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The African Experience
This page intentionally left blank
The African Experience
An Introduction

Fourth Edition

VINCENT B. KHAPOYA
Oakland University
First published 2013, 2010, 1998, 1994 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Published 2016 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY, 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2013, 2010, 1998, 1994 Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

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ISBN: 9780205851713 (pbk)

Cover Designer: Karen Noferi

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Khapoya, Vincent B.
The African experience : an introduction / Vincent B. Khapoya. — 4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-205-85171-3 (alk. paper)
1. Africa—History. I. Title.
DT20.K47 2013
960—dc23
2011047946
Izzat, Aman Cabral, and Aisha K. Robinson
This page intentionally left blank
 BRIEF CONTENTS

Contents ix
Preface xiii

Chapter 1 Africa: The Continent and Its People 1

Chapter 2 African Traditional Institutions 19

Chapter 3 Political Development in Historic Africa 59

Chapter 4 Colonialism and the African Experience 99

Chapter 5 African Nationalism and the Struggle for

Freedom 139

Chapter 6 African Independence: The First Thirty Years 169

Chapter 7 The African Struggle for Democracy and Free

Markets 209

Chapter 8 Africa in World Affairs 233

Index 267

vii
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

Preface xiii

CHAPTER 1
Africa: The Continent and Its People 1
Introduction 1
Geography 2
Demography 7
Language and Culture 11

CHAPTER 2
African Traditional Institutions 19
Introduction 19
Kinship 23
Forms of Marriage 26
Nonkinship Groups 32
The Individual in African Societies 36
Family Life and Socialization 41
Family Life 41
Socialization 42
Traditional Religious Beliefs 45
Belief in God 46
Belief in Spirits 49
Belief in Ancestors 49
Religion as a Way of Life 50
Politics and Government in Traditional Africa 52
Segmental Systems 53
Hierarchical Systems 54
Pyramidal Systems 55

CHAPTER 3
Political Development in Historic Africa 59
Introduction 59
Prehistoric Africa 63

ix
 x Contents

Ancient Africa 66
The Kingdoms of Egypt 66
Other Ancient African Civilizations 70
Medieval Africa 71
Early Modern Africa 81
Nineteenth-Century Africa 83
North Africa (c. 1800–1900) 84
The African Sudan (c. 1800–1900) 85
West Africa (c. 1800–1900) 87
East Africa (c. 1800–1900) 92
Conclusions 96

CHAPTER 4
Colonialism and the African Experience 99
Introduction 99
Reasons for Europe’s Interest in Africa 100
Imperialism in Africa: The Rationale 103
Race and European Colonizers: “The Civilizing Missions” 106
The British Mission 107
The French Mission 108
The French and the British Contrasted: Senghor and Khama 109
Fanon’s Theory of French Racism 111
The Portuguese Mission 112
The Belgian Mission 114
Colonial Administrative Styles 116
Indirect Rule 117
Direct Rule 119
Company Rule 123
Indirect Company Rule 123
The Economics of Colonialism 125
Expropriation of Land 125
Exploitation of Labor 127
Hut and Poll Tax 128
Labor Conscription 129
Cash Crops and One-Crop Economies 130
Prohibition of Inter-African Trade and Communications 131
Immigrant Labor 132
Lack of Industrialization 134
Colonial Rule: Did the Africans Benefit? 134
 Contents xi

CHAPTER 5
African Nationalism and the Struggle for Freedom 139
Introduction 139
Modern African Nationalism 141
Colonial Oppression 142
Missionary Churches 143
World Wars I and II 149
Pan-Africanism 151
The League of Nations and the United Nations 157
Independence Movements 160
Conclusions 165

CHAPTER 6
African Independence: The First Thirty Years 169
Introduction 169
Decolonization and the Transfer of Power 170
Centralization of Power 170
Regionalism and Separatism: Nigeria 172
Regionalism and Separatism: East Africa 173
Decolonization in French Colonies 174
Problems at Independence 176
Popular Expectations 176
Lack of Economic Development 177
Arbitrary Borders 179
Political Instability 181
Policy Choices after Independence 183
One-Party Systems 183
African Socialism 187
Tanzania 189
Ghana 193
Guinea 195
Senegal 196
African Capitalism 197
What Went Wrong in Independent Africa? 200
One-Party Systems 200
Personality Cults 201
Coups d’etat and Civil Wars 201
Refugees 203
 xii Contents

Centralized Economies 203

International Debt 204
Corruption 204
HIV/AIDS 205
The Gains of Independence 206

CHAPTER 7
The African Struggle for Democracy and Free Markets 209
Introduction 209
The Struggle for Democracy 210
Kenya: Flirting with Democracy 211
Mugabe: “Zimbabwe Belongs to Me” 213
Democratic Republic of Congo 214
Cameroon: Paul Biya’s Democracy 215
Economic Reforms 219
NEPAD 225
Conclusions 227

CHAPTER 8
Africa in World Affairs 233
Introduction 233
The Cold War 236
The Non-Aligned Movement 238
The Organization of African Unity 241
The African Union 248
Objectives of the African Union 249
Organs of the African Union 250
Financial Institutions of the AU 251
The United States and Africa 252
The Soviet Union and Africa 255
Conclusions 261

Index 267
 PREFACE

T
he fourth edition of this book is long overdue. I am pleased to be
able to update it and to reflect on some of the changes that have
occurred since the second edition was published twelve years ago.
When I first began to teach an introductory course on Africa, for nearly
twenty years, I could not find a textbook that presented Africa in its total-
ity. There were edited books, compilations of chapters written by eight or
ten authors, from different disciplines in the humanities and the social
sciences. Despite the best efforts of the editors to maintain thematic
coherence, my students continued to complain about the unevenness of the
material they were reading, in both style and content. I then decided to
write this book to meet the need for a text that shows how culture, history,
politics, and European imperialism have interacted to produce an Africa
that is much more complex and dynamic. In the paragraphs that follow,
I will briefly discuss the features of the book, what is new in this edition,
and provide summaries of the chapters.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

1. Chapter 1, “The Continent and Its People,” has been updated with
the most recent demographic data in Table 1.1 and includes informa-
tion on Africa’s newest nation: the Republic of South Sudan, which
came into being on July 9, 2011. Table 1.2 on languages spoken in
African countries has also been updated.
2. With regard to the use of violence to subjugate Africans who were
resisting colonization, additional evidence of German brutality is
provided in the form of a recent admission by the German govern-
ment that what the German soldiers did to the Nama and Herero
people in Namibia could probably be described as genocide and
the German government was prepared to apologize, but would not
consider paying reparations to the descendants of the 65,000 people
killed by German soldiers.
3. Additional discussion of the “Arab Spring,” in North Africa and
Yemen, a term being used to refer to the people’s uprisings in the form
of mass demonstrations which have brought down the governments
of Tunisia and Egypt, both now being ruled by interim governments

xiii
 xiv Preface

while they decide what to do next. The third country, Libya, is still
contested six months after the Libyan people took to the streets and
took up arms to rid the country of Qaddafi who has been running
Libya autocratically for forty-two years. Troops loyal to Qaddafi still
hold four towns as of September 2011. Observers expect him and his
sons to flee Libya in the next several months.
4. An update on the African Union (AU), founded in 2002 with high
hopes of being more successful and more forceful in articulating and
protecting African interests. So far, the AU is struggling financially
to maintain troops in Darfur, refuses to declare the killings in Darfur
as genocide, and has yet to recognize the interim national council in
Libya as the legal representative of the Libyan people. There is still
more work to be done.

