneath the virtue chastity. It is the resistance of the soul
against the passion and pleasure. The lower stage if patience is to avoid complaining and the
higher stage is the satisfaction (riḍā’); since, the patience may be with suffering but in the stage of
satisfaction, there is no pain and joy, as cited in zān -ʻAmal, p. 82; Iḥyā, Vol. 4, p. 138.
354
Fuṣṣilat, (41: 35).
126
enjoyment to praises of them, the splendor of the life of this world, through which

We test them”.355

And it (complacency) needs dignity ( qār), which means to think to the

manner of applying the wish. 356 The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said:”The one, who

deliberates harvest and worried, who hurry, makes mistake and get worried. 357

It (dignity) needs piousness pious ( r ’). It is to avoid from ugly things

and to attend with good deeds.358 Amīr al-Mu’minīn (a.s) said:” Who avoids

being pious is not wise”. 359

And it (piousness) needs good conditions to love what perfects the soul.

That [good condition] requires regularity (in i ā ), which is to estimate

things and to arrange them according to the interest.360 Amir al-Mu’minīn [533]

said:”Be estimator (muqaddar) and do not be stingy (muqtarra)”.361

Regularity leads to contentment (q nāʻ ). It is the carefree on the manner

of living and to limit oneself to the sufficient life.362 The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said

“The wealthy person is not who possesses nonessential fortune, while who has

355
ā ā, (20: 131).
356
Al-Ghazālī discussed this virtue as subordinate the courage. According to him, it is the mean
between vanity and humility. It is the state of correct evaluation of self, as cited in zān -
ʻAmal, p. 79.
357
Al-Haythamī, Nūr al-Dīn ‘Alī Ibn Abī Bakr (1991), j ʻ -Z āid n ʻ -
F āid, Beirut, Dār al-Fikr, Vol. 8, p. 19 and Al- abarānī Abū al-Ghāsim, Sulaymān Ibn A mad,
- uʻj - rān -K r, Cairo, Maktabah Ibn Taymiyyah, Vol. 17, p. 310.
358
This virtue is also studied as the subordinate the virtue of chastity, according to al-Ghazālī. It
is the middle statues of hypocrisy and disgracing and to decorate the soul by the righteous deed
and to want to perfect the soul and come to close to the Allāh without hypocrisy and reputation, as
cited in zān -ʻAmal, p. 83.
359
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , al-Maḥkamah, No: 317, p. 540.
360
Al-Ghazālī also discussed this virtue as subordinate the chastity. According to him, it is the
condition of the soul, which leads the soul to establish harmony on what is benefited for it, as
cited in zān -ʻAmal, p. 83.
361
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , al- ikmah 33, p. 474.
362
Al-Ghazālī also studied it as the subordinate the chastity and means the well measure of the
livelihood without loving it, as cited in zān -ʻAmal, p. 83.
127
wealthy self (g inā’ -nafs)”.363 Amir al-Mu’minīn (a.s) asserted “It is enough to

have kingdom of contentment and it is beautiful the gift of good manner.” 364

The contentment leads to freedom (ḥurriyy )365, it is the capital of chivalry

and heading of the nobility and it is a he fundamental condition of both [chivalry

and nobility]. Because, the youth (f ā) is the one who does not worship the

sensuality and does not oppress to others for his life, and is free from the bond of

desires and lust. He must release from the bind of his powers and be satisfied

with what Allāh gave him, unrestricted by saving money to become greedy. One,

who worships his desire is far from maleness (r jū iyy ) but is close to

effeminacy (al-k unū ) and a childish manner. It (freedom) is to gain fortune

without contempt abusing it, and to expend it for graceful and admirable deeds

lacking of duplicity and expectation. The Prophet said (p.b.u.h): “The one, who

goes with his string and brings the bound firewood on his back and sells them,

Allāh assume his manner, which is best for him than to beg people to give him

something or ban him from it.”366 Amīr al-Mu’minīn (a.s) said “Blessing for

those, who conquered his soul and remedied his profits and restored his secret

and improved his creation and spent surplus of his fortune and detente his

tongue”.367He (a.s) also wrote: [534]

For me moving the peaks of Rocky Mountains

is preferable than requesting people’s grace.

363
Al- Bukhārī, aḥ ḥ uk ār , Bāb al-ghanī, 11/327, No: 6446 and Tarmadhī, Sunan al-
r d , Vol. 4, p. 507.5, p. 340.
364
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , - ikmah, No: 229, p. 508.
365
It is to break to be slave of others and it has different levels as the popular freedom, which is
to be free from the slavery of the lust and the particularly freedom that is the annihilation of his
will to the Allāh’s will and the private freedom that is to be free from rituals and effects and to
annihilate in the manifestation of the light of lights, as cited in Iṣ i āḥā -Sūfiyy , p. 82.
366
Al- Bukhārī, aḥ ḥ al- uk ār , Vol. 2, p. 152.
367
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , al- ikmah 123, p. 490.
128
 It (freedom) needs nobility (muruwwah), it is to avoid from lusts and

needless of people, and to despair from what they possess and to preserve his

dignity, to give what normally benefits him so that he will be free from dishonor.

Allāh, the Most High, revealed to David 368:”Oh, David! Be friend only to those,

whose nobility and religion is completed.”

And the perfection of nobility is generosity, which is the ultimate chastity

and its finality.

5.1.5 CHAPTER TWO

GENEROSITY (SAKHᾹ’)

Generosity is to give benefit from what is necessary to the proper person in the

manner without hurting, without expectation and intension, and to not expect any

praise and commendation. It is the ultimate rank of chastity and the higher stage

of it (chastity) is its end [of generosity], which is the last step for the chivalrous

one. If the chivalrous possesses generosity as a characteristic, so he holds all

kinds of chastity;369 thus, he deserves to be praised and venerated and proceeds to

adhere. Allāh, the Most High, said: “And those saved from the covetousness of

their own souls- they are the ones that achieve prosperity”. 370The Prophet

(p.b.u.h) asserted: “I love the generous ignorant more than greedy pious.” 371 And

368
David was a king, whose kingdom was strong and greater. He was righteous ruler and brought
peace and prosperity to his people and Allāh honored him messenger. See: Woodhall, Ruth
(2008), Stories of the prophets in the Holy Koran, USA, Tughra Books, p. 80.
369
Al-Ghazālī studied this virtue as the subordinate the virtue of chastity. It is the statue between
prodigality and frugality. It means to give easily and to prevent to have something before to
achieve the merit of having it, as cited in zān -ʻAmal, p. 82; Suhrawardī, Fu u ā in:
R sāi J ān rdān, Corrected by Murti ā arrāf (1993), Tehran, Muʻīn Publ., 2th ed. p. 96.
370
A - s r, (59: 9).
371
Tarmadhī, Sunan al- r d , Vol. 4, p. 302.
129
Amīr al-Mu’minīn (a.s) said: “The one, who gives in the time of indigence, will

give in the time of wealthy.” 372

The lowest stage of generosity is remission ( usā ḥ ) that is to abstain

willingly from the wealth, which is unnecessary to keep it.373 As Allāh, the Most

High, said “If the debtor is in a difficulty, grant him time till it is easy for him to

repay. But if ye remit it by way of charity, that is best for you if ye only

knew.”374[535]

The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said: “Those, who consider the poor or fix his

problem, Allāh will put them under His throne’s shade in the Last Day; the Day,

there is no shade except His.” 375

Thereupon, it is magnanimity (s āḥ ) that is to grant, what is pointless

to give in the way of grace. The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said: “Magnanimity is

profit.”376 And Amīr al-Mu’minīn (a.s) said “Be magnanimous and do not be a

squanderer.”377

Furthermore, it is equality ( u āsā ), that is to spend money to help friends

in as much as to share with them what is assigned to them. The Prophet (p.b.u.h)

said “The blessing of fortune is by giving Islamic tax (z kā )378and equality of

believers (mu’ in n) and relationship with relatives.”379

372
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , ikmah, p. 509.
373
Al-Ghazālī studied also this virtue as subordinate the faculty of chastity. It is to pass up
willingly from some of his own right. It is a mean between conflict and claim for his right and
negligence to obtain it ( zān -ʻAmal, p. 82).
374
Al-Baqarah, (2: 280).
375
This narrative could be found in various forms in different sources: Kāf , Vol. 8, p. 9; al-
Mustadrak, Vol. 2, p. 29 and Musnad A mad, Vol. 2, p. 359.
376
Musnad al-S i ā , p. 23; ʻAbd al-Rahmān al- Suyūtī, alāl al-Dīn, A -Durr - un r
F - A ād --Mushtaharah, Tahqīq Muhammad Ibn Lutfī al-Sabāgh, Al-Riyaz, āmiʻah al-
Malak Suʻūd, p. 96 (shamela.ws/index.php/book/21542).
377
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , al- ikmah 33, p. 474.
378
Islamic law, through which Muslims have to give a fix portion of their wealth to charity.
379
This d is not found in authentic references.
130
 Moreover, it is magnificence (karam) that is to grant easily and

cheerfully. 380 As the Allāh, the Most High, said “And the likeness of those who

spend their substance, seeking to please Allāh and to strengthen their souls, is as a

garden, high and fertile: heavy rain falls on it but makes it yield a double increase

of harvest”.381And Mīr al-Mu’minīn (a.s) stated “Graces imposed

predestination.”382

The next one is being magnanimous (al-nabl) that is to give while you

enjoy. 383

Further [sub-quality] is preference (al-i ār).384 It is to grant, while you

need it. Allāh, the Most High, said “But give them preference over themselves,

even through poverty was their (own too).”385 It is the entirety of honor and

greatest situation, the best outcome of character, and the summit of sublimity,

according to the people of chivalry. Through it (preference), their destiny will be

preceded and their steps will take the lead, and they will despise all virtues [536]

except [the stage] of precedence, and disdain every trait excluding it. One, who

achieves it, attains the great bowl and the one, who succeeds with it, succeeds the

higher joy.

380
Al-Ghazālī discussed this virtue as the first subordinated virtue to courage. According to him,
magnificence is the middle stage between lavishness and spender. It is to spend gladly for things
of high merit and the great public usefulness. It can also call as freedom (ḥurriyy ) ( izān -
ʻAmal, p. 78). Suhrawardī distinguished karam from s k ā’. According to him, who is S k is
not necessary being K r ; since, the one who is K r give without any expectation; however,
the level of sincerity of K r is lower than the S k ; thus, the S k sometimes considers the
reward (Suhrawardī, Fu u ā , p. 97).
381
Al-Baqarah, (2: 265).
382
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , ikmah 224, p. 508.
383
Al-Ghazālī classified this virtue as subordinate to courage. It is the happiness of the soul at
time of giving, as cited in izān -ʻAmal, p. 79.
384
It is to sacrifice for others from what belongs to you or you need it, as cited in Iṣ i āḥā -
Sufiyyah, p. 256.
385
Al- ashr, (59: 9).
131
 udhayfah al-‘Adawī stated “I left at the day of al-Y r ūk386 looking for

my cousin, I took some water with me and told to myself, if he still breaths, I will

water him and wipe his face with it. Then as I found him, I asked him: Do you

want me to give you drink? He mentioned to me: Yes! Then a man says: Ah!

Them my cousin said to me: let go to him. He was Hishām Ibn ‘Ᾱ . So, I asked

him: Do you want me to give to drink? Hishām heared the other (one) says: Ah!

Then he said: Let go to him. And when I turned to him, he was dead. Then I

returned to Hishām, but he was already dead. And as I came back to my cousin, I

found him dead too.387

There are uncountable stories about sacrifice; however, I preferred to choose

and write the short one.

5.1.6 CHAPTER THREE

HUMILITY (TAWᾹD ’)

Humility388 is the first quality of courage’s characteristic. It is to direct anger

toward a necessary, correct notion, and to have a clear mind by acting bravely in

the state of fears and occurrence of misfortune and difficulties. Allāh, the Most

High, said “And their Lord hath accepted of them, and answered them and those,

who left their homes or been driven out therefore, or suffered harm in My Cause,

386
The Battle of Yarmuk is a major battle between the Muslim and the armies of the Eastern
Roman Empire. See: Nicolle, David (2009), The Great Islamic Conquests AD 632-750, USA,
Ospery Publishing, p. 49- 1. The story of this battle can be also found in: Al- Tabarī, ārik -
r , Vol. 4, p. 28; Ibn al-Athir, Al-kā i Fi - ārik , Vol.2, p. 200.
387
PTIKF: The perfection of scarify is according to the eternal welfare; since, for the possessor
of the chivalry the entire worldly goodness are finite and do not worth for him. It is quoted that
ʻAlī (a.s) preceded people to greet them for forty years and did not let anyone to overtake him in
this regard. He was asked about the reason. He quoted from the Prophet (p.b.u.h) that precession
to greeting has great reward. I collected that reward untill today but now I am giving up that
reward to be collected by others.
388
It is the behavior of the human as a slave and his submission to Allāh’s order and His rule
(Iṣ i āḥā -Sūfiyy , p. 260).
132
or fought or been slain-verily, I will blot out from their iniquities.” 389 And the

Prophet (p.b.u.h) said: “Allāh loves courage even that which made kills a

snake”. 390The courage is the completion and moderation of an aminal power that

seeks for fame, inclines toward subjugation and power leading by exaggeration

towards arrogance, exaggerate toward vanity, hatred and temerity or by

negligence leads toward fright, weakness, fear and disappointment, all which

brought away man’s perfection and his dignity perfection and his glory go and

detract his greatness and majesty, and disdain his worth and despise his mind. 391

Humility, however, is to respect people of virtues, from relatives and

brothers, to someone who is financially lower than him, but his honor and virtue

is the same or even more than his. Everyone is given dignity (by Allāh),

according to his degree. Humility is because of considering less the right of the

soul and lack of interest toward its importance and effects. Allāh, the Most High,

said “And lower thy wing to the Believers who follow thee.”392And Prophet

(p.b.u.h) said “There is no one, who behaves modesty ( 37) before people for

Allāh, unless He will raise him”. 393 ‘Alī (a.s) also asserted “Ornament of

believers is humility.”394

389
Ā i ‘I rān, (3: 195).
390
This narrative is cited by Ibn ‘Arabī in Fu ūḥā -Makkiyah, Vol. 20, chapter 36: The
knowledge of Christians, their genealogy and principles.
391
According to al-Ghazālī, courage is the middle stage between two vices as temerity and fear.
The temerity is the side of indulgence and the man does something, which is not approved by the
intellect. However, feat is the side of wastage and the man does not do something, which its
performance is necessary and here the grade of the man’s anger is reduced of its necessary level.
Yet, the man with the character of virtues is the one who act, where has to be done an action and
knows how to act, as the Quran said: “Mu ammad is the Messenger of Allāh ; and those with him
are forceful against the disbelievers, merciful among themselves.” F ḥ, (48: 29). See: izān -
ʻAmal, p. 71.
392
Al-S u’ rā’, (26: 215).
393
Tarmadhī, Sunan al- r d , Vol. 4, p. 330, No; 2029 and Ibn Kathīr, fs r I n K r,
Vol. 7, p. 310; Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyā -‘U ū -D n, Vol 1, p. 46; Suhrawardī, Fu u ā , p.
97.
394
Ma lisī, i ār -An ār, Vol. 77, p. 120.
133
 It (humility) needs gentleness ( -ḥi ) that is serenity of soul, and to

leave trouble in the time of anger.395

The friendliness (al-rifq), toleration (al- udārā ) and other tender

treatments are close to it. It needs lack of thoughtlessness, that is to deliberate by

arguments and legality of wars. As Allāh, the Most High, said “Fight in the cause

of Allāh those who fight you, but do not transgress limits.” 396 And Amīr al-

Mu’minīn (a.s) said “The exaggeration in argument is a sin.” 397

Stability (al- u ā ) is the power of resistance against suffering and

difficulties.398 Allāh, the Most High, said “How many of the prophets fought and

with them large bands of Godly men? But they never lost heart if they met with

disaster in Allāh’s way, nor they did weaken nor give in. And Allāh loves those

who are firm and steadfast.”399

The stability is a part of patience to which Amīr al-Mu’minīn (a.s)

mentioned “Patience has twofold, patience to what you hate and patience to what

you like.”400

And it requires the possibility of hard work, in the meaning that to endure

bodily ills, soul’s problems and to suffer the limbs of body for gaining good

deeds and benefaction. Allāh, the Most High, said “And those, who strive in Our

cause, We will certainly guide them to Our Path.”401

395
Al-Ghazālī also studied gentleness as subordinate the courage. It is the mean between
impatience and lethargy, which give the soul the state of dignity, as cited in zān -ʻAmal, p.
79.
396
Al-Baqarah, (2: 190).
397
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , al- ikmah 298, p. 528.
398
Al-Ghazālī also discussed this virtue as subordinate the courage. According to him, it is the
intensity of the soul and its avoidance from the weakness, as cited in zān -ʻAmal, p. 79.
399
Ā i ‘I rān, (3: 146).
400
Nahj al-Ba āg , - ik : 2; Tha’ālabī, - - uḥāḍir (1981), Studied by
‘Abd al-Fattā Muhammad, p. 415.
401
Al-‘Ānk ū , (21: 69).
134
 It (humility) needs sagacity (al-s ā ) that is to strive for great

matters and sorts of glory and nobleness, which deserve graceful memory. 402 The

Prophet (p.b.u.h) said:”Allāh loves noble things and its supervision and hates its

inferior.”403[538]

The bounty requires magnitude of the soul (kibar al-nafs); it means to

despise prosperity and ability to take nobility and humbleness. Allāh, the Most

High, said “Say: The en oyment of this world is short.”404

Amīr al-Mu’minīn declared “The one, who magnifies his soul, his passion

becomes less important to him.” 405

It (magnitude) needs forgiveness (‘ f ), because the great soul does not

effected distress by the distress neither by the mischief of others and the gravity

of their crimes is not heavy for him. The forgiveness is to leave the revenge in the
406
time of power. Allāh, the Most High, said “Who restrain anger, and pardon

(all) men: for Allāh loves those who do good.”407The Prophet (p.b.u.h) stated “Do

not be like opportunists, who says be nice to people who treat you with kindness;

but if they deal badly, macerate them, but to get used to treat people nice if they

act well and if they treat badly do not oppress them.” 408

Forgiveness is among the major quality of people of chivalry and the the

great part which they are special with and pioneer with it. Forgiveness needs

gentleness (al-riqqah), which means to feel sympathy if human beings get hurt

without any disturbance. The possessor of gentleness protects man from harm,

402
Al-Ghazālī also studied this virtue beneath the courage and defined it as the interest to do
things that expects the beauty, as cited in zān -ʻAmal, p. 79.
403
Al- Qaā’ī, Musnad al-S i ā , Vol. 2, p. 1 0, 1076-1077and Al- abarī, al- uʻj -K r,
Vol. 3, p. 131, 2894.
404
Al- isā’, (4: 77).
405
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , al- ikmah 449, p. 555.
406
Suhrawardī, Futuwwat ā , p. 97.
407
Ā i ‘I rān, (4: 134).
408
Tarmadī, Sunan al-Tarmaḍ ,, Vol. 4, p. 320; Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyā -‘U ū -D n, Vol. 3, p. 155.
135
pardons them for their sins, and removes the trouble from them as far as possible,

pulling away their loss as long as he can. The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said “The

compassion, friendship and affection between believers are like a body, if a limb

hurts, other limbs will associate in fever and insomnia.” 409

The gentleness is followed by the enthusiasm ( -ḥ iyy ), it is to

protect creed and honor for himself and his neighbors and brothers from

accusation, and to drive away from the tribe completely. To them, the Prophet

(p.b.u.h) ordered, as he said “Fear of being in the position of accession.” 410[539]

The enthusiasm is one of the chivalrous’ special attitudes, manners, and

noble characters of behavior. They bear the labors and fears, but without

enthusiasm, they commit in danger, they leave luxury and wealth and they protect

it by giving them generously and they do not get worry of their disappearance and

loss.

The enthusiasm needs great endeavor (al-himmah), that is lack of

consideration to earthly happiness and its misfortune, even sins, while getting

lasting noble rewards, as Allāh, the Most High, told Moses “Be sure I will cut off

your hands and your feet on opposite sides, and I will cause you all to die on the

cross.” They said “No matter! For us, we shall but return to our Lord!” 411 This is

not possible except in the state of security, by which the quality of courage

completed and limit of endeavor reach its end. And, with Allāh, the Helper!

409
Al- Bukhārī, aḥ ḥ al- uk ār , Vol. 8, p. 12
410
AL-Ghazālī, Iḥyā’ ‘U ū -D n, Vol. 3, p. 31.
411
Al-S uʻ rā’, (26: 49-50).
136
5.1.7 CHAPTER FOUR

SECURITY (AMN)

Security is self confidence and the peacefulness of the soul, so the man does not

feel worried by fear and does not lose courage. Allāh, the Most High, said “Those

are truly in security, for they are on [right] guidance.” 412 It is also called

assistance (al-najadah). It could not be attained unless it is with the ability of

certainty and knowing the secret of determination and trusting the perfect

preservation of Allāh, the Most High, and His guard, refraining from the power of

man while he is under His (Allāh) protection and power. The virtue of courage is

not completed and settled, unless through it; since, the doubtful one is confused

and the suspicious is not stable. Those, whose heart do not attach the knowledge

of certainty and do not be touched by Allāh, the Most High, through a solid cord,

their steps cannot be stable in difficulties and fears and in the battle with wish and

desire; rather, he will be afraid of every weak man, and will escape from every

villainous person. Without security and belief, he will consider every shout as an

enemy attacking him and will find every thorn like sword to be harsh. As before

it is told:

“[Even the land seemed to fight with him]

He saw anything, and thinks it comes to kill him”413

The one who is sure about the words of Allāh, the Most High, which says

“Verify, for all things has Allāh appointed a due proportion”, 414and thinks about

412
Al-Anʻā , (6: 82).
413
Al-Matnabī, Abī al-Tayyib, D ān n , p. 14.
(al-hakawati.net/arabic/civilizations/diwanindex4a3.pdf)
The complete verse is:
‫اذا رأی غیر شیء ظنه رجال‬ ‫و ضاقت االرض حتی کان هاربهم‬
414
Al- āq, (65: 3).
137
the meaning of His (Allāh) word “Every [ 40] single thing is before His sight, in

(due) proportion”415 and considers His (Allāh) word “For each period is a book

(revealed)”.416He is aware that life is limited and cannot be extended, and that the

time of death is estimated and destiny is decreed, so he is not afraid except of

Him (Allāh). Everyone is afraid of him; while he is not afraid of any one, and one

who is not afraid of the Allāh, no one is afraid of him.

