land

Article
The Spatial Mismatch between Tourism Resources and
Economic Development in Mountainous Cities Impacted by
Limited Highway Accessibility: A Typical Case Study of Lhasa
City, Tibet Autonomous Region, China
Maoyu Luo 1 , Jiaming Li 2, * , Lingzhi Wu 1 , Weiqin Wang 1 , Zhuoga Danzeng 1 , Lamu Mima 1 and Renfeng Ma 1

1 Department of Geography and Spatial Information Techniques, Zhejiang Collaborative Innovation

Center & Ningbo Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Land and Marine Spatial Utilization and
Governance Research, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
2 Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100101, China
* Correspondence: lijm@igsnrr.ac.cn

Abstract: We studied the misalignment between tourism resources and economic development in
mountainous cities in the context of limited highway network accessibility. Using Lhasa City as
a case study, we illustrated how to evaluate tourism resources and economic development and
how to improve tourism resources and promote economic development. The tourism resources
possessed by tourism destinations are prerequisites for tourism activities. This study focuses on the
coupling coordination relationship between the degree of superiority in tourism resources and the
level of economic development in Lhasa City. Data from Lhasa City in 2010, 2015, and 2020 were
compared to explore a way of optimizing the spatial pattern of tourism development. The results
of this study are as follows. (1) As a typical mountainous area on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, the
Citation: Luo, M.; Li, J.; Wu, L.; accessibility of Lhasa’s mountainous area largely influences the choice of tourist destinations and
Wang, W.; Danzeng, Z.; Mima, L.; Ma, is also an important indicator for evaluating the degree of tourism resource superiority. (2) On the
R. The Spatial Mismatch between
whole, the economic development of Lhasa City and the degree of tourism resource superiority is
Tourism Resources and Economic
not coordinated, mainly in the low coupling coordination stage, and with the passage of time, the
Development in Mountainous Cities
degree of coupling coordination gradually becomes weaker. (3) If a town has advantageous tourism
Impacted by Limited Highway
resources with slow economic development, it is easy to fall into the “resource curse” dilemma. In
Accessibility: A Typical Case Study of
Lhasa City, Tibet Autonomous addition, if a town has poor tourism resources, it will be reduced to an outflow area of population and
Region, China. Land 2023, 12, 1015. resources after leaving the investment drive, and easy to fall into the dilemma of the “poverty trap”.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
land12051015 Keywords: tourism resources; economic development; Lhasa; superiority degree; coupling
coordination degree
Academic Editor: Thomas
Panagopoulos

Received: 3 April 2023

Revised: 2 May 2023 1. Introduction
Accepted: 3 May 2023
Classical economic theory suggests that the development of industry with a compar-
Published: 5 May 2023
ative advantage in a region will create economies of scale and thus promote economic
growth [1]. The impact of tourism on the economy has always been deeply studied by
scholars, especially in areas with few industrial structures and lagging economic devel-
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
opment. Tourism is seen as a panacea for providing employment, increasing taxes, and
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. attracting capital inflows to achieve economic revitalization [2]. However, the contribution
This article is an open access article of tourism to economic growth often does not fully meet people’s expectations [3]. In
distributed under the terms and some economically underdeveloped regions in the European Union, the economic growth
conditions of the Creative Commons brought by tourism has attracted an inflow from the surrounding population and capital,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and it has spawned many small and medium-sized enterprises that rely on tourism for
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ their livelihood. This clearly hinders the process of European integration and drags down
4.0/). the economic growth of the surrounding, more developed regions [4]. For countries with

Land 2023, 12, 1015. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12051015 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/land

Land 2023, 12, 1015 2 of 24

weak economic foundations, such as Southeast Asia and Africa, the tourism industry has
played a role in boosting employment and increasing exchange, but it has also increased
external dependence on regional economic development, resulting in inflation and rising
prices [5,6]. At the same time, foreign scholars also attach great importance to the social and
cultural conflicts, ecological disturbance, environmental pollution, and other issues brought
about by the development of the tourism economy. They hold that the development of
tourism must clearly consider all aspects of society and the environment [7]. Guided by the
policy of poverty alleviation, domestic research is more focused on the effect of tourism
on economic poverty alleviation in poverty-stricken areas and counties. It is assumed that
poverty-stricken areas should develop tourism on the basis of unique tourism resources
and, with the help of external driving forces, embark on the road to sustainable economic
and social development and achieve poverty alleviation and prosperity through the linkage
of tourism [8]. The research focus has gradually shifted from the impact of tourism on the
regional economy, the promotion of population and economic development [9], and the
realization of poverty alleviation in poverty-stricken areas, to the sustainability and fairness
in tourism development, the impact of tourism on culture and resources, the destruction
of the environment, and the maintenance of power. Domestic research has shifted from a
single economic indicator to a focus on local residents in an effort to achieve sustainable
development in all aspects of the region [10].
The development of the tourism economy has resulted in diverse social impacts.
However, for economically underdeveloped areas, the main constraint on tourism economic
development is the background of local tourism resources [11]. Most of the relevant research
studies stay in the listing of resource categories, overviews of tourism basis, the guidance
of development ideas, and design of tourism routes, which lack the quantitative evaluation
of tourism resources, making it difficult to measure the degree of impact on economic
development [12]. It is difficult to measure the impact on economic development due to
the lack of quantitative evaluation of tourism resources. In 1999, domestic scholars began
to use absolute abundance, relative abundance, total abundance, combination index, and
overall dominance of tourism resources as indicators to roughly describe the occurrence of
tourism resources in five dominant positions, including domestic key scenic spots, national
nature reserves, national forest parks, national historical and cultural cities, and national
key cultural relics protection units [13].
Tourism resources are classified and ranked according to the Classification, Survey,
and Evaluation of Tourism Resources (GB/T18972-2003), but their measurement is always
limited to the quantity, type, or quality of resources. With the introduction of mathematical
measures such as hierarchical analysis [14], Han Chunxian et al. combined the type,
quantity, and quality advantages of tourism resources and proposed the concept of tourism
resource dominance, which refers to the abundance of tourism resource types and quality
advantages and disadvantages, and is assessed by the abundance of regional tourism
resource types and tourism resource quality [15]. The tourism resource concentration area
and high-quality tourism resource area will be more attractive than the general tourism
resource area, and the evaluation system of the superiority degree of tourism resources
can be obtained by the comprehensive use of the richness and grade of tourism resources.
The concept of agglomeration was then absorbed, arguing that the more obvious the
agglomeration of tourism resources in a region, the more conducive it is to the spatial
organization of tourism activities [16]. Tourism resource agglomeration also enhances the
attractiveness to long-distance sources, but the above studies only reflect the nature and
spatial proximity of tourism resources and do not take transportation elements into account.
Lhasa is the most important tourist distribution center for tourists visiting Tibet, with its
mainly humanistic architecture concentrated in the urban area, particularly in Chengguan
District. However, the surrounding towns lack core tourist attractions. In recent years,
the function of tourism destinations in Lhasa has gradually weakened, and the status of
tourism transit reception has been strengthened. More and more tourists are choosing
Lhasa as the starting point for their trips to popular tourist destinations such as Nyingchi
Land 2023, 12, 1015 3 of 24