FEATURES
The book assumes no prior knowledge of Africa. It also does not con-
fine itself to sub-Saharan Africa, so-called Black Africa. Hence, it takes
the student from the geography of the continent—physical, political, and
demographic—to the linguistic classification of the more than 800 major
languages spoken on the continent. This is followed by a presentation
of traditional institutions and customs, the precolonial history of Africa,
the scramble for imperial control of the Africans by European powers.
The depth of the colonial experience is illustrated by the fact that only
two states (out of the current fifty-four independent nations) were never
formally colonized: Ethiopia and Liberia. The introduction of the concept
of the “civilizing mission” is an attempt to explore the cultural reasons for
European colonization of Africa and to raise the question, “What did the
Europeans expect a civilized African to be like once they were done with
their mission?” African nationalism, which was a response to colonialism,
is discussed, as well as the attainment of independence, beginning in the
early 1950s. The last three chapters deal with the choices made by the first
generation of African leaders in trying to create new nations out of their
new sovereign states and to raise the living standards of their people. The
first three decades of independence were probably wasted as African lead-
ers experimented with one-party systems and government-controlled (or
socialist) economies. With prodding from international institutions like the
World Bank and IMF and from major aid donors, African countries have
embarked on free-market economies. They have also opened up more dem-
ocratic space. There are now nearly a dozen countries in Africa—Ghana,
Botswana, South Africa, Namibia, to name four examples—which meet
standards of democracy. The book concludes with an examination of the
role that Africa has played on the world stage, the African Union (formed
 Preface xv

in 2002 to replace the Organization of African Unity), the African leaders’

efforts to take care of their own problems and lessen their dependence on
the United States and European countries.
Chapter 1, in the first half, introduces the African continent in terms of
geography and demography. Statistics pertaining to population and gross
national income (GNI) per person have been updated to 2011. The second
half treats in some detail the diversity and convergence of African people in
the cultural and linguistic patterns and discusses the problem of referring to
African culture groups as “tribes.” There is an emphasis on norms, values,
and historical experience as key variables that define people who they are
rather than as labels called tribes.
Chapter 2 describes the main traditional cultural forms and institutions
found in Africa. The stress is on those forms that are shared in such matters
as kinship, marriage, socialization, including initiation rites. Four types of
nonkinship groups are explored. The reader will realize that I depart from
usual convention of textbook writing by narrating in the first person what
the rites of passage meant to me. Since I was not merely an observer, but a
participant, why not personalize the experience? Reader reaction has been
uniformly positive.
Chapter 3 is an interpretive essay on African history, which attempts
to place Africa at the center rather than the periphery of major world
historical happenings. It treats such things as state building, alliance forma-
tion, and the rise and decline of various kingdoms, and examines several
pieces of archeological evidence which disprove Western myths about the
marginality of African history. In this edition, this chapter was only edited
for style.
Chapter 4 is a discussion of the African experience under European
colonial rule. Reasons for colonization, “the civilizing missions” of the
various European powers (France, Britain, and Portugal), and colonial
policies and administrative styles are analyzed. For this edition, I have
included new material on the colonial policy and practices of the Germans
in Namibia, as well as the dismal record of Belgian colonial rule in the
present Democratic Republic of Congo. The chapter concludes with an
assessment of colonial rule.
Chapter 5 examines the successful African resistance to colonial rule
and the role played by external forces and internal factors in that resistance.
Chapter 6 takes a hard look at the first thirty years of African indepen-
dence, the challenges facing this first generation of leaders, their dalliance
with socialist economies and one-party systems, resulting in repressive
governments, economic stagnation, and increased economic and security
dependency on former colonial powers.
Chapter 7 is a detailed discussion of the struggle for democracy and
free markets which has been going on for the past two decades and a half.
Behind the push for democracy and free markets were the World Bank and
 xvi Preface

IMF and Western aid donors like the United States and Britain. Some of
the key issues addressed in this chapter are these: When and how did the
Africans realize that earlier experiments had not been successful and were
not likely to work for the future? What other forces, internal or external,
have been central to this struggle for political transparency and economic
self-sufficiency? How has the struggle faired? Who have been the gainers
and the losers and why?
Chapter 8, the final chapter, is an analysis of the role that Africa has
played on the world stage. The influence of the cold war is stressed, properly
so, as are the contributions that African states collectively have made in keep-
ing on the world agenda issues of vital importance to them and in sensitizing
the world community to matters of human rights and racism which never got
much attention when the world was being run almost exclusively by Western
nations. This chapter has been updated to include information on the African
Union (AU), formed in 2002 to replace the Organization of African Unity
(OAU) (a compromise organization founded in 1963). The hope was that the
AU would be more effective in addressing security issues on the continent,
but the crises in Darfur, Sudan, and in Zimbabwe are proof that, despite a
new enlightened AU charter, without commitment of resources, the AU is not
going to be any more successful than its predecessor.

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 Preface xvii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book has benefited from contributions from many people. Professor
James D. Graham and I have worked closely together in the African Studies
Program for the entire time I have been at Oakland University. Jim is a
historian whose appreciation of the African experience is profound and
his enthusiasm for sharing that experience with his students and colleagues
infectious. It was for that reason that I asked him to contribute an
interpretive chapter on African history (Chapter 3). For this chapter, for the
editorial contributions which he made to the first edition of the text, and
for his friendship, I am deeply grateful.
This edition also benefited a great deal from the careful review by
Keith A. Gottschalk, senior lecturer in political studies at the University
of the Western Cape (UWC). In response to my inquiry if I could spend
my sabbatical leave in South Africa while undertaking research on identity
issues among the “Coloureds” in the new South Africa, Keith, who was
then head of the Department of Political Studies at UWC, enthusiastically
offered to host me at his institution from January to June 2007. I was able
to return the favor when Paul Kubicek, then chair of the Political Science
Department at Oakland University, and I wrote a proposal to the Fulbright
Committee. Keith was able to spend a full academic year (2009–2010) as
a Fulbright Scholar at Oakland University. I am grateful to him for his
time, optimism, and infectious fascination with the world of ideas. Without
Professor Kubicek’s support and involvement, Keith would not have won
the Fulbright fellowship.
The four reviewers of the manuscript of the fourth edition did a
wonderful job of pointing out the strengths and weaknesses of the book
and made many suggestions. They include Tom Dolan, Columbus State
University; Charles Hartwig, Arkansas State University; Michael Nwanze,
Howard University; and Donald Williams, Western New England College.
This book is a better product because of them. I thank them sincerely.
The patience of my editors at Pearson, Vikram Mukhija and Beverly
Fong, and their colleagues was severely tested as I struggled to complete the
revisions while trying to cope with health issues. I appreciate their patience,
professionalism, encouragement, and support.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Izzy, for her love and encourage-
ment. This is as much my book as hers. In continuing gratitude, I once again
dedicate this book to my wife and our adult children.
Despite all the assistance, I alone am responsible for any errors of fact
or interpretation.

Vincent B. Khapoya
Oakland University Rochester, Michigan
This page intentionally left blank
The African Experience
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER

Africa: The Continent

and Its People
Africa is not one country. It’s a continent: the second
largest continent. Not only is it vast, but it also overwhelms
the rest of the world in the diversity of its people, the
complexity of its cultures, the majesty of its geography,
the abundance of its resources, and the resiliency
and vivacity of its people.

