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Series Editors
Shane Weller
School of European Culture and Languages
University of Kent
Canterbury, UK
Thomas Baldwin
Centre for Modern European Literature
University of Kent
Canterbury, UK
Ben Hutchinson
Centre for Modern European Literature
University of Kent
Canterbury, UK
Linked to the Centre for Modern European Literature at the University
of Kent, UK, this series offers a space for new research that challenges
the limitations of national, linguistic and cultural borders within Europe
and engages in the comparative study of literary traditions in the modern
period.
Some of the essays in this volume are based on papers given at the 2014
Annual Meeting of the American Comparative Literature Association,
which took place at New York University. I would like to thank the
Faculty of Arts at the University of Leeds for funding my participation
at the conference and for granting me a semester of study leave in order
to work on the project. I would also like to thank the Research Office in
the School of Languages, Cultures and Societies at Leeds for funding the
translation of Chap. 7 of the book.
My thanks also go to the following colleagues at Leeds and else-
where: Philip Bullock, Peter Davies, Stefano Evangelista, Alison Fell,
Sarah Hudspith, Matthew John, Daniel Laqua, James Moran, Georgia
Newman, David Platten, Richard Robinson, Nigel Saint, Simon Sleight,
Andy Stafford, Stuart Taberner, Nicholas White, Janet Wolff and all the
members of the Writing 1900 Research Group.
I would like to thank Vicky Bates, Peter Cary, Ben Doyle, April
James, Ryan Jenkins and Tomas René at Palgrave Macmillan for their
support of the book. I am also grateful to Professor Ben Hutchinson at
the University of Kent, who suggested that the proposal might be sub-
mitted to Palgrave’s Studies in Modern European Literature series.
vii
viii Acknowledgements
ix
x Contents
Index 267
Editors and Contributors
Contributors
xi
xii Editors and Contributors
traces des artistes belges en voyage, 2014). Her research also focuses on
the cultural history of Brussels and more specifically on the literary geog-
raphy of the city and the artists’ studios (http://micmarc.ulb.ac.be). She
is currently Editor-in-Chief of Textyles (the journal of Belgian literature)
and has recently coordinated with Paul Aron the issue entitled ‘Brussels, a
literary geography’, 47 (2015), www.textyles.org.
Timothy Chandler is a doctoral candidate in Comparative Literature
and Literary Theory at the University of Pennsylvania. His research
interests include nineteenth-century European culture, Marxism, and
aesthetic philosophy. He is writing a dissertation on the affective possi-
bilities of historical representation in Victorian literature.
Tatiana Debroux is a postdoctoral researcher and lecturer in Cultural
Geography. After obtaining her Ph.D. on ‘Artists in the city. A retro-
spective geography of visual artists in Brussels (1833–2008)’ at the
Université libre de Bruxelles (December 2012), she coordinated for
three years an interdisciplinary project on culture, mobility and metro-
politan identity (micmarc.ulb.ac.be). Her following research project was
about the geography of art galleries in Paris and was hosted at the Ecole
normale supérieure, with a grant from the City of Paris. Current research
includes works on spatial dimensions of artistic activities (e.g. artists and
art galleries, artists’ studios and workspaces, arts districts), historical and
contemporary urban dynamics, and narrative cartography (fictional liter-
ature as a source for geographers).