It is quoted from al- ātim al-A am (a.s), who met Shaqīq al-Balkhī

(a.s)417 in an invasion against pagans in Khurāsān;418where he was in the

battlefield, as Shaqīq asked him “Hātim! How do you find your heart?” He

answered “like weddings night, it is not difference between these two cases.” 419

Then, Shaqīq said “So, it is enough for me”, and then he throws his gun

and put his head on his shield and went to sleep so that you can hear his snore.420

So, this is the security, peacefulness, certainty, and baring the cover by

obvious light. The courage dose not stay away from him, if he follows it

(security), and it makes no difference except it gives him security. And, the

owner of security believes in the meaning of His (Allāh) word, the Most High,

that says “Nothing will happen to us except what Allāh has decreed for

us…”421He befalls for one of two glorious things and he is free to dishonor. “But

Allāh doth support with His aid whom He pleaseth.”422

415
Al-R ʻd, (13: 8).
416
Al-R ʻd, (13: 38).
417
Abū āmid A mad Ibn Khadrawiyyah Balkhī (d. 194/810).
418
It is a historical region lying in the northeast of Iran. In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times,
the term “Khurāsān” frequently had a much wider denotation, covering parts of Central Asia and
Afghanistan.
419
It is also quoted by al-Ghazālī in Iḥyā -‘U ū -D n, Vol. 1, Ki ā -‘I .
420
Al-Qushayrī, Al-Risā , p. 54.
421
Al-Tawbah, (9: 51).
422
Āli ‘Imrān, 13.
138
5.1.8 CHAPTER FIVE

TRUTH ( DQ)

The truth423 is the lower stage of wisdom and its basis. The wisdom is the virtues

of ability of speech and its perfection. The feature of speech is to inform others

from what is happening, and through this character the human is distinguished

from other living creatures and is superior to the entire existence. When the man

does not match to what appears as his feature and it has no benefit, then he is like

an animal.424And, because he found a belief different from conformity, he is even

more misguided and weaker than an animal. So, we cannot attest him as human;

therefore, ‘Alī (a.s) said “The liar is not noble”. 425[541]

This is the meaning of wisdom ( -ḥik ), the knowledge of existence as

it is and to exactly define the proper aspects of actions in the manner it should be

done. Allāh, the Most High, said “And he to whom wisdom is granted receives

the indeed a benefit overflowing”.426

The truth is either in intention or word or action. The “Truth in Intention” is

the sincerity of intention to Allāh, the Most High, when he started to act; as long

as it does not mix with other intentions except for Allāh, and [as long as] it is not

for greed and it is not corrupted by duplicity and hypocrisy. And, [as long as] it

does not seek any other fame, reputation, commendation and praise, and does not

aspire to any exchange and reward and does not expect any gratification in return.

For, anyone will disprove the nobility and dishonor the chivalry, if he does not

act except for [satisfaction] Allāh and to gain the Allāh’s right in every action and

423
It is the truth of the intention the traveler in the path of sanctity (W āy ), as cited in
Kāshānī, Iṣ i āḥā -Sūfiyy , p. 254.
424
Adapted from Qur’ān, al-Aʻrāf, (7: 179).
425
Ma lisī, Baḥār -An ār, Vol. 78, p. 54.
426
Al-Baqarah, (2: 179) and Al-Ghazālī, izān -ʻAmal, p. 70.
139
labor. And, he must direct Allāh’s attention and not intend to act except for Allāh.

Allāh, the Most High, said “…So, stand true to Him…” 427

However, “The Truth in Word” is that to speak, according to the fact. Allāh,

the Most High, said “Truly, Allāh is with truthful (ṣādiq n)” Nothing is as big a

burden to the chivalrous as a lie; since, it is like ladies’ menstruation for men and

it is the worst thing that a man can do.

However, “The Truth in Action” is not to do things in secret which he is

ashamed to do it in public, nor to avoid doing thing secretly while he It is to

forbear to act secretly when he cannot do it in apparent. His outward does not

opposed his inward; rather, his inside and outside are the same, so that if his

actions are displayed to the the world, he would not be annoyed and he would not

wish to cover up some of them. What an excellent step is the truth! It has sublime

benefit and right. Allāh, the Most High, said “But he should warn mankind [of

their danger], and give the good news to the Believers that they have before the

Lord the lofty rank of truth.”428 And He said “In assembly of Truth, in the

Presence of a sovereign Omnipotent.”429 Thus, the one who does not speak the

truth does feel any delight of chivalry; rather, for him nobility is worthless. The

one, who is accustomed to the truth will open the door of whole goodness,

pushing back every harm. He is prepared for every happiness and perfection, and

is protected from all misfortune and state.

It (truth) needs pureness ( -ṣ fā’). It is enlightenment of the heart ( -s dr)

and it’s relaxation for acceptance by the invisible form. Allāh, the Most High,

427
Fuṣṣi , (41: 6).
428
Yūnus, (10: 2).
429
Al- Qamar, (54: 55).
140
said “Is one whose heart Allāh has opened to Islam, so that he has received

Enlightenment from Allāh.” 430[542]

It (pureness) needs excellent understanding (fahm) and intelligence

(d kā’), mind (lub), and cleverness with discernment (fi n ). Amīr al-

Mu’minīn (a.s) said “The one who is enlightened by discernment, the wisdom

will be appearing for him”. 431

The mind needs remembrance and memorization. Allāh, the Most High said

“But none will grasp the message but men of understanding.” 432 “And that ears

(that should hear the tale) retain its memory and should bear its (lesson) in

remembrance.”433

It is quoted from ʻAbd Allāh Ibn al- asan, when this verse is descended,

the Prophet (p.b.u.h) said “O, ‘Alī! I asked Allāh to set it as your ears. ‘Alī (a.s)

said “I did not forget anything after that and it would be impossible for me to

forget something.”434

It [mind] needs guidance that is the ultimate wisdom. Allāh is the leader.

430
Al-Zumar, (39: 22).
431
The narrative is founded with a bit different in: ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tqlibm, Nahj al- āg , al-
Hikmah 31, p. 473 and Ma lisī, i ār -An ār, Vol. 68, p. 348.
432
Al-Baqarah, (2: 269).
433
A - āqq , (69: 12).
434
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , - ik 132.
141
5.1.9 CHAPTER SIX

GUIDANCE (HIDᾹYAH)

It (guidance) is the opening of vision through Allāh’s grant, and painting it

(vision) by the light of confirmation, in order to see what is demanded. Allāh, the

Most High, said “For such He has written Faith in their hearts and strengthened

them with a spirit from Himself.” 435

The guidance, here, means the knowledge of certainty (‘i -y q n)

abundant to the slave (al-‘ d) through serenity immediately after discernment

[intellect] and reasoning. Thus, the end of wisdom does not pass its utmost and

does not ascend beyond the stage of vision of certainty (‘y n -y q n) and truth

of certainty (ḥ qq -y q n); since, they are from the field of self-revelation. and

a powerful world. No one can attain it except the one who possesses sanctity

( āy ).

Guidance is divided in two parts:

First, it is the guidance to knowledge of Allāh and belief in His existence

and His unification ( ḥ d), and devotion to Him and to know His attributes and

actions and His prophets and friends and His special and sincere friends.[543]

Second, it is guidance to His orders from obligation, what is recommended,

forbidden, permissible, detestable and forbidden, and guidance to honored,

virtues, excellent characters, merits, praiseworthy ethics and beautiful qualities.

The guidance does not detract from the nobility and religion by blameworthy

conduct, ugly actions and bad habits. It beautifies the young boy and honors him

with the praised conduct, desirable qualities, sublime manner, and satisfies

excellence.

435
Al- ujād , (58: 22).
142
 This necessitates right thought and depth of opinion, appropriate saying and

right actions. And, this is the valid condition of straightness. Allāh, the Most

High, refers to it: “Therefore stand firm (in the straight path) as thou art

commanded, thou and those who with thee turn (unto Allāh)” 436

Since he (the Prophet (p.b.u.h) was assigned to these affairs with addition:

a) [first] to the matter of states ( - ḥ ā ) and witnesses (al- us ā dā ), as

Allāh, the Most High, described it by being straight in it: “(His) sight never

swerved, nor did it go wrong.”437 And, b) [second] the latter is the matter of

legislation and provision. As Allāh, the Most High, orders him “If thou judge,

udge in equity between them, for Allāh loveth those, who udge in equity”. 438

Thus, the holder of chivalry demands the perseverance of the action for the

sake of Allāh (‘ A ā ) and for Allāh (‘ f A ā ). And, the possessor

of the sanctity requires it for the sake of Allāh (‘ A ā ) and for Allāh

(‘ f A ā ) and through Allāh (‘ A ā ), [while] the holder of

prophecy (nu ū ), who is different from the two appears [his action] from

Allāh ( in A ā ) and of Allāh (‘ n A ā ) and toward Allāh (i ā A ā ) in

addition to all these qualities. If Allāh, the Most High, does not kindly grant the

guidance to the chivalry, he is not able to win the character of chivalry’s qualities

and cannot have courage and chastity; since the chivalry cannot be acquired

accept with correct faith ( -i iqād -ṣ ḥ ḥ) and clear reality ( -ḥ q -ṣ r ḥ). If

the faith is damaged, the steps will shake; since, the certainty is the spirit of

action, and how does body move without spirit? This is a gift and special care

from Allāh, the Most High, which He gives to someone, whom He (Allāh) wants.

436
Hūd, (11: 112).
437
Al-Najm, (53: 17).
438
Al- ā’id , (5: 42).
143
It is the trust that is entrusted in his essence at covenant and He (Allāh) will ask

for it at the time of meeting, as the Prophet (p.b.u.h) said “Truly, Allāh, the Most

High, created His creation in darkness, then shined them from His light; whoever

gained that light is leaded and whoever missed it is misled. 439[544]

5.1.10 CHAPTER SEVEN

ADVICE ( )

Advice is the principle of ustice’s light and its key, and the structure of trust and

its column. The justice is the spiritual form of exposure of the self in order to

reconcile between these faculties, and it is the social form for whole virtues. 440

Thus, it is the most noble of virtues. Therefore, when Amīr al-Mu’minīn (a.s) was

asked about ustice and generosity, “which one is better?” he answered that the

justice places things in their position and the generosity depart things from their

direction. The justice is a general policy, while generosity is a specific accidental

exception form and justice is preferable and nobler than them (justice and

advice). 441 Thereof, the Prophet (p.b.u.h) is sent in order to complete the noble

traits. Allāh, the Most High, has shined through revelation to his tongue: “I am

commanded to udge ustly between you…” 442

The advice ( -n ṣ ḥ ) is the will of goodness toward people and to awake

them by the method of rightness and justify, and to motivate them to what is

beneficial for them and to keep them away from what is harmful for them, as the

439
Ibn ʻArabī, Fu ūḥā -Makiyyah, ʻUthmān Ismāīl Ya yā, Vol. 2; Maybudī (1997), Kashf al-
Asrār, studied by ʻAlī A ghar ikmat, 6th ed., Vol. 1, p. 70; Musnad A mad, 11:219 and Al-
Naysabūrī (1998), A - us dr k ʻA ā -S n, Beirut, Dār al-Maʻrifah, 1:84.
440
Al-Ghazālī: Courage is the status of order of harmony of three virtues as wisdom, courage and
chastity. It is not a virtue; rather it is whole of the virtue, as cited in zān -ʻAmal, p. 74.
441
Nahj al-Balaghah, - ik : 262.
442
Al- S ūrā’, (42: 15).
144
Prophet Hūd said to his tribe when he called them to his Lord:”I am to you a

sincere and trustworthy adviser.” 443

They (justice and advice) need trustworthiness ( ān ). It is the

perseveration of the trust and secrets; it is to return the trust to its owner and to

protect the secrets from aliens, and to refuse to change affairs from the path of

rightness. The disorder of these qualities will discredit the nobility. The Prophet

(p.b.u.h) said “Those, who do not have trustworthiness, have no nobility.”444

The compassion (shafaqah) endeavors to remove the detested things from

people. The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said “Each of you is the mirror of your brother;

thus, if you realized that he is at risk, you must to stop it”.445 And he said “The

believer is the mirror of the believer”;446 since, whenever he observes others he

will reserve [545] his capacity, and he will prettify his state and he will come

close to other with bounty and mercy.” These [two qualities] are the will towards

perfection and goodness for others, in an effort to have them attains these

qualities. Allāh, the Most High, described His prophet “To the Believers, he is

most kind and merciful.” 447The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said “Allāh have mercy upon

who are merciful; thus, be merciful to the people in the earth until people on the

heaven are merciful to you.”448

The mercifulness requires connection to relatives (ṣi -r ḥi ). It is to

share the earthly benefits with kin. Allāh, the Most High, said “To spend of your

substance, out of love for Him, for your kin”. 449 The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said

443
Al-Aʻrāf, (7: 68).
444
The similar narrative (He, who does not have trustworthiness, has not faith) is found in:
usn d Aḥ d, 1:135.
445
Al- Tarmadhī, Sunan al- r d , l: 287, No:1929; Suhrawardī, ʻA ārif - ʻārif, p. 82.
446
Ma lisī, i ār -An ār, Vol 74, p. 268; Ibn Athīr, Al-Kā i - ār k , 2:306.
447
Al-Tawbah, (9: 128).
448
Al- Tarmadhī, Sunan al- r d , 1: 350; usn d A d, 2:165.
449
Al-Baqarah, (2: 177).
145
“Among what is commanded by Allāh the sooner rewards will be given to those

who connects to relatives.”450

It is also needed to keep intermediate between enemies (iṣ ā d ā

albBayyin), which is to mediate between people and between opponents for what

makes them fight. Allāh, the Most High, said “Keep the straight the relations

between yourselves.”451 This is a special [quality] and established only for the

people of the chivalry, so they pay penalties and carry wergild and gifts, and

accept considerable funds to satisfy the opponents and guarantee the forgotten

goods, and spent what they have earned. They take responsibility for what they

lost in order to remove fear and attain the friendship, while the enmity and hatred

are of disgusting devilry: This is the ultimate farness from Allāh, the Most High.

It (the reconciling between enemies) necessitates good participation (ḥusn

al-shirkah), it is balance in his in his interaction with human beings. Allāh, the

Most High, said “Woe to those that deal in fraud. Those who, when they have to

receive by measure from men, exact full measure. But when they have to give by

measure or weight to men, give less than due.” 452

[It also necessitates] fairness to himself (inṣāf) and to act justly with others

(in iṣāf). First: [The former means] fulfillment of the right of financial dignity,

saying and acting to those who deserve. The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said “May Allāh

have mercy upon those, who are ust.”453[546]

And second: [The latter means] tt fulfill those rights for him and others,

who necessitate it (to give this right) and the right that they deserve. Allāh, the

450
Al- Qadāʻī, Musnad al-S i ā , 1:16, Suyūtī, alāl al-Dīn ʻAbd al-Rahmān, Al-Durr al-
n ūr F - fs r i - ’ ūr, 2: 45.
451
Al-Anfā , (8: 1).
452
A - u ffif n, (83: 1-2-3).
453
The narrative is not found in the authentic sources.
146
Most High, said “And those who when an oppressive wrong is inflicted on them,

(are not cowed but) help and defend themselves.” 454

The one, who is not characterized by these three qualities (good

participation, fairness to himself and to act justly with others) is unable to

reconcile between people. And, his words will not be effective in this relation,

and his effort will not attain his goal; since, every word, which is not supported

by the action, is nonsense, and every action which does not appear for the case, is

dust.

It (reconcile between people) necessitates reward (al-mukāf ’ ), while, it

is to reward a good thing ( -iḥsān), with similar reward or more, but if he is

unable to give similar or more, then reward it what he could. Allāh, the Most

High, said “When a (courteous) greeting is offered you, meet it with a greeting

still more courteous, or (at least) of equal account.”455 The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said

“Better is known to reward like for like; however, if it was not possible, then

mention about him because by mentioning him, you thanks him.” 456

[It also needs] excellent judgment (al-ḥusn -q ḍā’): It is to refrain from

receiving any benefit and to regret on the reward. Allāh, the Most High, said “Is

there any reward for good other than good?” 457

These two qualities (reward and excellent judgment) bring out friendship

( ddūd). The friendship is to seek closeness of the mate, companion and the

people of virtues and those who had inclination to closeness among nobles with

something that could gain their love, such as by good encounter and leave. And,

it is [to have] a happy face at the time of their presence, and to socialize their

454
Al-S ūrā’, (42: 39).
455
Al- isā’, (4: 86).
456
Al-Durar al- n ūr, 6: 362.
457
A -R ḥ ān, (55: 60).
147
company and to eat with them and to give them presents and gifts, as the Prophet

(p.b.u.h) said “Those, who exchange gifts they strength their friendship.” 458 He

[also] said “Truly it is a good thing to meet your friends with a cheerful face.” 459

He also said “The friendship is half of mind”. 460The friendship leads to intimacy

(al-ulfah). The familiarity is unity of ideas in assisting for earning a living and

organizing [547] people in order to unite desire in seeking the purpose and

considering the direction. The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said “The believer is friendly and

being intimated.”461

It (intimacy) inherits the sincere friendship (ṣ dāq ). The sincere

friendship means love based on the harmony of spirits in eternity, which is called

brotherhood (ukhuwwah). The supreme Allāh, the Most High, said “The believers

are brothers.”462

The brotherhood (al-ik ān yy ) is the glorious gate of chivalry and the

foundation of its structure and the basis of its affair, because the chivalry is

grounded on it (brotherhood), and its banner will not fix without being brothers

with each other (al- u’āk k ā ). Therefore, the preceding is called brother

( k ); and their pole and the precious master, ‘Alī Ibn Abī ālib (a.s) said “The

most week person is someone, who is unable taking friends and the weaker than

him is the one, who lose them (his friend) after he was won them”.463

I swear that it (brotherhood) is the best and most beautiful way for people,

the interest of religion and the world is related to it, and the maximum happiness

458
Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyā’al-ʻU ū -D n, Vol. 2, p. 42.
459
Suhrawardī, ‘A ārif - ʻārif, in the margin of Iḥyā’ -‘U ū -D n, Vol. 3, p. 54.
460
M lisī, ḥār -An ār, Vol. 1, p. 224 and idem, Vol. 71, p. 349.
461
Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyā’ -ʻU ū -D n, Vol. 2, p. 156.
462
A - ujurā , (49: 10).
463
This adith is quoted from ʻAlī by Zamakhsharī in: R ʻ -A rār, Bāb al-Khā’ wa al-
Mu abbah. The similar narrative is quoted by al-Ghazālī in: Iḥyā’, Vol. 2, chapter: “The rights of
the brothers according to the tongue”, p. 177.
148
becomes easy to gain. And, by its presence every pleasure and bliss will delight,

and by its attainment every great demand will become easy, every immense

difficulty will degrade for him, and every determination will demean. Its great

importance and the light of its proof are manifested by what is quoted from Allāh,

the Most High “I necessitated loving those, who love others because of me and

necessitated to love those, who become friends in the sake of my closeness.”464

The ultimate brotherhood is loyalty, as the brotherhood is completed by it:

By Allāh that the power and offer is on His hand. [548]

5.1.11 CHAPTER EIGHT

LOYALTY (WAFᾹ’)

The loyalty is the last step of chivalry and the perfection of kindness and strength;

since the chivalry is due to the purity of inborn nature and the righteousness of

the soul, and the inborn nature does not get pure from darkness of temper, and the

soul does not purify from vice, but through loyalty to the eternal covenant.465

Therefore, whenever the loyalty is accomplished and the cover is removed and

every valuable trait is obtained, and every brilliant virtue is practiced, the rest of

the perfections which are necessary of human inborn nature according to the first

readiness for other purification are still in potential if the servant of Allāh does

not accomplish his duty to His covenant and does not accomplish the right of

Divinity, which its performance is obligatory upon him, his chivalry and purity is

incomplete. [In this case] his chivalry and purity is incomplete. Therefore, Allāh,

464
Suhrawardī, ‘A ārif - ʻārif, in the margin of Iḥyā’ -ʻU ū -D n, Vol. 4, chapter: In the
truth of communication.
465
Al-Aʻrāf, (7: 172): “When thy Lord drew forth from the children of Adam-from their loins-
their descendant and made them testify concerning themselves, (saying):“Am I not your Lord
(cherishes and sustains you)?”- They said: “Yea! We do testify!” (This), lest ye should say on the
Day of udgment: “Of this we were never mindful”.
149
the Most High, described the first, who is related to the character of the youth and

granted his inborn nature and preserved by saying “ rd tf dnAham who fulfilled

his engagement?”466And He (Allāh) praised the pole of poles and the master of

youth “They perform the vow”467

Thus, it (the loyalty) is departing from the obligation of the former covenant

by provision of later contracts, and preserving the brother’s engagement by

keeping the way of consoling and kindness and considering the right of friends by

support of the brotherhood’s condition in the way he likes. Allāh, the Most High,

said “It is those who are endued with understanding (u ū al- ā ) that receive

admonition. Those who fulfill the Covenant (ʻ d A ā ) of Allāh fail not in their

plighted word.”468

The inner most of human soul (lubb):469 It is the pure essence of healthy

pure inborn nature from the peel of birth.

The covenant (‘ d): It is entrusting the potential to know Allah and His

unity ( ḥ d) and the knowledge of His Divinity, and setting up the best proof

for the nature of covenant and the potentiality does not manifest and will not

manifest as actuality, except by execution to keep the faith, and the commitment

to the Islamic law, and doing the duties of right of worshipping and performing

the right of Divinity. Allāh said “O ye who believe! Fulfill (all) obligators.”470

This is the loyalty to Allāh, the Most High.