and Ngari. Therefore, whether the tourism resources of most townships in Lhasa have
development potential is largely related to the accessibility of transportation. The closer
the traffic nodes leading to the surrounding tourism resource advantage areas, the easier
it is to be included in the route planning. Tourism resources are heavily blocked by deep
mountain valleys away from major transportation nodes. Accessibility is a characteristic of
a tourism system where tourists travel from their place of residence to a tourist destination.
Accessibility to an attraction is affected by transport systems [17]. There are many factors
influencing the accessibility of scenic spots, including the spatial distribution of tourism
resources, regional differences in road network structure, natural environment, human
environment, etc. Eastern and central cities are connected by air to high-speed rail, while
western cities are still connected by air. Road networks are part of the infrastructure used
by tourists to reach an attraction. The quality of the road networks positively or negatively
affects accessibility, which in turn affects the choice of tourists. The travel modes normally
used by tourists to visit attractions within a certain area are cars, buses, bicycling, walking,
trains, taxis, ferries, and motorbikes [18]. There are four main ways to travel in Tibet:
self-driving, traveling with a group, bicycles and motorcycles, and public transportation.
Tibet tourism travel is different from the mainland due to road network restrictions and the
lack of transportation infrastructure because accessibility and convenience are poor. Even
with relatively unique tourism resources, they are mostly known in a few small circles of
tourists. As a regional comprehensive transportation hub, it is possible to develop new
modes of transportation services such as “on-demand door-to-door”, “Internet+”, and
“sharing economy” in Lhasa. Promoting the development of new transportation modes,
such as online vehicles and shared transportation, and encouraging the development of
complementary transportation modes [19]. Ordinary tourists are easily discouraged by
traffic conditions. Based on these factors, this paper uses four indicators of tourism resource
grade, richness, agglomeration, and accessibility to optimize the index system of tourism
resource superiority.
After the concept of the superiority degree of tourism resources was proposed, the
relationship between tourism resource background and economic development has had
a scientific measurement index. The entropy value method can be used to measure the
misalignment between tourism resource endowment and economic development (“re-
source curse”). SPSS software can also be used to make a comprehensive evaluation of
tourism resources and the economy and to guide the classification of tourist places with
different degrees of tourism resource dominance, economic level, and development type.
With the deep promotion of China’s poverty alleviation, the superiority degree of tourism
resources is more often utilized in the discussion about the strength of the tourism economy
against poverty [20]. In essence, they are all analyzing the tourism resource advantage to
the regional economy, the type of tourism resources and economic coupling, the differ-
ent types of coupling regional development differences, the “resource curse”, and other
phenomena [21]. Tourism development has a significant impact on the industry, society,
culture, and environment in economically backward areas, enriching the market of domes-
tic tourism products while increasing the income of people in the poor areas and promoting
common prosperity.
Tourism development has a significant impact on the industry, society, culture, and
environment of relatively economically backward regions, enriching the domestic tourism
product market while increasing the income of people in economically backward regions
and promoting common prosperity.
According to the Report on the Observations of Poverty Alleviation in National Rural
Tourism released by the former National Tourism Administration in 2016, tourism is
becoming the main way to absorb employment for low-income people, an important force
in lifting low-income rural people out of poverty
There are two main problems with tourism traffic in Lhasa. First, it is difficult to access
Tibet. At present, there are few air routes and trains into Tibet, and it is often difficult to get
a ticket during the tourism season. Second, it is inconvenient to travel within Lhasa. Some
Land 2023, 12, 1015 4 of 24

attractions can only be reached by chartering a bus or joining a tour. The development of the
tourism economy in ethnic areas requires continuous optimization of regional road network
construction, improving the construction of tourism infrastructure and service facilities,
enhancing tourism service capacity, and increasing the publicity of tourist attractions, etc.
As the economic, cultural, and political center of the Tibet Autonomous Region, Lhasa has a
long history and rich tourism resources. However, for a long time, the uneven distribution
of tourism resources, unbalanced development, relatively lagging development of rural
industries, and large differences in economic development between regions have always
existed. Considering the special ecological barrier value of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau,
tourism is the cleanest and most efficient path for industrial development. On this basis,
this study constructs a coupled coordination model between tourism resource superiority
and regional economic development index and analyzes the coupled coordination of
tourism and economic development in 65 townships and streets of 8 counties and cities
in Lhasa. With this model, the coupling types of counties and cities are classified, and
the degree of coordination between tourism resources and the industrial economy in the
development process is explored. The study of the reasons and solutions for the imbalance
between economic development and tourism resources in Lhasa City can provide useful
references for the development of the regional tourism industry in similar tourism cities.

2. Literature Review
2.1. “Resource Curse” Theory
The “resource curse” is a concept of development economics that refers to the over-
reliance on natural resource endowments, resulting in unbalanced regional economic devel-
opment, a single industrial structure, and reduced quality of economic growth. “Resource
curse” is almost an irrefutable proposition in the research of Development Economics.
Since the 1990s, many scholars have theoretically substantiated the “resource curse” on the
national level [22–26]. It is found that the economic growth performance of resource-rich
countries is far less than that of resource-poor countries. This phenomenon is called the
“resource curse” by Auty [27]. Relevant research abroad mainly focuses on the test and
transmission mechanism of the “resource curse”. Scholars represented by Papyrakis and
Torvik basically support the “resource curse” hypothesis [28,29]. With the deepening of this
research area, many scholars have expressed doubts about the “resource curse” [30]. The
representative views of countries on the transmission mechanism of the “resource curse”
mainly include “enclave attributes” [31], terms of trade deterioration theory [32], Dutch
disease effect [33], crowding out effect [34], etc.
Whether tourism development driven by tourism resources creates, a “resource curse”
effect or a “resource boon” effect is controversial. The tourism-led economic growth hypoth-
esis (TLGH) suggests that tourism development improves regional economic development
by increasing exchange earnings, increasing employment, and promoting tourism con-
sumption [35]. The “resource curse” lacks in-depth systematic research within the tourism
discipline, mainly because of the difficulties in the quantitative measurement of tourism
resources. Designing a scientific and reasonably quantitative evaluation index system of
tourism resources and economic development level is the key to verifying the “resource
curse” of tourism [36].

2.2. Mountain Tourism Resource Development

The overall geographic patterns of tourism development in China can be summarized
as “high in the east, low in the west, high in the south, and low in the north” [37]. Regarding
tourism resources and the economy, scholars are mainly concerned with researching tourism
resource endowment [38] and the customer source market [39]. Domestic scholars focus
on evaluating tourism resources and development potential for tourism in a certain area
and constructing an evaluation index system. Assessing tourism resources is necessary for
tourism regionalization and planning and developing tourism destinations [40]. In tourism,
Land 2023, 12, 1015 5 of 24

people (tourists) move rather than goods. Therefore, geographic location and accessibility
significantly impact the tourism development of the destination.
Many mountains are inaccessible, fragile, marginal to political and economic decision-
making, and home to some of the poorest people in the world [41]. Studies concerning
mountain landscapes have mainly been limited to physical, ecological, and environmental
processes [42]. With the rise of adventure tourism and improving transportation conditions,
more and more tourists are visiting mountain areas. An increasing number of researchers
have become interested in mountain tourism issues [43–46].
In Nepal, France, Chamonix Switzerland, and other countries and regions, mountain
trekking, ice tourism, and other development has matured. Lhasa has no advantage in
developing large-scale heavy industry or export trade due to its complex topography and
high altitude. However, these geographical features provide the city with rich natural
tourism resources, making it well-equipped for tourism development [47].

3. Study Area and Data Sources

3.1. Study Area and the Type and Distribution of Tourism Resources
Lhasa boasts a unique plateau valley landscape and a profound historical and cultural
accumulation. Situated in the middle of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, the Lhasa River basin is
a tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo River, which has given rise to rich and diverse tourism
resources. The city’s tourism economy has been steadily growing, with tourism revenue
accounting for a steadily increasing percentage of GDP, rising from 23.54% in 2010 to 56.43%
in 2019. However, the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 dealt a severe blow to
Lhasa’s tourism industry. The total number of domestic and foreign tourists received that
year was 20.08 million, marking a 14.1% decrease from the previous year. Similarly, total
tourism revenue fell by 13.4% from the prior year, amounting to 30.184 billion yuan. The
greatest impact was on inbound tourism, with the number of inbound tourists falling by
99.0% and foreign exchange earnings from tourism decreasing by 98.3%. Despite the serious
epidemic, Lhasa’s tourism revenue still accounted for 44.5% of GDP in 2020, highlighting
the significance of tourism as an important pillar of the city’s economic development.
As the economic, cultural, and political center of the Tibet Autonomous Region, Lhasa
has a long history and rich tourism resources. As of January 2022, Lhasa has 29 A-level
tourist attractions and 300 cultural protection units. Through the web crawler, data on
Lhasa tourism resources mentioned in the network travelogues and reviews were captured.
Then, the coordinates of 488 tourism resource points were obtained by screening and
comparison to attain the kernel density of the spatial distribution of tourism resources in
Lhasa (Figure 1). The tourism resources of Lhasa are highly concentrated in the urban area,
with Chengguan District as the core. The problems of excessive agglomeration of tourism
resources, uneven distribution of regional tourism resources, and large gaps in accessibility
have always limited the sustainable development of global tourism in Lhasa. The main
modes of tourist transportation between scenic spots within cities are self-driving, public
transportation, and tourist buses. Lhasa, Xining, Yinchuan, and other cities do not have
subways, so the highway network is very important for the provincial capitals. The layout
of the provincial connected highway network is basically formed.
In order to effectively distinguish the types of tourism resources and the richness of
regional tourism resources, the 488 tourism resource points in Lhasa can be categorized into
6 major categories and 29 sub-categories according to the tourism resource classification
method announced in Tourism Resource Classification, Investigation and Evaluation (GB/T
18972-2017). The six types of landscapes include: A physiographic landscape, B water
landscape, C natural landscape, E buildings and facilities, F historical sites, and G tourist
shopping. Among them, A, B, and C are natural landscapes, mostly distributed in the
suburbs, scenic spots, nature reserves, and mountainous areas. The whole area of the
Tibetan Plateau is unique in its natural landscape and rich in quality tourism resources.
Nevertheless, Lhasa City is relatively weak in quality natural tourism resources compared
to the surrounding areas. However, in the three types of cultural landscapes of E, F, and
 Land 2023, 12, 1015 6 of 24
Land 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25

G, Lhasa has gained an extremely high relative resource advantage due to its profound
cultural heritage that brings together a large number of ancient temples, ancient buildings,
provincial
ancient capitals. The layout
stone carvings, of themurals.
and ancient provincial connected
For example, the highway network
Jokhang Temple andisthe
basically
formed.
Potala Palace have become the cultural business cards of Lhasa.