INTRODUCTION
People writing about Africa customarily begin with a brief reference to
how little Africa is known among Americans. Unlike European powers,
the United States never had colonies in Africa, although Liberia (in West
Africa) was founded in 1847 by freed African slaves from the United States,
and the U.S. government has maintained special ties with Liberia from then
until now. Since the early 1960s, when dozens of African colonies became
independent nations, public ignorance in the United States about Africa has
declined markedly. Air travel between Africa and America has increased
since then, and American television has reported on a wide range of African
problems—from severe drought and famine throughout the Sahel and the
Horn to political crises in Libya, Nigeria, and Rwanda. Educated Americans
now realize that countries such as Egypt, which had formerly (and mistak-
enly) been regarded exclusively as part of the Middle East (Asia Minor), are
actually located in Africa.
The United States has long been a favorite destination of Africans in
search of higher education. During the early years of Africa’s indepen-
dence, tens of thousands of African students traveled to the United States
to further their education. The presence of these students made it possible
for many educated Americans to meet Africans from different parts of the
continent and to show some appreciation for the diversity of the African

1
 2 C H A P TE R 1 Africa: The Continent and Its People

continent and its people. As the struggle for racial justice and equality in
America has involved increasing numbers of African Americans, traditional
civil rights organizations like the National Association for the Advancement
of Colored People (NAACP) and the National Urban League have joined
efforts with such lobbying groups as Africa Action (formerly the American
Committee on Africa) and TransAfrica Forum in seeking actively to influ-
ence U.S. government policies toward Africa. Although Africa accounts for
the smallest proportion of new American immigrants, nevertheless more
African students and visitors are choosing to live permanently in the United
States, thereby helping to expand Americans’ familiarity with Africa.
Despite such developments and the fact that media coverage of events
in independent Africa has improved significantly since colonial times
(before 1960), many Americans do not fully appreciate the physical size
and ethnic diversity of the African continent. Living in such a huge coun-
try as the United States, Americans tend to view Africa as a single country
rather than as a continent that includes over fifty different countries; they
even assume that it is as easy to travel from Cameroon to Tanzania as it
is to drive from Colorado to Tennessee. For instance, it is not uncommon
for an American to ask an African visitor from Nigeria whether he knows
someone from Senegal or Zambia. This chapter introduces some of the
geographic, demographic, and cultural-linguistic diversity in Africa, so that
American students can begin to understand the incredible complexity and
richness of Africa’s various landscapes and cultures.

GEOGRAPHY
Africa is indeed a very large place, the world’s second largest continent. Its
land area is 30 million square kilometers, stretching nearly 8,000 kilometers
from Cape Town (South Africa) to Cairo (Egypt) and more than 5,000 kilo-
meters from Dakar (Senegal) to Mogadishu (Somalia). It is nearly three and
one half times the size of continental United States. The political geography
of this huge continent consists of fifty-four modern nations, including island
republics off its coasts. With the exception of Western Sahara, unilaterally
and forcefully annexed by Morocco when Spain suddenly relinquished its
colonial control in 1976, these African countries are independent states
with their own political institutions, leaders, ideologies, and identities. All
these countries belong to a continental forum called the African Union
(formerly the Organization of African Unity, OAU), which is permanently
headquartered in Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia. South Africa was
admitted into the organization only in 1994 after being excluded for more
than thirty years because its white minority government had constitution-
ally denied full rights of citizenship to its nonwhite majority. Each of these
African nations—except for a handful of states like Somalia, Swaziland,
 Geography 3

Lesotho, and Botswana—is multilingual. Nigeria, for instance, encompasses

more than 300 different language groups (probably more than any other
nation), Tanzania has more than 100, Kenya has more than 40, and so on.
Geographically, Africa has been described as a vast plateau and is the
most tropical of all continents, lying astride the equator and extending almost
equal distances toward both north and south of the equator. Dominating the
northern third of the continent is the world’s largest desert—the vast Sahara
Desert. Africa’s most significant geological features—the highest and low-
est elevations, largest lakes, and source of the world’s longest river, formed
by unique patterns of “drift” between the African, Somali, and Arabian con-
tinental plates—lie along East Africa’s Great Rift Valley, the earth’s deepest
continental crevice. One end of the Great Rift Valley follows the Red Sea
northward from Lake Assai (Ethiopia) to the Dead Sea (Palestine); southward,

Tunis
Algiers
Rabat
MOROCCO TUNISIA
Tripoli

Bonghali Cairo
ALGERIA
El-Ayoun LIBYA
EGYPT
WESTERN
SAHARA

CAPE
VERDE
IS. MAURITANIA MALI
Prala
Nouakchott NIGER
CHAD Asmara
SENEGAL
THE Dakar Khartoum
Niamey ERITREA
GAMBIA Banjul
DJIBOUTI
Bamako BURKINA
N’Djamena
SUDAN
GUINEA BISSAU Ouagadougou
Bissau GUINEA BENIN
NIGERIA Djibouti
Conakry
Freetown TOGO Abuja ETHIOPIA SOMALIA
SIERRA LEONE
IVORY SOUTH
COAST GHANA
Lome Porto Novo
CENTRAL
Monrovia
Abidjan AFRICAN REPUBLIC SUDAN Addis Ababa
LIBERIA CAMEROON Juba
Accra Lagos Bangui
Yaounde Mogadishu
EQUATORIAL GUINEA UGANDA
Malabo
Kissngani
KENYA
SAO TOME E Libreville Kampala
CONGO
PRINCIPE GABON RWANDA Nairobi
CONGO - D.R. Kigali
Brazzaville BURUNDI Bujumbura Mornbasa
Kinshasa TANZANIA
Dodorne SEYCHELLES IS.
Ludundashi
Dar es Victoria
Salaam
Luanda
Mororis
ANGOLA ZAMBIA
Lilongwe COMORO IS.
Lusaka MALAWI
Harare
Antananarivo
ZIMBABWE
MOZAMBIQUE MAURITIUS
Port Lewts
NAMIBIA
BOTSWANA
Windhoek MADAGASCAR
Gaborone
Pretoria
Maputo

Maseru Mbabane
LESOTHO
SOUTH AFRICA SWAZILAND

Cape Town

MAP 1.1
Africa: Political Map
Source: Adapted from Africa Report, African American Institute of New York, 1964.
 4 C H A P TE R 1 Africa: The Continent and Its People

