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 Fig. 299.—A Longitudinal section of a Cocoanut (diminished),
the inner layer only (the stone) not being divided B End view of the
stone, showing the sutures for the 3 carpels (a), and the 3 germ-
pores; the embryo emerges from the lowest one when germination
begins. C Germinating; inside the stone is seen the hollow
endosperm and the enlarging cotyledon.
3. Cocoineæ. With pinnate leaves. Monœcious inflorescence.
The carpels are united into a 3-locular ovary. The fruit is most
frequently 1-locular, only 1 of the loculi becoming developed, rarely
3-locular; it is a drupe with a large, fibrous, external layer (mesocarp)
and most frequently a very hard inner layer (endocarp, stone) which
has 3 germ-pores, the 2 of these, however, which correspond to the
suppressed loculi are closed; internal to the third lies the small
embryo (Fig. 299). Endosperm containing abundance of oil. Cocos
(the Cocoanut-palm), Attalea, Elæis, Acrocomia, Bactris.
 4. Lepidocaryinæ. The floral-leaves and flowers are borne in 2
rows on the spadix. The carpels are united into one 3-locular ovary;
the fruit is coated by a layer of hard, shining, imbricate scales. The
majority of the species are thorny, and climb by means of the thorny
leaves. Some have fan-like (Mauritia), others pinnate leaves
(Raphia, Calamus, Eugeissonia, Metroxylon; the stems of the latter
die after the first flowering).
5. Borassinæ. Large Fan-palms without thorns, with 3-locular ovary. Drupe with
separate stones. Latania and Lodoicea have many stamens; Hyphæne; Borassus
(Palmyra-palm).
6. Arecineæ. The most numerous group. Feather-palms. Berry. Areca, Euterpe,
Oreodoxa, Ceroxylon, Chamædorea, Geonoma, Caryota with bipinnate leaves.
7. Phytelephantinæ. Flowers with rudimentary perianth united in close
capitula. Phytelephas (Vegetable-ivory). Nipa.
Distribution. About 1,100 species are known. In Europe only the Dwarf-palm
(Chamærops humilis) is wild (Western Mediterranean). The Date palm (Phœnix
dactylifera) belongs to North Africa and West Asia. Other African genera are
Hyphæne (Doum-palm) and Elæis (E. guineensis, Oil-palm). A large majority of
the genera are found in South America and in the East Indies. The following are
American:—Mauritia, Acrocomia, Bactris, Chamædorea, Oreodoxa, Euterpe,
Attalea, etc. Asiatic:—Metroxylon, Calamus, Areca, Borassus, Lodoicea (“Double-
cocoanuts,” Seychelles) and others. The Cocoanut-palm has perhaps an American
origin; all the other species of the same genus being endemic in America; it is the
only Palm found on the coral islands of the Pacific Ocean, and is also the only one
which is common to both hemispheres.
Uses. Palms belong to the most useful plants; they contain no poison, and are
of little medicinal interest, but are largely employed in the arts and manufactures,
the hard timber being adapted for many purposes on account of the hard tissue in
which the vascular bundles are embedded. “Cane” is the stem of Calamus-species
(from India). Sago is obtained from the pith of Metroxylon rumphii (Sago-palm,
Sunda-Is., Moluccas), Mauritia flexuosa, etc. Sugar-containing sap (“palm wine”) is
obtained from the American Mauritia vinifera and flexuosa, Borassus flabelliformis
(Asiatic Palmyra-palm), Arenga saccharifera, etc., by cutting off the young
inflorescences, or by perforating the stem before the flowering (arrack is distilled
from this). Vascular strands for the manufacture of mats and brushes, etc., are
obtained from the outer covering (mesocarp) of the Cocoanut, and from the
detached leaf-sheaths of Attalea funifera (Brazil) (Fig. 296). Wax is yielded by the
leaves of Copernicia cerifera (carnaueba-wax, Amazon region), and by the stem of
Ceroxylon andicola (palm-wax, Andes); East Indian Dragon’s blood is from the fruit
of Calamus draco; the young buds of many species, especially Euterpe, Cocos,
Attalea, etc., are used as “cabbage.” Palm-oil is obtained from the oily mesocarp of
the plum-like fruits of Elæis guineensis (W. Africa), and from the seeds, when it is
largely used in the manufacture of soap. Edible Fruits from the Date-palm
(Phœnix dactylifera, Arabia, Egypt, W. Africa), and the endosperm of the Cocoanut
(Cocos nucifera). The seeds and the unripe fruits of the Areca-palm (Areca
catechu) are chewed with the leaves of the Betelpeper, principally in Asia.