Figure 1. The attraction kernel density in Lhasa. Note: The map is based on the standard map of
Figure 1. The attraction kernel density in Lhasa. Note: The map is based on the standard map
the Map Technical Review Centre of the Ministry of Natural Resources of China (Number: GS
of the Map Technical Review Centre of the Ministry of Natural Resources of China (Number: GS
(2019)4342), with no modifications to the base map. Map made by the author.
(2019)4342), with no modifications to the base map. Map made by the author.

3.2. Data Sources

In order to effectively distinguish the types of tourism resources and the richness of
regionalData tourism resources,
on tourism the 488
resource tourism
points resourcebypoints
were obtained crawlingin Lhasa
the namescanofbeLhasa
categorized
tourism resource points mentioned in the online travelogues and
into 6 major categories and 29 sub-categories according to the tourism resource reviews of Ctrip.com,
Tuniu, Donkey Mama, and other websites, and a total of 350 names of tourism resource
classification method announced in Tourism Resource Classification, Investigation and
points were obtained. These data on A-level attractions and cultural relics protection
Evaluation (GB/T 18972-2017). The six types of landscapes include: A physiographic
units were obtained from the Lhasa Tourism Development Bureau, Tourism Development
landscape,
Department B water landscape,
of Tibet AutonomousC natural
Region,landscape, E buildings
Lhasa Tourism Development and facilities, F historical
14th Five-Year
sites,Plan,
andand G Lhasa
tourist Cultural Relics Protection Units List. A total of 29 A-class tourist attractions mostly
shopping. Among them, A, B, and C are natural landscapes,
distributed in the preservation
and 300 cultural suburbs, scenic spots,
units were natureAfter
obtained. reserves,
merginganddatamountainous areas. The
and selecting and
eliminating the renaming items, 516 valid tourism resource point names
whole area of the Tibetan Plateau is unique in its natural landscape and rich in quality were obtained.
These data on 516 tourism resource points were transformed into geographical coordinates
tourism resources. Nevertheless, Lhasa City is relatively weak in quality natural tourism
through Baidu coordinate pickup. The tourism resource points with different names in the
resources compared
same location and theto different
the surrounding areas.
names of small However,
attractions in same
in the the three
tourismtypes of cultural
resource
landscapes
point were of combined
E, F, and G, Lhasaa has
to attain totalgained an extremely
of 488 valid high relative
tourism resource points. resource advantage
due to its profound cultural heritage that brings together
Road network data for 2010 and 2015 come from OpenStreetMap, a large
and number of ancient
data for 2020
come ancient
temples, from Sky buildings,
Map. Terrain, administrative
ancient division, and
stone carvings, andlake water system
ancient murals.data
Forareexample,
from the
the National Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Scientific Data Center. The elevation,
Jokhang Temple and the Potala Palace have become the cultural business cards of Lhasa. slope, topographic
relief, and surface roughness of five counties in three districts of Lhasa were measured by
the ArcGIS terrain analysis tool. The economic and social data were obtained from the
3.2. Data Sources
Lhasa Statistical Yearbook 2010–2020, Lhasa National Economic and Social Development Statistical
Data on tourism resource points were obtained by crawling the names of Lhasa
tourism resource points mentioned in the online travelogues and reviews of Ctrip.com,
Tuniu, Donkey Mama, and other websites, and a total of 350 names of tourism resource
points were obtained. These data on A-level attractions and cultural relics protection units
 Land 2023, 12, 1015 7 of 24

Bulletin 2010–2020, Chengguan District Statistical Yearbook 2010–2019, Dangxiong County

Statistical Yearbook 2019, Duilongdeqing District Statistical Yearbook 2016–2020, Linzhou County
Statistical Yearbook 2018, and other relevant statistical yearbook texts of Lhasa collected
during the second Qinghai–Tibet scientific research mission and published on the Internet,
as well as the China County Statistical Yearbook 2010–2020 from CNKI. Population data were
compiled by the team of Beijing Normal University from the Population and Urbaniza-
tion Data Set of Lhasa, based on the census information and demographic yearbooks by
township and year.

4. Methodology
4.1. Spatial Mismatch
Combining the degree of tourism resource dominance with the evolution of regional
economic development level in the same year, respectively, the spatial and temporal
evolution characteristics and influencing factors between these two factors in Lhasa City
from 2000 to 2020 are explored (Figure 2). Geomorphology, resource endowment, economic
level, location, transportation, population size, and policy conditions have different degrees
of influence: 1. The regional tourism resource endowment is evaluated. 2. They are
combined with the regional economic development level, quantitatively evaluating each
Land 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW region’s “resource curse” phenomenon of tourism resources. 3. The coupling situation of
the region within Lhasa City is combined to provide suggestions for the future development
of tourism resources in each area.

Figure 2. Framework for the study.

Figure 2. Framework for the study.
4.2. Tourism Resource Advantage Model
Using the
4.2. Tourism four indicators
Resource of tourism
Advantage Modelresource grade, richness, agglomeration, and
traffic accessibility, the tourism resource superiority degree index was constructed.
Using the four indicators of tourism resource grade, richness, agglomera
traffic accessibility, the tourism resource superiority degree index was construct
The grade degree is an indicator used to measure the quality level of regiona
resources. It is calculated by weighting the sum of the number of high-quality
Land 2023, 12, 1015 8 of 24

The grade degree is an indicator used to measure the quality level of regional tourism
resources. It is calculated by weighting the sum of the number of high-quality tourism re-
sources in the region and the score assigned to them. Quality degree reflects the endowment
grade status of regional tourism resources. High-grade areas have strong attractiveness,
forming an organic whole-of-scale development and promoting the development of tourism
in the whole region. Referring to the existing research, the Gi is calculated as follows:

Wi − Wmin
Gi =
Wmax − Wmin

Wi is the weighted sum of the number of high-level tourism resources in region i. That
is, 5A, 4A, 3A, 2A, 1A, and no grade are multiplied by 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1, respectively, and
the national, autonomous region, municipal, and county-level cultural relic protection units
are multiplied by 5, 4, 3 and 2 respectively, where the highest rank is used for those with
multiple titles.
Richness refers to the type of richness of regional tourism resources, which reflects the
diversity of regional tourism resources. The more abundant the types of tourism resources,
the more attractive the area is, and with more types, the more abundant the combination.
The rich tourism resources provide a prerequisite for the region to attract all kinds of
tourists and carry out various tourism activities, the Fi is calculated as follows:

Mi − Mmin
Fi =
Mmax − Mmin

Mi is the number of types of tourism resources in region i. The types of tourism

resources in this paper involve 26 subcategories, including A geomorphic landscape, B
water landscape, C biological landscape, E architecture and facilities, F historical relics, and
G tourism shopping.
The degree of agglomeration responds to the degree of spatial distribution of tourism
resources. Agglomeration reflects the degree of the spatial distribution of tourism resources
agglomeration is an important manifestation of the degree of association between individ-
ual tourism resources. For the tourism market, the more attractive the area where tourism
resources are gathered, the easier it is to form scenic spots with a certain scale and certain
tourism capacity, which is convenient for developing tourism activities and organizing
tourists. The Ri is calculated as follows:
1 1
Ni − Nmin
Ri = 1 1
Nmax − Nmin

Ri represents the concentration degree of tourism resources in region i, and Ni is the

nearest neighbor index of tourism resources in region i. The Ni is calculated as follows:

∑d
r 
a
Ni = hq n
i , K = 0.497 + 0.127
K a n
n

Ni is the nearest neighbor ratio of tourism resources in region i; d is the distance from
each tourism resource point to its nearest point; a is the area of the study area; n is the
number of points in the study area. N > 1 means that the spatial points are uniformly
hexagonally distributed; N = 1 shows that the spatial points are randomly distributed;
0 < N < 1 reflects that the spatial points have the tendency of agglomeration distribution;
N = 0 indicates that the spatial points reach the complete agglomeration state. In order
to be consistent with the influence direction of richness and grade on dominance, the
clustering degree Ri is the standardized value of N1 , and the larger is Ri , the more clustered
i
the regional tourism resources are, which has a positive effect.
Land 2023, 12, 1015 9 of 24