Theo D’haen is Emeritus Professor of English and Comparative
Literature at the University of Leuven (KU Leuven), and earlier taught
at Utrecht and Leiden. He has a Ph.D. in Comparative Literature from
the University of Massachusetts in Amherst. His numerous publica-
tions include works on (post)modernism, (post)colonialism, American
literature, popular fiction and world literature. The following are his
recent publications in English: The Routledge Concise History of World
Literature (2012), and (with co-authors and/or co-editors) American
Literature: A History (2014), Cosmopolitanism and the Postnational:
Literature and the New Europe (2015), Major versus Minor? Languages
and Literatures in a Globalized World (2015), Caribbeing: Comparing
Caribbean Literatures and Cultures (2014), World Literature: A Reader
(2013), The Routledge Companion to World Literature (2012), The
Canonical Debate Today: Crossing Disciplinary and Cultural Boundaries
Editors and Contributors xiii
xvii
xviii List of Figures
Richard Hibbitt
R. Hibbitt (*)
University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
e-mail: r.hibbitt@leeds.ac.uk
(1992, 93). Taking a cue from Williams, the essays collected here explore
to what extent the ‘deprived hinterlands’ and peripheral ‘poor world’
possess different forms of capital. Williams shows how the metropolis
transcended the previous role of the large or capital city: ‘It was the place
where new social and economic and cultural relations, beyond both city
and nation in their older senses, were beginning to be formed: a distinct
historical phase which was in fact to be extended, in the second half of
the twentieth century, at least potentially, to the whole world’ (1992,
90). However, much of what he writes about the modern metropolis is
also applicable to rapidly growing cities such as Brussels, or to less indus-
trialised imperial centres such as Constantinople; similarly, the provin-
cial and the rural can also be sources of cultural production. Williams
emphasises the importance of the metropolis as a centre for migration
and a locus of creativity: ‘For it is not the general themes of response to
the city and its modernity which compose anything that can be properly
called modernism. It is rather the new and specific location of the artists
and intellectuals of this movement within the changing cultural milieu of
the metropolis’ (1992, 90). The significance of the cultural milieu, with
its affinities to Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of ‘habitus’, can also be dis-
cerned in other loci, as we will see.
In A Shrinking Island: Modernism and National Culture in England,
his study of the anthropological turn in late English modernism, Jed
Esty takes up Williams’s notion of ‘metropolitan perception’, contrasting
it with what he describes as a process of ‘demetropolitanisation’ (2004,
3). Esty uses these terms to analyse the effects of the contraction of the
British Empire on late modernism, which he describes as part of a ‘decol-
onising dialectic’ (2004, 9). The relationships he considers between
metropolitan perception and demetropolitanisation, or between impe-
rial universalism and national particularism, are also useful for our discus-
sion of the obverse side of this historical process: the interaction between
the great imperial metropoles and the ‘provinces’ during the period of
growth after the Industrial Revolution. The dichotomy between met-
ropolitan and national/provincial also constitutes an example of the
concept of ‘core-periphery’, originally used in the 1950s by the econ-
omist Raúl Prebisch and the UN Economic Commission for Latin
America, in the context of a discussion of inequality in the global econ-
omy. The ‘core-periphery’ relational pair has been developed notably
by Immanuel Wallerstein in his theory of world-systems analysis (2004,
93). Wallerstein argues that the modern world-system, which he defines
INTRODUCTION: OTHER CAPITALS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 5
also designated as ‘symbolic’ (74, 112, 258, 267). He tends to use the
terms ‘cultural’ and ‘symbolic’ interchangeably to designate the opposite
pole to economic capital—in other words, as a way of thinking about
the relationship between art and money—which is manifest in the second
half of the nineteenth century in an ‘inverse’ or ‘upside-down’ situation,
where artists can be both economically poor (and therefore dominated)
but symbolically rich (and therefore dominant) (82). Although writers
and other artists can possess all these types of capital to varying degrees
(262), it is the relationship between economic and symbolic capital that
characterises Bourdieu’s reading of the post-1848 French literary field,
where ‘consecrated’ writers attain a particular level of autonomy and
symbolic capital that encourages a dichotomous relationship between
commercial and critical success (77).4
The artworks produced by symbolically dominant artists are described
as part of ‘the new economy of symbolic goods’, which is initiated in part
by the theory of art for art’s sake and the principle of artistic autonomy
(136). Bourdieu considers that Baudelaire is the nomothète or ‘founding
hero’ of the principle of artistic autonomy, which he also associates with
writers such as Flaubert and Huysmans (62). Symbolic value is there-
fore an alternative to market value, although the initial ‘accumulation
of symbolic capital’ can in some cases lead to eventual economic profit
as well (142); conversely, economic capital can also be ‘reconverted into
symbolic capital’ if the artist acquires ‘the capital of consecration’ (148).