466
Al-Najm, (53: 37).
467
Al-Dahr, (76: 7).
468
Al-R ʻd, (13: 19-20).
469
According to Kāshānī, lubb (pl. u ū ) means the selected part or the kernel of foods such as
nuts or wheat and u ā (pl. al- ā ), from the some root, is the selected part of anything. Here,
when said of a man, it means the pure intellect from the peel of delusion and imagination, by
which the stable knowledge would be confirmed, as cited in Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Vol. 2,
p. 199.
470
Al- ā’id , (5: 1).
150
 However, loyalty to mankind is to devote to the rope of friendship and is

verification of the [intimate] friendship’s rule, in such a manner that he does not

prevent form condition and does not abate as promised. And, it is to adjust his

soul not to wish for own self any good except he wishes the same for his friend at

first [549], and to prepfer for himself at the time of poverty and to offer himself at

the time of need, and to try to gain his objective and benefits, and to defend his

adversities and loss. He would sacrifies his life and wealth when he is in danger

and an imbalanced situation. Allāh, the Most High, said about people of betrayal

“It was not fitting for the people of Madīnah and the Bedouin Arabs of the

neighborhood, to refuse to follow Allāh’s Messenger, nor to prefer their own

lives to his.”471

Likewise, the loyal person is successful to drink from the cup of the noble

chivalry and is the possessor of good quality of virtue; while the disloyal person

is disqualified from its field and is rejected from its side, becoming immersed in

the blame and lowliness. The disloyal person is despised for the meanness and

vileness, and is devoid from the religion and faith, and deserves abjection and

ignominy. Allāh, the Most High, said “For Allāh loveth not the treacherous.”472

The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said “Those, who have no covenant, have no religion”. 473

471
Al-Tawbah, (9: 120).
472
Al-Anfā , (8: 58).
473
Ma lisī, i ār -An ār, Vol. 72, p. 96 and Maybudī, Kashf al-Asrār ʻIddah al-A rār,
Vol. 4, p. 64.
151
5.1.12 CHAPTER NINE

ON THE BLIGHTS OF THE CHIVALRY AND DECAY OF NOBILITY

The great blight of chivalry is when the soul claims and considers its virtues by

following the pleasure. Indeed, the base of their affair is isolation from

attachments and less attention to the barriers. This would not appear except by the

annihilation of the human characteristics and vanishing of the natural motives

such as the love of glory, dignity, victory and other required passion. 474 Then,

what remains, the heart takes it in the way of virtue and with the light of inborn

nature; where the soul will be influenced and occupied with its lights; whereby, it

(the light) predominated and appeared with claim and disregarded and dominated

the heart finely and delicately as compared to what is stabled in its essence. As a

result, the inborn nature will be covered from [seeing] its perfection and will stop

the attainment of inborn nature to its excellence and goal, by which the virtue of

the soul transforms into vices and leads to egoism and arrogance. 475 It designs the

soul by his adornment and delight and the owner is deluded and deceived by

these qualities by estimation. The virtue is not established by obtaining it in one

time and not in other, neither to practice it sometimes, rather virtue is a character

stabled in the soul, so the light of the heart will shine permanently on the soul, so

that the light of the heart will never be concealed from it (soul). The beauty’s

action issues from it (soul) in the right time and location without deliberation and

thought. The one who is struggling in the way of virtue is not yet wise, and the

one who aims toward virtue is not yet complete, [550] as he may lie to himself

through his illusion and imagination of the perfection, which is not found in him.
474
The fall of chivalry is to consider the self; hence, the youth has to annihilate the self in order
to be able to attain the reality of existence. When the man manifest as the form of existence, in
real he is nothing; since, the existence of the form and the existence of the meaning cannot be
collected together. See: Suhrawardī, Fu u ā , p. 98.
475
The arrogance destroyed the intellect.
152
That is the vanity described by the Prophet (p.b.u.h) “If you did not commit sin, I

would be afraid of something worse than the sin, the vanity, vanity, vanity! 476

He also may lie to others by pretending virtues when he does not have

them. That is the arrogance about it, and it is said that “who is arrogance, Allāh

put it down”.477

There is nothing as disapproving for nobility as the lie! When the base of

nobility is destroyed, the basis of chivalry is ruined. It is right that they say “All

claimers are liars!”478

If the man gained virtue, his soul testifies the grace of his Lord and the

excess of consideration His creator (Allāh), as He (Allāh) granted to him from

His Holy emanation the capacity of receiving it [virtue], he made his inborn

nature pure and liable and did not create it rigid and solid. Later, He (Allāh)

succeeded him for refinement and purification and prepared his soul through

inverting in the forms of closeness and attachment to adherence of good deeds;

thereupon, the perfection is attained through the manifestation of the light of

(Allāh) attributions. Therefore, he feels slight of the humility and modesty and

says thanks and considers modesty as he is aware by the light of His right

guidance that the soul is the home of every evil and source of every dirt, for it is

from the realm of possible being (al-i kān), and all evils are things of non-being

and darkness. They arise from the site of possible being, while, the goodness are

things of the existence and light that are emanated from the merciful Highness.

All possible beings are nothing in its essence except nothingness; thus from

where would he attain virtues and how can he gain perfection?

476
It is quoted by al-Ghazālī with a bit difference in Iḥyā’ -ʻU ū , Vol. 4, p.148; al-Mundharī,
al- rg - r , Vol. 3, 546.
477
Al-Ghazalī discussed the arrogance as the crime of the courage. It means to take the self
superior that its real value, as cited in zān -ʻAmal, p. 80.
478
D ān z yā Saʻd , No: 26.
153
 The blights of chivalry are dissipation and intemperance, for the behavior of

the path of virtue is difficult and to hold the middle way is hard.479 While the

caution regarding generosity leads to the exaggeration; since, the stinginess is

blameworthy and in contrast to chivalry, and its contradictory is apparent. Hence,

sometimes, the possessor of virtue may escape from the vice and struggles [so

hard] in its escape that he would be inclined to other extreme; where he would be

praised by the ignorant of the virtue or by those who benefited by that vice. As a

result, it (the praise) takes root in his soul and becomes blight, while he doesn’t

realize it, and he will spend his life not due to the noble will and, [therefore] of

the generous, he achieves no stage. Allāh, the Most High, said “Verily

spendthrifts are brothers of the Evil Ones.”480

The recklessness is exactly the same as we said before; for there is no doubt

in the meanness of the frightened. The aspirant of chivalry may seek the praise of

people by his ignorance; thus, he commits the risks not for protection of the

religion or community and not for honor of people or territory, rather he meets

danger and counts himself as brave, while in truth he is far from it. [551]

Lethargy, abase and injustice [also dishonor the chivalry]; thus, the

carefulness to chastity, humility and justice bring chivalry towards its side. The

soul is inclined to their opposites; while the defect of evil, arrogance and injustice

is not hidden to anybody. So the loss of avoidance of lethargy and carefulness to

it chastity might lead to inability, lethargy, and servitude to darkness, humiliation

and injustice.

479
Al-Ghazālī discussed about the dissipation as the crime of chastity. According to him, this
vice is to waste money in the unnecessary way and to spend it more than it must be done, as cited
in zān -ʻAmal, p. 83.
480
Al-Asrā’, (17: 27).
154
 “Some gentleness by ignorance is for submissiveness of humiliation”. 481

Also bragging and flaunting dishonor the chivalry. They are related to claim,

but weaker and lesser than it. Its root is the manifestation of the soul with the

quality of ignorance; otherwise, he is aware that everyone possesses a character

that the others don’t have; therefore, the soul becomes suppressed, defeated,

degraded and humbles in himself.

5.1.13 CHAPTER TEN

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE YOUTH (AL-FATᾹ), THE

DISCIPLE OF CHIVALRY (AL-MUTAFATTᾹ) AND THE PRETENDER

(AL-M DD ’ )

The youth (f ā) is the one who completed the ethical virtues and is apart from

the lower things and soul’s vices due to his awareness of its (soul) affair and the

evidence from his Lord. That person is the possessor of stable steps in chivalry

and has secured established soul (n fs - u ’inn ). The four categories of

virtues including their qualities became talents in his soul and they would not

change and would not transform. He is aware of the fine blights and of the single

difficulties that prevent the incoming details of duplicity and hypocrisy. While,

his soul absorbs joy and beauty, and he obeys every beauty action without

thinking and consideration with submissive nature for every great circumstance,

without stop and struggle.

The disciple of the path of chivalry ( u f ā) steps in its way and tries to

attain it, and he is eager to its end and is influenced by its qualities. His soul is

481
D ān -H ās iA (www.startimes.com/?t=27153426Al).
155
struggling between colorants ( n)482 and he blames himself for the leap and

defeat; he is not yet pure from the fault of the soul, variety of desires, and he is

not yet perfect to control [his] nature and to leave [his] wish. His pure capacity is

not yet solidified, his appetite for learning and labor is not yet frigid, and the fire

of his hunger to raise and grow is not died. Thus, he is like a trained servant

(k ādi ) in the service of Allāh and free from impurity of hypocrisy, greed and

expectation, praise or exchange and compliment. The one who is on the way of

the servant ( u k ādi ) is someone who struggles to practice the service and

suffers himself by generosity, fights for its path and considers the conditions. He

purifies his soul once with the desires and conquers the others with piety. [552]

However, the pretender ( udd ʻ ) claims to follow the manner of chivalry:

he is like the servant, [who works] for the purpose of glory or [for the] desire of

money. With his service, he tries to win the absorption of people and use it as the

tool for collecting [money]. He embarks on a risk not because of courage, he

gives the money not because of generosity; rather, he is arrogant to his relatives

and takes precedence over his brothers. His state ( āl) is different at the time of

fear and carelessness, and his actions are contradicting in the state of stinginess

and intemperance, as it is told:

“He gives and prevents, [not because] he is not greedy or generous.”483

His morals are not proportionate, and his traits and manners are not strange.

His inward and outward are not equal, and what he does in secret is not the same

482
n refers to the change of heart between the Opening and Veil because of frequency
following the appearance and absence of the attributions. Here means, the character does not
confirm in his soul
483
The poet is Abū al-qāsim Muʻāwiyah Ibn Sufyān al-Aʻmī one of the student of al-Kasā’ī.
(www. https://ara.bi/poetry/.../‫ال‬-‫مطر‬-‫إن‬-‫الجود‬-‫في‬-‫حسنا‬-‫تحمدن‬.).The complete vers is as follow:

‫لکنها خطرات من وسوسه يعطی و يمنع ال بخال و ال کرما‬

‫فتی فیها اصم عن الکالم‬ ‫اتدری من تلوم علی المدام‬
‫بکأسات و طا سات و جام‬ ‫فتی اليعرف النشوات اال‬
156
as he doses in public. He may proceed on big dangers and great situations in front
484
of the S u ār and D ʻār [in order] to subjugate them. And, he breach with

fear to their hearts and carries on the strong combat with lots of people, in order

to show his endurance and wanting to be praised. Where, at other times, he

shrinks to do less for them; since, he is not expecting certain purpose, although it

may help in protecting his religion, neighborhood and his dignity. He permits his

soul to give plentiful money in front of respectful people or simply to challenge

the other party; even if they were not deserving of it. If he does not achieve any

of his intentions by doing these actions, he would become greedy and careless of

any condemnation, even if it is the true situation and location [for generosity], by

which Allāh would be satisfied and people would be happy with it. On the other

hand, he does not avoid [from doing bad things], not due to the feeling a shame

before Allāh but rather he feels honored. Where he has power he oppresses

without mercy and fear of Allāh, and is not afraid of being dishonored by people

nor of Allāh’s penalty, even if the oppressed are weak and poor people. He may

oppress himself because of his disability or to show his endurance, independence

or his chastity. He will not stop from oppression except for a reason. Such people

are far from chivalry and they are not counted among people of nobility.

Therefore, those, who are in the path of chivalry, have to avoid from them and

they don’t have to be in company and sitting with them! Since, their company is

more harmful than infused poison and it hurts more than predatory animals. [553]

484
They were two kinds of chivalry groups, which merely tended to rely on the knife and cudgel.
They were denounced regularly because of their criminal elements. Ibn Ba ūta, R ḥ , p. 383;
Irwin, Robert (2004), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, New York, Tauris Parke Paperback, p.
148.

157
 CONCLUSION

It contains three chapters.

5.1.14 FIRST CONCLUSION

IN THE WAY OF GAINING CHIVALRY

Whoever experiences the intention of chivalry in his heart and is awakened from

his inside should delight himself with the purity of his inborn nature and validity

of the sanctity. And, he must be grateful to Allāh, the Most High, for it, as the

truthfulness of his request and the power of his will are the signs of his

sufficiency. And he should make an effort to seek chivalry, since true seeking is

the sign of conscience. Although, he must avoid firstly, from things that corrupt

the chivalry and its failure, such as lies, slander, greed, avidity, evil, treachery,

treason, oppression, ignoble, stinginess, boasting, shamelessness, following

pleasures, loving and meeting with lowly, sinful and suspicion people,

intercourse with evils, accompanying the sly and the people of libertine, discuss

about slight properties and stressing on it, and affliction and bargain in social life;

because all those attributes corrupt the base of nobility and destroy its principle.

In sum up, everything that dishonors the religion, slights the chastity and

inherits the lowness and disgraces it, is against the nobility. The man, who does

not govern the foundation or the basis [of chivalry], his building will then be

destroyed and his efforts will be the occasion of ruin!

158
 A wise man advises his son “My son! You must have nobility. By the name

of God, if I know that the cold water will discredit the nobility, [555] I would

only drink warm water”.485

He must seek the chivalry when he is young in the early age of his youth,

and practice its tradition and make himself strong against its adversary as it is told

before, and [to practice] different kinds of righteousness, generosity, good

character, gracefulness and support friends and connect to relatives and

foreigners and others. Unless, it will be difficult for him at old age. As one of the

Arab youth composed:

“When the young man does not attain the chivalry in his youth,
it would be difficult to gain it at the old age” 486

Therefore, he should make chivalry a priority, being perfect and

characterize its mentioned virtues, be accustomed to chivalry; in order to unite to

the virtue, to present only virtue, [and] to take possession the halter of virtue (to

mastery virtue). Indeed, those who are separated from the pole and are isolated

from the group of [chivalrous], will become disciple of devil (s y ān) and out of

the group of chivalrous; s y ān will lead his action, behavior and manner, [thus]

he will appear the opion of s y ān. His state is changed in obeying s y ān’s

orders, and then he prohibits himself to strive for goals of s y ān, and his

endeavor descends according to s y ān’s will, and he abandons s y ān’s wish

and goes with s y ān’s good will what his soul wants and commands. Since,
485
It is referred to the Fa l Ibn Ya yā Barmakī (d. 803/1401) who treated his father very well.
When the father and son were in the prison, according to the Abbasid Caliph, Hārūn, his father
was ill and could not use the cold water in the winder; therefore, Ya yā embraced the container of
the cold water to reduce its cooling, so that his father could use it. See: ayāt al- aywān, Vol. 2,
p. 89; For further information about his life see: Ibn Khallikan (2010), I n K ik n’s
Biographical Dictionary, Paris, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland publishing,
Vol. 2, pp. 445-468.
486
The author did not mention to the first part of the poet, which says: “Don not ask the man
rather consider his friend”. The poet is unknown; however, it is used by Suyū ī in j -
rḍiyy Fi S rḥ -Alfiyyah, Tehran, Asad Ābādī, (2010), p. 108.
159
there is not any obstacle for him to reach the perfection except his soul’s motives

(d āʻ al-nafs). And, there is no obstacle for him to arrive at the goal except his

desires ( ān ). Thus, he has to avoid the obstacles and become friends to the

brothers and friends, whose endeavor is [gaining] virtue. He preserves the path

[of chivalry] and takes lovers and friends whose concern is chivalry and their

character is nobility, until his soul be trained by their company and he becomes

like them.

“Every friend follows up his friend” 487

Be aware that the basic issue in gaining chivalry is to avoid vices; since

leaving them is easier and weaker for the soul. When it (vice) is gone and the soul

is purified, the inborn self becomes delighted and the virtues will be attained

without confusion. And it is not difficult to act and obtain it. Allāh, the Most

High, said “So he who gives [in charity] and fears [Allāh]. And [in all sincerity]

testifies to the best. We will indeed make smooth for him the path to

bliss.”488Allāh makes all difficulties easy.

487
The poet is ʻUday Ibn Zayd Ibn Mālik Ibn ʻUday Ibn al-Riqāʻ al-Āmilī (d. 604/1208). See:
Muhammad Bāqir al-Sharīf (1914), Jā ʻ -S ā id, chapter al-Alifwww. (al-
mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot3/gap.php?....)
488
Al- Layl, (92: 5-7)
160
5.1.15 SECOND CONCLUSION

DECLERATION OF SOURCE OF CHIVALRY

AND THE BEGINNING OF ITS PATH

It is quoted that one day a person came to the Prophet (p.b.u.h) while he was with

his companions. [556] [He said to the Prophet] “A man and a woman is gathered

together in the house committing immorality, so send someone to get them.”

Thus, one of the companions stood up and said “O Prophet! I will bring them”.

But he said “It is not your business”. Accordingly, some of them, one by one,

asked him for permission to go, but he did allow any of them. Then, ‘Alī (a.s)

entered; so the Prophet (p.b.u.h) said to him “O ‘Alī! Go and if you find them,

then bring them here. So, he (‘Alī) went to the door of the house while closing his

eyes walked around spying in the house. Thus, both manage to escape. Then he

went out with open eyes and returned to the Prophet and when he meets him he

said “I saw no one at all in that house!” So, the face of the Prophet became

indulgent and he visions it with the light of prophecy what the matter was. He

said “O ‘Alī! You are youth (f ā) of this community”.489 Then, he asked for a

bowl of water and salt. Salmān Fārsī (a.s)490 prepared what the Prophet asked for.

The Prophet (p.b.u.h) took palm of salt and said “This is the law (s r’ )”, so

he threw it into the water. Then, he took again a palm of salt and said “This is the

path ( riq )”, and added it to the water. For the third time, he again took a palm

of salt and said “This is the truth (ḥ qiq )” and put it into the water. Then, he

gave it to the ‘Alī to drink and said “You are my friend and I am the friend of

Gabriel and he is the friend of Allāh, the Most High.”

489
The similar story is quoted by Suhrawardī in his Fu u ā , p. 108-109.
490
Salmān Fārsī (d. 3 / 6 7) is one of the companions of the Prophet (p.b.u.h).
161
 Afterwards, he asked Salmān to accompany ‘Alī and he gave him the drink

from the bowl, and asked udhayfah al-Yamānī491 to accompany Salmān and he

drank from the bowl in hand of the Salmān. Thereafter, he dressed ‘Alī with the

robe of his cloth and tightened its middle and said “I completed you ‘Alī!”

This report is the source of chivalry and the authentic principle for this way,

which the chivalrous keep doing. So, they established their way based on this and

built this common tradition of drinking water from the bowl and wearing cloth

tightened in the middle, and their origin and genealogical tree is corrected

through it. All of these possess secrets that refer to a noble meaning, which is the

form of that meaning.

However, drinking water and salt refers to the outcome of the knowledge of

the pureness of eternity, talent, and the gifted wisdom by the precedence of

concern which is the goal of the persistence search of every believer. Since, the

knowledge is so essential for the heart as water is vital for the life of bodies

(Physical life).

The salt refers to the meaning of justice as the taste of food will not be right

and balanced except with salt. It is a base [557] of food that strengthens and

grows the bodies; as the perfect character is not correct and straight except with

justice. It (justice) is the foundation of the third-mentioned stages, through which

the hearts become strong and complete.

But, the wearing of the robe refers to the virtue of chastity. It covers the

faults and prevents the man from lust. It is the principle of chastity and the

column based for all kinds of chastity.

491
udhayfah Yamānī (d. 34/656) was a close companion of the Prophet (p.b.u.h).
162
 But, the tightening of the middle refers to the virtue of courage, and to the

soul’s practice, in order to rise to serve the people. It is the form of a courage that

contains the ultimate humility, which is the basis of courage and the form of the

effort (ji ād), which is its perfection and it is known as completion. Since, the

perfection of knowledge is due to action and is acknowledged by chivalry when it

is performed. Not every knowledge is called speculation (n r), since the holder

of speculation is lower that the holder of action. Therefore, it is clear that these

rituals refer to all virtues, and by them chivalry will be completed and the

suitability of sanctity ( āy ) will be attained. Therefore, the chivalry’s robe is

trousers, but for Sufi it is a hat; since the first step [in chivalry] is chastity and

belongs to the low level, which is the beginning of Sufism to the highest ranks.

In Sufism, shaving the hair is a tradition (sunnah), but in chivalry, it is not;

as the shaving is referring to disappearance of the obstacles, the ascendance, and

it is the beginning, which is their goal.

However, for the chivalrous, it is a request to gain virtues and noble

character because it is the demand of his nature.