The first involves defining how to measure how ‘near’ or ‘far’ one point is from another
and what the ‘cost’ of travel from one point to another is. Travel time is also a transportation
policy-sensitive variable since it will change in response to changes in both the demand
and supply sides of the system. Perception and evaluation (weighting) of impedance and
attraction factors vary from agent to agent [48]. Handy thinks that accessibility is the
ability of various activities to reach a specific location using the transportation system, and
the distance between tourism resource points and transportation nodes is an important
indicator of accessibility. The distance from home to the nearest supermarket is a good
indicator of how easy it is to buy something. The number of supermarkets within a few
miles is an indicator of how many options are available. These simple indicators can be very
helpful in planning practice [49]. Different accessibility measures exist in infrastructure,
location, and person-based measurement measures. The shortest spatial distance model
is chosen as the metric method, adopting the origin-destination (OD) transit accessibility
method [50]. This study discusses accessibility as an influential factor in evaluating the
degree of tourism resource superiority, and the most objective distance measure was chosen.
Accessibility is the average sum of the shortest paths from any point in the network to
other points, representing the external connectivity of tourism resources. For tourists, with
the exception of particular tourism resource sites and high-grade tourism resources, the
attractiveness of the vast majority of general tourism resources is closely related to the
degree of spatial proximity and is calculated as [51]:

∑nj=1 Dej
Ae =
n
Ae is the accessibility; the smaller the value, the higher the accessibility from the
transportation node to the tourism resource point. The sum of the average distance from
tourism resource point e to each transportation node; Dej is the shortest distance from
tourism resource point e to transportation node j through the transportation network; n is
the number of transportation nodes. Lhasa is a mountainous highland landscape and a
combination of many mountain ranges, such as Nyainqentanglha Mountain. Topography
becomes the main natural disadvantage that hinders traffic, so traffic accessibility should
be modified by topographic factors to obtain mountain traffic accessibility [52] Aα :

Aα = Ae × αi , αi = wh × Hi + ws × Si + wt × Ti + wr × Ri

Hi is the altitude; Si is the slope; Ti is the topographic relief; and Ri is the surface
roughness. The terrain correction coefficient αi of the study area i is calculated by the
entropy method. The sum of the mountain traffic accessibility of all tourism resource points
within the corrected area is:
BBi = ∑ Aα i
Bi is the weighted distance after terrain correction, and the smaller distance value
indicates that the distance traveled from this tourism resource site to other tourism resource
sites is smaller and therefore belongs to the negative indicator. The formula is:

Bmax − Bi
Qi =
Bmax − Bmin

Qi represents the overall accessibility of tourism resource points in region i.

Finally, the superiority degree of tourism resources (Li) model is constructed, and the
formula is:
Li = λPi Pi + λGi Gi + λRi Ri + λQi Qi
λPi , λGi , λRi and λQi are the index weights of richness, grade, agglomeration, and
accessibility of tourism resources in region i. The weight is calculated by the entropy
method. The entropy method can determine the index weight value according to the
relative change degree of the index to the overall influence degree of the system and avoid
Land 2023, 12, 1015 10 of 24

the deviation caused by subjective factors to a certain extent. To eliminate the effect of the
0 value on subsequent calculations, all data are shifted to the right by 0.0001 units. The
calculation formula for the superiority degree of tourism resources (Li ) in Lhasa is:

Li = 0.420097Fi + 0.226105Gi + 0.226838Ri + 0.12696Qi

4.3. Economic Development Level Index System

Economic development aims to “strengthen the country and enrich the people”, that is,
the growth of GDP, the optimization of industrial structure, the improvement of economic
benefits, and the improvement of people’s living standards [53]. In order to accurately
measure the level of regional economic development, a reasonable index system should
be established first. There are many factors affecting county-level economic development,
and its evaluation index system should reflect the coordinated development of all aspects,
which cannot be fully reflected by a single GDP per capita index. Based on the principles
of representativeness, systematicness, independence, comparability, and accessibility, and
drawing on previous relevant studies, three major types and 12 indicators reflecting the
level of county economic development were selected to construct a comprehensive eval-
uation index system. Considering that local finance is highly dependent on central fiscal
transfers, the common proportion of public revenue to GDP in relevant studies does not
truly reflect the local economic situation, so it is modified to be the proportion of public
budget expenditure to GDP (Table 1). Subsequently, according to statistical data from 2010,
2015, and 2020, the entropy method was used to calculate the average weight to obtain data
on the economic development level of each township in the three years.

Table 1. The indicator of economic development by entropy.

Types Indicators Weights Types Indicators Weights

Public budget revenue per Gross domestic product
0.07422768 0.085224856
capita/yuan per capita/yuan
Total retail sales of social Fixed asset
0.152115262 0.076323024
Residents consumer goods per capita/yuan investment/yuan
Per capita savings deposit Finance and Economic growth
0.052512691 0.076323024
balance/yuan Economy rate/%
urbanization rate % 0.077587345 Public budget expenditure
0.042577273
Tourism revenue/ten thousand as a share of GDP/%
0.258230348
yuan
Proportion of non-agricultural
Industry 0.047032513
industry/%
Weight Proportion of tertiary industry/% 0.029701148
Gross industrial output per
0.081725867
capita/yuan

4.4. Coupling Coordination Degree Model

Coupling is a concept in physics [54,55] that relates to the degrees of coupling and
coupling coordination. It is mainly used to describe the interaction between different
systems and the degree of mutual influence [56]. The coupling degree reflects the degree
of mutual influence between systems, while the coupling coordination degree reveals the
degree of coordinated development between systems [57,58]. On the basis of previous
studies, the coupling degree model of Lhasa’s tourism resource superiority degree and
economic development level is established:
√
u1 × u2
C=
u + u2

Li and Ti represent the superiority degree of tourism resources and the level of eco-
nomic development, respectively; C represents the coupling degree, taking the value range
Land 2023, 12, 1015 11 of 24

C ∈ [0,1]; the closer C is to 1, the higher the coupling strength is [59]. When C = 0, it means
that the system is in an irrelevant state and develops into a disorderly state.
As the coupling degree reflects the similarity of system elements, it cannot well
characterize the overall level and coordination of the superiority degree of tourism resources
and economic development level. Therefore, the coupling coordination degree model is
further constructed, and the formula is as follows [60]:

T = αu1 + βu2 (1)

√
D= C×T
D is the coupling coordination degree; T is the comprehensive coordination index of
the superiority degree of tourism resources and economic development level; α and β are
undetermined coefficients. This study maintains that tourism dominance and economic
development level are equally important in achieving regional tourism economic develop-
ment, so both α and β values are set to 0.5. In practice, Z ∈ (0,1) is usually used to guarantee
D ∈ (0, Q]. The more the coordination degree tends to 1, the more coordinated the relation-
ship between the superiority degree of tourism resources and economic development level.
In the study of coupling problems, Guan Wei and Cheng Hui et al. divided the coupling
degree into four stages: separation stage, antagonistic stage, abrasion stage, and coupling
stage, and four types: low coupling coordination, moderate coupling coordination, high
coupling coordination, and extreme coupling coordination (Table 2).

Table 2. Coupling coordination metrics and classifications.

C Value Range Coupling Degree Type D Value Range Coupling Degree Type
0 ≤ C ≤ 0.3 Low-level coupling 0 ≤ D ≤ 0.3 Low-coupling coordination
0.3 < C ≤ 0.5 Antagonism phase 0.3 < D ≤ 0.5 Moderate coupling coordination
0.5 < C ≤ 0.8 Breaking-in stage 0.5 < D ≤ 0.8 Highly coupled coordination
0.8 < C ≤ 1 High-level coupling 0.8 < D ≤ 1 Extremely coupled coordination