Vegetable Ivory from the hard endosperm of Phytelephas macrocarpa (S.
America.)—Many species are cultivated in the tropics as ornamental plants, but in
this country only Chamærops humilis, Livistona australis and chinensis are
generally grown. In addition to the few just mentioned, many others are of
importance, but these are much the most useful.
Order 2. Cyclanthaceæ. This is a small order related to the Palms (44 species
from Tropical America), with fan-like, folded leaves. The flowers are unisexual and
arranged in whorls or close spirals on an unbranched spadix. Ovary unilocular,
ovules numerous. To this belongs Carludovica palmata, whose leaves are used for
Panama hats.
Order 3. Pandanaceæ (Screw-pines) is another small order, forming a
transition to the Araceæ. The woody, (apparently) dichotomous stem is supported
by a large number of aerial roots, which sometimes entirely support it when the
lower portion of the stem has decayed. The leaves are closely crowded together,
and arranged on the branches in three rows, which are often obliquely displaced,
with the formation of three spiral lines; they are, as in the Bromeliaceæ,
amplexicaul, long, linear, the edge and lower midrib often provided with thorns.
The ♂-flowers are borne in branched, the ♀ in unbranched spadices or capitula,
which resemble those of Sparganium, but have no floral-leaves. Perianth absent.
The drupes or berries unite into multiple fruits.—About 80 species in the islands of
the Indian Ocean.—Pandanus, Freycinetia.—Fossils perhaps in the chalk of the
Harz.
Order 4. Typhaceæ. The flowers are unisexual, monœcious, and
borne on a cylindrical spike or globose capitulum; ♂ inflorescences
above, the ♀ below. The perianth consists of a definite number of
scales (Sparganium), or in its place numerous irregularly-arranged
hairs are found (Typha); in the ♂ -flower there are generally three
stamens; the gynœceum is formed of 1–2 carpels with 1 prolonged
style; 1 pendulous ovule. The seeds are furnished with a seed-cover,
which is cast off on germination.—The few species (about 20) which
belong to this order are marsh plants with creeping rhizome (and
hence grow in clusters); the leaves on the aerial shoots are borne in
two rows, entire, very long and linear.
 Sparganium (Bur-reed). The flowers are borne in globose
capitula; the perianth distinct, generally consisting of 3 small scales;
pistil bicarpellate. Drupe, dry and woody. The stalk of the lower ♀ capitula
is sometimes united with the main axis, and consequently the capitula are situated
high above their subtending-leaf.
Typha (Bulrush, Reed-mace) has a long, cylindrical, brown spike,
the lower portion bearing ♀-flowers, and the upper ♂-flowers, which
is divided into joints by alternate leaves. The ♀ -flowers have 1
carpel. The perianth is wanting, represented by a number of fine,
irregularly-placed hairs; pistil unicarpellate. Fruit a nut.
The two genera, according to some, are related to the 2nd order. In both genera
native species are found. The pollination is effected by the wind, and consequently
the anthers project considerably, and the stigma is large and hairy. Typha is
protandrous, Sparganium protogynous. The small, fine hairs surrounding the nut of
Typha assist in its distribution by the wind.—Fossil Typhas in the Tertiary.
Order 5. Araceæ (Arums). The flowers are small, and always
borne without bracts or bracteoles on an unbranched, often very
fleshy spike, which is enclosed by a spathe, often petaloid and
coloured (Fig. 301). The fruit is a berry. Outer integument of the seed
fleshy.—The leaves have generally sheath, stalk, and blade with
distinctly reticulate venation; they are chiefly cordate or sagittate
(Fig. 302), seldom long with parallel venation as in the other
Monocotyledons (Acorus, Fig. 300). The Araceæ are quite glabrous,
generally perennial herbs with tubers or rhizomes. Many have latex.