The man, who has attained the sanctity perfectly, is called master (shaykh)

and the one, who has obtained the virtues entirely, is called f ā (youth). Since

the first one is in the station of spirit ( -rūḥ), that is the absolute light and the

ultimate spiritual perfection, which leads to the real annihilation (al-f nā’), as the

master wears in white and the superficial of final perfection leads to the corporal

annihilation. Second is the stage of heart, which is the ultimate spiritual strength

and human inborn perfection, lower than spiritual stages. As, the chivalry is the

final of corporal power and the perfect form of human and not the intellect

power; therefore, youth (f ā) means the station of the soul (nafs). And, it is clear

163
that the ultimate of chivalry is the beginning of sanctity; thereupon, it is said the

chivalry is a part of Sufism, just as the sanctity is a part of prophecy. Allāh knows

better! [558]

5.1.16 THIRD CONCLUSION

THE CHARACTERS OF DISCIPLE OF CHIVALRY

AND THEIR BEHAVIOR AND MANNER

Allāh, the most High, said “Among the believers are men who have been true to

their covenant with Allāh: of them some have completed their vow and some

wait, but they have never changed (their determination) in the least.” 492Allāh, the

Most High, praised them because of their perfect manhood and keeping the

promise and fulfillment the covenant; since, the redemption is truly the entire

righteousness and the final duties. Allāh, the Most High, mentioned to it and

described Ismāīl (a.s) by it [attitude], when He (Allāh) said “He was true to what

he promised”493and He (Allāh) described the pious “To fulfill the contracts which

ye have made”.494Indeed, how well Ma’mūn has composed in some of his

compositions:

“Keep your best friend, don’t break the friendship

Allāh does not bless, who cheat or disrupt”495

492
A -Aḥzā , (3: 23).
493
Maryam, (19: 54); PTIKF: ʻAlī Ibn Abī ālib by saying the principle of chivalry, counted the
loyalty first and the repentance at least; since, the pole considers it from the stage of perfection
and descents from upper stage. Thus, the path of end for the one who has been reached it is in
contrast of the path of the beginner who still seeks for perfection. Therefore, according to the
stage of the perfected one the loyalty is the first stage and repentance the last but for the beginner
the repentance is the first and loyalty the last stage.
494
Al-Baqarah, (2: 177).
495
Kāshānī quoted this poem from M’mūn al-Abbāsī (d. 218/833). His poems are collected by
Abī Bakr Muhammad Ibn Ya yā al- ūlī in his book As ʻār A ād -K u fā’, Ma baʻah al-
iyāwī, 1936.
164
And one of Arab’s youth (f ā) composed:

“Thus, honor your brother through up, as you are together,

Only death can separate you and brings distance between you”496

One of their characters is exaggeration to preserve secrets and to protect it

from others, even if they would be frightened with sword or threatened by

different kinds of harm and tortured by fire; they would not reveal anything

except concealment. Indeed, He (Allāh) blamed the spreading of secret by

revelation whereas He [Allāh] said: “When there comes some matter touching

[public] safety or fear, they divulge it”. 497As some of them (youth) composed:

“As I do not reveal the secret of friend, I am aware of all their secrets,
In everyone there is an empty part of heart, it is the place to entrust the
secret and no one is aware of it,
When, friends became dispersed in countries, their secret remains in such
safe place that even the strong men cannot break it.498

Another character is magnanimity (takarrum). It is to protect holiness and

to consider modesty at the occasion of accusation and situation of lowness and

suspicion, and to avoid from adjoining the vile and stupid, in order to sustain the

parade and conserve the prettiness, as it is composed:

”I pass the depraved, while he is abusing me,

I pass and ignore what he meant is not for me.”499[559]

And another one said:

496
The poet is unknown.
497
Al- isā’, (4: 82).
498
The poem is attributed to the ‘Abū Tammām (d. 84 H) in: S rḥ Di ān - ās ,
chapter, al-Adab. See: Abū al-Ma’ālī Na r Allāh Munshī, Kalilah wa Demnah, Minūī Publ., p.
149.
499
It is attributed to ʻAlī Ibn Abī ālib. See: S rḥ Di ān nsū ʻA I n A ā i (1379),
Studied by Maybudī, Tehran, Mirāth Maktūb, 3th ed. p. 106.
165
 “O, soul! Do you know if you feel honored with greedy
I don’t forget to be kind and admire you.”500

And another said:

“O, soul! Do you know if you feel honored with greed

I don’t forget to be kind and admire you” 501

Another character is great patience (siʻ -ṣ dr); in order to release their

soul from worldly attachments and eminence their ambitions out of from mortal

methods, so that wishes do not mislead them and their fortune and abilities do not

decrease. They don’t get sad if they lose and do not get happy with what is

coming, as one of the chivalrous said:

“I know every comfort does not make me arrogant at all

Neither would hardship of misery makes me servile”
The fear does not fill my heart before it comes
And if it happens, I shall not be annoyed by its assurance.” 502

No envy will overwhelm them and no hatred will affect them, as the poet

said:

“I surely leave hate when it shows up

Its effect from the lord and I will never hide it.”503

500
Al- Marzūqī al-Isfahānī, S rḥ Di ān - s , chapter al-Adab, Vol. 3, p.162
(shamela.ws/index.php/book/26536).
501
Ibid, p. 1144.
502
It is related to the Laqi Ibn Zirārah al-Tamimī, al-F r j ʻd -S idd i nūk , Chapter
14.(www.bnitamem.com).
503
S rḥ Di ān - s , Chapter al-Adab, Vol. 3, p. 1124.
166
 They do not celebrate with betray and do not care for the blame, as Allāh,

the Most High, said “Fighting in the Way of God and never afraid of the

reproaches of such as find fault…” 504 As the narrator said:

“If the youth find for himself the strait path

Then it is easier for him with the annoying of blamers.” 505

The next characters are kindness (rifq) and tolerance ( udārā ), sociability

with poor and weak believers, and to treat rebellious, sinful and powerful

unbelievers with firmness, might and strictness.

Regarding the excellent tolerance, it is told that the Prophet (p.b.u.h) never

murmured for the food and never blamed his servant. It is quoted from

Anas506that he worked for the Prophet (p.b.u.h) ten years, [yet] he never

addressed Anas impolitely and never asked him for what he has not made, and if

he has done nothing, he never said why.

It is quoted that the Prophet once asked his companion “Can any of you

behave like Abū Ḍam am?” They said “What was the conduct of him?” He

answered “Every morning he prayed “My Allāh, I have given my honor to the

one who has treated me unjustly. The one who strikes me, I will not strike back

[560] and the one who blame me, I will not blame and I will not harm the one

who harms and treats me un ustly.” 507

504
Al- ā’id , (5: 54).
505
The poem is attributed to Ibn Sīnā. See: Abbas Mahmūd ʻaqqād (1967), Al-Shaykh al-R ’is
I n Sinā, Dār al-Maʻāf, digitalized in 2011.
506
He might be Ans Ibn Mālik, one of the companions of the Prophet and died around 711.
507
This story is also quoted by al-Ghazālī when he wrote about the merit of patience. See: Iḥyā’
al-ʻU ū -D n, Vol. 4, p. 61.
167
 Amīr al-Mu’minīn (a.s) said that the Prophet (p.b.u.h) was asked about the

good treatment. He said “To give to the one who prohibits you, to connect to one

who separated from you and to forgive the one who harmed you.” 508

It is revealed in the Qur’ān “Repel [evil] with what is better: then will he

between whom and thee was hatred become as it was thy friend and intimate!” 509

I swear to God that man cannot attain is utmost character and he does not

measure its degree I swear that man cannot attain utmost of character and cannot

be able to value it unless the virtue is confirmed in [the soul of] his holder and he

is separate from substraction and stigma of vice. The character does not appear in

his soul and prevents the enemy of the soul by the power of his heart. The Holy

Prophet said “He who is deprived of kindness is deprived of goodness.” 510

ʻAbd al-Allāh Ibn Abī Bakr quoted from an Arab man that “I crushed the

Prophet (p.b.u.h) on the day of unayn 511and I walked with a thick shoes, so I

stepped over the Prophet’s foot, thus, he (the prophet) gave me a slight strike by

the whip in his hand and said: In the name of Allāh I felt pain.” The man said “I

settled myself to regret and said that I hurt the Messenger of Allāh! God knows

how I spend that night. When the next morning comes, a man says “where is so

and so?” I said: This is me who was yesterday and then I uttered and was afraid.

However, he said to me: yesterday you crushed my foot with your shoes and I felt

pain! Therefore, I struck you slightly with the whip, this is eighty ewes, take them

[in return of that hurt]!”512It is composed:

508
See: A mad Ibn al- usayn Ibn ʻAlī Ibn Mūsā al-khusrū irdī Khurāsānī known as Abūbakr al-
Bayhaqī (1988), al-Ādā i y q , Beirut, Mu’assissah al- Kutub al-Thiqāfiyah, d : 122.
509
Fuṣṣi , (41: 34).
510
ḥ ḥ us i , Book 32, No: 6270.
511
The battle of Hunayn was between Muhammad and his followers against the Bedouin tribe of
Hawazin and its subsection. See: fs r r , Vol. 14: p. 25-27.
512
This adith is discussed in Ki ā -Sunan al-Dāri by ʻAbd al-Allah Ibn ʻAbd al-Ra mān
Abū
168
 "Gentleness, tenderness and ease are the sons of generosity
kind, noble traits are the sons of gentle
they do not speak of fornication
nor do they persist lies if others do”513

The firmness (ghilz ): It is to use the power of determination because they

want to over protect. Allāh, the Most High, said “…let them find firmness in

you.”514

Another quality is the strength (shaddah). Allāh, the Most High, described

believers: “And those who are with him are strong against Unbelievers.”515

The glory (‘izz ) is of two kinds: first, to erect the soul from being low or

depraved ( ’ ) toward the enemy or greater in the world; thus, it needs to abase

oneself. Allāh, [561] the Most High, described the beloved “Lowly with the

believers and mighty against re ecters.”516

It is told to asan517 “How great you are in your soul?” He replied “I am

not great, but I am beloved.” However, Allāh, the Most High, said “But honor

belongs to Allāh and His messenger and to the Believers, but the hypocrites know

not.”518

The second type [of glory] is the human’s knowledge of the capacity of his

soul, and his honor and respect toward it (soul), and being aware of different

types of earthy pleasure, and what not to disregard by placing it for the greed of

Muhammad al-Dārimī. He named the teller of adith but he mentioned that its authenticity is
rejected by al-
Ma āribī.
513
Al-Marzūqī al-Isfahānī, S rḥ D ān - s , chapter al-A yāf, Vol. 4, p. 1593.
514
Al-Tawbah, (9: 123).
515
A -F ḥ, (29.
516
Al- ā’id , (5: 154).
517
It is referred to asan Ba rī (d. 110 H). See: ʻIzze al-Dīn Ma mūd Ibn ʻAlī Kāshānī (2002),
iṣ ā -Hidāy if āḥ -Kifāy , Tehran, Amir Kabīr, p. 3 3.
518
Al- unāfiqūn, (63: 8).
169
 eating and drinking or other mean things. Allāh said “But the honor belongs to

Allāh and His messenger and His Believers.” 519The poet said:

“They turn away from the food they saw

They leave it, while they feel hungry in inside” 520

And another one said:

“And certainly I abstain from the amount of the food

When I learn people will commit it due to the hunger”521

Another character is jealousy (ghayrah). It is to prevent from what

dishonors him and to precede the others. Its source is one’s feeling of his honor

and purity of its essence and its nobility for he is free from the impure natures and

dirty things and his nearness to Divine presence and his relationship for real

Unity. The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said “Saʻd is jealous and I am more jealous than him

and Allāh is more ealous than me.” 522

The other character is self-adornment (tajammal):523 It is to manifest the

wealth and comfort and to hide the difficulty and disaster. This is the result of

glory of the soul and its fruit is the state of thankfulness and the sign of

confidence and satisfaction with Allāh. However, to demonstrate the poverty

means complaining, lowness, and weakness and failing. Allāh, the Most High,

519
Ibid.
520
Al-Marzūqī al-Isfahānī, S rḥ D ān - ās , p. 3 7; Muhammad Ibn Mukram, Abū al-
Fa l amāl al-Dīn, isān -ʻArab, Dār ār, ch. 5, Matter of fear (khawf).
521
It is quoted from al-Muqnīʻ al-Kandī the Umayyad poet in al-Tadhkirah al-S ʻdiy F As ʻār
al-ʻArabiyyah by Muhammad Ibn ʻAbd al-Ra mān Ibn ʻAbd al-majid al-ʻubaydī (d. 702/1303).
(www.madinahnet.com).
522
Al-Sunan al-Dāri , Kitāb al-Nikā , Mas’alah 2227.
523
From the beginning of this part until the end of the text is written in separate as the chapter
three under the title ”On the service and hospitality” in Persian version.
170
said “But the Bounty of thy Lord-rehearse and proclaim.”524And Amīr al-

Mu’minīn (a.s) said “The one, who unfolds his loss, has accepted the

disgrace.”525

Among the chivalry’s tradition is hospitality and preparation of the resting

place (q rā); as the chivalry is the appearance of the sanctity and its beginning,

and the sanctity is the inside [secret] and end of chivalry. The possessor of the

sanctity considers the whole with the sight of unity of its members and organs

and abounds them with goodness and perfection, according to the perfect

munificence and mercy. Therefore, it is necessary that the possessor of chivalry

consider his brothers and relatives with the sight of love, and to provide them

with benefits and comfort in accordance with the universal brotherhood and

compassion, so that the outward fits the inward [562] and the origin appropriate

the end and the image be alike the meaning. Thus, he (possessor of chivalry)

tolerates the difficulty for the comfort of the companion and humiliates himself to

honor the guests, and affects them by his strength at the time of his poverty, and

does not let them know his loss and needs.

It is quoted that a man came to the Prophet (p.b.u.h) on the day of

Masqabah.526 He said “I am hungry, so give me food.” So, the Prophet (p.b.u.h)

said to his wives “Do you have any food?” Then, all of them said “Swear to Allāh

Who chose you as His messenger, we do not have anything except water”. The

Prophet (p.b.u.h) said “Allāh blesses the one, who invites this man tonight.”

Thus, one of men of Anṣār stood up and said “Me, O the Messenger of Allāh!”

[However] His wife said “We have nothing than the food for the kids.” The man

524
A - uḥā’, (93: 11).
525
ʻAlī Ibn Abī Tʻālib, Nahj al- āg , Vol. 6, p.1089.
526
Saghb means hunger. It is referred to the Qurān, al-Balad, (9: 14), where it is emphasized to
give food in a day of hunger is very praised. See: Ibn Kathīr, fs r I n K r, Vol. 10, p. 1353.
171
said “Stand up and delay to bring them food until they (kids) go to sleep and do

not feed them anything, then, when I made light and entertain the guest to eat;

you pretend to fix the light then turn it off and come here, we chew and pretend to

eat with the guest of the Messenger of Allāh (p.b.u.h) until he is full.”

So, the wife went to his children and made them busy until they forgot

about the food, then she stood up and brought food and made light. As the guests

were eating, she stood up and pretended to fix the light, but she turned it off, then

they waggle their tongues and the guest thought that those two eat with him until

he was satisfied, and they slept with hunger!

As tomorrow the companion came to the Prophet (p.b.u.h), he looked at

both of them with a smile and told “Tonight Allāh has truly wondered of the

action of so and so” Afterwards, Allāh, the Most High, revealed it “But give them

preference over themselves, even though poverty was their (own lot).”527
528
Also, it is quoted that Abī al- asan al-An ākī had more than thirty

guests. He had only a few pieces of bread, which were not enough for even five

persons. So, they divided it into small pieces and turned off the light and sat to

eat. [Later], when they took the food it was untouched; none of them ate it for

each of them scarified his soul for others to eat. [563]

There are lots of tales in this matter that I drop because of the limitation and

it is incompatible with this brief writing. Those who want to learn more, have to

search the trace and information and to study the books and treatises; since they

have wonders and strange stories that unveil the weirdness. Those who do not

suffice with all of them, will not suffice with its partial. And, those who do not

benefit this presentation, the explanation would not benefit them. In summary, he

527
A - s r, (59: 9); Rashid al-Dīn Maybudī, Kashf al-Asrār ʻidd -A rār, Vol. 10, p. 43.
528
d. 240/855.
172
would not be satisfied with the details. I am asking for His guidance to the

straightway and to greeting Muhammad until the Day of Division. [564]

173
 CHAPTER 6

KᾹSHᾹNĪ’S CONCEPTION OF CHIVALRYACCORDING TO

-IKHWᾹ Ᾱ AL-FITYᾹN

174
6.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter will analyze the chivalry letter of Kāshānī and discuss the meaning

of chivalry according to Kāshānī’s point of view. It will also argue about the most

refreshing of his treatise, which contains the rich notion of Sufi terms and the

school of W d -Wujūd. In order to understand the significance and influences

of his treatise, his ideas will be compared with two famous and important

chivalry letters as the chivalry letter of Shahāb al-Dīn Suhrawardī529(d.

587/1191), and Sultānī’s Chivalry letter of Naqshbandiyyah Sufi Kamāl al-Dīn

Husayn Ibn ʻAlī Wāiz Kāshifī Bayhaqqī Hirawī (d. 910/1504).530 It is to note that

the chivalry letter of Suhrawardī is one of the significant chivalry letters in early

Islamic literature; since, Suhrawardī, for the first time, has institutionalized the

traditional chivalry and spiritualized the idea of chivalry. 531 And, the importance

of the latter is placed on the successful combination of chivalry with

Sufism. 532He considered chivalry as one of spiritual knowledge and blended it

with the knowledge of Sufism, providing blended comprehensive studies of this

knowledge, its reality, subject and magnitude. His chivalry letter is a testament of

the deep influence of the Sufism in chivalry in the sixteenth century. His Sufi

chevalier depicts the corporate of Sufi’s virtue to the chivalry. In addition to the

selected influential chivalry letters, indeed, the chronological selection is

considered by the collection of the authors. Therefore, the reader is able to

529
Suhrawardī (1973), Futuw n ā , in: R sāi J n rdān by Murtezā Sarrāf, p. 90.
530
Wāiz Kāshifī, Husayn Wāiz (1971), Fu u ā Su ān , ed. Muhammad afar Mah ūb,
Tehran, Buyād Farhangī Iran. This book is translated into English in 2000 as: The Royal Book of
Spiritual Chivalry, Translation by: Jay R. Crook, Chicago, Great Books of the Islamic World.
531
Lloyd V. J. Ridgeon (2011), Jawanmardi: A Sufi Code of Honour, Edinburgh University
Press, p. 8; Jerald D. Gort, Henry Jansen, Hendrik M. Vroom, 2007, Probing the Depths of Evil
and Good: Multireligious Views and Case Studies, Amsterdam, Rodopi B. V., p. 266 and Leonard
Lewisohn (1999), The Heritage of Sufism: Classical Persian Sufism from its origins to Rumi
(700-1300), London, Oneworld, p. 481.
532
Stephanie L. Hathaway, David W. Kim (2012), Intercultural Transmission in the Medieval
Mediterranean, A&amp and C Black, p. 75; Jawanmardi, Translated by the Lioyd V. J. Ridgon,
Einburgh University Press, p. 165-166.
175
examine the similarities, differences and the development of the concept of

chivalry, besides the influences of Kāshānī’s chivalry letter from twelfth to the

early of sixteenth century. In this regard, at first step, this chapter will explain

about the meaning of the chivalry according to Kāshānī, and then compare it with

chivalry of Suhrawardī and Wāiz Kāshifī. And, finally, this chapter will discuss

in order about the foundation and doctrine of chivalry, while the comparison with

mentioned authors will continue in selected subjects.

6.1 THE DEFINITION OF CHIVALRY IN KᾹSHᾹNĪ’S POINT OF VIEW

Kāshānī started his treatise with a submission of the definition of chivalry as

fellow:

“Be aware that chivalry is appearance (zu ūr) of the inborn nature
(fi r ), in its pureness and delicate qualification, and its overcoming on
emergence of darkness with its potentiality and authority in accordance
with development [on human being]. The chivalry is a quality, which
follows its perfect talent that is necessary for the pure Abrahamic
inborn nature, as A ā said about it in the Qur’ān: “But only he (will
prosper) that brings to A ā a wealth sound heart (q s ).”533

As we can observe, in this definition, Kāshānī considerably emphasizes the

matter of inborn nature and its appearance. Moreover, he makes a connection

between inborn nature and the human perfect talent. Therefore, we try to examine

what relation could be between chivalry and inborn nature and the relation of

inborn nature with the human talent for perfection, in Kāshānī’ point of view.

This relation could be analyzed in an effort to explore the substance of inborn

nature.

Kāshānī described inborn nature in his treatise “Ris Q dā Q d r”

as the untainted and pure condition of human, in which the reality of human is

533
Kāshānī, u f -Ik ān F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 527.
176
created.534 On the other hand, he stated in ’ ā -Qur’ān that it is the result

of The Most Holy Grace (f yd -aqdas).535

This definition is based on the teaching of School of W d -Wujūd, in

which the Divine essence (dā i ā ) is hidden forever and it is never accessible.

However, His latency might have an appearance in two stages.536 The first stage

is called The Most Holy Grace (f yd -aqdas). It is the appearance of the essence

for the essence, in which God will appear in His Divine names and attributions.

In this stage the primary faces or immutable entities ( ‛yān - ā i ) will

appear in the knowledge of God.537 They are within the Divine essence; hence,

they are stable and secure from any decay, vice and defect. That is why they are

called it as immutable entities.538

The second stage is called the Holy Grace (f yd al-muqaddas). Here, the

immutable entities will exit from the step of immutability and the knowledge of

God and find external existence. 539In the meaning that God appeared in the

perceptible manifestations ( zā ir - ūs ). This does not mean the

transformation, but it is the revelation of the eternal knowledge like unfolding the

form of the known ( ‛ ū ) by writing on the paper.540

Therefore, when Kāshānī stated that the inborn nature is the result of the

Most Holy Grace, it is because the inborn nature is emanated from the Divine

essence. In addition, as in this stage, the talent and potentialities of the perfections

534
Kāshānī, Risalah Qadā Q d r, in: j ūʻ R sā’i us nn fā A d -R zzāq
Kās ānī, p. 87.
535
Kāshānī, ’ -Qur’ān published under the fs r I n Ar , see Tafsīr Sūrah Rū (30:
30); Zumar (39: 1-2).
536
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, see Abkabūt (29: 1).
537
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān ry (19: 94) and Aʻrāf (7: 4); H d d (57: 2).
538
Hūd (11: 1).
539
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, ry (19: 94); āmī, qd - usūs, p. 42.
540
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, H s r (59: 22); Ank ū (29: 1).
177
is bestowed to immutable entities;541and the human being has potentialities of

perfection bestowed to him due to the will of God.542

Therefore, as the reality of inborn nature is originated from the essence of

God, everyone is enthusiastic to seek perfection and this tendency is a quality of

stability and it never changes. 543The attempt of the man on the path to gain

perfection, leads him to become like God; in other words, to try to manifest his

talent of perfection from potentiality to actuality. In essence, these potentialities

are Divine attributes, which are within the human being in potential, but each

soul is different in terms of which attributes have actualized and to what degree

they have become luminous. However, the stage of chivalry is the manifestation

of the pure belief in God ( d).

As mentioned before, the manifestation of the real Being begins with

immutability in the knowledge of God, and finally finds external existence. Thus,

by the external existence, the human being is associated with certain innate

knowledge of the heart. Therefore, at the stage of chivalry, the appearance of the

inborn nature is associated with a kind of vision or revelation

(mukashafah),544through which the chivalrous one can vision the truth of his real

being. Kāshānī identified the type of this knowledge by chivalry as knowledge of

certainty (ʻilm al-y q n).545

According to him, this knowledge refers to the knowledge of Unity

( d), which is part of the man’s inner nature and is confirmed in his intellect.