Bourdieu equates possession of the different types of capital with power:
habitus ‘is acquired and it is also a possession which may, in certain cases,
function as a form of capital’ (1996, 179).5 For symbolically dominant
writers such as Baudelaire, habitus as a form of capital is evident in their
attitude to artistic practice, irrespective of economic success. The notions
of field and habitus also constitute a transferable model for the analy-
sis of all forms of cultural production (1996, 214): although Bourdieu’s
analysis of the nineteenth-century cultural field is mainly concerned with
literature, his reflections on visual art (and to a lesser extent music) show
how the theory can work in practice, which is particularly fruitful for
interdisciplinary analysis.
Bourdieu refers to Benjamin only twice in The Rules of Art, on each
occasion citing approvingly Benjamin’s suspicion of the ‘fetishization of
the name of the master’ with regard to the origins of a work of art (1996,
229, 290). But there are areas of his field theory which suggest an inter-
esting overlap with Benjamin’s work on nineteenth-century Paris, such as
the reference to a ‘hierarchized space where the places – galleries, theatres,
publishing houses – which mark positions in this space by the same token
mark the cultural products that are associated with them’ (164). This
shared interest in a particular space and time returns us to the questions
of what was particular about Paris during the nineteenth century and to
what extent this form of modernity was reflected, refracted or even pre-
figured elsewhere. Bourdieu writes interestingly about the possibility of a
common habitus in a particular place at a specific time, while simultane-
ously rejecting any sense of a Hegelian cultural unity or Zeitgeist:
The fundamental question then becomes to know whether the social effects
of chronological contemporaneity, or even spatial unity – like the fact of shar-
ing the same specific meeting places (literary cafés, magazines, cultural asso-
ciations, salons, etc.) or of being exposed to the same cultural messages,
common works of reference, obligatory issues, key events, etc. – are strong
enough to determine, over and above the autonomy of different fields, a
common problematic, understood not as a Zeitgeist or a community of spirit
or lifestyle, but rather as a space of possibles, a system of different position-
takings in relation to which each must be defined. (1996, 199–200)
Here, the crucial mechanism by which the market operated was that of
diffusion: books from the core were incessantly exported into the semi-
periphery and the periphery, where they were read, admired, imitated,
turned into models – thus drawing those literatures into the orbit of core
ones, and indeed ‘interfering’ with their autonomous development. (2013,
127)11
Toutes les pensées, toutes les joies, toutes les tristesses, tous
les désirs, tous les rêves, — tout cela proprement plié, sous
l’enveloppe mince des lettres, sous une effigie de roi ou de reine, et
bien et dûment timbré, tout cela glisse dans des trous béants aux
devantures des boutiques, puis court dans des wagons, s’en va, —
isolé des cœurs d’où cela est sorti, — sur les routes, par les
chemins, dans la boîte des facteurs toujours fatigués et toujours en
route… Tous ces petits carrés de papier, sans fin vont et viennent,
entre-croisant, sans les embrouiller, les milliers de fils de leur va-et-
vient, — la réponse appelant la réponse à travers l’espace… Tous
ces menus papiers, ce sont des cris qui s’échangent en silence…
Oh ! l’éloquente, la magique enseigne, qui, — dans les bourgades
perdues sous la neige des montagnes, au fond des vallées ignorées,
au bord des déserts d’Afrique, — donne au voyageur découragé une
soudaine émotion de fidélité et de retour, et comme un sentiment
joyeux d’ubiquité : Postes et Télégraphes.
« Chérie,
Berthe répondit :
Berthe.
Albert. »
Pauline. »
Annette répondit :
Annette.
Paul. »
Albert, en lisant ces lignes, se sentit pâlir. Il éprouva un
mouvement d’angoisse au fond de son cœur, mais son parti était si
bien pris, sa volonté si accoutumée à être la maîtresse ! Il envoya un
mot par câble sous-marin. Et ce mot, qui sortait des profondeurs les
plus douloureuses d’une âme d’homme, et dont il fut le seul à
connaître tout le sens, courut au fond des grandes eaux :
— « J’y serai. Merci. »
XII