along the rift between the African and Somali continental plates, lie Africa’s
highest mountains and largest lakes. Whereas Lake Assai lies many hundreds
of meters below sea level, such long-extinct volcanoes as Mt. Kilimanjaro
(5,900 meters or 19,340 ft.) and Mt. Kenya (5,200 meters or 17,040 ft.) rise
hundreds of meters higher than the highest peaks in the continental United
States. Many mountain ranges throughout the continent (e.g., Ethiopian,
Drakensberg, Cameroon, and Atlas Mountains) include peaks between 3,000
and 4,900 feet and support dense populations living in various ecozones
between 3,000 and 8,000 feet above sea level. Many of Africa’s plateaus and
highlands have provided sustenance (and in some cases, refuge) for some of
the continent’s densest and most productive populations.
Other dense and productive populations in Africa have settled along
the shores of the continent’s freshwater lakes and rivers, as well as along
parts of its tropical coastlines. Africa’s great lakes—including Lake Victoria
(the world’s second largest freshwater lake, after Lake Superior), Lakes
Tanganyika and Malawi (among the four deepest and eighth largest in the
world), Lakes Turkana, Nakuru, and Rukwa—lie on the floor of the Great
Rift Valley, while shallower lakes like Chad and Bangweulu (or the Okavango
Swamp) have served as life-giving water catchments for nearby savanna (or
rolling grassland) regions elsewhere in the continent. On a continent where
deserts have been expanding and savannas have been becoming drier, not
just during past decades but in past millennia, Africa’s river systems (like her
lakes) have also been crucial to people’s growth and survival.
Beginning with ancient Egyptian and Cushitic civilizations several thou-
sand years ago, the Nile River Valley has provided the vital water needed
to sustain large populations along the only fertile strip that cuts across the
entire Sahara Desert. The longest river on earth (more than 6,400 kilome-
ters), the historic Nile originates from Lake Victoria-Nyanza and derives
two-thirds of its waters from the Ethiopian Highlands before plunging over
several cataracts downriver (northward) into the rich Nile Delta on the
Mediterranean Sea. In modern times, the Lower (northern) Nile has become
an important source of hydroelectric power, as well as vital irrigation water,
to the Egyptians and the Sudanese who benefit from the electricity generated
at the Aswan Dam. Much further upstream (southward) and beyond the
Sudd marshlands of southern Sudan, the Ugandans and the Kenyans “plug
in” to smaller hydroelectric projects at Nalubaale Dam (formerly called the
Owen Falls Dam) and Kiira Dam, both near Jinja (Uganda).
Flowing from Lake Bangweulu in central Africa and draining the entire
Congo tropical rain forest into the Atlantic Ocean is the world’s tenth
longest (and second most voluminous) river—the Congo (over 4,300 kilo-
meters)—which is fed by large tributaries such as the Ubangui, Kasai, and
Cuango Rivers. Hydroelectric projects around cataracts near Kinshasa in the
Democratic Republic of Congo provide electricity for nearby modernizing
cities. Also from central Africa, flowing eastward into the Indian Ocean at
the southern end of Africa’s Great Rift Valley is the Zambezi River (about
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SWEDISH.
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1844.
Böttiger—Om den Italienska Kulturens. 8vo. Upsala, 1846.
Brandel—Om och ur den arabiska geographen, Idrisi. 8vo. Upsala,
1894.
Engeström—Om judarne i Rom under aldere tider. 8vo. Stockholm,
1876.
Hellwald—Turkiet i vara dagar. 2 vols. 8vo. Stockholm, 1877.
Hildebrand—Om det Vatikanska arkivet. 8vo. Stockholm.
Jonquiere—Osmanika rikets historia. 8vo. Stockholm, 1882.
Lindberg—Mohammed och Qoranen. 8vo. Göteborg, 1897.
Reinach—Israeliternas historia. 8vo. Stockholm, 1891.
Sjögren—Sveriges kulturhistoria. 4to. Stockholm, 1891.

LANGUE D’OC AND LANGUE D’OIL.

Bartsch—Chrestomatie Provençale. 8vo. Elberfeld, 1868.
Born, Bertrand de—Poësies Complètes. 8vo. Paris.
Fauriel—Histoire de la Croisade contre les Hérétiques Albigeois. 4to.
Paris, 1837.
Montaiglon et Raynaud—Recueil Général des Fabliaux. 6 vols.
8vo. Paris, 1878.
Raynouard—Choix des Poësies des Troubadours. 6 vols. 8vo. Paris,
1816.
Rutebœuf—Œuvres Complètes. 8vo. Paris, 1839.

LIMOUSIN AND CATALAN.

Carbonell—Chronica de Espanya. Folio. Barcelona, 1546.
Don Jaime de Aragon—Libre dels feyts esdevenguts en la vida del
molt alt senyor En Jacme lo Conquerador. Folio. 1557.
March—Les Obres. 4to. Barcelona, 1602.
Muntaner—Chronica. Folio. Barcelona, 1562.
Pujades—Coronica universal del Principat de Cathalunya. Folio.
Barcelona, 1609.
Roig—Libre de Cosells. 12mo. Barcelona, 1561.
Tornich—Historias e Conquestas dels Excellentissims e Catholics
Reys de Arago. Folio. Barcelona, 1534.

LATIN.
Abd-al-Allatif—Historia Ægypti. 4to. Oxoniæ, 1800.
Abdul-Feda—Historia Anteislamica. 4to. Lipsiæ, 1831.
Abul-Pharagius—Historia Dynastiarum. 4to. Oxoniæ, 1763.
Anspach—Historia Califatus Al-Walidi. 8vo. Leyden, 1853.
Avicenna—Opera. Folio. Venitiis, 1595.
Bacon—Opera Inedita. 8vo. London, 1859.
Capasso—Historia Diplomatica Regni Siciliæ. 4to. Napoli, 1894.
Carena—Tractatus de Officio Inquisitionis. Folio. Cremona, 1741.
Casiri—Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis. 2 vols. Folio.
Matriti, 1760.
—— Fuero Juzgo. Folio. Madrid, 1815.
Gerbert—Œuvres. 4to. Paris, 1867.
Gildermeister—Scriptorum Arabum de Rebus Indicis. 8vo. Bonnæ,
1838.
Hadji-Khalfa—Lexicon Bibliographicum. 7 vols. 4to. Leipzig, 1835.
Hille—De Medicis Arabibus Oculariis. 8vo. Lipsiæ.
Huillard-Bréholles—Chronicon Placentinum. 4to. Parisiis, 1856.
Longino—Trinium Magicum. 18mo. Francofurti, 1614.
Middledorff—Commentatio de Institutis Litterariis in Hispania quæ
Arabes auctores habuerunt. 4to. Göttingen.
Muratori—Antiquitates Italiæ Medii Ævi. 6 vols. Folio. Mediolani,
1740.
Paulus Diaconus—Historia Longobardorum. 8vo. Hannoveræ, 1878.
Pococke—Specimen Historiæ Arabum. 4to. Oxoniæ, 1806.
Rasmussen—Additamenta. 4to.
Reiske—Opuscula Medica ex Monimentis Arabum. 8vo. 1776.
Reiske—Sail ol Arem. 4to. Lipsiæ.
Renauldon—Historia Præcipuorum Arabum Regnorum. 4to. Hauniæ,
1817.
Rhazes—De Variolis et Morbillis. 8vo. Londini, 1766.
Rutgers—Historia Jemanæ. 4to. Lugd. Batavorum, 1838.
Sprengel—Historia Rei Herbariæ. 2 vols. 8vo. Amsteldami, 1807.
—— Tractatus Talmudici Erubhin. 4to. Lipsiæ, 1661.
Wenrich—Rerum ab Arabibis in Italia Insulisque Gestarum
Commentarii. 8vo. Lipsiæ, 1845.

GREEK.
Appianus—Historia Romana. 2 vols. 8vo. Lipsiæ, 1881.
Herodotus—Historiarum Libri IX. 8vo. Lipsiæ, 1890.
Procopius—Anekdota. 8vo. Paris, 1856.
Strabo—Geographica. 3 vols. 8vo. Lipsiæ, 1877.

HEBREW.
Akmin-Joseph-Ben—Tah-ul-Nufus (Extracts). 8vo. 1873.
Alfasi—Halakhoth-Rab-Alfas. (Exposition of the Talmud.) 4to. Oxford,
1875.
Maimonides—Selections from the Yad Hachazakah. 8vo. Cambridge,
1832.
Surenhusins—Mishna. 6 vols. Folio. Amstelædami, 1698.
—— Talmud Babli. 13 vols. 4to. Amsterdam, 1654.