When the man is released from sensual and carnal attachments, this knowledge

541
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān I id, A -R ān (55: 1); Maryam (19: 94); uq ān (31: 34).
542
Ibid, Ā i ‛I rān (3: 165).
543
Ibid, Maryam (19: 94); Q s s (28: 28).
544
Kāshānī, u f -Ik ān F K s is -Fi yān, p. 528.
545
Ibid.
178
will be revealed to him and he will realize that it is the most apparent

knowledge;546since, it is certainly nothing than the testimony of their beings. 547 In

other words, this knowledge is the knowledge, which God trusted to the human

by the Divine Covenant, through which human beings instinctively confess the

Divinity (ru ū iyy ) of God.548

This inner knowledge will be revealed by the appearance of the inborn

nature.549In ’ ā -Qur’ān, Kāshānī called this knowledge as the descent of

intellect or criterion of intellect (ʻ q furqān ).550 The criterion of intellect is a

vision, by which the man is capable to perceive himself in the world and to

realize the coordination of his unlimited potential with the real Being. This is the

common point of humanity. Although, humans are distinguished from each other

in their state of animal nature, they are the same in their origin. That is why

divorcement is caused in the stage of animal nature, when the man follows his

desires and vices. Therefore, as long as a human take steps in the way of his

inborn nature, he will come closer to his creator as well as to humans and will

feel more unity towards them. In contrast, as much as the man conforms to his

desires, he will get away from the unity become distant to unity as well as come

in conflict with other humans. That is the reason for the existence of different

thoughts and conflicts among people, because they follow their desires instead of

believing in Unity.

On the basis of this view, Kāshānī described chivalry as a quality necessary

for the pure Abrahamic inborn nature. Abraham becomes the father of chivalry;

546
Kāshānī, u f -Ik ān F K s is -Fi yān, p. 528.
547
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Baqarah (2: 27).
548
Ibid and Maria De Cillis ( 2013), Free Will and Predestination in Islamic Thought:
Theoretical Compromises in the Works of Avicenna, Al- zz nd I n 'Ar i, London,
Routledge, p. 173.
549
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Baqarah (2: 27).
550
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Ā i ‛I rān (3: 7).
179
since, he was an upright person ( n f), whose faith came to demonstration by

clearing out the paganism and idolatry.551As we know the true believer ( n f) is

held in contrast with pagan (mushrik) and Abraham is in fact the father of all who

believe in Unity. On the other hand, Kashanī stressed upon Abraham, who

possesses the pure heart (q s ).552 Thus, the chivalry is the stage of a

healthy and pure heart, and is the starting point of the basic knowing, and make

clear the distinction between truth and falsehood and the basic motivation for

gaining perfections.

Therefore, we come to conclude that Kāshānī determined the conception of

the inborn nature as the fundamental notion of chivalry, which presents certain

qualities of human beings as:

1. The reality of human being is emanated from the Divine essence

2. The reality of human being is stable and never changes

3. Human has potentiality of perfection within himself bestowed by

God

4. The innate knowledge of heart is to confess the Divinity of God

Consequently, according to Kāshānī, chivalry, in essence, is a state of

eternal purification with which the human being is associated. This state is stable

and contains an innate knowledge to the real Being, the reality of human being

and his dignity. Therefore, the fundamental column of chivalry is to reveal this

knowledge. This knowledge is very much related to the knowledge of Unity. The

fundamental column of this knowledge contains the battle with soul’s desire and

pleasure in order to liberate the inborn nature from the worldly material

551
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Yūsuf (12: 106,108); H jj (22: 78).
552
Kāshānī, u f -Ik ān F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 527.
180
limitation. When the soul is released from vices, the heart of the man became

pure and faultless and comes to connection to God as His servant, Therefore, we

can conclude that the chivalry is the stage of pure heart (q s ) and the

chivalry one is the adherence of his inborn nature (insān fi r ). This stage is the

most significant element for the human life. It constitutes the tradition of his life

and guides him to the goal of human’s life.

As we see, Kāshānī’s chivalry involves the interconnection of chivalry with

the innate human beings, especially the innate knowledge of human beings. This

knowledge, indeed, embodied the central theme of the chivalry by Suhrawardī, as

he divided knowledge in two categories: legislation (S rʻ ) and spiritual path

( rq ).553 Then he identified chivalry as spiritual path. In this regard, he

explained that during the Prophet Seth, chivalry was not separated from the

spiritual path. By the time of the Prophet Abraham, however, some people

aspired to go through the way of spiritual path, but they were not strong enough

to accomplish the way, and came to him and asked him to show a lighter way.

Abraham searched in the sea of the spiritual path and found the island of the

chivalry. 554So, from that time on, chivalry and spiritual path are divided.

Therefore, according to Suhrawardī, the way of chivalry is a part of the way of

spiritual path. For him, the kernel of the legislation is the spiritual path and kernel

of the spiritual path is the Truth, and chivalry is the kernel of the

Truth.555Therefore, his concern is upbringing the disciples on the path of

chivalry, in which the role of teaching and guiding the master is

553
Suhrawardī, Fu u ā , p. 93.
554
Ibid.
555
Ibid, p. 90-94.
181
prominent.556That is why his chivalry letter contains the moral instruction

between the master and the disciple. With respect of this fact, both Suhrawardī

and Kāshānī shared the idea that the chivalry is grounded on the land of spiritual

path and Abraham is the beginning point of this path.557

However, while Kāshānī speaks about the appearance of the inborn nature,

which entails the reality of the human being, Suhrawardī speaks about the two

dimensions of chivalry. According to him, the outward of chivalry is the

legislation (f ā) and its inward is forgiveness. By legislation the justice will

arise; however, forgiveness is manifestation of God’s mercy, kindness and love.

Therefore, his chivalry letter contains plenty of stories, in which a crime must be

punished according to the law, but it is forgiven according to the chivalry, and in

all of them the forgiver has been praised by the Prophet (p.b.u.h). Thus, law and

forgiveness are two main keys in Suhrawardī’s chivalry, which are related to the

matters of jurisprudence and chivalry (as between the Sufis and Jurists). Although

the law is necessary to obey in general, forgiveness is necessary to obey by

chivalry. Therefore, Suhrawardī deals with a manner that functions as a kind of a

substation of Sufi’s morality based on tolerance and forgiveness, in which God,

divine law and chivalry are interrelated. While, according to Kāshānī, chivalry is

the possession of certain inner qualities and characteristics.

Therefore, irrespective of the structure of their chivalry letter, Kāshānī and

Suhrawardī both are agreeing on the reality of chivalry hidden behind its surface.

In fact, Suhrawardī’s definition is grounded on his ontology based on the belief

that there are two faces for the existence: outward and inward. And,

556
Lloyd V. J. Ridgeon (2011), Jawanmardi: A Sufi Code of Honour, Edinburgh University
Press, p. 104.
557
Suhrawardī, Fu u ā , p. 93, 98, 99 and Kāshānī, u f -Ik ān, p. 527, 558.
182
 558
consequently, there is a progress from outer action to the inner state. Kāshānī,

however, considers it as the quality of potentiality of perfection within the reality

of a human being. Therefore, Suhrawardī estimated six exoteric (zā ir) and six

esoteric ( ā in) qualities for chivalry. The six exoteric qualities are derived from

the chivalry’s clothing as: the belt of trousers (avoidance of adultery), the belt of

tummy (avoidance of forbidden food), the belt of tongue (avoidance of backbite

and accusation), the belt of eyes and ears (avoidance of what is forbidden to see

and to hear according to the divine law), the belt of hand and foot (avoidance of

stealing and oppression) and the last one is the belt of greed and desire. The six

esoteric qualities are: Generosity, humility, magnificence, forgiveness,

annihilation of ego and awareness in the stage of nearness (qurb), in which he

may lose his intellect because of the arrogance. 559Although these qualities are

considered by Kāshānī, they are studied in cardinal archetype of virtues in four

categories as chastity, courage, wisdom and justice.

Much of what Kāshānī understood about chivalry is found in its

counterpart Wāiz Kāshifī’s chivalry. According to him, chivalry is the appearance

of the inborn nature and its domination on the darkness of the soul until the vices

vanish. 560 He stated that chivalry is the Divine light rooted in a human being and,

when it will shine, the good character will appear. 561As we see, he combined the

light of the School of Suhrawardī with the appearance of inborn nature of

Kāshānī, and came to the result that spiritual chivalry is the complete human

558
Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach (2006), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia,
New York, Taylor & Francis, Vol. 2, p. 776 and Phyllis G. Jestice (2004), Holy People of the
World: a Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, USA, ABC-CLIO, p. 828.
559
Suhrawardī, Fu u ā , p. 94-98.
560
Wāiz Kāshifī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 136.
561
Kathryn Babayan (2002), Mystics, Monarchs, and Messiahs: Cultural Landscapes of Early
Modern Iran, Harvard CMES, p.188.
183
virtues (k ā f dāi insān ).562According to him, this perfection comes off

through the performance of Divine legislation. 563 Therefore, similar to Kāshānī,

Wāiz Kāshifī speaks of chivalry in terms of appearance of inborn nature, but

reflected in Sufism with extremely complex ethical form and the legislation of

chivalry.

He, indeed, estimated chivalry for the first time as a kind of knowledge,

which is substation of the knowledge of Sufism. He identifies the cognition of the

soul as the main subject of this knowledge. In this point, it is similar to Kāshānī’s

chivalry, in which the matter of appearance of the inborn nature requires the

purification of the soul. Therefore, both have the same approach to chivalry

which is the battle of the man with the soul’s temptations and desires.

As mentioned above, he reconstructed chivalry in the form of Sufism and

determined four hundred and forty four stations for it, which are classified in four

main spiritual stations as: repentance (tawbah), fear (khawf), holy fight (ji ād)

and patience (s r).564 While, Kāshānī’s structure on practical chivalry is similar

to that of cardinal category of virtues, as mentioned above.

In short, although chivalry is considered by the three authors as the moral

codes subordinated of Sufism, by Suhrawardī, it is predominantly a relaxed

attitude towards exacting punishment for crimes, for which the Divine law legally

estimated. However, the primordial spiritual view of chivalry is crystallized into

living tradition of thought by Kāshānī. He incorporates Suhrawardī’s chivalry on

purification to the intellectual preparation and described chivalry based on

universal doctrine, that man is made in the image of God and thereby is God’s

562
Wāiz Kāshīfī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 136.
563
Ibid.
564
Wāiz Kāshifī, Futuwwat ā Su ān , p. 157.
184
representative on earth.565 Hence, he created a perfect harmony between chivalry,

his substitution and Unity ( d). He dealt in depth with matter of chivalry

ranging from the philosophical and ethical basis. His chivalry followed the

School of illumination of Suhrawardī by purification of the soul, while it is

combined with the intellectual’s vision.

On the other hand, the definition of chivalry presented by later Sufis like

Wāiz Kāshifī, is much affected by the esoteric notion of Kāshānī’s. However, he

is more concerned with defining chivalry within the Sufi’s tradition of courtesy,

in which the importance of courtesy is very much higher than the plane

purification.

6.2 THE FOUNDATION OF CHIVALRY

Kāshānī identified the purification of the soul as the base of chivalry. From the

fact that God is the center of existence, everything is a manifestation of Him. As

the chivalry is the sheer and pure state of the human, it will manifest if the inborn

nature appears. And the appearance of inborn nature depends upon removing the

worldly attachments and attractions. That is why the first step of chivalry is

identified as nobility (muruwwah); since, it is the man’s battle with the soul and

his plagues and temptations.566In this regard, Abraham is the symbol of the first

appearance of the chivalry; since, he broke all idols and forbear money, family

and himself.

With respect of this, as mentioned before, chivalry is tied with the

knowledge of self; hence, to excavate the layers of a human being, its different

levels lead us to realize how chivalry is grounded on human real being. In

565
Kāshānī, Ris d’ ʻād, p. 277 and Masnad Ahmad, Vol. 2, p. 244.
566
Kāshānī, u f -Ik ān F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 529, 527
185
addition, the connection point between God and human is through the pure inborn

nature,567and the basic pillar of this connection is avoidance of the vices and

evils, the last part contains an explanation about the nature of vices and virtues.

6.2.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOUL

In ’ ā -Qur’ān, Kāshānī stated that the soul is a subtle substance that

contains the potentiality of life, love and any action based on intention. 568 He

estimated three faculties for the soul as soul (nafs), heart (qalb) and spirit (rū ).

The soul is one of the different levels of a human being, 569while the body is

merely the form. The human soul is an immaterial substance, which is the center

of human being and it is extensive in its essence. It is capable to develop and with

the help of other human powers can be perfectly complete. Basically, the soul is

the place for perfections and it is also capable of achieving knowledge. 570

However, Kāshānī proposed three stages for the soul:

1. The commanding soul (n fs ār ). This level of soul is under

the control of the body, in the sense that it considers the demands and desires of

the physical body of a human and it responds to the commands of sensual

pleasure and lust.571 Usually, this level of soul leans towards following the

material world as the spiritual. 572 When Sufis talk about fighting the soul (nafs),

they refer to this level of the soul. If the vices and evils place in it forever, the

567
Ibid, p. 527.
568
Kāshānī, Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , p. 115 and Sayeh Meisami (2013), Mulla Sadra, One world
publication, p. 74.
569
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, ūr (24: 55).
570
Kāshānī, Risā d ’W ‛ād, in: R sā’i W us nn fā A d -R zzāq Kās ān , p.
294-297.
571
Kāshānī, Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , p. 11 ; kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān , Vol. 1, p. 62; Ghazzālī,
I yā -ʻU ū -D n, English Translation by Fazl-Ul-Karim, Vol. 3, Darul Ishaat, Pakistan, p. 7-
8 and Vaughan, Frances (2005), Shadows of the Sacred: Seeing Through Spiritual Illusions,
USA, Universe, p. 120.
572
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Hūd (11: 52).
186
man will transform to bestial levels of being. Thus, Kāshānī identifies the soul as

the greatest enemy of the man and asks God for His forgiveness; since; the sin

makes the soul rebel and deprives him of God. 573

Therefore, as much as this level rises up, more veils cover him and he could

not be able to perceive the truth.574In this level, he obeys the command of the

soul’s desires and will lead toward the arrogance (is ik ār) and pagan (shirk).575

Thus, Kāshānī resembled this level of the soul to the body, which has to be

sacrificed in the way of achieving the Truth. 576

2. The blaming soul (n fs ā ): This is the stage of awakening

the soul. It will illuminate by the light of the heart to become aware from

negligence.577 When the conscience is awakened, it begins to recover itself, while

it is hesitant between two directions of divinity and creature. Whenever

something bad emanates from the darkness of the soul, the light of divine

awakening will overtake it and it begins to blame itself, in order to turn from it,

and it will return to the door of forgiving and ask for forgiveness. 578 That is why

God mentions it on oath: “Nay I call to witness the blaming soul.”( 7 :2). 579

3. The soul at peace (n fs u ’inn ): In this level, the soul is

released from all evil qualities and is completely illuminated by the light of the

heart.580 It is attached by praiseworthy characters and it is directed to the level of

the heart. The heart is directed to rise up toward the world of the holiness and is

573
Ibid, A‛rāf (7: 155); Ibid, I rā (14: 41).
574
Ibid, A zā (33: 1).
575
Ibid, A zā (33: 72); Kahf (18: 24).
576
Ibid, A zā (33: 72); Kahf (18: 24); Kāshānī, Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , p. 116.
577
Kāshānī, Is i ā ā Sūfiyy , p. 11 and Ghazālī, I yā -ʻU ū -D n, English Translation,
p. 9.
578
Kāshānī, Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , p. 115 and Lory, Les Commentaries, Persian trans., p.129.
579
Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , p. 115-116.
580
Ibid
187
pure from uncleanness and is intent towards acts of obedience.581 It is dwelling in

the presence of the highest degree until his Lord addresses him “O soul at peace

return to your Lord well pleased and well placing!”582

As we can see, these nonphysical dimensions of the man are the same

reality but on different levels, in other words they are human potentials on

various dimensions of his being. However, in Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , Kāshānī

describes the rational soul (n fs nā iq ).583 For him, the rational soul is an

abstract illuminated substance, which is also called heart. And, it is higher than

the soul, for it is the source of faith, light of intellect and place of the perceptions

and guidance.584In addition, the place of appearance of the Unity is the heart and

the knowledge of the certainty (ʻi -y q n) is rooted in it.585In ’ -

Qu’ān, Kāshānī stated by the process of perfection, the man will become alive at

the stage of the soul and then, he dies. After that, he will become alive at the

stage of the heart, and then he dies again and will become alive at the stage of the

spirit. And finally, he dies by the stage of annihilation. 586

According to Kāshānī, the human’s soul has flexibility of two quite

587
opposite sides: The celestial world and the inferior world. Although the

primitive soul (nafs) is essential for the earthly life of human, it acts as an

obstacle for the development of the soul. Its attributions prevent the manifestation

of human potentiality. Consequently, the man would not be able to perceive the

581
Ibid.
582
’ ā -Qur’ān, Al-Fajr (89: 27).
583
Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , p 162.
584
Kāshānī, Risā d’ W ʻād, p. 286 and Is i ā ā -Sūfiyyah, p. 162.
585
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, isā’, (4: 31). In the same source it is stated that the knowledge
of certainty (ʻilm al-y q n) is emanated from the heart and the vision of certainty (ʻ yn -y q n)
is emanated from the spirit and truth of certainty ( q -y q n) is emanated from the stage of
Unity ( qā d ).
586
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Qāf (41-43); Jā iyy , 26.
587
Kāshānī, Risā d ’ ʻād, p. 292-293.
188
light of his inborn nature.588On the other hand, if the man controls his

commanded soul, the soul can be improved to the level of the heart. Therefore,

heart is a state of the soul, which prevents the soul to be headed by the

commanded soul.

As we can see, for Kāshānī, the acknowledgement of the ego is the great

obstacle of man’s ourney to appearance of his real being. 589 From this stand

point, shaving the hair became one of chivalry’s rituals; since, it is referring to

disappearing all obstacles of ascendance and it is the beginning of the required

elements of the real human being.

On the other hand, by the real Being, means to believe that the only real

Being is God. It is the opposite of the idolatry (shirk), by which the man

supposes an illusion of self that he has an independent existence and a certain

worth.590 As the chivalry is considered as the stage of the Unity, consequently,

the chivalrous one possesses the illustrative soul, for he knows that there is no

real being except God.591

Therefore, we can assume the chivalry is the stage of heart, which not only

leads the soul, but also the intellectual understanding. 592It is the quality of the real

life associated with the presence and knowledge of the heart. 593The base of

chivalry is founded in the real human being; meaning that chivalry is a spiritual

state, an innate human state, which will only appear when the man is able to win

his desires and temptation of the soul.

588
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, R ʻd (13: 14)
589
Ibid, Insān (76: 22).
590
Ibid, Anʻā (6: 24).
591
Ibid, Najm (53: 58).
592
Kāshānī, u f -Ik ān F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 28, 43; Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān,
Mursalāt (77: 13); Yūsuf, 96.
593
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, ūr (52: 48).
189
 Suhrawardī shared the idea with Kashānī that the human soul is the center

of a human being and is composed of different levels. According to him, soul is

an abstract matter emanated from the world of the light. It is originally lives in

angelic domain or in the Orient.594 So, the soul is from the world of light and

considered as the innermost center of the human being. Therefore, Suhrawardī

identified the soul as the lordly light or al-nur al- ispahbadi. 595 According to him,

the Lordly light is an emanation of the Supreme light, which is divided into parts:

One part remains in the spiritual or angelic realm and the other is descended into

the prison of the body. 596This is called intellect soul (nafs nāt iqah), which is

compatible with heart by the Islamic theologians. The intellect soul became

entangled in the world of material and body. According to Illumination School,

the body is considered as the vegetative soul (nafs nabātī), which is from the

world of darkness and it is inferior and low.597

However, the body and the soul are in nature very contradictory, so they

need an intermediate to come to connection. Therefore, Suhrawardī presumed

another faculty of the soul as animal soul (nafs haywānī), the intermediate

between the body and the soul. The animal soul is a subtle substance possessing

the both material and immaterial characters. Thus, it is supported with a kind of

594
Peter Adamson, Richard C. Taylor (2005), The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy,
Cambridge University press. p. 215.
595
Mehdi Amin Razavi Aminrazavi (2014), Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination,
Routledge, p. 74 and Zailan Moris (2013), Revelation, Intellectual Intuition and Reason in the
Philosophy of Mulla Sadra: An Analysis of the Al-hikmah Al-'arshiyyah, London, Routledge, p.
47.
596
Zailan Moris, Revelation, Intellectual Intuition and Reason, p. 47-48 and Hazrat Shihabuddin
Yahya al-Suhrawardi (2013), Die Geschichte des Licht, Nordestedt, BoD-Books on Demand, p.
60-61.
597
Peter Adamson, Richard C. Taylor, The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy, P. 215
and Mehdi Amin Razavi Amin razavi &Seyyed Hosein Nasr (2013), The Islamic Intellectual
Tradition Persia, New York, Routledge, p. 42-43.
190
tolerance, which can resolve the contradiction between the soul and the body or,

in other words, between the world of light and the world of darkness. 598

With respect of this view, the body and related material attachments are

counting as the greatest obstacle for the soul and returning to its true home in the

world of light. Only by the purification through asceticism, the illumination of the

light will be possible and the soul can govern the body. 599 The attachments to the

body prevent the soul from joining the world of intellect. However, when the

bodily attachments are eliminated, the heart of the man will illuminate by a

shining light.600

Therefore, according to Suhrawardī, although the soul possesses the central

core of human being, it has different levels due to the degree to which the soul is

shining. The lowest level represents the center of corporal needs and temptations,

which is ruled by the esneible external desires. Thereupon, the most important

part of a human being is the transcendence of the soul from its lowest level to the

level of intellect soul. 601 This development of the soul is also considered in

chivalry letter of Suhrawardī. Although he discussed chivalry on the practical

level and did not focus on the Philosophical aspect, we can find his concern of

development of soul by his designation of twelve pillars for chivalry, beginning

with necessary purification of the soul and ending with attaining certain

598
Ian Philip McGreal (1995), Great Thinkers of the Eastern World: The Major Thinkers and the
Philosophical and Religious Classics of China, India,, Japan, Korea and the World of Islam,
USA, Harper Collins Publ., p. 471.
599
Mehdi Amin, Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination, p. 16 and Anne- Teresa Tymieniecka
(2006), Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issues of
Microcosms and Macrocosm, Netherlands, Springer, p. 267.
600
Mehdi Amin, Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination , p. 15-17.
601
Qamar-ul Huda, Striving for Divine Union, p. 77 and Lloyd V. J. Ridgeon (2011),
Jawanmardi, Edinburgh University Press, p. 171.
191
virtues.602The scheme of twelve pillars depict that the essential center of the

chivalry is the transcendence of the soul from its lower level to the level of

intellect.