—For the rest the structure of these plants varies; for example, while
some have a perianth, in others it is wanting; in some the perianth-
leaves are free, in others united; some have hermaphrodite flowers,
but the majority unisexual (monœcious); some have free, others
united stamens; the ovules are orthotropous, anatropous, or
campylotropous, erect or pendulous; the ovary is 1–many-locular;
some have seeds with endosperm, others without. In habit there are
great differences. While some, e.g. Colocasia (Fig. 302), have a thick, more or less
upright stem, with leaf-scars, but not woody, others are climbers, epiphytic, and
maintain themselves firmly by means of adventitious roots, on the stems and
branches of trees, or even on steep rocks, e.g. Philodendron; the cordate,
penninerved leaf is the most common (Fig. 302), but various branched forms
appear; the pedate leaves of Helicophyllum, Dracunculus, etc., are cymosely
branched; the leaves of Monstera deliciosa, perforated by tearing, should be
noticed (the vascular bundles while in the bud grow faster than the tissue between
them, causing the latter to be torn, and the leaf perforated). With regard to the
anatomical structure, the presence or absence of latex, raphides, resin-passages,
groups of mucilage-cells should be noted. Engler makes use of these anatomical
peculiarities for a scientific arrangement of the order.

A. Orontieæ, Calamus-group. ☿, hypogynous flowers of a

completely formed monocotyledonous type (number in the whorls 2,
3, or 4).—Acorus (A. calamus, Sweet-flag) has a regular, 3-merous,
pentacyclic flower (Fig. 300 C, D). They are marsh-plants, with
creeping rhizome, triangular stem, and long, sword-like leaves (Fig.
300 A); the inflorescence is terminal, apparently lateral, being
pushed to one side by the upright, sword-like spathe (Fig. 300 B).—
Anthurium (Pr2+2, A2+2, G2); Pothos; Orontium (unilocular ovary with one ovule),
etc.
 Fig. 300.—Acorus calamus: A
habit (much reduced); B
inflorescence; C a flower; D
diagram; E longitudinal section of
an ovary; F an ovule.
 Fig. 301.—Arum maculatum.
The spathe (h) in B is
longitudinally divided.

B. Calleæ. Flowers hypogynous, naked, ☿.—Calla (C. palustris).

All flowers in the spike are fertile, or the upper ones are ♂ ; 6–9
stamens; ovary unilocular with many basal ovules. Marsh-plants with
creeping rhizome and cordate leaves.—Monstera, Rhaphidophora,
etc.
 Fig. 302.—Colocasia Boryi.
C. Arineæ. Flowers monœcious, naked, ♂-flowers on the upper,
♀ on the lower part of the spadix.—Arum (Fig. 301). The spadix
terminates in a naked, club-like portion (k); below this is a number of
sessile bodies (rudimentary flowers), with broad bases and
prolonged, pointed tips (b); underneath these are the ♂-flowers (m),
each consisting only of 3–4 short stamens, which eject vermiform
pollen-masses through the terminal pores; then follow, last of all, ♀-
flowers (f), each of which consists of one unilocular ovary, with
several ovules. Perennial herbs, tuberous, with cordate leaves.—
Dracunculus; Biarum; Arisarum; Pinellia (Atherurus) ternata with leaves bearing 1–
2 buds. Zantedeschia æthiopica (Richardia, Nile-lily); ♂ , 2–3 stamens; ♀ with 3
staminodes, 1–5-locular ovary (S. Africa.)—In some genera sterile flowers are
present between the ♂ and ♀ portions of the spadix (e.g. in Philodendron); in
Ambrosinia a lateral, wing-like broadening of the axis of the spadix divides the
cavity of the spathe into two chambers, the anterior containing one ♀ , and the
posterior 8–10 ♂ -flowers in two series; in some the stamens in the single ♂ -
flowers unite and form a columnar “synandrium” (e.g. in Dieffenbachia, Colocasia,
Alocasia, Caladium, Taccarum, Syngonium). A remarkable spadix is found in
Spathicarpa; it is united for its entire length, on one side, with the spathe, and the
flowers are arranged upon it in rows, the ♀ to the outside, and the ♂ in the middle
(Zostera has a similar one).—Pistia similarly deviates considerably, it is a floating
water-plant, with hairy, round rosettes of leaves; in it also the spathe and spadix
are united; at the base a ♀-flower is borne, which consists of one unilocular ovary,
and above several ♂-flowers, each composed of two united stamens.