5. Results
5.1. Superiority Degree of Tourism Resources
Tourism resource dominance degree is an important indicator of regional tourism de-
velopment potential. Academics explore the measurement around grade degree, richness,
and agglomeration degree to reflect the grade difference, type abundance, and agglomera-
tion of tourism resources. In this study, the transportation accessibility index is added on
this basis to reflect the external accessibility of tourism resources, and the top ten town-
ships and streets with the highest ranking of each index during 2010–2020 are obtained by
calculating the average value. Traffic accessibility will highlight the location advantages of
some tourist attractions, and these tourist attractions can be prioritized for development
under the premise of similar tourist attractions [61].
The top six township streets in Lhasa are located in Chengguan District, among which
the core three streets (Jiri Street, Jibengang Street, Bakuo Street) in Chengguan District with
core tourism resources such as Bakuo Street and Potala Palace have absolute advantages.
In addition to Chengguan District, the areas with the highest richness are Yangbajing Town
and Ningzhong Township in Dangxiong County, and the diversified tourism resources
based on the combination of nature (mountains and hot springs) and humanities (temples
and sites) are ranked higher, with more than eight kinds of resources. The area with the
highest agglomeration degree appeared in Gandanquguo Town, Linzhou County. The
tourism resources in the area are only three ancient temples (Ganqu Temple, Langtang
Temple, and Jiare Temple), which are very close to each other, so they achieve a higher
ranking. The top-ranked township streets are also fewer in number but close to each other;
the area with the highest accessibility appears in the central township streets of each district
Land 2023, 12, 1015 12 of 24

and county, the town center with relatively gentle terrain, and the location of important
traffic nodes. Gurong Town in Duilongdeqing District is the only way to Beijing–Tibet
Expressway and Qinghai–Tibet Highway. Its tourism resources are also very close to the
main traffic arteries, so it has achieved high accessibility.
Lhasa is rich in tourism resources, especially humanities tourism resources such as
buildings and temples, which have a certain scarcity and uniqueness. Still,13there
Land 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 25 needs
to be a more significant gap in the degree of superiority of tourism resources in various
towns (Figure 3). From the perspective of the county scale, Chengguan District has the
most abundant tourism resources,
From the perspective among which
of the city scale—the LhasaJiri Street,
tourism Jibenggang
resource Street,
advantage and Bakuo
degree
basically
Street presents
account for a13.5%
“one core and twotourism
of Lhasa’s rings” pattern. Chengguan
resources. DistrictDistrict
Chengguan is the core
hasarea
intensive
with theresources
tourism highest tourism resourcetransportation
and superior superiority degree; the advantages
conditions and is of
thetourism resources area in
most attractive
in Qushui
Lhasa. County, and
The number Nimu County,
types Duilongdeqing
of tourism resource District,
points inLinzhou County,are
Nimu County and Dazi and the
small,
District
traffic around Chengguan
conditions District Township
around Majiang are relatively low. On
within thethe one hand,
county the quantity
are poor, and otherandtourism
quality of tourism resources are not enough. On the other hand, it is also inconvenient for
resource points cannot form a string, forming a large-scale tourism resource disadvantage
traffic conditions, and it is not on the important traffic node connecting Lhasa urban area
area. The southern river valley area of Linzhou County has relatively rich tourism resources,
with surrounding towns, which further reduces it as a local tourism attraction. The
but the region’s interior is widely mountainous and rugged terrain. After weighing the
outermost ring of Dangxiong County and Mozhugongka County are relatively rich in
traffic
tourismandresources,
terrain elements,
especially the
the degree of advantage
Nam Saltwater in tourism
Lake and resources
the Tanggula Range in inLinzhou
County
Dangxiong County and Sijinla Tso in Mozhugongka County, which have a certain scarcityexplain
is not high. In terms of districts and counties, this data set can visually
the
of development
tourism resources.process
At theand
sameregional
time, thedifferences in the superiority
layout of important degree
traffic arteries of tourism
has also
resources
enhancedin Lhasa
the [62]. attraction.
local tourist

Figure 3. The superiority degree of tourism resources of Lhasa in 2010, 2015, and 2020. Note: The
Figure 3. The superiority degree of tourism resources of Lhasa in 2010, 2015, and 2020. Note: The
map is based on the standard map of the Map Technical Review Centre of the Ministry of Natural
map is based
Resources on the(Number:
of China standardGSmap of the Map
(2019)4342), withTechnical Review
no modifications toCentre
the baseof the Map
map. Ministry
madeof Natural
Resources of China
by the author. (Number: GS (2019)4342), with no modifications to the base map. Map made by
the author.
During the ten years from 2010 to 2020, Lhasa’s overall tourism resource superiority
has From
increased, but the increase
the perspective of theiscity
slight. The areas
scale—the with tourism
Lhasa the highest tourism
resource resource degree
advantage
superiority
basically are always
presents Jiri Street,
a “one Jibenggang
core and Street,pattern.
two rings” and Bakuo Street withinDistrict
Chengguan Chengguan
is the core
District. Since 2010, Lhasa City has promulgated and implemented regulations such as
Lhasa City Urban Master Plan (2009–2020), Lhasa City Historical and Cultural City
Protection Plan, Lhasa City Old Town Protection Regulations, and Lhasa City Bakuo
Land 2023, 12, 1015 13 of 24

area with the highest tourism resource superiority degree; the advantages of tourism
resources in Qushui County, Nimu County, Duilongdeqing District, Linzhou County,
and Dazi District around Chengguan District are relatively low. On the one hand, the
quantity and quality of tourism resources are not enough. On the other hand, it is also
inconvenient for traffic conditions, and it is not on the important traffic node connecting
Lhasa urban area with surrounding towns, which further reduces it as a local tourism
attraction. The outermost ring of Dangxiong County and Mozhugongka County are
relatively rich in tourism resources, especially the Nam Saltwater Lake and the Tanggula
Range in Dangxiong County and Sijinla Tso in Mozhugongka County, which have a certain
scarcity of tourism resources. At the same time, the layout of important traffic arteries has
also enhanced the local tourist attraction.
During the ten years from 2010 to 2020, Lhasa’s overall tourism resource superiority
has increased, but the increase is slight. The areas with the highest tourism resource
superiority are always Jiri Street, Jibenggang Street, and Bakuo Street within Chengguan
District. Since 2010, Lhasa City has promulgated and implemented regulations such
as Lhasa City Urban Master Plan (2009–2020), Lhasa City Historical and Cultural City
Protection Plan, Lhasa City Old Town Protection Regulations, and Lhasa City Bakuo Street
Historical and Cultural District Protection Plan, so that the protection of historical and
cultural heritage in Lhasa City has a scientific basis. In order to enhance the tourism
attractiveness in the surrounding townships of Chengguan District, Lhasa has begun to
focus on the creation of high-grade tourism resources. In 2015, the Tibetan Yak Museum
was established in Dulong Deqing District, the Qunjue Ancient Weapons Museum in
Mozhugongka County, and the Rubbing Culture Exhibition Hall in Chengguan District.
Lhasa City also focused on creating industrial parks such as Zhizhao and Ganlu Tibetan
Medicine. By cultivating new tourism attraction points, tourists will be diverted from
Chengguan District to the surrounding area, extending the stay of transit tourists and
gaining more tourism revenue.

5.2. Economic Development Level

From the classification of economic development-driven factors, the three major cate-
gories of factors have shown a positive growth trend in the past 10 years, with the fastest
increase in the impact of residential life factors on the economy, followed by the fiscal
economy, and the proportion of industries has the smallest change. In 2010, the living
elements of residents accounted for only 16.3% of the total elements of economic develop-
ment, among which the contribution value of Chengguan District accounted for 56.6% of
the city’s total. Therefore, the driving effect of residents’ living consumption on economic
development was small at that time. The main residents’ living consumption market was
concentrated in Chengguan District. For Lhasa, the most important way of economic
development at that time was brought about by government investment, central financial
transfers, and counterpart aid provinces. From the classification of economic development
driving factors, all three major categories of factors have shown positive growth in the last
10 years. Among them, the residential life factor has shown the improvement in economic
impact, followed by the financial economy, with the smallest change in the industry share.
In 2015, influenced by the policy guidance, industrial park development, and population
flow, the living indicators of residents in Dazi District and Duilongdeqing District increased
rapidly, especially the growth of retail sales of social consumer goods, which made the
overall living indicators close to the level of Chengguan District, but the financial and
economic input still occupied the leading edge and was always the leading force driving
economic development. In 2020, the resident life category will improve by 63.5% compared
to five years ago, which is basically the same as the financial indicators, and become the
two major drivers for local economic development. Chengguan District still maintains
fast growth, while Dazi District and Dulongdeqing District’s growth rates have slowed
down. Except for Chengguan District, the development gap between districts and counties
is slowly narrowing (Figure 4).
 always the leading force driving economic development. In 2020, the resident life category
will improve by 63.5% compared to five years ago, which is basically the same as th
financial indicators, and become the two major drivers for local economic development
Chengguan District still maintains fast growth, while Dazi District and Dulongdeqing
Land 2023, 12, 1015 District’s growth rates have slowed down. Except for Chengguan 14District, of 24 th
development gap between districts and counties is slowly narrowing (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Three major types of economic development driving factors of Lhasa in 2010, 2015, and 2020.