ARABIC.
Abd-al-Wahid—History of the Almohades. 8vo. Leyden, 1881.
Abd-el-Rezzaq—Revelation des Enigmes. 8vo. Paris, 1874.
Aboulfeda—Annales Muslemici. 5 vols. 4to. Leipzig, 1794.
Aboulfeda—Description des Pays de Magreb. 4to. Alger, 1839.
Abulfeda—Joctanidorum Historia. 4to. Hard. Gel. 1786.
—— Ajbar Machmua. 8vo. Madrid, 1867.
Al-Bokhari—Canonical Traditions. Folio. Bombay, 1856.
Al-Ispahani—The Songs of the Arabs. 10 vols. 4to. Cairo.
Au-Makkari—Analectes sur l’Histoire et la Littérature des Arabes en
Espagne. 2 vols. 4to. Leyden, 1855.
Amrolkais—Le Divan. 4to. Paris, 1837.
Antarah—Romance. 6 vols. 8vo. Beirut, 1883.
De Sousa—Documentos Arabicos para a Historia Portuguesa. 4to.
Lisboa, 1790.
Dozy—Scriptorum Rerum Arabum de Abbadidis. 4to. Lugd.
Batavorum, 1846.
Edrisi—Description de l’Afrique et de l’Espagne. 8vo. Leyden, 1866.
Elmacin—Historia Saracenica. 4to. Lugd. Batavorum.
Faris-al-Shidiac—Voyages. 8vo. Paris, 1855.
Faruki—Legal Decisions. 2 vols. Folio. Bulak.
Grangeret de Lagrange—Anthologie Arabe. 8vo. Paris, 1828.
Hamzae Ispahanensis—Annalium Liber X. 8vo. Petropoli, 1845.
Ibn-Adhari—Histoire de l’Afrique et de l’Espagne. 2 vols. 8vo.
Leyden, 1848.
Ibn-al-Walid—The Lamp of Kings. 4to. Cairo.
Ibn-Badroun—Commentaire Historique. 8vo. Leyde, 1846.
Ibn-Batoutah—Voyages. 8vo. Cairo.
Ibn-Hajar—Biographical Dictionary. 4 vols. 8vo. Calcutta, 1853.
Ibn-Junis—Œuvres. 4to. Paris.
Ibn-Khaldun—Introduction to History. 8vo. Beirut, 1886.
—— Lois des Maures en Espagne. Folio. MS. XII. Century.
Macoudi—Les Prairies d’Or. 9 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1861.
Mohammed—Al Koran. 8vo. Leipzig, 1881.
Muhammed-Alfergani—Elementa Astronomica. 4to.
Sharastani—Book of the Religious and Philosophical Sects. 2 vols.
8vo. 1842.
Wright—Opuscula Arabica. 8vo. Leyden, 1859.
Wüstenfeld—Das Leben Muhammeds. 3 vols. 8vo. Göttingen, 1859.
Wüstenfeld—Die Chroniken der Stadt Mecca. 4 vols. 8vo. Leipzig,
1858.
HISTORY OF THE MOORISH EMPIRE IN EUROPE
 CHAPTER I
THE ANCIENT ARABIANS