Biology. The inflorescences are adapted for insect-pollination; they are
protogynous, since the viscous, almost sessile stigmas come to maturity and
wither before the pollen, which is generally dehisced by apical pores, is shed;
some pollinate themselves freely by the pollen from the higher ♂ -flowers falling
upon the ♀-flowers below them, and in some it is conjectured that the pollination is
effected by snails. The coloured spathe, and the naked end of the spadix (often
coloured) of certain genera function as the coloured perianth in other orders;
during flowering a very powerful smell is often emitted. Arum maculatum is worthy
of notice; small flies and midges creep down into the spathe, between the sterile
flowers (Fig. 301 b), which are situated where the spathe is constricted, and
pointing obliquely downwards prevent the escape of the insects; in the meantime,
the stigmas are in a condition to receive any pollen they may have brought with
them; after pollination the stigmas wither, and exude small drops of honey as a
compensation to the flies for their imprisonment; after this the anthers (m) open
and shed their pollen, the sterile flowers wither, and the insects are then able to
escape, and enter and pollinate other inflorescences.—In many, a rise of
temperature and evolution of carbonic acid takes place during flowering; a spadix
may be raised as much as 30°C. above the temperature of the surrounding air.—
Again, under certain conditions, many species absorb such large quantities of
water by their roots that water is forced out in drops from the tip of the leaf; this
may often be observed in Zantedeschia.
About 900 species in 100 genera. Home, the Tropics, especially S. America,
India, and the Indian Islands, preferably in shady, damp forests growing as
epiphytes upon trees, and on the banks of streams. Outside the Tropics few are
found. Acorus calamus was introduced into Europe from Asia about 300 years
ago; it, however, never sets any fruit, as the pollen is unfertile. In England Arum
maculatum is a very common plant; this and A. italicum are the only native
species. Colocasia antiquorum comes from Polynesia and the Indian Islands, and
also Alocasia macrorrhiza. Fossils in Cretaceous and Tertiary.
Uses. Many species have pungent, and even poisonous properties (e.g.
Dieffenbachia, Lagenandra, Arum), which are easily removed by boiling or
roasting; the rhizomes of many species of Caladium, Colocasia (C. antiquorum,
esculenta, etc.), are very rich in starch, and in the Tropics form an important
source of food. An uncommon occurrence in the order is the highly aromatic
rhizome of Acorus calamus; this contains calamus-oil and acorin which are used in
perfumery. Many are ornamental plants, e.g. Zantedeschia æthiopica (South
Africa), generally known as “Calla,” and Monstera deliciosa; many other species
are grown in greenhouses.
Order 6. Lemnaceæ (Duck-weeds). These are the most reduced
form of the Spadicifloræ. They are very small, free-swimming water-
plants. The vegetative system resembles a small, leaf-like body (Fig.
303 f-f), from which roots hang downwards; this branches by
producing a new, similar leaf-like body, which springs from a pocket-
like hollow (indicated by a dotted line in the figure) on each side of
the older one, at its base (or only on one side). The branching is thus
dichasial or helicoid (Fig. 303 A, where f, f′, f″, f″′ indicate shoots of 1st, 2nd, 3rd,
4th generations respectively). The leaf-like bodies are, according to Hegelmaier,
leaf-like stems, and thus Lemna has no other leaves than the spathe and the
sporophylls; according to the investigations of Engler they are stems whose upper
portion (above the “pocket”) is a leaf, which is not sharply separated from the
underlying stem-portion. The inflorescence is a very much reduced Araceous-
spadix, consisting in Lemna of 1 or 2 stamens of unequal length (1-stamened ♂-
flowers), 1 unilocular carpel (♀-flower), and 1 thin spathe (B). [The same is found
in Spirodela polyrrhiza, etc., whose daughter-shoots begin in addition with 1 basal-
leaf. Wolffia arrhiza, etc., have no roots, no spathe, and only 1 ♂ -flower in the
inflorescence (Engler).]—On the germination of the seed a portion of the testa is
thrown off as a lid, so that an exit is opened for the radicle.—19 species. In
stagnant fresh water, both Temp. and Tropical.—In Europe the species are Lemna
minor, trisulca, gibba; Spirodela polyrrhiza, and Wolffia arrhiza, the smallest
Flowering-plant.