In 2010, the overall strength of Lhasa’s regional economy was weak. The areas with
higher levels of economic development overlapped with major transportation routes and
formed certain agglomeration areas along Qinghai–Tibet Railway, Lhasa River basin, and
Yarlung Tsangpo River basin, but the degree of agglomeration was weak. The areas with
the highest comprehensive economic strength are Gongdeling Street in Chengguan District,
Dongga Street, and Naiqiong Street in Dulong Deqing District, located in the valley outside
the core urban area of Lhasa, with convenient rail and road access. The areas with weak
economic strength are concentrated in Linzhou County, which is widely distributed in the
mountains, and around Riduo Township of Mozhugongka County and Karu Township of
Nimu County, which are located on the edge of Lhasa. The core urban area’s rough terrain,
inconvenient transportation, and weak driving role are the main reasons for the lagging
economic development.
In 2015, the economic development zone along the Yajiang River and the surrounding
economic development zone with Lhasa as the core became the core driving force of
Lhasa’s economic development. The Dongga and Naiqiong streets in Dulong Deqing
District and the town of Deqing in Dazi County have surpassed the districts and counties
in the Chengguan District regarding economic development level index, initially forming
two core circles of economic growth located in the west and southeast of Lhasa City. In the
past five years, the overall strength of Lhasa City has improved. Among them, the fastest
development is Dazi County, with the average economic development level of the county
index growth rate of 165%. The ten economically least developed districts and counties
also have more than a 35% growth rate, and the battle against poverty is beginning to see
results. However, the economic development level of Gongdelin Street, Zhaxi Street, Najin
Street, Liangdao Street, and Gamagongsang Street in Chengguan District has decreased
slightly. Population, resources, and other factors flow to the surrounding areas, and an
economic siphon effect has begun to take shape.
In 2020, the economic development gap in Lhasa widened, and Brahmaputra became
the core economic zone, thanks to the industrial transfer and the construction of indus-
trial parks. The core towns of Duilongdeqing District, Dazi County, and Qushui County
occupied the absolute strength in the level of economic development, forming a “strong
periphery and weak core” economic development pattern with Chengguan District as
the core. With the emergence of the Brahmaputra urban belt, the siphoning effect on the
surrounding towns and villages is becoming more and more obvious, and Dangxiong
County and Linzhou County, north of Chengguan District, are driven by the weakest eco-
 Land 2023, 12, 1015 15 of 24

Land 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW

nomic development of urban areas, becoming the main population and resource outflow
areas, injecting vitality into the development of towns and industries around Lhasa River
(Figure 5).

Figure
Figure5. The levellevel
5. The of township economiceconomic
of township development of Lhasa in 2010,
development 2015, and
of Lhasa 2020. Note:
in 2010, 2015,The
and 2020.
map is based on the standard map of the Map Technical Review Centre of the Ministry
map is based on the standard map of the Map Technical Review Centre of the Ministry of Natural
Resources of China (Number: GS (2019)4342), with no modifications to the base map. Map made by
Resources of China (Number: GS (2019)4342), with no modifications to the base map. Ma
the author.
the author.
5.3. Coupling Coordination Relationship Variance Analysis
5.3.Analysis
5.3.1. Couplingof Coordination Relationship
Spatial Differences in TourismVariance
EconomicAnalysis
Levels
Spatial
5.3.1. differences
Analysis in economic
of Spatial growth often
Differences lead to changes
in Tourism Economicin theLevels
spatial pattern
of tourism development levels. The scatter plot is obtained by using the advantages of
tourismSpatial
resourcesdifferences
and data onin
theeconomic growth often
economic development lead
level to changes
in each in years
of the three the spatial p
tourism
studied development
(Figure 6). levels. The scatter plot is obtained by using the adva
tourism resources and data on the economic development level in each of the th
studied (Figure 6).
From 2010 to 2015, the economic development level of the streets in Ch
District with rich tourism resources has not significantly improved, but the e
development of the middle and inferior areas of tourism resources has grown fa
In the past five years, the overall strength of Lhasa City has improved. Amo
the fastest development is Dazi County, with the average economic developmen
the county index growth rate of 165%. The ten economically least developed dis
 the contrary, the tourism resource disadvantaged areas, after experiencing the first
years of economic growth under the influence of industrial investment, the last five y
of financial resources by the core town blood, coupled with the absence of quality tou
Land 2023, 12, 1015 resources to support itself, gradually fell into the “poverty trap.” 16 of 24

Figure 6. The scattered map of Lhasa’s tourism resource superiority and economic development level
Figure in6.2010,
The2015,
scattered map of Lhasa’s tourism resource superiority and economic develop
and 2020.
level in 2010, 2015, and 2020.
From 2010 to 2015, the economic development level of the streets in Chengguan District
with rich tourism resources has not significantly improved, but the economic development
5.3.2. Evolution
of the middleofand Coupled Coordination
inferior areas Relationships
of tourism resources has grown faster.
From the region’s perspective, the couplingCitycoordination
In the past five years, the overall strength of Lhasa has improved. Among them,
relationship betw
the fastest development is Dazi County, with the average economic development level of
economic development and the superiority degree of tourism resources is low, main
the county index growth rate of 165%. The ten economically least developed districts and
the medium-low
counties also havecoupling
more thancoordination.
a 35% growth rate, The
and coupling coordination
the battle against degree gradu
poverty is beginning
deteriorates with time (Figure 7).
to see results.
From 2015 to 2020, the economic development of the relevant towns in the medium-
In 2010, among the 65 township streets in Lhasa, six streets in the urban are
sized tourism resources area has taken advantage and the lead, especially Dongga Street
Chengguan District (JiriDistrict.
in the Duilongdeqing Street,TheBakuo
economicStreet, Duodi growth
development Street,rate
Jibengang Street,
is far greater than Gongd
Street,that
and Niangre
of other areas. Street)
Meanwhile,were in the highly
the attraction coupled
of the core towns to coordination
the surrounding townsarea. In Qu
has been continuously amplified, and there has been a one-way
County, Duilongdeqing District is a representative of the 49 township streets flow of population and
for mod
resources. The level of economic development has further widened; the strongest and the
coupling coordination area. Only 10 townships and streets, mainly in Nimu County
weakest are becoming weaker. The role of resources in economic development during
in the these
low five
coupling
years has coordination
begun to emerge. stage. In 2015,
Tourism onlyadvantageous
resources Jiri Street areas,
in Chengguan
and the Di
remained in the
economic highly
siphon effectcoupled coordination
always maintain an economic area, and trend,
growth thereshowing
were 35 thattownship
tourism stree
the moderately coupled coordination area and 29 township streets in theOnlow cou
resources play a role in the economic development of more stable and lasting vitality.
the contrary, the tourism resource disadvantaged areas, after experiencing the first five
coordination area, represented
years of economic growth under bytheNimu County
influence and Linzhou
of industrial investment, County. In years
the last five 2020, the hi
coupled coordination
of financial resourcesarea
by theis still
core town only
blood,Jiri Street
coupled inthe
with Chengguan District,
absence of quality tourisma total o
resources
township to support
streets in theitself, gradually fell
moderately into the “poverty
coupled trap”. area, and an increase in
coordination
number ofEvolution
5.3.2. low coupled coordination
of Coupled Coordinationtownship
Relationships streets to 32, which is the same a
number ofFrom moderately
the region’scoupled coordination
perspective, the couplingareas.
coordination relationship between eco-
The most
nomic important
development andreason for the decrease
the superiority in coupling
degree of tourism coordination
resources is the
is low, mainly at chan
the medium-low coupling coordination. The coupling
the economic development level. Due to the economic development of tourism coordination degree gradually
deteriorates with time (Figure 7).
tourism industry in other neighboring cities is gradually rising and becoming m
In 2010, among the 65 township streets in Lhasa, six streets in the urban area of
attractive to tourists.
Chengguan DistrictThe
(Jiri industrial
Street, Bakuoeconomic
Street, Duodidevelopment
Street, Jibengangof Lhasa City relies mor
Street, Gongdelin
the service industry,
Street, and Niangresuch
Street)aswere
secondary industry
in the highly coupledand finance.area.
coordination TheIntourism
Qushui indus
County, Duilongdeqing District is a representative of the 49 township
positioning has gradually changed from a tourist destination to a tourist transit recep streets for moderate
coupling coordination area. Only 10 townships and streets, mainly in Nimu County, are
Most ofin the out-of-town
the low tourists tostage.
coupling coordination TibetInare toonly
2015, gather in Lhasa
Jiri Street and then
in Chengguan go to Nyin
District
Shigatse, Ngari, and other places. The attractiveness of the surrounding districts
Land 2023, 12, 1015 17 of 24

remained in the highly coupled coordination area, and there were 35 township streets
in the moderately coupled coordination area and 29 township streets in the low coupled
Land 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 o
coordination area, represented by Nimu County and Linzhou County. In 2020, the highly
coupled coordination area is still only Jiri Street in Chengguan District, a total of 32 township
streets in the moderately coupled coordination area, and an increase in the number of low
counties
coupled in Lhasatownship
coordination to tourists gradually
streets to 32, whichdecreases,
is the sameforming an obvious
as the number trend of high
of moderately
coupling with the center
coupled coordination areas. of Chengguan District.