b.c. 2500–a.d. 614

Topography of Arabia—Its History—Influence of Other Nations—

Ancient Civilization—-Commerce—Persistence of Customs and
Language—Character of the Bedouin—His Independence—His
Predatory Instincts—Power of Tribal Connection—War the
Normal Condition of Existence in the Desert—The Virtues and
Vices of the Arab—Blood-Revenge and its Destructive
Consequences—Absence of Caste—Condition of Woman—
Marriage—Religion—Astral Worship—Idolatry—Phallicism—
Human Sacrifices—Importance and Power of the Jews—
Christianity in Arabia—Poetry, its Subjects and Character—The
Moallakat—-Popularity of the Arab Poet—His License—Influence
of Arabic Civilization and Culture on Subsequent Ages.
Few countries of the globe present to the eye of the traveller so
desolate, so forbidding an aspect as that vast and arid peninsula
which, embracing an area of more than a million square miles,
stretches away through twenty-four degrees of latitude, from the
confines of the Syrian Desert to the shores of the Indian Ocean. Its
surface, while far from possessing the monotonous character with
which popular fancy is accustomed to invest it, is, for the greater part
of its extent, destitute of those physical advantages which tempt
either the cupidity or the enterprise of man. Its coasts are low and
unhealthy. Its harbors are few and unsafe. Its mineral resources are
to this day unexplored and unknown. Its impenetrable deserts,
guarded by a fierce and martial population, have always set at
defiance the best-matured plans of invasion and conquest. In the
principality of Yemen, appropriately named The Happy, the
cultivation of the soil has flourished from time immemorial, but in
almost every other province the returns of agricultural labor are
discouraging and unremunerative. Illimitable wastes of sand, over
which sweeps the deadly blast of the simoom; mountains, bald,
craggy, and volcanic, whose slopes are destitute of every trace of
vegetable life; plains strewn with blocks of tufa and basalt; valleys
dotted here and there with stunted shrubs, or encrusted with a saline
deposit similar to that upon the shores of the Dead Sea; a soil
impregnated with nitre; such are, and have been from prehistoric
times, the physical features of the Arabian Peninsula. No stream
worthy of the name of river, dispensing wealth and fertility in its
winding course to the sea, flows through this dreary and inhospitable
land. Wherever a spring was found, a permanent settlement arose,
and the black tents of the Bedouin gave place to huts of sun-dried
bricks, while the dignity of the sheik, who now aspired to the title of
prince, was satisfied with a dwelling superior to those of his subjects
only in point of size. The oasis, generally suggestive of shady groves
and purling streams, is often, in reality, nothing more than the dry
bed of a mountain torrent, along whose borders a little withered
vegetation furnishes the hardy camel with pasture, and where a
scanty supply of brackish water can, by laborious digging, be
obtained. Overhead glitters a sky of brass, unflecked by a single
cloud, and, morning and evening, the rays of the sun, mellowed and
refracted by the vapors of the earth, clothe every elevation with
scarlet, azure, and violet tints which, blended in exquisite harmony,
rival the splendors of the rainbow; developing, under the effects of
radiation, optical illusions and charming pictures of the mirage,
attributed by superstitious ignorance to the influence of
enchantment. The unbroken stillness of the Desert, the wide
expanse of uninhabited territory, produce a sense of mental
depression, accompanied by an apprehension of danger from the
convulsions of nature and the violence of man, which no experience
seems able to remove; affecting even the sturdy camel-driver,
familiar with these solitudes from childhood, who shudders as he
urges his string of panting beasts over the drifted sand-heaps and
through the mountain fastness, the reputed haunt of evil genii and
the vantage ground from whence the murderous banditti oft beset
the caravan. So deeply-rooted and tenacious is this feeling that the
Arab regards a journey successfully performed as just cause for
congratulation, and indeed not inferior to a triumph, as is indicated
by his familiar proverb, “Travel is a victory.”
 The modern geographical division of Arabia into The Stony, The
Desert, The Happy is arbitrary, and unknown to the people the
boundaries of whose country it purports to establish. The distinctions
between the various tribes of the Peninsula have always been
determined by mode of life, habits, and tradition rather than by the
accident of locality; have been, in fact, rather personal than
territorial. This peculiarity is the result of an extraordinary persistence
of a national type which neither a new physical environment, nor the
change of political and economic conditions, nor the lapse of
centuries has been able to modify sensibly, still less to eradicate
completely. Hence has arisen the division of the Arabian people into
two classes, nomadic and sedentary, the only one universally
recognized by them, and whose line of demarcation has always
been sharply defined.
The primordial story of Arabia is lost in the unfathomable
darkness of antiquity. The annals of no people are involved in more
uncertainty or present greater difficulties in their investigation than
those of the Bedouins, as the popular accounts which we possess of
their early history bear unquestionable indications of recent date and
fictitious origin. Ignorant of the art of writing for centuries before the
time of Mohammed, their traditions were orally transmitted, and, in
addition to being necessarily subject to all the defects of this mode of
communication, were colored by that love of exaggeration and
falsehood which seems to be an integral part of the Oriental
character. The meagre hints which can be gleaned from these
unsatisfactory materials are all that we can rely upon in the almost
hopeless attempt to construct a chronological and historical outline
of pre-Islamic events. The statements of Moslem writers concerning
these events must be subjected to rigid criticism. They suppressed
many facts, and condemned indiscriminately the practices of their
heathen ancestors; although they knew that the Prophet drew his
inspiration largely from this source, and that Islamism could never
have been established without the acceptance of many of these
idolatrous ceremonies in all their integrity. As far as can at present
be determined by the aid of the imperfect and suspicious data at our
command, and by a comparison of the physical and mental
characteristics of surrounding nations, Arabia has long been a base
of extensive emigration, chiefly into Central Asia; while her southern
and eastern provinces have, from the days when some famished
Bedouin first discovered the marvellous fertility enjoyed by the Valley
of the Nile, been the prolific source from whence Egypt recruited her
diminishing population.
On the other hand, the influence of neighboring countries upon
Arabia has been attended, in its turn, with consequences of the
greatest importance. It was peculiarly fortunate that her geographical
situation rendered her maritime cities—and in a still greater degree
her interior settlements—entrepôts for the distribution of the luxuries
of the East and West. Of the latter, in ancient times, and indeed until
superseded by the doubtful advantages of Mecca, Petra was the
most remarkable. The latter was a veritable troglodytic city. Its
dwellings, excavated in the solid rock, disclose by their vast extent
that at one time they must have sheltered a population of at least a
hundred and sixty thousand souls. Nor was Petra the only town of
this kind in Northern Arabia. Many others almost rivalled it in size
and opulence, in the splendid architecture of their temples, in the
vast ramifications of their commercial interests, in the sybaritic luxury
of their inhabitants. Under such conditions a high degree of
civilization must necessarily have been reached, which, however,
had disappeared with the decline of Phœnician influence at a period
long before the dawn of the Christian era. From an epoch not
improbably coeval with the establishment of the first Egyptian
dynasty there had been an almost incessant passing and repassing
of strangers, attracted by the profits of the Ethiopian and Indian
trade, upon the highways, which in every direction traversed the
Peninsula. This continual intercourse with foreigners, the curious
information of distant lands which the latter imparted, the mysterious
dogmas of unknown faiths which they professed, their extensive
learning and polished manners, insensibly enlarged the sphere of
observation and activity, developed the mental faculties, and
softened the rudeness of the wild tribes of the Desert. Many of these
traders were Phœnicians and Jews whom a common origin,
indicated, among other traits, by a striking similarity of language,
brought at once into familiar and intimate contact. with the Arabs.
The commercial intercourse of Arabia with Egypt is known from
inscriptions to have existed for thirty-five hundred years before
Christ, and that with Phœnicia may, not improbably, have been of
equal antiquity.
No greater contrast can be imagined than that presented by the
respective lives of the Arabs and their neighbors and kindred, the
denizens of the Valley of the Nile. The actions of the former, like
those of all pastoral nations, were irregular, uncertain, capricious.
The existence of the latter was controlled by the unvarying
phenomena of the Great River, whose influence was perceptible in
every phase of political, religious, and social life; whose inundations
were symbolical of prosperity, and whose rise was announced by the
celestial messenger Sirius, the most magnificent star in the heavens.
The subjects of the Pharaohs were dependent upon Arabia for the
gums and aromatics so extensively used in embalming; and these
precious substances, which must have been produced far more
abundantly then than now, were also exported to Phœnicia and
Palestine, whence considerable quantities annually found their way
into Europe to be consumed in sacrificial ceremonies, in the service
of medicine, and in the ostentatious pomp of patrician luxury.
The maritime and agricultural advantages possessed by the
southern coast of the Peninsula—designated by the Romans as
Arabia the Happy, and afterwards, by the natives, as Yemen, “The
Country on the Right Hand” (because the speaker was supposed to
stand at Mecca)—had enabled that region to attain to a degree of
prosperity and civilization unknown to the pastoral settlements of the
interior. Nothing can now be ascertained concerning the early history
of Yemen, the royal genealogies of whose sovereigns nevertheless
include a period of twenty-two hundred years. Nor can speculation,