As previously stated, Kashifī identified chivalry as one of the spiritual

knowledge, of which its main subject is the knowledge of the soul (nafs).

According to Wāiz Kāshifī, soul represents the ego and the egoism makes deviate

the soul from the direction of the heavenly stations; while, spirit (ru ) represents

God in human. The spirit is from the light, whereas ego originates from the fire.

When the fire dominates the human’s life; it means his spirit is imprisoned in the

physical body and the loss of his connection with Divine reality. From this

perspective, there are two diametrically opposed human faculties, the spirit and

the ego, within the nature of the human. 603Therefore, the center of chivalry letter

of Wāi Kāshifī is based on battle with ego through strict reliance upon religious

duties, and following the spiritual master.

In this regard, in Wāiz Kāshifī’s chivalry letter we encounter the pattern of

the practical purification of the soul, the same as Suhrawardī through twelve

pillars with very little difference.

Therefore, we can conclude that three authors are agreeing on the human

reality hidden behind his material surface, which is capable to develop. They

identified the soul as the place of perfection, while they defined different levels

for it, which, in fact, are considered as different degrees of the human beings’

602
Suhrawardī, Fu u ā , p. 94-98 (The six exoteric qualities are avoidance of adultery,
avoidance of forbidden food, avoidance of backbite and accusation, avoidance of what is
forbidden to see and to hear according to the divine law, avoidance of stealing and oppression and
avoidance of greed and desire. The six esoteric qualities are generosity, humility, magnificence,
forgiveness, annihilation of ego and awareness in the stage of nearness).
603
Wāiz Kāshifī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 167, 227, 444 and Tayfun Atay (2012), A Muslim
Mystic Community in Britain, BoD – Books on Demand, p. 150-151.
192
potentials. Moreover, they recognized the ego as lowest level of the soul. Despite

that it is necessary for the earthly life of humans it is the center of evil and vices.

In three considered chivalry letters, the progression of the development of

the soul can be found due to the battle with the evils and vices. According to

Kāshānī, the battle is formed in two levels: first, nobility, which is the stage of

purifying the soul and second, the shamefulness ( yā’), which is self-limitation

and fear to commit sin any more. This progression can be found by Suhrawardī

and Wāiz Kāshifī by twelve pillars. The six exoteric pillars consider the

observation and avoidance of the soul from vices, and the six esoteric pillars are

related to the virtues, which must be attained.

6.2.2 THE ENTITY OF THE VIRTUES AND VICES

As the base of the chivalry is the purification the soul, Kāshānī mentioned to very

significant issues, whether virtues and vices are innate human beings or they are

accidental effects. As his style of writing, he briefly appointed to these issues.

However, when we estimated that the core of chivalry is the appearance of the

real human nature and because it is due to the battle with the vices, it is important

to know about the entity of vices and virtues. The discussion is based on data

collection of different treatise of Kashānī. It is notable that despite lack of

theoretical discussion in chivalry letters of Suhrawardī and Wāiz Kāshifī, we

consider their ideas based on their theology in order to be able to compare with

Kāshānī’s. On the other hand, as the matter of the vices and virtues might include

other sub-issues, the domain of this discussion is limited to the realm of chivalry

ethics.

193
 The question of virtues and vices can be answered differently on the basis

of diverse approaches to the human beings. Kāshānī, by assumption, declares an

abstract stable truth as human inborn nature, for the human beings comes to the

result that all kinds of his talents and natural powers are rooted within the human

being. According to him, God is the source of the existence of man and the

existence of everything is dependent on Him. 604 There is no existence ( ujūd)

except Him. The world of the witness (ā s ād ) is His outward (zā ir),

and the world of the unseen (ghayb) is His inward ( ā in). And, every inward has

an outward, so there are some of His attributions that manifest on His outward

form. 605

On the basis of this ontological view, there is no other existence than

manifestation of God’s attributions.606 In addition, in the way of perfection, the

man should prove God’s qualities perfectly on all levels of his existence. Thus,

when we speak about virtuous behavior, we mean the various appearances of

God’s attributions in numerous forms and types; since, virtues are involved in

very nature of God. That is why Kāshānī considered virtues as necessary within

human beings.607Therefore, the man can attain the perfection, when he manifests

those qualities, which constitutes the transcendent perfection.

On the basis of this approach, the social external circumference elements

can never create abilities in human beings they only can provide a suitable

ground to flourish. And, on the contrary, the appearance of the human’s abilities

can act as a barrier. Therefore, every barrier to appearance of the transcendental

604
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Baqarah (2:163, 256).
605
Ibid, Anʻā (6: 91); Baqarah (2: 116); ā’id (5: 73).
606
Ibid, Rū (30:17-18); āfir (40: 62).
607
Kāshānī, u f -Ik ān F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 529.
194
qualities is considered as a vice. 608This is the most abstract meaning that Kāshānī

provided for the matter of vices as limitation, the tantamount to the veil ( ijā ).609

In fact, as the fundamental concept of the School of W d -Wujūd is the

matter of appearance (zu ūr) of truth, in contrast, everything which prevents the

reappearance is considered as the veil. In the meaning that on the way of

transcendence perfection, everything that prevents man to complete this way

would be considered as vices. Therefore, the moral mistakes come to relation

with the concept of veils of truth. That is why the great sin for Kāshānī is

identified as the great obstacle, the ego and acknowledgement of the self; since,

the birth of the man opens the way of recognizing another independent being

besides the Real Being.610

In this regard, in ’ ā -Qur’ān, by interpreting the verse related to the

request of the human for forgiveness from God, Kāshānī mentioned three levels

of veils, by which the man is deprived of the joy of happiness: the veils of

actions, veils of attributions and veils of essence.

According to Kāshānī, the veils of actions precede the veils of attributions

and the veils of attributions are preceded by the veils of essence; since, the

essence of God is hidden by His attributions and His attributions are hidden by

His actions and His actions are hidden by the worlds of beings and substances. 611

The veils of essence implies the concept of Unity of essence ( d d ā ),

which is beyond the boundaries of actions and attributions. In other words, God is

recognized as the only Real Being, which has no internal partnership, division,

608
Kāshānī, ’ -Qur’ān, Anʻām (6: 1) and Lory, Les Commentaries esoteriques du
Quran , Persian trans., p.145-155.
609
Lory, Les Commentaries esoteriques du Quran , Persian trans., P. 145-147.
610
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Baqarah (2: 286).
611
Ibid, Fā i (1: 1).
195
plurality or distinction within himself. Therefore, in Islam, polytheist (shirk) is

considered as an unforgivable sin. 612

The veils of attributions imply the concept of Unity of attributions ( d

sifā ), in the meaning that all attributions of humans and others emanated from

their origin in God. Therefore, independent subsistence of attributions is

considered as the veil; since, despite numerous attributions of God, they are

within His essence.613

However, the veils of actions imply the Unity of actions ( d fʻā ),

which is the lowest level and it is the starting point of the human’s battle to attain

truth, according to Kāshānī. 614The veil of action pertains to every action and

secondary cause besides God’s action. The world and everything related to it is

considered as the deterrent agent and veils to appearance the Unity. 615Since, God

is the source of everything and the only effective consistency and cause of

creation. Therefore, designation of the existential forms in the human’s heart,

which prevent the manifestation of the truth into the heart, is considered as the

veil of actions. 616

According to Kāshānī, the veils of actions are the first level that man is able

to remove, 617 since, it is related to the world of presence (ʻālim s ād ),

which contains the surface and substances in this world. 618 With respect to this, at

the stage of chivalry the entire world of presence and natural motivations should

612
Kāshānī, Risā s r qā , p. 342-346; Association of Academies (1934), The Encyclopaedia
of Is ā : A dic ion ry of g ogr y, nogr y nd iogr y of u d n
peoples, Vol. 4, E. J. Brill ltd., p. 334-335 and Jean Louis Michon (2000), Lights of Islam:
Institutions, Cultures, Arts and Spirituality in the Islamic City, Islamabad, Lok Virsa, p. 199.
613
Kāshānī, Risā s r qā , p. 339-340.
614
Ibid.
615
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Baqarah (2: 163).
616
Kāshānī, Risā s r qā , p. 332-334; Kāshānī, Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , p. 81.
617
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Baqarah (2: 163).
618
Kāshānī, Risā s r qā , p. 332.
196
annihilate in order the truth of the human being can appear. Kāshānī, indeed,

called this stage of unity as the spiritual state of trust ( kkū ).619In this state,

the traveler (sā ik) acknowledges that God is the source of all strength and power.

It means that every motion, effort, movement and occurrence that takes place in

this world is associated with the primary cause of this world, God.620

However, in Suhrawardīs’ chivalry letter we cannot find any trace of

theoretical discussion about the identity of the virtues and vices; yet, we know

that according to the School of Illumination the source of the creation is based on

the conflict between good and evils or light and darkness.621 Despite the eternal

contrast between light and darkness, the light possesses the central core. The light

is the being and most obvious of all beings and its essence needs no definition;

since, its nature is to manifest itself, while darkness is its absence and

nothingness.622 Therefore, the necessary Being is pure goodness and its nature is

the most complete and intelligent of the beings. Thus, He emanates only pure

mercifulness, while the evils are not intrinsic substantiation. 623

On the other hand, Suhrawardī calls the absolute Reality as light of lights or

Supreme light and every light is a degree of the effusion of that primordial light.

With respect of this view, the essence of the soul is light and possesses a higher

level, while the body is darkness and possesses a lower level; thus, there is a

conflict between the body and the soul. Therefore, according to Suhrawardī’s

anthropology, the human being is locked up in the world of sense but he still has

the ability to escape from the cage of body and return to its original dwelling. In

619
Kāshānī, Risā s r qā , p. 334.
620
Ibid.
621
Mehdi Amin Razavi Aminrazavi, Seyyed Hossein Nasr (2013), The Islamic Intellectual
Tradition in Persia, Routledge, p. 137 and N. Hanif (2002), Biographical Encyclopaedia of Sufis:
Central Asia and Middle East, Vol. 2, Sarup & Sons, p. 489.
622
The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia, p.137.
623
Mehdi Amin Razavi, p.14.
197
the path of happiness, the soul must release from the darkness of body and all that

is worldly and material to attain the world of immaterial light.624

Thereupon, according to Suhrawardī, in the realm of ethics, virtues are

radiation of lights within the human soul, and the body and the material

attachments are vices, which are rooted in the desire and human senses. Because

of this the, Suhrawardī’s School is entwined with the rigorous asceticism; since,

the soul should win the obstacles in order to be prepared to receive the Divine

lights. This idea is displayed in his chivalry letter when he wanted to identify the

pillars of chivalry. He, first, counted six exoteric characters, which imply

necessary natural disposition of the human as eating, speaking, seeing, listening,

acting, and sexual instinct and sense of survival, which must be controlled and

governed by the human.625 Suhrawardī categorized them under the exoteric

pillars; since, they present human being at the level of vegetative. They are

essential for a human because of his life in the material world, but they do not

form the reality of human being. The reality of human beings, according to

Suhrawardī, appeared by shining the Divine light. Therefore, as mentioned above,

virtues are the essential radiation of Divine light. Hence, Suhrawardī identified

the rest of pillars of the qualities like generosity, humility, magnificence,

forgiveness, annihilation of ego and represents them as the esoteric pillars; since,

they are qualities within a human being which constitute the reality of a human

being.

624
“Suhrawardi” In: Encyclopedia of Philosophy digitalizes:
Plato.stanford.edu/entries/suhrawardi.
625
Binyamin Abrahamov (2013), Divine Love in Islamic Mysticism: The Teachings of Al-Ghazâlî
and Al-Dabbâgh, New York, Routledge, p. 16 and Qawani, Shoheen (2012), “The concept of man
in Suhrawardi Philosophy”, translated from Persian by S. Kho aniyozov, in: Ishraq (Islamic
Culture Research Foundation), Moscow, Year Book Publ., Vol. 3, p. 456.
198
 Wāiz Kāshifī, also by explanation of the reality of the chivalry, made a

connotation to the identity of virtues and vices. According to him, the man

possesses two faces: the real one and the surface. His real face is his innate

nature, which is pure and familiar with the whole good virtues, and his surface is

the form affected by the condition of his growth in the society. The innate nature

is familiar with the whole of virtues, while the part of his surface is covered by

the material garments. So, to Wāiz Kāshifī, the ethical vices and bestial deeds are

rooted in the society and the condition of the process of his training. Therefore, if

the garment of his surface is removed, his real face appears with the whole

virtues.626

As we can observe, virtues and vices are identified by Wāiz Kāshifī in the

realm of mystical view which, the outward of everything, have an inward truth

( qq ), and the spiritual path is the way to seek that truth. By Suhrawardī, the

matter of virtues is discussed in the grounds of School of Illumination, while by

Kāshānī, it is discussed in the domain of School of W d -Wujūd. According

to Kāshānī, virtues are manifestation of the God’s attributions, while by

Suhrawardī, they are different degrees of the radiation of the Supreme Light in a

human soul. Although, these definitions seem to be apparently different, they

agree on the ontology’s view that the virtues are within the human nature. The

inner reality, the manifestation and illumination, all require the sustainable

qualities within human nature. In addition, they are sharing the idea that virtues

will find their identity through association and affiliation of a human being with

his origin, and affect the inner being (heart) of a human. While vices through any

obstacle, interdict with accomplishing the perfection of a human being.

626
Wāiz Kāshifī, Fu u ā Su n , p. 136-137.
199
6.3 THE DOCTRINE OF CHIVALRY

In the third introduction, Kāshānī is presenting the doctrine of chivalry referring

to the statement of the pole of chivalry, ‘Alī Ibn Abī ālib. He estimated the basis

of chivalry as loyalty, honesty, security, generosity, humility, advice, guidance

and repentance. However, he discussed these items according to the four famous

cardinal virtues as: chastity, courage, wisdom and justice. He put each two

characters of the eight mentioned virtues beneath the four cardinal virtues: The

repentance and generosity beneath the chastity, the humility and security beneath

the courage, the truth and guidance beneath the wisdom and the advice and

loyalty beneath the justice. 627

This part is allocated to analysis of the doctrine of chivalry. However, in the

construction of the analysis, wisdom and justice are selected as two cardinal

virtues. The reason of this selection lays in the pervasive quality of wisdom and

justice to the rest of the virtues; their concept has always been the key concept

considered, when discussing the human, anthropology and human sciences. They

are virtues, which have thrown their shadow on a human’s deeds, as well as to his

individuals and social relations. Although they are considered as separate virtues,

they connote other virtues consideration as well. 628

Therefore, it is appropriate to discuss wisdom and justice with respect to

Kāshānī’s view on the basis which might be useful in estimating the culmination

of the principal constitution of the spiritual chivalry. In addition, comparing the

chivalry letters of Suhrawardī and Wāiz Kāshifī, leads us to perceive the

distinctive approaches to these principles. Indeed, despite differences, we will

627
Kāshānī, u f -Ik ān F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 531-532.
628
For example Kāshānī in his work Risā s r qā considered chastity and courage as the
primitive necessary elements of the justice.
200
discover how Sufis have been concerned to sustain the same principal key for the

chivalry’s path.

6.3.1 WISDOM

Kāshānī, generally, gives a comprehensive definition of wisdom in his Sufi’s

terms as one of the fundamental faculties of virtues. According to him, wisdom is

the knowledge of existence as it is, and to define exactly the proper aspects of

actions in the manner it should be done. 629In Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , he expressed

four kinds of wisdom: First, is the spoken wisdom ( - ik - n ūq ),

which is the knowledge of legislation (s r ʻ ) and spiritual path ( r q ).

Second, is the unspoken wisdom ( - ik - skū ), which is only

understood by Sufis. Third, is the unknown wisdom ( - ik - j ū ),

which refers to those acts of the Creator, the wisdom of which are unknown to the

creatures. They are things in which we believe but we do not understand, such as

death of children and the eternal fire of hell. Fourth, is the collective wisdom ( -

ik -jā iʻ ), which is the knowledge of the truth ( q) and acting upon it,

and the perception of the fault ( ā i ) and rejection of it.630

In chivalry, however, wisdom is defined by Kāshānī as a kind of certainty,

which is gained by the purification and cognition. According to him, the

lowermost level of wisdom is truth (sidq) and its highest level is guidance

( idāy ). By truth, he demonstrated that wisdom is, in fact, nothing but the

knowledge of the truth by guidance. Although, it may at first seem unrelated to

the wisdom, if we consider carefully the content, it is apparent that Kāshānī

629
Kāshānī, Tuhfah al-Ik ān, F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 21; Kāshānī, Is i ā -Sūfiyy , p.
28.
630
Kāshānī, Is i ā -Sūfiyy , p. 83-84.
201
depicted what level of the knowledge of the truth is and how it would be

achieved.

The main concern of truth is to attain the truth of things. 631 This comes

from Kāshānī’s ontology base on the School of W d -Wujūd. As only the

truth can see the truth, and in order to gain the truth of things the man should

become like truth. Once he realizes the truth in himself, then he will realize the

truth of God; since, according to the school of W d -Wujūd, everything is

the manifestation of the Truth. Realizing truth of oneself is to realize the truth of

things which are numerous manifestations of the real Truth. According to

Kāshānī, the truth is not possible without purification of the self; since, truth is

reflected in the soul. This purification must be done simultaneously in three

levels as purifying the intention, word and action. This level, for Kāshānī, is the

boundary of differentiation of humans from all other creation. 632

Knowledeg is required to gain the truth, which is classified by Kāshānī in

two levels of guidance. The first level is to find the knowledge of God,

acknowledgement of His being and His unity and to know His names and

attributions. The second level is to follow the Divine orders from obligation,

forbidden and permissible, in addition to knowledge of virtues and excellent

characters.633

Therefore, guidance by Kāshānī is a cognitive process, which contains also

the aspects of the refinement and development of the soul. This cognition at the

level of the chivalry is presented as the eye of vision (‘ yn - s r). To

understand what he meant by the eye of vision, we need to explain about the

631
Tuhfah al-Ik ān, F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 542.
632
Ibid, p. 541.
633
Ibid, p. 544.
202
certainty and the vision. According to Kāshānī, there are three stages of certainty

that are consistent with the three steps of Unity ( ḥ d) and different ranks of the

faith of believers (i ān).

The first stage is knowledge of certainty (ilm al-y q n), which is common

in all believers. 634Kāshānī called it also the stage of soul (nafs). This is the

primary stage of the way to the truth; since, the believer stays between two veils:

veil of attribution (sifā ) and veil of essence (d ā ). This stage is the source of

innovation and intolerance on the basis of a weak understanding of truth, and

disproves those who are not in the same stage or even are at the higher stage of

knowledge. 635

The second stage is eye of certainty (ʻayn al-y q n), that is the stage of

Unity of attribution. On the basis of Qurān, Kāshānī identifies it as the stage of

satisfaction. In other words, it is the stage of heart (qalb); since, the heart is not

alone in avoiding all evil temptations; rather, the eternal light of the peace shines

in the heart of believer. That is the reason that the “People of the Cave” (As ā -i

Kahf) had courage to stand up for the Unity. 636So, Kāshānī alerts readers to the

fact that the stage of witnessing started from this stage. This is the spiritual path

through which the believer becomes aware of his inborn nature and achieves the

stage of the heart. In this stage, chivalry is completed.

The third stage is the truth of certainty ( q -y q n). In this stage, there

are no veils between believer and God. This is the stage of spirit (rū ).637Here,

the believer can witness God without any veils of attributions and witnesses

634
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Vol. 1, p. 16.
635
Ibid, p. 66-67.
636
Ibid, p. 17 and Tuhfah al-Ik ān, F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 528.
637
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Vol. 1, p. 10.
203
God’s attributions without any veil of essence. According to Kāshānī, this stage is

the level of total Unity that caused the eternal survival. 638

On the other hand, Kāshānī defined vision in Is i ā ā -Suffiyy as the

faculty of heart, which is lightened by the Divine light. The possessor of the

vision can see the inside and the truth of things. According to theologians, it is

theoretical intelligent faculty (qu ‘āqi n z riyy ). When this faculty is

illuminated by the Divine lights, it becomes the Divine faculty (quwwah

qudsiyyah).639Therefore, the eye of vision is the level between knowledge of

certainty and eye of certainty. It is higher than knowledge of certainty; since, it is

illuminated by the Divine light after purification of the soul. 640It is released from

intolerance at the level of knowledge of certainty; however, it is lower than the

level of eye of certainty; since, this level belongs to the world of witnessing

(‘ā -s ād ).641Thus, the eye of vision is the level between soul and

heart. That is why Kāshānī asserted that the chivalrous one needs the eye of

vision to attain wisdom.

Indeed, Kāshānī mentioned that the eye of vision needs the enlightenment
642
of the heart (f rās ) and also the light of the s r’ . According to him,

without the light of the s r ’ , the possessor of the eye of vision takes in an

unknown way and it is not possible for him to continue the way of chivalry.

Therefore, it is necessary for disciple of chivalry to learn about all obligatory

laws, recommended, forbidden, permissible things and virtues, excellent

characters, praiseworthy ethics and beautiful qualities. 643We can see that Kāshānī

638
Ibid, p. 110.
639
Kāshānī, Is i ā ā -Sufiyy , p. 37-38.
640
Tuhfah al-Ik ān, F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 543.
641
Ibid, p. 543-544.
642
Ibid, p. 544.
643
Ibid, p. 544.
204
defines wisdom, here, in the form of the mystical lingua of the School of Ibn

‘Arabī. According to him, wisdom is the knowledge of the truth achieved by the

right guidance, which will happen to those who receive the pure knowledge of

soul and mind. 644

However, wisdom by Suhrawardī is developed on the grounds of the

Illumination School, wherein the light configured the centrality of his Philosophy.