Figure 7. The coupling coordination degree between the economic development level and
Figure 7. The coupling coordination degree between the economic development level and the
advantages of tourism resources of Lhasa in 2010, 2015, and 2020. Note: The map is based on
advantages of tourism resources of Lhasa in 2010, 2015, and 2020. Note: The map is based on the
standard map of the Map Technical Review Centre of the Ministry of Natural Resources of Ch
standard map of the Map Technical Review Centre of the Ministry of Natural Resources of China
(Number: GS (2019)4342), with no modifications to the base map. Map made by the author.
(Number: GS (2019)4342), with no modifications to the base map. Map made by the author.

6. The
Discussion
most important reason for the decrease in coupling coordination is the change in
the6.1.
economic development level. Due to the economic development of tourism, the tourism
Advantages
industry in other neighboring cities is gradually rising and becoming more attractive to
tourists.Scholars have conducted
The industrial numerous informative
economic development of Lhasa City studies on the
relies more onrelationship
the service betwe
tourism
industry, and
such astransportation andand
secondary industry economic
finance.development, but most
The tourism industry’s focus on has
positioning economica
developed
gradually regions
changed fromor regions
a tourist with developed
destination tourism
to a tourist transit economies, andofrelatively
reception. Most the fe
out-of-town
studies ontourists to Tibet are regions.
underdeveloped to gather Lhasa
in Lhasa and then
is rich go to Nyingchi,
in high-quality Shigatse,
tourism resources, b
the spatial differences within the region are obvious. In this study, Lhasa was selected
a study case to analyze the coupling between tourism resources and econom
development in each county and city within Lhasa, calculate the coupling coordinati
status of different regions, and put forward corresponding suggestions. Touris
Land 2023, 12, 1015 18 of 24

Ngari, and other places. The attractiveness of the surrounding districts and counties in
Lhasa to tourists gradually decreases, forming an obvious trend of higher coupling with
the center of Chengguan District.

6. Discussion
6.1. Advantages
Scholars have conducted numerous informative studies on the relationship between
tourism and transportation and economic development, but most focus on economically
developed regions or regions with developed tourism economies, and relatively few studies
on underdeveloped regions. Lhasa is rich in high-quality tourism resources, but the spatial
differences within the region are obvious. In this study, Lhasa was selected as a study case
to analyze the coupling between tourism resources and economic development in each
county and city within Lhasa, calculate the coupling coordination status of different regions,
and put forward corresponding suggestions. Tourism resources are the key elements of
tourism industry development, and the spatial differences of tourism resources will also
have an important impact on regional economic development. The tourism industry should
be planned and laid out in a comprehensive manner, and good transportation infrastructure
should be used to optimize tourism routes and improve tourism services.
Tourism in Lhasa has been developing well, and its role in promoting economic growth,
expanding social employment, and driving the development of related industries has been
increasing. By the end of 2021, the total tourism revenue of Lhasa reached 37.77 billion yuan,
accounting for 53.97% of the regional GDP. Thus, tourism has become the leading industry
in Lhasa to increase the income and accelerate the process of economic development.
Studying the reasons and solutions for the imbalance between economic development
and tourism resources in Lhasa can provide a useful reference for the development of
the regional tourism industry in similar tourism cities. As this study emphasizes, one of
the main factors hindering tourism development is limited transport accessibility [63]. In
Northern Finland and the Yukon province in Canada, infrastructure provision comes to
the forefront [64]. Transportation infrastructure is required in areas that rely on tourism
for a significant part of their local economy, so it is important to provide suitable tourist
transportation options, such as cableways in mountainous areas [65]. However, this type of
transportation in the Italian Alps has been regarded as relatively economically inefficient.
Informal transportation is provided by B&B operators and local residents in Yandang
Mountain scenic spots to encourage multimodal transportation [66]. Tian et al. (2021)
took Lijiang as a case study and found that transportation connections constituted the
main elements of mountain tourism destinations, and they provided a scientific basis for
resource optimization and sustainable development [67]. Juan et al. (2014) suggested that
South Tyrol provided a transportation system that was able to foster tourism in remote
and environmentally fragile areas by promoting the usage of public transportation and
thus reducing negative impacts caused by the use of private cars [68]. Macchiavelli and
other scholars argue that the development of the airline industry and the rationalization of
flights has increased the accessibility level of Italian tourist areas [69]. Due to the terrain
and difficult traffic construction in Tibet, the construction of tourism-related supporting
facilities has been insufficient for many years, and the passenger transportation capacity
and reception capacity are limited. While focusing on the development of core scenic
spots in Lhasa, the city loop should be planned to optimize the combination pattern of
attractions, break through the geographical restrictions and realize the city loop tour. The
convenience of access to Tibet is enhanced through the construction of high-speed railways
and airlines, the construction of high-speed road networks as well as the development of
public transportation to enhance accessibility within cities. Strengthen the coordination of
comprehensive transportation planning and construction.
Land 2023, 12, 1015 19 of 24

6.2. Implications and Limitations

Generally speaking, with the development of the tourism industry, the function of
tourism resources gradually reduces, the role of regional economic service level gradually
increases, and the “resource curse” gradually weakens. Studies based on the country
and interprovincial levels confirm the existence of the resource curse problem, especially
significantly in less developed regions [70]. The development of tourism is sustainable for
mountainous areas, and it can generate positive economic benefits for local communities;
taking advantage of tourism, and then residents can develop diverse tourism activities that
provide tourism economic benefits for local communities.
Although tourism is labeled “low pollution and high efficiency”, large-scale tourism
may cause ecological difficulties and hinder sustainable economic development. In the
new economic norm, the “Two Mountains Theory” has emerged, and the concept of
environmental protection has gained popularity [71]. Tourism development can effectively
drive economic growth, avoid destructive development and reduce ecological damage by
tourists [72], thus promoting environmental protection. However, there are still problems in
tourism development in Lhasa, such as low participation of residents, sloppy management,
and weak integration of resource values [73], which cause environmental damage and the
inability to convert tourism resources into economic benefits.
To improve the accessibility of tourist destinations in Tibet. On the one hand, it is
important to build new railroads, highways, expand airports, and improve the accessibility
of existing roads. On the other hand, it is important to improve the public transportation
network within the city, especially to add special tourist lines between the city or scenic
spots to scenic spots. The Qinghai-Tibet Railway was opened on 1 July 2006, and after its
opening, tourism in Tibet developed rapidly, with 2.512 million tourists in that year. In
2007, Tibet welcomed a total of 4.02 million tourists, more than the total population of Tibet.
The opening of the Qinghai–Tibet Railway has brought great business opportunities and
changes, and many people along the railroad line have built new family hotels, Tibetan-
style restaurants, and farm caravans. It has provided a lot of opportunities for local farmers
and herders to increase their income and attain wealth. After the opening of the Sichuan–
Tibet Railway, the tourism and economy of Tibet will develop even better. Therefore, the
improvement of the road network is vital to the development of tourism in Lhasa.
Due to various conditions, it is not possible to carry out field inspections and eval-
uations of tourism resources individually, and there may be places where high-quality
resources have not been discovered or declared. Affected by the level of development of
tourism resources, traffic location conditions, and tourism factors such as input, there is a
mismatch between the superiority degree of tourism resources and the economic develop-
ment level in Lhasa. The specific reasons for this paper only made a preliminary discussion
to deepen the study further. According to the coupling situation, the different types have
a stage and will certainly change with the development of economic and social changes.
Exploring the changing spatial patterns and influencing factors of the coupling situation is
a valuable topic. In addition, considering that Lhasa is rich in cultural tourism resources,
the tourism resources collection stage focuses on the three major aspects of cultural relics
protection units, A-level attractions, and a network of popular recommended resource
points. However, there are various classification methods for tourism resources. Different
regions should consider the characteristics of the research objects and make appropriate
adjustments, such as increasing the classification of national parks and cultural heritage.