with any degree of probability, assign even an approximate date to
the beginning of its commercial relations with the East. Not only did
the bold and adventurous spirit of the Arabian sailors lead them to
the extreme Orient, but their coasting vessels regularly visited the
shores of the Persian Gulf and the bays and inlets of the African
coast; undertakings far more hazardous, if not more lucrative, than
voyages to distant Hindustan. From the latter country the native and
foreign merchants introduced, with articles of traffic, many idolatrous
practices and dogmas of a corrupt philosophy, destined
subsequently to manifest the powerful hold they had obtained upon
the popular mind by their incorporation into the creed of Islam.
All classic writers who have written upon the subject agree in
attributing great wealth to Southern Arabia, a land familiar to
antiquity as Saba, or Sheba. Herodotus, Strabo, and Pliny frequently
allude to it as the richest country on the globe. Its agricultural
resources, dependent upon a vast and intricate hydraulic system
which embraced hundreds of leagues of productive territory, were
the principal basis of its prosperity. Its streams were confined by
massive walls of masonry of cyclopean dimensions and by great
embankments. One of these reservoirs was eighteen miles in circuit
and a hundred and twenty feet deep. Its stones were laid in bitumen
and bolted together with iron rods. Many others, inferior in
dimensions and of not less solid construction, collected and retained
the melted snows of the mountains. The flow of water was regulated
by sluices, and its apportionment rigidly prescribed by law. This
thorough system of irrigation, applied to a soil of prodigious fertility
under a tropical sun, eventually produced results rivalling those of
the vaunted plantations of Babylonia. An innumerable population,
distributed throughout this favored territory in hundreds of cities and
villages, carried to its highest perfection the cultivation of the soil.
The daily expenses of the royal household were fifteen Babylonian
talents, eighty-five thousand five hundred dollars of our money. It is
related that Mareb, the capital, stood in a vast expanse of perennial
verdure, where the branches of the trees, touching each other,
formed a vault of continuous shade over the highways, of such
extent that a horseman would require a journey of two months’
duration to traverse the cultivated portion of the realm of the
monarchs of Saba. One of the latter was the famous Queen Balkis,
the friend and admirer of Solomon.
In a region so fortunately situated for commerce, mercantile
activity kept pace with agricultural development. The merchants of
Saba enjoyed a reputation for shrewdness, ability, wealth, and
enterprise not inferior to that of the Phœnicians themselves. They
engaged in transactions involving immense pecuniary investments.
They despatched great fleets to China. Their caravans traversed the
Syrian and African deserts. They exported to Persia annually a
thousand talents weight of frankincense. Not only did they purchase
directly the commodities in which they dealt, but they also bought
and sold extensively on commission. Their warehouses were filled
with the rich products of a score of climes; silver vessels; ingots of
copper, tin, iron, and lead; honey and wax; silks, ivory, ebony, coral,
agates; civet, musk, myrrh, camphor, and other aromatics, some of
which were worth many times their weight in gold. Such was their
prodigal luxury that only sandal-wood and cinnamon were used as
fuel in the preparation of their food. The vegetable kingdom
contributed no insignificant share to the commercial wealth of
Southern Arabia. Coffee, indigenous to the Peninsula, was exported
as a luxury to the provinces of Asia. In that dry climate, where
flourished every known variety of cereals, grain could be stored
without injury for thirty years. The cotton-plant, the sugar-cane, the
cocoa-palm, yielded enormous revenues to those who engaged in
their culture. The balsam of Mecca, the gum Arabic, the sap of the
Acacia Vera, and the famed frankincense were also important
articles of export. The country was reputed to be rich in minerals;
inexhaustible deposits of salt existed in Saba; gold was found in the
mountains; but Arabia produced no iron, which Strabo says in his
time was equal in value to the precious metals. The pearl fisheries of
the coast, opposite to the Isles of Bahrein, were unrivalled for the
beauty and value of their products.
For an unknown period, embracing, however, many centuries, the
prosperity of the kingdom of Saba continued. Then it suddenly
declined; a general emigration took place, and the former paradise
was transformed into an uninhabited desert. The cause of this great
and profound change, involving the desolation of a vast region and
the dispersion of an entire people, is hidden in obscurity. The puerile
fables which attribute it to a threatened inundation from the rupture
of a dike are unworthy of notice. It is probable that this calamity was
mainly due to the diversion of the caravan traffic to the channels of
the Red Sea, to the abandonment of stations, to the cessation of
revenue, and to the consequent dearth of the means of subsistence.
Foreign wars or domestic convulsions, which, aided by increasing
luxury and subsequent weakness, also contributed to drain the
resources and exhaust the population of the kingdom, may have
hastened the ultimate catastrophe that is supposed to have occurred
during the first century of the Christian era.
From this epoch the traditions of the Arabs become more and
more confused. Some tribes seem to have emigrated to
Mesopotamia, others to have settled in the vicinity of Medina, then
called Yathreb, where they intermarried with the Jews already
established in that city. We know nothing further of Arabian annals till
the promulgation of the faith of Islam began a new chapter in the
history of nations. Before the Hegira no date could be fixed with
certainty, as there was no chronological system by which to
ascertain the year of an historical occurrence, and no public or
private records existed to preserve it. But a step beyond the
unreliable transmission of past events by tradition were the
inscriptions occasionally made upon the shoulder-blades of animals.
Not only was the material indispensable to the scribe entirely
wanting, but the ability to use it was possessed by only an
insignificant number of the people. Among the nomadic Bedouins
contempt for literary accomplishments, except that of
extemporaneous poetical composition, universally prevailed. Even in
the great commercial city of Mecca, at the time of the publication of
the Koran, there was but one man who could write. It was not without
reason that Mohammed designated the long and obscure period
preceding the Hegira, the Age of Ignorance.
Arabia, alone among the countries accessible to the ambition of
the powerful sovereigns of antiquity, escaped the humiliation of
conquest. The genius of Alexander had planned its subjugation, but
death prevented the realization of his vast, perhaps impracticable,
design. The legions of Augustus, trained under the discipline of the
greatest of the Cæsars, proved unequal to the task of triumphing
over a region where the soil, the elements, and the valor of its
defenders formed a combination invincible by human prowess. The
Persians, for a period of insignificant duration, occupied the western
and southern coasts, having previously expelled the Abyssinians,
who had invaded and retained a portion of Yemen during the sixth
century. No nation, however, was ever able to claim supremacy over
any considerable portion of the Arabian Peninsula. For this immunity
it was indebted not only to the natural obstacles which defied the
advance and the maintenance of an invading army, but also to the
superstitious fears with which cunning and credulity had surrounded
its name. It was a land of mysterious portents and prodigies, whose
borders were guarded by malignant demons; whose deserts, all but
impenetrable to the boldest adventurer, were inhabited by cannibal
giants and monstrous birds of prey that watched over treasures
placed by evil spirits under the spell of enchantment. Every caravan
that left Phœnicia for Central Arabia carried quantities of storax,
which the Tyrian merchants declared was burnt in the neighborhood
of the frankincense shrubs, that its offensive fumes might drive away
the winged serpents which were their custodians. The climate was
said to be so pestilential that slaves and criminals alone were
employed to gather the precious gum, their liberty being conditional
upon their success. These politic inventions, implicitly believed by
the ignorant, while they insured to the shrewd traders of Phœnicia a
monopoly of the valuable products of the Peninsula, exercised no
inconsiderable influence over the popular mind of the ancients, and
clothed the Desert with terrors which even the reputation and
allurements of its prodigious wealth were unable entirely to
overcome.
As a result of its exemption from foreign dominion, no other
country has preserved the integrity of its customs, its language, and
the personality of its inhabitants to such a degree as Arabia. It alone
still presents a picture of the government and the domestic economy
of patriarchal antiquity. Its manners are those which prevailed
centuries before the time of Abraham. The wonderfully sonorous and
flexible idiom of the Koran was already formed before the Bible or
the Iliad was written. The absolute immobility of the Arabian in his
native haunts, contrasted with his ready adaptation to diametrically
opposite conditions elsewhere, is one of the most striking anomalies
of human character. The influence of Greece and Rome, whose
taste in art and maxims of government have left their traces
wherever either the valor or the enterprise of those nations has been
able to obtain a foothold, is not perceptible in the political or
domestic history of Arabia. No ruins of any majestic structure raised
by the master-hand of the Athenian or Roman architect have ever
been discovered in the great Peninsula, the accounts of whose
commercial wealth were matters of popular faith and wonder
throughout the ancient world. And, what is probably a more
conclusive indication of the permanent absence of foreign influence
than any other, however plausible, no name with a Greek or Latin
termination has survived in the dialects of those Arabian settlements
most intimately associated with the trade of Europe for many
centuries.
This inflexibility of national peculiarities becomes invaluable in
tracing the causes of the decay and disruption of the great Moslem
empires which subsequently dominated so large a portion of the
globe. The ethnography of a people who have stamped their
characteristics deeply upon succeeding ages; whose customs, laws,
and language have, to a certain degree, survived their dominion; the