According to Illumination School, all of reality is nothing other than light, which

possesses various degrees of strength. It is the essence of light to be manifesting

and to bring others to manifestation. Light is the most evident and clear of things

and makes things become evident.645

With respect of this view, the nature of knowledge is also light. As the

light has different degrees, the knowledge also contains a range of levels. The

sensory knowledge is a level of light, while the knowledge of intellect is the other

levels of the light. On the other hand, the essence of human soul is an abstract

light, so it possesses self-awareness and it will be more luminous and more

complete and delighted by radiation of the light. Therefore, Suhrawardī classified

the seeker of knowledge in his work, Hik -Is rāq, based on the theoretical

and practical development and perfection of the faculties of human soul.

The first or lowest level is the seeker of knowledge, who is aware of his

ignorance and feels the need for knowledge and, therefore, will seek for the

knowledge. The second level is the seeker, who has well attained formal

knowledge including the argumentative philosophy ( ik iyy ), as well

as spiritual knowledge. The third level is the seeker, who has purified his soul and

644
Ibid, p. 543.
645
Zailan Moris (2013), Revelation, Intellectual Intuition and Reason in the Philosophy of Mulla
Sadra: An Analysis of the al-hikmah al-'arshiyyah, Routledge, p. 43.
205
attained intellectual intuition or illumination, but is ignorant of argumentative

modes of knowledge. The fourth is the true philosopher ( k i ā ), who has

646
perfected argumentative philosophy as well as attained illumination.

As we can see, for Suhrawardī, the truth is attained by accomplishment of

both theoretical philosophy and spiritual illumination. Therefore, in his testament

at the end of his work Hik -Is rāq, he identified wisdom as the manner and

the way of intellectual and spiritual conduct. On the other hand, the knowledge

will be attained through illumination of the light into the human being. As the

place of the process of illumination is within the human being, Suhrawardī

defined wisdom as equal to the preservation of the orders of God and avoidance

of what is meaningless; since, only for those who appropriately become ready,

the truth will be illuminated from the depth of their being.

The light of wisdom comes not from the outside, but it is the light of the

soul itself. Since, to Suhrawardī, the human being is not the empty container but,

vice versa, it is like a lantern which shines by itself. As much as he encounters

with different phenomena, he becomes brighter.647Therefore, the knowledge is

the process of shining the human being. The interconnection of knowledge and

refinement of the soul is the key concept of wisdom in the chivalry letter of

Suhrawardī. Although he did not discuss directly about the wisdom, he set the

knowledge ( rif ) as the fourth element besides other connected ingredient

elements of chivalry, such as Divine law (s r ʻ ), spiritual path ( r q ) and

648
the Truth ( q q ). For him, it is necessary for those who follow the way of

646
Zailan Moris, Revelation, Intellectual Intuition, p. 44.
647
Dīnānī, Ibrāhīm, “Suhrawardī wa Falsaphah Ishrāq”, (http://ebrahimi-dinani.com).
648
Suhrawardī, Fu u ā , p. 109.
206
chivalry to purify the soul and to achieve the knowledge of reason, and to

understand the meaning of what they do and to avoid from ignorance. 649

Kāshīfī, indeed, did not study wisdom theoretically; however, he

displayed it within a given figure of Sufism, in which the essential factors of

wisdom, knowledge and truth are frequently considered throughout the text. He

placed knowledge ( ʻrif ) as the first foundation of the chivalry beside

gentleness ( i ), asceticism (zuhd), piety ( q ā’), satisfaction (ridā) and

sincerity (ik ās).650According to him, the path of chivalry is integrated with the

six obligations. They are arranged as: To gain the knowledge of Divine law, to

act according to what is learned, to have good temper with people, to have self-

discipline, citation and enthusiasm to see the Truth.651

The importance of the knowledge becomes clearer when Wāiz Kāshifī

divided the vow of chivalry into two parts, as original vow ( s ) and saying vow

(q ). The saying vow is understood as a blessing, whereas the original vow is

to be based on research ( q q) that is associated with the excellence

awareness. 652As Wāiz Kāshifī’s view is very spiritualized and discussed chivalry

in the plane of the Sufism, he regards action as a value that makes knowledge

worthy and leads the man to be wise. In fact, the wisdom of chivalry is defined as

the way of truth (sirā us q ), in which the knowledge and action are

integrated.653

In sum up, although we cannot find the trace of the theoretical discussion

of wisdom in chivalry letter of Wāiz Kāshifī and Suhrawardī, but a deep affinity

649
Ibid, p. 120.
650
Wāiz Kāshifī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 158.
651
Ibid, p. 158-159.
652
Ibid, p. 154.
653
Ibid, p. 160-161, 171, 178, 179, 296.
207
resulting from the central view toward wisdom can be seen among chivalry

letters, which is the achievement the intellect knowledge by refining the soul.

However, Kāshānī provides a system of wisdom for chivalry including both

theoretical and practical view. That is what makes Kāshānī’s chivalry distinct

from others because he presented how disciple of chivalry can achieve wisdom

and what exactly is the level of wisdom. He defines wisdom in the form of the

mystical lingua of the School of d -Wujūd. In the meaning that wisdom is

the knowledge of the truth achieved by the right guidance, which will happen to

those, who receive the pure knowledge of soul and mind. 654

Suhrawardī and Kāshifiī share the idea with Kāshānī that the basic premise

underlying the chivalry is knowledge. However, despite the implicit indication of

essential elements of wisdom, the knowledge and the purification, the concept of

wisdom and its interrelation with chivalry was not presented by them. While

looking at Kāshānī’s definition of chivalry and the appearance of the inborn

nature, we can see the interconnection of chivalry to wisdom.

Kāshānī displayed the very nature of wisdom and its relation to the

chivalry. According to him, wisdom of chivalry is concerned a quality of human

awareness integrated with the Unity ( d) and love. The appearance of the

inborn nature leads man to discover the truth of himself and the dignity of the

human being. While other chivalry letters illustrate generosity and forgiveness as

the ways leads to the chivalry, Kāshānī takes effort to demonstrate chivalry is

neither a practical way nor a system of idea. Rather, in the deepest sense; it is a

vision, through which the man would be guided on how to look to himself and to

others in terms of a human being, and not with respect of the vicegerent of God

654
Tuhfah al-Ik ān, F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 543.
208
on earth. Therefore, chivalry is the stage of a complete human being in terms of

humanity.

However, the man is able to achieve another stage as the vicegerent of

God on earth. This stage is the way of Sufism; by which the names of God will

manifest in a human being. This is not easy way to be followed by all people;

therefore, chivalry is interpreted by Sufis as a lower grade of Sufism; since, it is

possible for everyone to know the truth of a human being and to be faithful to his

dignity. Moreover, it is not just about individuals; rather the relation to others is

something to which the chivalry concerns itself. This relation has eyes on giving

and forgiveness, which grant the human eternal joy and happiness. This is the

spirit of chivalry. Sufis struggled to depict that the dignity of a human being is

against the self and private benefaction; rather it is defined to forgive the faults of

others and to give everything for others, even when they, in turn, made no

rewards or commitment.

6.3.2 JUSTICE

ustice, according to Kāshānī, is to place things in their proper place. 655 He refers

to justice as the noblest virtue; since, it is the spiritual form of exposure of the

self in order to reconcile between other faculties; in other words, it is the social

form for whole virtues.656The one who’s spirit is the king of his personality, and

the heart is his vice, and the intellect is the prime minister, and the soul and the

655
Kāshānī, u f -Ik ān F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 545; Risā s r qā , p. 347; Ghāzālī,
zān -ʻAmal, p. 74; Suhrawardī, j ūʻ us nn fā , Vo . , - ā , p. 95-96;
Muhammad Naguib al-Attas (1985), Is ā , S cu ris , nd P i oso y of Fu ur ,
Mansell Pub., p. 71, 136, 142; Majid Khadduri (2001), The Islamic Conception of Justice, USA,
HSU Press, p.74.
656
Kāshānī, u f -Ik ān F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 545.
209
rest of his capacitance are under his command, is called just (ʻādil).657Therefore,

justice is a general policy, which brings harmony between the faculties of the

body, heart and spirit and balances the inward manifestation and outward

manifestation of a human being in all parts of his life.

Thus, from the perspective that justice is an attitude of balance, Kāshānī

deals with justice in chivalry on two sub issues as advice and loyalty, concerning

the social and individual dimensions of a human’s life, to which this research will

make an explanation. Advice is presenting the practical social form of justice

through which the man wants goodness for others and wants them to make

distance from what is harmful. Thus, he described twelve characters reflecting the

general social policy of Muslim behavior, namely trust ( ān ), mercifulness

(shafaqah), connection to relatives (ṣi -r ḥi ), reconciling between

enemies (iṣ ā d ā -bBayyin), good participation (ḥusn -shirkah), fairness to

himself and to act justly with others (inṣāf and in iṣāf), reward (al- ukāfā ),

excellent judgment ( -ḥusn -q ḍā’), intimacy ( ddūd), sincere friendship

(ṣ dāq ) and brotherhood (al-ik ān yy ).

By loyalty, Kāshānī takes a strong position on the eternal pre-covenant

(‘ d), which entrusts in God the requirement of His unity ( ḥ d) and the

knowledge of His Divinity. This is a responsibility of man before God, which is

rooted in an historical agreement. The performance of this agreement is

obligatory upon the man. 658It is the cause of man’s faith and doing the duties of

right of worshipping and performing the right of Divinity. 659 This is the loyalty to

the Supreme God and the last step of chivalry; since, the man returns himself to

657
Kāshānī, Risā s r qā , p. 351.
658
Tuhah al-Ik ān, F K sāis -Fi yān, 549.
659
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, Al-Māidah, ( : 1).
210
his real being and he has fulfilled the purpose of his creation. 660As the Prophet

(p.b.u.h) said “Those, who have no covenant, have no religion”. 661 Thus, in this

level, justice apparently applies an individual connection between man and God,

and between man and his self.

For Kāshānī, ustice on the level of individual is an expression of self in

order to reconcile between other human faculties.662According to him, justice

means a harmonious condition or situation whereby the man is in his right and

proper place in relation to him self and as well as to others. If the human being

allows his animal or carnal soul to overcome him, or if he denies belief in God,

he will start to deviate from his real nature. And that is why Kāhsānī called

justice as the foundation of the truth (sidq).663And, as previously stated, truth is

the lowest level of wisdom; therefore, justice is the proper place of human

rational soul, in order to distinguish the right from the wrong. 664

However, Kāshānī determined ustice on the level of social as the common

form for whole virtues.665With respect of this, Kāshānī estimated the method of

rightness and just to live in society. In the Islamic society, those who have

affirmed their adherence to the original eternal covenant have taken a secondary

oath to practice justly relationship in the society. The manifestation of justice at

this level is the progression from considering the self to considering others for the

sake of God. This is the prominent point of the chivalry’s social ethos, which is

clearly and successfully presented by Kāshānī through theoretical approach.

660
Tuhah al-Ik ān, F K sāis -Fi yān, p 550. ,
661
Ibid, p 0; Ma lisī, i ār -An ār, Vol. 72, p. 96 and Abū al-Fadl Maybudī, Rashid al-Dīn,
Kashf al-Asrār ʻIdd -A rār, Vol. 4, p. 64
(Library.tebyan.net/newindex.aspx?pid...BookID. ketabnak.com).
662
Tuhah al-Ik ān, F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 545.
663
Tuhah al-Ik ān, F K sāis -Fi yān, 541.
664
Ibid, p. 351.
665
Ibid, p. 545.
211
 On the basis of this School of Thought, the adherence of chivalry considers

others not for own benefits, but in order to satisfy God. Therefore, he does not

care about his own desire and appetite and does not expect any rewards in return,

but his own purpose is to gain God’s satisfaction.

With respect of this view, the approval of God can be found in the

happiness and bliss of Muslims by applying brotherhood, which is the ultimate

character of chivalry. Kāshānī stated:

“I swear that it (brotherhood) is the best and beauty ways for people, the
interest of religion and the world is related to it, and the maximum happiness
becomes easy to gain, and by its presence every pleasure and bliss will delight,
and by its attainment every great demand will become easy, every immense
difficulty will degrade for him and every determination will demean.” 666

As we see, the brotherhood is presenting the ultimate characters of justice,

while it conveys the appearance of love among the Muslim society; since, justice

cannot be without kindness and friendship. According to Kāshānī, ustice is the

shadow of love and love is the shadow of Unity.667 The justice cannot appear

without God’s love and kindness, for the shadow, in fact, is not separate from the

essence.668

However, Kāshānī’s classification of ustice cannot be seen in other

chivalry letters. Suhrawardī, generally, did not show concern towards any

theoretical type of justice and we cannot find justice in any other of his

works.669The image of justice in his chivalry letter is embedded within the

chivalry’s ethos as, generosity, modesty and forgiveness. However, the quoted

666
Ibid, p. 548.
667
Kāshānī, ’ ā -Qur’ān, u n (60: 8); nahl (16, 76).
668
Ibid.
669
Ziai, Hossain, “Source and Nature of Authority” (1992), in: Charles E. Butterworth, ed., The
Political Aspect of Islamic Philosophy: Essay in Honor of us i ’s di, Harvard
University Press, p. 306.
212
narratives depict Suhrawardī’s stress on the precedence of forgiveness to revenge

or the determined penalty by the law.

To Suhrawardī, chivalry’s ethos is the way of inner enlightenment. It is

well known by Sufis that Divine law is the level of words, and the spiritual path

is the level of deeds, and the truth is the level of inner state. 670The level of

chivalry is higher than Divine law; otherwise all Muslims who are practicing

Divine law would be considered as a chivalrous one, while the chivalry is beyond

mere law. With respect of this view, Suhrawardī tried to illustrate that forgiveness

is not only in contrast of the Divine law, but it is the manifestation of the justice;

since, justice is not just then to place things in the proper place. Because of this,

in all narratives quoted by Suhrawardī, it is emphasized that forgiveness is more

honorable and desirable according to God than the penalty or revenge. However,

Suhrawardī did not give a Philosophical description, but according to the

Illumination School, the essential relationship between humans is rooted in a

common light of essence. The forgiveness made the light of Truth becomes

brighter inside human being and also in the outside disposition. This is also valid

for generosity and modesty, by which the innate human light will illuminate and,

consequently, the man becomes closer to his real place. Therefore, the justice,

according to Suhrawardī, can be found as the underlying layer of chivalry’s ethos.

The innate centered disposition is illustrated by Kāshānī as the potentiality

of inborn nature and the Divine covenant, which differ from the Philosophy of

W d -Wujud from the Philosophy of the illumination. On the basis of a

different perspective of Philosophy, there is not any trace of matter of Divine

covenant in Suhrawardī’s chivalry letter. Although the concept of chivalry’s

670
Muhammed, F. Sayeed (2010), Fundamental Doctrine of Islam and Its Pragmatism, USA,
Xlibris Corporation, p. 288.
213
ethos is an essential function for both, Kāshānī elaborated on these concepts with

the theoretical discussion beneath the justice, and constituted the frame work of

the individuals and social ethos of chivalry.

The concept of ustice and consequently the appearance of the love among

Muslim society is presented By Wāiz Kāshifī within the mere mystical

framework. In Wāiz Kāshifī’s chivalry, the concept of justice is integrated with

the spiritual virtue as beneficence (i sān).671 As it is well known, there are three

stations of development of the spiritual pathway in Sufism. The first stage is

submission (Islam), which is understood as stage of striving to practice the

Divine law. The second stage is faith (iman), in which the peace enters the heart

of the man. The third level is the stage of beneficence (Ihsan), which is referring

to excellence and observant awareness. The stage of submission pertains to the

corporeal and social aspects of human beings, whereas the stage of faith pertains
672
to the heart and the stage of beneficence is related to the spirit.

The beneficence is stressed by Sufis as an advanced level on the spiritual

path. According to Khaw ah ʻAbd Allāh Ansārī, the stage of beneficence is the

result of the mediation and peace; hence, to attain this stage, the belief in Unity

( d) must be stabled in the heart of the man. 673 Ibn ʻArabī identified it as the

stage of the witnessing ( us ā d ); however, it is lower than the level of the

witnessing in the stage of spirit; since, beneficence is the stage where the man

witnesses God according to His attributions. 674

671
Wāiz Kāshifī, Fu u ā Su ān , p. 250.
672
Ghena A. Ismail (2008), Islam, Sufism and Psychotherapy: In Search of Unifying values and
Epistemologies, United State, ProQuest, p. 31; Arthur F. Buehler (1998), Sufi Heirs of the
Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh, University of
South Carolina Press, p. 38-39.
673
Khaw ah ʻAbd Allāh Ansārī, S r nāzi -Sāir n y A d -R zzāq Kās ān , p. 321.
674
Ibn ʻArabī, Fu ū ā -Makkiyyah, Vol. 7, p. 421; Kāshānī, Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , p. 52-53.
214
 With respect of this view, Wāiz Kāshifī put the ustice and beneficence

together as the chivalry’s ethos; since, the concept implies the idea of the ustice,

for the possessor of the beneficence is witnessing the Truth. In other words, he is

witnessing the truth of things as they are in their true forms. Consequently, he is

able to bring the appropriate thing to the appropriate person. 675 Moreover,

according to his relation with God, the intention, saying and action is devoted and

directed to the God in the proper manner as it should be. Thus, he would worship

God methinks he does see the God. As he is witnessing the truth, he would act

not for the sake of his own nor for the rewards, but for his love for God. 676

However, according to spiritual path of Sufism, the end of the stage of

beneficence is the beginning of the stage of sanctity ( āy ).677This level is

identified by Kāshānī, as the perfection of the last level of chivalry, royalty. 678

Therefore, we can find that the concept of justice, which was presented as

the quality of forgiveness by Suhrawardī, is elaborated later in the in the School

of Wahdah al- ujūd by providing the key to establishing harmony and

sustainable balance in human beings both individually and socially. And, finally,

it is identified as the high spiritual stage, i sān by Wāiz Kāshifī. Moreover, we

come to the result that our authors are sharing the idea that the notion of justice in

chivalry is beyond the legalistic sense and scale. It is a kind of balance of

embedded qualities as forgiveness and love, in order to bring human beings peace

and happiness within themselves and others. The combination of justice with

love, and the importance of applying love among society, becomes clearer when

675
Zekeriya baskal (2014), Yunus Emre: The Sufi Poet in Love, Turkey, Isik Yayincilik Ticaret,
p. 51.
676
N. Hanif (2002), Biographical Encyclopedia of Sufism: Africa and Europe, Sarup & Sons, p.
106.
677
Kāshānī, Is i ā ā -Sūfiyy , p. 52-53.
678
Kāshānī, Tuhfah al-Ik ān, F K sāis -Fi yān, p. 549.
215
Kāshānī stated that if the people love each other, they do not have need for

justice. 679

6.4 CONCLUSION

The analysis suggests that the notion of chivalry is developed and rejuvenated

within the different School of Sufism. In the beginning of the interconnection of

chivalry with Sufism, chivalry came to interconnection with the Divine law,

spiritual path and truth and presented as more companionate and merciful

understanding of the Divine law by Suhrawardī and later it is highly affiliated

with Sufism via Sufi’s pathway of benefaction by Wāiz Kāshfī. However,

forgiveness other people’s sine and negligence of their slips is an unchanging

core to all Sufis perspective which certainly occupied the prominent quality in

chivalry and their distinction does not yield a substantial dissension. From the

starting point chivalry become the prototype of divine grace and the symbol of

the reflection of God’s merciful among Muslim’s community.

Yet, for Kāshānī, the notion of chivalry is integrated to the concept of

Unity; since, according to School of W d -Wujūd, the reality of a human

being is emanated from the Divine Essence and the whole purpose of being is to

actualize human being and to become known. Thus, the appearance of inborn

nature is stage of appearance of the knowledge of Unity which is within the

nature of human and it is confirmation in his intellect. He dealt with chivalry

analyzing the nature of human being and stresses upon the appearance of the

potentiality of inborn nature to transcendence and perfection. Although, chivalry

is not the ultimate perfection, but it is the knowledge of reality of human being

679
Kāshānī, Ris s r qā , p. 327.
216
and his dignity. The concept of appearance of inborn nature implies the

knowledge of self-awareness, through which the man perceives his true nature,

his dignity and potentialities. The manifestation of inborn nature enables man to

approach himself and other creation as real human being, which is the pure heart.

Thus, in Kāshānī’s perspective, chivalry is the ultimate state of harmony and

balance in human being in individual and social form, which is colored sacredly

and reflects love and merciful of God among human.

217
CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

218
7.0 INTRODUCTION

The study was set out to explore the concept of chivalry according to Abd al-

Razzāq Kāshānī on the basis of his treatise uḥf -Ik ān F K ṣāiṣ -

Fi yān. It demonstrated how Kāshānī, on the basis of teaching of W d -

Wujūd, created an ethical system for human being, who is not the symbol of

Perfect man as it is defined by Ibn ʻArabī, but in terms of human being. In this

regard, he improved the primitive innate human qualities to serve that system. It

was a survey of historical background of chivalry after Islam, and the

development of the concept by the Sufis.

In order to attain the purpose of the research, various issues are discussed as

Kāshānī’s life, works and contribution to Sufism. It is declared historical

background of the chivalry, its different appearance during the Islamic history

and its relation to Sufism. In addition, Kāshānī’s chivalry letter is translated from

Arabic to English, including supplementary description, in order to assign as the

basic source to reach the final judgment. The final discussion is tied up with the

analysis of the chivalry letter of Kāshānī to delineate his idea of the concept of

chivalry, while it was compared to other outstanding chivalry letters of

Suhrawardī and Wāiz Kāshifī.

7.1 CONCLUSION REMARK

The research provided contribution and implications of the subject discussed with

respect to the research questions. It presented the finding and argues the subject

and their transplant on research theory and understanding.

219
7.1.1 THE PRESENTATION OF ʻABD AL-RAZZᾹQ KᾹSHᾹNĪ

In reviewing Kāshānī’s life, while there was limited diffused information about

him, we became involved with his thoughts and manners as an adherence of the

School of W d -Wujūd, and his mastery of classification and regularization

of the difficult texts on the basis of the systematic Philosophical approach. We

have seen how his prominent spiritual qualities, in addition to his

broadmindedness, earned him to influence the members of government as well as

other Sufi masters, theologian and jurisprudences.

Furthermore, the research has noted Kāshānī’s contribution to Sufism

through his commentary on Fusūs -Hik , through which the School of

W d -Wujūd was promoted in the eastern Islamic world, especially in Iran.