7. Conclusions
There is a correlation between tourism resources and economic development in Lhasa,
but there is an obvious spatial mismatch between promoting tourism resources and im-
proving economic development strength. Among them, the core street of Chengguan
District, which belongs to the tourism resource-rich area, is under the pressure of urban
planning and cultural relics protection, and it is difficult to rely on investment to drive
economic growth. There is a “resource curse” phenomenon that is rich in resources but
Land 2023, 12, 1015 20 of 24

hinders economic development. However, with the further development of the economy,
the investment-driven situation has gradually weakened, and the advantages of tourism
resources have gradually exerted their advantages in promoting economic growth. In
contrast, in the disadvantaged areas of tourism resources, the economy continues to send
population and resources to the core towns, and the tourism resources lack sufficient
advantages to attract talent and capital return and gradually fall into the “poverty trap”.
Therefore, according to the coupling of economic development level and tourism resource
superiority degree, it can be divided into the following four types:
(1) High-high coupling coordination type: Chengguan District, as the center of Lhasa
City, has a fast economic growth rate, with the output value of the three industries ac-
counting for more than 70% of the total output value of the district in 2020. However,
the potential of tourism resources is basically explored, and there is less space for traffic
optimization and quality enhancement. Jiri Street, by exploring the development potential
of a large number of high-quality cultural preservation units in Bakuo Street, improving
the level of cultural preservation, renovating traditional buildings, developing special
restaurants, building high-quality hotels, and focusing on promoting the development of
commerce and shopping driven by tourism. It is always in a highly coupled and coordi-
nated state, the only truly high-coupled type, and the area within Lhasa where tourism
development and economic growth promote each other most prominently. However, the
economic development speed of Bakuo Street, Duodi Street, Jibenggang Street, Gongdelin
Street, Niangre Street, and other streets in Chengguan District far exceeds the speed of
upgrading the level of tourism resources, and its coupling coordination degree is decreasing
year by year.
(2) Low-high coupling coordination type: Duilongdeqing District, Dazi District, and
Qushui County are close to Chengguan District. In recent years, through undertaking
industrial transfer and developing industrial parks to realize industrial clusters, economic
development has achieved breakthroughs. However, the lack of tourism resources leads to
a low level of regional coupling coordination. In order to make up for the shortcomings,
Dongga Street in Duilongdeqing District relies on the industrial park to build characteristic
industrial sightseeing parks such as Tibet Zangcaoyisheng biotechnology park, Tibet Ganlu
Tibetan medicine industrial park, and Tibet Wahaha food industrial park scenic spot.
Naiqiong Street in Duilongdeqing District builds folk parks and resorts through investment
promotion and capital introduction. Deqing Town in Dazi District and Caina Township in
Qushui County also use the investment driven by economic development to compensate
for the lack of resources by constructing parks, industrial parks, and resorts. In the short
term, the gap between economic and tourism resources in these regions is indeed widening,
but in the long term, if these emerging tourism resource sites can continue to develop,
thereby attracting enough out-of-town tourists or becoming a peripheral tour destination
for local tourists, there is a certain potential to grow into a highly coupled coordination
area. However, the economic growth of these regions does not directly depend on the ticket
income brought by tourists, and to a large extent, it is indirectly involved in the tourism
link through product sales. It is difficult for the tourism resources of industrial parks to
attract the attention of foreign tourists, so it is worthwhile to focus on the advantages of
product production and carefully consider the investment in tourism resource sites.
(3) High-low coupling coordination type: Mozhugongka County and Dangxiong
County have unique advantages in tourism resources, while important transportation
hubs pass through (Dangxiong County has the Beijing–Tibet Expressway, Qinghai–Tibet
Highway, and Qinghai–Tibet Railway running through it, which is an important hub
connecting Lhasa City with Qinghai, and other surrounding areas. Mozhugongka County
has the Lalin Highway passing through and is the central traffic node from Lhasa to
Nyingchi, which allows the advantages of local tourism resources to be maintained at a
high level. However, the development of the local tourism economy has not absorbed
enough population employment, even because of the need for ecological protection. Since
2015, a large number of buildings located in the ecological protection zone for scenic
Land 2023, 12, 1015 21 of 24

reception, catering, and other tasks have been demolished. The return of tourism resources
points to the natural ecology and also makes villagers lose the opportunity to make a living
through tourism, which further leads to the loss of population, which leads to the mismatch
between the level of economic development and the degree of tourism resource superiority.
At the same time, the supporting facilities of the main towns outside the protected areas of
tourism resource sites are backward, and the experience of catering and accommodation
lacks characteristics to attract tourists for further consumption. The main urban areas
of Dangxiong County and Mozhugongka County lack attractive characteristic tourism
resource sites, resulting in tourists heading straight to the main tourism destination. The
time of spending in the city is short, and the tourist attraction and the quality of service in
the city should be increased.
(4) Low-low coupling coordination type: The coupling coordination degree of Nimu
County and Linzhou County is relatively low. Both are located at the end of traffic nodes,
without the series of traffic trunk lines, lacking the advantages of tourism resources, and
are the main outflow areas of population resources, but their situations are different. The
types and quantities of tourism resources in Nimu County are relatively small, lacking
core tourism attractions. The surrounding counties have solid economic strength, making
Nimu County a blank area of tourism resources and an export area with population and
resources. Linzhou County is relatively rich in tourism resources, especially in the southern
river valley area. A total of 37 Tibetan Buddhist ancient temple clusters have formed a
strong religious atmosphere, but still a lack of core tourist attractions, and many famous
temples in Chengguan District cannot compete. At this stage, Linzhou County is relying
on the natural environment advantages of Rezhen National Forest Park and Black-necked
Crane Nature Reserve to build ecological resorts, attract health care and vacation tourists,
and play the advantages of rural tourism resources through the construction of ancient
villages. However, the resource level and brand advantages are insignificant, and there is
still a long way to go to promote economic growth through tourism development.
In view of the four coupling coordination relationships between tourism resources and
economic development in Lhasa, suggestions for improvement are put forward respectively:
(1) For the high-high coupling coordination of the Chengguan District, the potential
of tourism resources obtained by relying on upgrading the level of tourism resource sites
and the level of cultural relic protection units has been basically developed. Therefore, the
most important thing is to use the existing resources, explore distinctive cultures, cultivate
diversified emerging types of tourism, and revitalize a large number of ancient buildings
on Bakuo Street. Based on cultural relics protection, characteristic tourism resources such as
cultural space, distinctive museums, and tourism shooting bases are derived from injecting
new vitality into cultural relics protection.
(2) For the low-high coupling coordination of Duilongdeqing District, Qushui County,
and Dazi County, the regional tourism resources are relatively scarce. However, with
the development of industrial parks, the economic strength has been fully enhanced.
At this stage, relying on industrial parks to create industrial tourism is a feasible idea.
However, relying on the product lines of enterprises (especially those lacking plateau
characteristics such as Wahaha) and the graphic introduction collage of the exhibition
hall is hardly attractive to foreign visitors coming from far away, and the multi-point
approach is difficult to form a unique brand influence. It is better to use the advantages of
regional transportation to attract the transit passengers brought by the Lalin Expressway
and the G318, focusing on building a Tibetan special industrial and craft tourism products
exhibition and sales park near the transportation artery, inviting national crafts masters
to settle in. The construction of official sales channels integrating handicraft experience,
cultural inculcation, and merchandise sales so that Tibetan carpets, serge, Tibetan knives,
and other handicrafts with excellent quality and affordable prices become the souvenirs
that tourists have to buy when they travel to Tibet.
(3) For the high-low coupling coordination of Mozhugongka County and Dangxiong
County, as an important traffic transit node, there are Namtso, Sijinla Tso, and other high-
Land 2023, 12, 1015 22 of 24

quality tourism resources for attraction, its tourism resources superiority degree in the
upper middle level. However, due to the requirements of ecological protection, it is difficult
for local residents to carry out tourism economic services around scenic spots. Although
sitting on the green mountains, they have not been able to convert into gold and silver
mountains in the hands of ordinary people. The income from high tickets not only fails
to provide sufficient economic support for regional development but also reduces the
travel experience of tourists. Therefore, the local tourism resource sites should focus on
the development of tourism-supporting services, encouraging local residents to participate
in tourism services, cultivating local tourism elites, and making tourism income from a
“one-time sale” into a long-term benefit.
(4) For the low-low coupling coordination of Linzhou County and Nimu County, the
two are different. Among them, the tourism resources of Linzhou County, especially the
cultural temple tourism resources and forest and nature reserve resources, are obviously
abundant, but there is a lack of main traffic lines in the region. The rugged mountainous
terrain makes Linzhou County located in the central part of Lhasa, but it is a traffic terminal,
which further leads to the reduction in the advantages of tourism resources. Therefore, by
opening up the traffic of key nodes, the Chengguan District and the Namtso Township of
Dangxiong County are connected in series, focusing on natural wild interests and building
high-quality health resorts. The future development of the tourism industry in Linzhou
County has great development potential. Nimu County is dominated by mountains, forests,
and valleys, with inconvenient transportation, scarce resources, a lack of tourist attractions,
and weak environmental carrying capacity. It will be an effective development direction
to divide it into a nature reserve or set up a national park with the Tanggula Range in
Dangxiong County.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.L. and R.M.; methodology, M.L. and J.L.; validation,
L.W., W.W., Z.D. and L.M.; formal analysis, M.L. and R.M.; investigation, L.W. and W.W.; resources,
J.L.; data curation, M.L.; writing—original draft preparation, M.L. and J.L.; writing—review and
editing, J.L.; visualization, W.W.; supervision, R.M.; project administration, J.L.; funding acquisition,
J.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by [The Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Re-
search, Ministry of Science and Technology of P.R. China] grant number [2019QZKK0406].
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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