analogy between the religious dogmas which they professed and
those which have supplanted them; the play of passions, destructive
or beneficent, exhibited by those rulers whom hereditary descent or
the accident of fortune raised to supreme authority; the development
of the transplanted race, its precocious maturity, the lasting effects of
its intellectual supremacy, and its slow but inevitable decline, are
circumstances well deserving the attentive scrutiny of the
philosophical historian. The absence of reliable information renders
impossible an accurate conception of the mental and physical traits
of the Arab of two thousand years ago. But, as we know the extreme
conservatism of Orientals, their pronounced aversion to change, the
obstinate persistence of their traditions, and the general outlines of
their character, we may with safety assume that the shepherd who
now roams over the desert plateaus of Nejd and Oman is the
intellectual counterpart of the Amalekite of the Bible, and that the
Arab whose features are sculptured upon the eternal walls of Edfou
and Karnak did not differ in any material respect from the predatory
Bedouin of to-day. It is a strange anomaly in a land, the greater
portion of which, either through the obduracy of Nature or the
indolence of its inhabitants, had been for ages condemned to eternal
sterility and isolated by sea and desert from contemporaneous
civilization, to encounter a race whose genius was capable of at
once adapting itself, with equal facility, to the formation and
development of an agricultural system surpassing that of any other
people, ancient or modern; to the invention of mechanical devices of
marvellous ingenuity; to the solution of the most abstruse
mathematical problems; to the perfection of a graceful and exquisite
order of architecture, unique in design, infinite in detail, remarkable
in execution, unrivalled in beauty of ornament; to the protracted
investment of cities and the attainment and exercise of that
proficiency in the intricate system of military tactics indispensable to
success in the art of war; to the foundation and the preservation of
empires. A long and tedious apprenticeship is usually required for
the attainment to perfection in any of these accomplishments; but the
versatile Arab seemed, by intuition, to be able to grasp them all,
without previous experience or instruction. In literature, as well, was
this pre-eminence of genius disclosed. Poetry was the sole form of
literary manifestation appreciated by the Arabic mind; improvisation
the only talent it deemed worthy of applause. Even among the most
intelligent, nothing deserving of the name of history was preserved;
and the genealogies upon which the Arabs prided themselves were
merely interminable lists of barbarians of local or tribal celebrity, and
dreary catalogues of idols. Yet their predatory hordes effected a
great intellectual revolution in every country which submitted to their
sway. In addition to their own memorable achievements, they
developed and expanded, to the utmost, the mental faculties of their
subjects and tributaries. By precept and example, they aroused the
emulation and rewarded the efforts of all who struggled to escape
from the fetters of ignorance which had been riveted by the
superstition and prejudice of ages passed in ignominious servitude.
Their conquests in the world of letters offer a far more noble title to
renown than the laurels won on fields of appalling carnage or the
prestige acquired by the subjugation of vast provinces and
kingdoms. To the finest literary productions of modern times does
this subtle intellectual power extend. The impress of Arabian genius
can be detected in the novels of Boccaccio, in the romances of
Cervantes, in the philosophy of Voltaire, in the “Principia” of Newton,
in the tragedies of Shakspeare. Its domain is coincident with the
boundaries of modern civilization, its influence imperishable in its
character.
These far-reaching results are neither derived from spontaneous
impulse nor are they of fortuitous origin. They indicate unmistakably
a gradual and incessant advance through long periods of time. The
inexorable laws which control the destiny of man require a transition
through many connected forms, insensibly merging into each other,
eventually to effect radical changes in the mental and physical
characteristics of individuals and nations. The evolution of a race,
like the development of architectural construction, is slow but
progressive. The union between the foundation and the
superstructure is evident, although the former may not at the first
glance be visible. A great distance separates the barbaric sheik of
pre-Islamic Arabia and the powerful and enlightened khalifs of
Bagdad and Cordova. Yet both the Abbaside and the Ommeyade
dynasties traced their lineage directly to the Bedouin robbers, who,
each year, waylaid the Mecca caravan. There is no apparent
resemblance between the rude structures of prehistoric antiquity and
the matchless edifices erected by Athenian genius and skill. It cannot
be disputed, however, that the unhewn and misshapen shaft of the
cyclopean quarry, which had neither fluting nor volute, base nor
capital, was the architectural prototype of the superb columns which
adorned the temples of ancient Greece and Rome. In view of the
rapid advance of the Arabs under Mohammed’s successors, we are
forced to concede to their pagan ancestors not only intellectual
powers of the highest order, apparently inconsistent with the
degraded conditions of savage life, but also an extraordinary
capacity for political organization and for the practical application of
the principles of every art beneficial to mankind; talents
unconsciously formed and dormant through countless generations; a
fact which may well excite the admiration of every scholar, and of
which history in previous or subsequent times affords no example.
The Arabs, despite their apparent barbarism, occupy no
contemptible place in the annals of antiquity. They conquered Egypt,
and, under the dynasty of the Shepherd Kings, governed that
country for many centuries. One of their race, enlisted as a private
soldier, was, by a series of rapid promotions, raised to the throne of
the Roman empire. Their cavalry fought with conspicuous distinction
in the imperial armies. More than once the valor of Bedouin
mercenaries determined the fate of the Persian monarchy. They
constituted the greater part of the forces of Zenobia, Queen of
Palmyra, in her desperate struggle with Aurelian. Under whatever
banner they served, their courage and tenacity of purpose were
never questioned. It must be admitted, however, that their fidelity
was not beyond suspicion, and that, only too frequently, the name of
Arab was a synonym of treachery.
The most remarkable peculiarity of Arabian life is its restless
energy. The continuance of this condition from primeval times
explains many of the distinctive traits so prominent in the character
of the race. The well-known relation existing between commercial
activity and civilized habits was powerless to change the existence of
the nomadic Arab. His predatory instinct was always stronger than
the attractions of sedentary comfort and opulence. Familiarity with
Oriental luxury only increased his contempt for those who enjoyed it.
His vagrant impulse carried him everywhere. He fearlessly
penetrated the mysterious depths of the Libyan Desert. He served in
the armies of Hindustan. He was enrolled in the Prætorian Guards,
where his natural rapacity was gratified and stimulated by the
donatives received for the ignominious sale of the imperial throne.
For a considerable time before the advent of Mohammed, an
increasing spirit of unrest had characterized the Arabs. With roving
and predatory tastes, there could, of course, be no attachment to the
soil,—a condition, indeed, regarded by the Bedouin as a badge of
servitude. It required centuries to correct this prejudice; but no
change of residence, no association with populations long civilized,
or even the adoption of a new polity, the admonitions of a new
religion, and the powerful attractions of affluence and ease, were
ever able to eradicate the spirit of individual independence and tribal
hostility which were the most prominent features of the Arabian
character. These national peculiarities repeatedly threatened the
existence of both the Eastern and Western Khalifates in the days of
their greatest splendor. They intensified the bitterness which marked
the struggles of rival princes for empire. They promoted and
sustained the feuds of the nobility. They lurked under the tattered
garments of the infuriated zealot. In the minds of the populace these
feelings were scarcely ever concealed. They manifested themselves
continually in personal quarrels, in the violence of mobs, in religious
tumults, in insurrections, in the commission of frightful atrocities.
They were potent factors in the destruction of mediæval Moslem
civilization wherever established, and especially is this true of the
Hispano-Arab domination, the most advanced, if not the most
despotic, of them all. The temperament of the Arab, impetuous, fiery,
vindictive, though admirably fitted for conquest, was deficient in
those qualities of broad statesmanship and impartial discrimination
vitally essential to the security and maintenance of government.
Those who enjoyed the highest privileges of individual freedom were
the mountaineers, who, in their inaccessible haunts, inured to
privation, skilled in all manly exercises, and ignorant of luxury, clung
with obstinate tenacity to their idols, and defied all attempts of the
Prophet to convert or subdue them. Nor did Islam enlist her
adherents in the purlieus of crowded cities. In Pagan as in Moslem
Arabia, trade and religion were closely associated. The sympathies
of the organized community were with the ancient religion, which
contributed to its wealth, its employment, its personal profit, and its
social distinction. The merchants and their numerous dependents
looked coldly upon a revelation which menaced their revenues and
their importance. The priesthood, recruited from the noblest families
of the Peninsula, fostered this prejudice with an ardor born of
instinctive hatred and professional pride. These two classes,
therefore, contributed little to the propagation of the new doctrines; it
was the wild hordes of the Desert that conquered the world.
The Himyarite inscriptions, recently deciphered, have established
the fact that, at an unknown epoch, two migratory populations, one
proceeding from the North, the other from the South, came together
in their course, and were so blended by association and
intermarriage as to form, in a short time, a single people. This rapid
fusion points to a common racial derivation, and it is not improbable
that the northern division were the Canaanites expelled by the sword
of Joshua.