His commentary was the base sources of later commentaries of Ibn ʻArabī’s

teaching through his direct disciple, Dāwūd Qay arī (d.751 H) as well as his

indirect successors like Sayyid aydar Āmulī (d.787 H) and Niʻmat Allāh Walī

(d. 834 H), who developed new spiritual movement.

We have observed, although he is known as a commentator, he is an

inspired Sufi author. Kāshānī’s Iṣ i āḥā - ūfiyy , compared to other similar

Sufi’s works, is the most comprehensive and read work which is praised by later

Sufi authors. In Addition, Kāshānī wrote more than forty treatises, which reflect a

complete integration of two main components of Sufism as practical Sufism

demonstrated by Khaw ah ʻAbd Allāh Ansārī in nāzi -Sā r and Suhrawardī

in‘A ārif - ʻārif and theoretical Sufism by Ibn ʻArabī in Fu ū ā -

Makkiyyah.

220
7.1.2 THE HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF CHIVALRY

We have seen the conceptual integration of the chivalry in the Islamic world with

the cultural-religious and social situations. Chivalry, historically, in over eight

centuries of its life, is identified as a range of movements and constitutions wide-

spread throughout all the urban communities of Muslim East, especially, in Iran,

Iraq and Syria. They were a class of lower rank of landholders and warriors,

whose chivalry conveyed courage, brotherhood and willingness to help the

defenseless, and later developed as Islamic chivalry in Khurāsān.

Even more importantly, we have seen that early chivalry’s behavior as

courage and generosity has been elaborated after Islam, and its principle has been

supported by the religious elements. It was in respect of the Qur’ānic teaching

that inner seeking of humans for salvation through fighting with the inside and

outside evils has been demonstrated as a noble human quality. This battle is

presented in the story of Abraham, who is recognized as the symbol of the Unity

and called “Father of Chivalrous” (A ū -Fi yān); since, he was the figure of

challenging idols in inward and outward worlds, in order to attain the pure faith.

The courage of chivalry is manifested by refusing idols and depraved authority,

leaving home, enduring danger for the sake of God by the “People of the

Cave”(As ā -i Kahf); and forgiveness and generosity of chivalry is demonstrated

by the Prophet Joseph.

We have also seen how the theological significance behind the rites of the

initiation of the novice into the chivalry is defined by Sufis. However, the

symbolism chivalry presented by the Qur’ān was not always followed by disciple.

We found the widespread of disciple of chivalry in the nine and ten century

around all Islamic lands, who were known with different names as Ayyārān in

221
Persia, ā ik and S ā ir in Baghdad, Aḥdā in Syria, who used to rob rich

people and believed that this is their right to take their own share from the public

fund. They sometimes even appeared as an intruder who broke down the

authority, and were used by the politicians in positioning new rulers.

So far, we faced a new era of chivalry in the twelfth century, when chivalry

was reformed and rebuilt as an aristocratic chivalry by Abbasid Caliph Abū al-

Abbās al-Nā ir Li Dīn Allāh Ibn al-Musta i’ Billāh (553 H). He brought all

different groups of chivalry together under a unite title as ak (brother) and

enlisted them in public administration and policing functions. Nā ir declared

himself as the central authority of chivalry and later designated himself as having

sole responsibility to maintain the legislation (s rʻ ). His advisor, Shihāb al-

Dīn Suhrawardī, has estimated the code of chivalry and officially stated chivalry

as the sub-Sufism.

Therefore, Anatolia became an important center for chivalry and the idea of

chivalry rapidly grew by Sufis. At this time, there are many chivalry letters

written by Sufis. However, after Nā ir, the official aristocratic chivalry ended,

while the spirit of chivalry survived through three affected vital dimension of a

human’s life in the realm of economics, politics and public.

In the domain of economics, chivalry appeared as a system of teaching,

learning and apprenticeship manual in trades and craftsmen associations. The

integration of chivalry with craft associations built up a sacred face of the crafts

and public services in normal life, through which the extent of nobility depended

on the degree of service to the society. In this regard, there are numerous chivalry

letters written according to different crafts, which present the relationship

between ethics, profession and human beings, and clarify the importance of

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laboring and work by God and His Prophet in order to obtain a lawful living and

business.

In the field of politics, we encounter the appearance of the small sporadic

armed appealing movements, like S r dār n, who fought particularly with

Mongols after Abbasid Caliph.

In the ground of public, we have seen that chivalry appeared as a moral

quality provided by Sufis to revive spiritual motivation in different dimensions of

people’s life. It was in respect of the spiritual tendency of chivalry’s essence that

it was identified with the religious roots, and improved and purified by Sufis in

the written code called chivalry letter (risā -futuwwah).

We observed the significance of three chivalry letters written by earlier Sufi

authors: First, the chivalry letter of Abd al-Ra mān al-Sulamī (d. 412/1021), is

the first treatise written about chivalry. Sulamī proved on the basis of the Qur’ān

that the ancestors of the chivalrous go back to the prophet Adam, and defined

chivalry as universal generosity. The second is the chivalry letter of Shihāb al-

Dīn Suhrawardī (d. 632/123 ), who officially identified chivalry as sub-Sufism.

The third is the chivalry letter of Ibn Miʻmār anbalī Baghdādī (d. 642/ 1244),

which is written during the Abbasid Caliph Nāsir Li Dīn Allāh and contains

complete hierarchical structure and ceremonies of chivalry initiation.

We have seen that producing a number of chivalry letters during twelfth

until sixteenth century depicts the Sufis consideration to chivalry. They tried,

through Sufi’s language, to express for common people first, the gravity of inner

battle of man against egoism and evils, second the importance of the relation to

others and third the devotion and magnanimity to God.

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 These kinds of chivalry letters, in principle, have ethical style and

frequently highlight qualities that made man to win God’s satisfaction. By

examining the chivalry letters, we found that they are not only colored with

ethics, they also transformed and developed the primeval moral concept of

chivalry into the spiritual school integrated with the theory and map of the

practical spiritual stage.

7.1.3 THE PRESENTATION OF TUHFAH AL-IKHWᾹN FĪ KHASᾹIS AL-

FITYAN

We have seen how uḥf -Ik ān f K ṣāiṣ -Fi yān is distinguished as a

milestone from other chivalry letters. It is, in essence, a spiritual chivalry letter

which depicts the semantic and rational boom of chivalry through its association

with Sufism. It includes a wide range of Qur’ānic verses, narratives, poetry,

rational arguments on epistemology, and different levels of spirituality and good

manners.

Kāshānī wrote this treatise in Arabic and Persian, while the Persian version

is almost an abstract form of the Arabic version. The Arabic version is written in

a clear, direct literature with a logical order. It discusses, in sequence, the origin,

path and qualities of chivalry. The context is supported with appropriate Qur’ānic

verses and narratives, which depict Kāshānī’s effort to bear the roots of chivalry

in the Qur’ān and presents the connection of Qur’ān with its action and rituals.

We found that in addition to Qur’ān, Kāshānī benefited from the School of

Ibn ʻArabī and Suhrawardī; however, he retained his creativity to develop the

concept of chivalry and described the process of becoming one chivalrous in an

organized form. He constructed his definition of chivalry on Ibn ʻArabī’s

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 meaning, as the stage of human strength, and expanded it on the ground of School

of W d -Wujūd as the appearance of the innate human nature. On the basis

of School of Suhrawardī, he stated that the process of appearance human strength

tied up with a kind of intellect knowledge, which its center is in the human’s

heart. This knowledge is the spirit of action, which is given to the human only

through God’s mercy.

We observed how Kāshānī used terminology of School of W d -

Wujūd to create the theoretical perspective of chivalry beside the practical

approach. This feature makes his chivalry letter unique among others; since, in

addition to practical approach, it contains theoretical discussion of chivalry.

I think, there are two important elements in the school of W dah al-Wujūd:

First, wujūd (existence) and second appearance (zu ūr). Wujūd refers to God who is

the absolute existence. There is only one Being and everything is the manifestation

of that real Being. This is the fundamental meaning of the Unity; since, God is only

existence and the source of creation. W dah al-Wujūd depicts God is unit in His

essence; since, His essence cannot be separate, has no modality. Therefore,

everything is created by Him and comes to existence, but in the form of appearance

( zāhir al- ’ū h); since they do not possess in depended existence. Although,

God is unit but it appears in His creation in numerous forms. That is why everything

is a sign (āy ) of God; since, they are a proof that He exists and depict His

existence. God bestowed them existence, while their existence is depended to Him.

Therefore, they are united with Him in the existence but in the stage of appearance

not in the stage of essence.

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 Therefore, school of W dah al-Wujūd have potentiality to build up the

structure of ethic, in which the main object is the appearance the reality of human

being, which is an image of real Being. This manifestation contains ontology and

epistemology. Thus, it opens a wider, more cosmic view point to the matter of human

being. The main element in the chivalry ethic is integration of knowledge, human

being and his potentialities. This knowledge, which rises from the deep of human

inside gives him the world view how should consider him self in the world as an

existent to become human being. The matter of chivalry ethic is not the matter of

what is good and what is bad. What God bestowed to human being as qualities and

potencialites are good. In other word, virtues are within human being. They are

human potentialities and qualities and human is responsible to appear them.

Therefore, instead of classification of virtues and vices, the human is divided

in to ethical human and non ethical human. That is what Kāshānī wanted to depict

the image of ethical human by description of the chivalry’s ethic. Those, who possess

the knowledge of their reality, everything they do, is consider as worship, even their

sleep and eating. The knowledge of self is like the guidline that make human clear

why he should do this and how he should do. Some times, the good thing is

considered just as pray, fasting and charity and etc.; however, when the man find the

knowledge of his reality, every action of him is consider as good. He can do different

things and being the source of creation and development of his life, even when he

makes mistakes, because he possesses the sign, could he try to correct himself. In

contrast, when he does not have the knowledge, even when he prays, he does not in

the correct direction.That is the life of human being, which is decribed in chivalry

letter as the period of youth; since, it is full of motivation, movement and challenge

226
for becoming better human being and that gives to the human’s life a vital

transcendence meaning.

On the other hand, the matter of appearance of human qualities give him

nobility to develop the self, while the process of development will happen according

to the social life because human essentially have social life.

Kāshānī provided forty qualities for chivalry, which make a balance

between individuals and social action of chivalry. He described these qualities

according to cardinal classification of virtues accepted by al-Ghazālī, while it

distinguished itself by presenting justice. The concept of justice as balance is

presented by Kāshānī as the appearance of human nature in the perfect strength,

which bestowed by God to human and it is different in every human being.

The initiatory path of chivalry is the methodology employed by Kāshānī in

the text. He sought esoteric meaning of chivalry’s ritual and found the custom of

drinking water as the knowledge originated from the pureness of eternity. The

tradition of adding salt to the water implies justice though which the balance of

human actions appear. Wearing robe refers to transformation of the human being

to his original nature through avoiding pleasures and desires. So, Kāshānī reveals

the inner meaning of chivalry rituals and depicts chivalry as the correct state of

clear mind and pure heart of a human being.

227
7.1.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT OF CHIVALRY WITHIN

SUFISM

By comparing the chivalry letters of Suhrawardī (d. 87/1191) and Wāiz Kāshifī

(d. 910/1504) with Kāshānī (d. 730/1330), we came to examine how the concept

of chivalry is improved from its primordial moral concept as forgiveness by

Suhrawardī, into the spiritual school of thought by Kāshānī. In the spiritual

framework, chivalry presents key conception of humans in both dimensions of

the individual and social life based on the universal doctrine of School of W d

al-Wujūd. However, the conceptual development of chivalry continued within

Sufism and later merged to one of the spiritual stages of Sufism as benefaction

(i sān) by Wāiz Kāshifī. Therefore, chivalry is defined within the framework of

Sufism as the stage of witnessing the truth. At this level, the chivalrous one could

perceive the true form of things and do the appropriate things. Thus, his intention,

saying and action is devoted and directed to God in the proper manner as it

should be. Therefore, he would worship God methinks he does see the God. As

he is witnessing the truth, he would act not for the sake of his own nor for the

rewards, but for his love for God.

7.1.5 RELATION OF CHIVALRY WITH UNITY ( D)

Kāshānī cultivated the roots and inner meaning of chivalry and sought the

fundamental notion of chivalry in the innate nature of human beings. With

respect that the inborn nature is the reality of a human being emanated from the

Divine Essence, and his association with the knowledge of Unity within his

nature and its confirmation in his intellect, Kāshānī determined chivalry as the

stage of appearance of the knowledge of Unity. This knowledge will be revealed

228
by purification of the soul and manifestation of the pure inborn nature. Thus, we

have seen although chivalry is known as some moral qualities, in its deepest

sense, it involves anthropology and ontology.

The notion of Unity, particularly, is significant for Kāshānī; since, as the

follower of School of W d -Wujūd, there is only one Being, and all

existence is nothing but the manifestation of that one Being. Thus, God is the

center of our being and Unity is to know God in the realization of who we are.

Therefore, the whole purpose of being is to actualize human being and to become

known.

7.1.6 THE FORMATION OF CHIVALRY’S ETHIC

We found why Kāshānī’s structure of theoretical chivalry is based on the

appearance of the inborn nature, for man is the image of God and has potentiality

and tendency to seek perfection. These potentialities, according to School of

W d -Wujūd, are recognized as Divine attributes, which are within the

human being in potential, but they are different in each soul according to the

degree they have become manifestation. The man is, in actuality, identified by

what he manifests of his human potentialities or at least is aware of what

potentialities he is able to manifest. This is the way morality formed. So, the

virtues are qualities within a human being’s potentials. The virtues do not force a

human being into something he is not; yet, they are potentialities and inherent

goodness of a human being, which he needs to bring forth by a system of growing

the soul. The one who actualizes his potential becomes the ethical man. Ethics are

found within the potential and uttered through the actualization of this potential.

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The extent of the fullness of a real human being is determined by actualization of

God's attributes.

7.1.7 CHIVALROUS, THE IMAGE OF A HUMAN BEING

We have seen that the concept of appearance of inborn nature implies the

knowledge of self-awareness, through which the man perceives his true nature,

his dignity and potentialities. It refers to the stage of actualization and reawakens

the true self of a human being. In general, man is covered by ignorance and of his

self concept that he holds onto. The veils of the world prevent him from knowing

his primitive and essential nature. The appearance of inborn nature is the

proceeding from the conventional self to the real nature. It gives human the vision

to realize his place in the world as human being and his relation to God as well as

to others. It is the way of gradual development and growth of human being and

his unlimited possibility for development.

The discovery of true nature involves the purpose of a human being from

humanistic perspective, and creates an image of his potentials and possible

behavior. Kāshānī’s irresistible stress on appearance of the inborn nature is

mainly connected to his concern for creating the definition of a human being. To

him, the human behavior is very much related to his innate nature and the manner

of a human must reflect his innate condition of nature. His idea of chivalry stems

from the belief that it is necessary to manifest the inborn nature, which is the

manifestation of his origin. He tried to create a perfect image of a human being

on the basis of the deeply structured model of chivalry. Therefore, chivalry is a

critical element in his ideal world because it is through which the human

individual’s behavior could be defined. So, for him, the concept of chivalry is

230
more than a system or method of manner, but in the large scheme it portrays a

figure of human being and his conduct in terms of human being.

7.1.8 THE RELATION OF CHIVALRY WITH LOVE

According to Kāshānī, the place of the knowledge of self is the heart. The heart is

the intermediate of the animal strength of a human (soul) and his spiritual

strength (spirit). The heart will illuminate by the light of spirit, when the soul of

man is liberated from vices. In this stage the inner knowledge and criterion of

intellect will appear, by which man is capable to distinguish right from wrong.

On the other hand, it is the stage of the pure nature of human known as pure

Abrahamic heart, through which man approaches other creation by the sound of

his heart.

We can see how the definition of chivalry as appearance of the inborn

nature becomes connected to the heart and depicts implicitly the relation of Unity

to love. As much as the heart is luminous by the light of Unity, the love will be

set stronger in the heart. Consequently, when the man perceives his real being

originated from Divine source, he finds himself in a deep connection with his

origin and love within his nature. He begins to love himself in a way to manifest

God’s attributes, because this is the nature of himself. Indeed, he appreciates

other humans and creatures and gives them love and respect. Therefore, the

actualization of innate potentials or attributes becomes the purest sense of God's

Love.

231
7.1.9 THE RELATION OF CHIVALRY WITH JUSTICE

We have seen how the ultimate individual and social ethos of chivalry is

presented by Kāshānī through ustice. ustice appears in chivalry as advice and

loyalty concerning the social and individual’s dimension of human’s life. ustice

on the level of an individual is an expression of a human’s loyalty to the eternal

pre-covenant, which entrusts God with the requirement of His Unity and the

knowledge of His Divinity. The chivalrous one is released from his carnal soul,

deviation, scattering and falsehood and now he finds himself in the proper place

in relation to God. This relation concerns his faith and his duties of right of

worshipping and performing the right of Divinity.

We have seen that chivalrous one is not only in the right place to God, but

he is in the proper place to other people. Justice, by chivalry, concerns the entire

virtues, through which human social relations will be shaped. With respect of

this, justice is the appearance of brotherhood in society and manifests in the

progression from considering the self to considering others for the sake of God;

since, justice, in its essence, cannot appear without love and kindness.

7.1.10 THE KEY CONCEPT OF CHIVALRY

Yet, as the final reflection, we can see the key concept of the chivalry embedded

in Unity and love. It is related to the innate human qualities, which are

necessitated to live as a human being. To be a chivalrous one, we need to

manifest our inborn nature and realize our real being. We cannot be human

without real perception of Unity. From the knowledge of Unity, the whole

knowledge will flow and the heart will be lighted by the love. The ethics of

chivalry will be guided by the ultimate Divine qualities and the purpose of

232
chivalry comes in connection to the expression of love in God’s creation. Those

who do really love God will also love His creation. Those who love others reveal

the Divine quality of love within their nature. Thus, adherence of chivalry making

efforts to find love within themselves and reveal it in their life.

We found that this love does not concern the love of individual and human

desires, which leads the man away from proper observance of chivalry.

Chivalry’s love is from perceiving the human dignity and beauty, so it is a

developed love, full of smiles and is a pathway toward God. This love is essential

for a human being; since, it is based on a pure heart and enlightened intellect;

thus, it brings intimate relationship between people and makes their relationships

become strong. Flourishing love in chivalry is supported by the innate knowledge

and is directed in proper ways. Therefore, adherence of chivalry become

interested in the things associated with Divine and His satisfaction. As the nature

of love is bountiful, forgiving and tolerant, disciple of chivalry is also attached

with these qualities.

The highest possibility of this fullness for a human is described by Sufism

as the Perfect Man (Insāni kā i ), while chivalry is the mediocre level of self-

actualization. In Sufism, “A ā ” is the comprehensive name of God which

manifests Himself in His fullness through the perfect man, since he alone

actualizes every Divine quality. However, chivalry is not His attribute; since, the

goal of chivalry concerns qualities of the average man not the perfect man, who is

known as vicegerent of God on earth.

The mediocre man has not yet discovered all of his potentials and qualities,

nor has he integrated them together. Thus, his life is imperfect and he makes

mistakes. He, sometimes, harms and hurt others in ways that he may not often

233
recognize. From this perspective, disciple of chivalry is called youth, the middle

stage between boy and old man, who is enhanced by God even when he commits

faults. Although, his actions reflect varying degrees of imbalanced and balanced

qualities, they involve recognition of the knowledge of reality of a human being

and the purpose of his life. For chivalrous one, it is not enough to act according to

the Divine order unless he possesses the knowledge of pure heart. By becoming

more aware of whom he is, he would manifest as a human being to a greater

degree. In other words, he becomes an ethical human.

Yet, when all has been taken in consideration, we found the important

feature of the chivalry letter of Kāshānī is found in creation the meaning of

human being by reconfiguration of the definition of chivalry in terms of a human

being, and demonstrating the proper place and conduct of human being.

7.2 SUGGESTIONS

As we have seen the scale of the study chivalry in spiritual concept of Sufism is

extensive and connected to the deep meaning of the human being and morality.

Thus, this research could bind up suggestion for further study.

7.2.1 KᾹSHᾹNĪ

Although Kāshānī’s works present mostly the Philosophy of School of W d

al-Wujūd; the character of certain independent interpretations are originally

belong to Kāshānī, but the structure, which based on an archetype of analysis of

the basic principle of Sufism, still needs more contemplation.

234
 7.2.2 CHIVALRY

The goal and style of developing a traditional behavior on the structure and language

of School of W d -Wujūd, can be suggested as an archetype and method of

creative spiritual intellectual effort to find an adaption to new circumstances of

today’s life. As we have seen the concept of chivalry is developed from its earlier

form, which was referred to the ethnic feature and it was just allocated to men, has

developed to the ethical system, regardless of gender, base on the responsibilities and

love towards God and others.

More over, the concept of chastity as one of the fundamental virtue of

chivalry can be studied according to chivalry ethic. According to classification of

Kāshānī, the concept of chastity as its lowest level, repentance, to its highest level,

generosity, is extended to qualities as patience, pious, regularity, contentment,

freedom, as well as to remission, magnificence, equality and preference. The relation

of these qualities to chastisty needs to be discussed.

Although the construction of the spiritual chivalry is beyond the border of the

gender but the place and nobility of women, their role and influences in the culture

and history of the Ilamic lands is less in the interest of the chivalry studies.

In addition, when chivalry defines a system of ethic, it can be compared with

other ethical systems and study its preferances and defcts.

235
7.2.3 CREATION OF THE CONCEPT OF A HUMAN BEING

It may be true that chivalry’s idea is often observed far from today’s thought of

life. However, the code of chivalry could be extended and encouraged in the

formation of the social relationships and civil rights. The chivalry, as the idea of

human being can explore his human rights, and because it is based on Unity and

knowledge, can be helpful to the Muslim world in order to give structure to the

moral standards on a global scale.

Especially, observing wars, crimes and massacres in recent decades in

Islamic lands and the growing radical reformist tradition, who excommunicate

Muslims, a new structure for chivalry could help to define values that are part of

human social life. The development should address chivalry’s characters, which

strive to be in service of humanity based on modern condition. In this regard, the

classical exegetical of chivalry letters could touch the essential purpose of how

human beings can be described in the secular world carrying principles accepted

within Islamic teaching.

236
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ʻAbd al-Rahmān al- Suyūt ī, alāl al-Dīn, A -Durr - un r F - A ād

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