 Fig. 303.—Lemna: A vegetative system; B portion of a plant with flowers; one
stamen and tip of the carpel project; the remaining portions being indicated by the
dotted line.

Family 4. Enantioblastæ.
The flowers in this family are hypogynous and have in part the
general monocotyledonous type with 5 trimerous whorls completely
developed in a regular hermaphrodite flower, and in part the flowers
so much reduced that the type is very difficult to trace. On the one
hand the family is well developed and has capitate inflorescences
(Eriocaulaceæ) and on the other hand it is distinctly reduced
(Centrolepidaceceæ). This family has taken its name from the fact
that the ovule is not, as in the Liliifloræ and nearly all other
Monocotyledons, anatropous, but orthotropous, so that the embryo
(βλάστη) becomes placed at the end of the seed opposite (ἐναντίος)
to the hilum. Large, mealy endosperm.—The orders belonging to this
family are by certain authors grouped with the Bromeliaceæ and
Pontederiaceæ, etc., into one family, Farinoseæ, so named on
account of the mealy endosperm, the distinguishing character of the
Liliifloræ then being that the endosperm is fleshy and horny.
Order 1. Commelinaceæ. The complete Liliaceous structure without great
reductions in the number of whorls, but with generally few ovules in each loculus of
the ovary, is found in the Commelinaceæ, an almost exclusively tropical order with
about 317 species; herbs, some of which are introduced into our gardens and
greenhouses. The stems are nodose; the leaves often clasping; the flowers are
arranged in unipared scorpioid cymes, often so that they form a zig-zag series
falling in the median line of the bracts, and after flowering they bend regularly to
the right or left, outwards or inwards. They are more or less zygomorphic,
particularly in the stamens, which in the same flower are of different forms or
partially suppressed. The outer series of the perianth is sepaloid, the inner
petaloid, generally violet or blue; the filaments are sometimes clothed with hairs
formed of rows of bead-like cells (well known for showing protoplasmic
movements). Fruit a trilocular capsule with loculicidal dehiscence (generally few-
seeded); in some a nut. The radicle is covered by an external, warty, projecting
covering which is cast off on germination.—The abundant raphides lie in elongated
cells whose transverse walls they perforate.—Commelina, Tradescantia, Tinantia,
Cyanotis, Dichorisandra.
Order 2. Mayacaceæ. This order is closely allied to the Commelinaceæ. 7
species. American marsh- or water-plants.
In many of the following orders of this family the flowers are united into
compound inflorescences, with which is accompanied a reduction in the flower.
Order 3. Xyridaceæ (50 species). Marsh-plants with radical, often equitant
leaves arranged in 2 rows, and short spikes on long (twisted) stalks. The flowers,
as in the Commelinaceæ, have sepals (which however are more chaffy) and
petals, but the outer series of stamens is wanting. Capsule (generally many-
seeded).
Order 4. Rapateaceæ. Marsh-plants with radical leaves, usually in two rows,
and several spikelets on the summit of the main axis, clustered into a capitulum or
unilateral spike. Each spikelet has numerous imbricate floral-leaves and one
flower. 24 species. South America.
Order 5. Eriocaulaceæ. The “Compositæ among Monocotyledons,” a tropical
order. The flowers are borne in a capitulum surrounded by an involucre, very
similar to that of the Compositæ. The flowers are very small, unisexual, ♂ and ♀
often mixed indiscriminately in the same capitulum; they have the usual
pentacyclic structure; the leaves of the inner perianth are often connate and more
membranous than the outer; in some the outer series of stamens are suppressed;
in each of the 3 loculi is one pendulous ovule. Capsule. The leaves are generally
radical and grass-like.—335 species; Eriocaulon, Paepalanthus, etc., E.
septangulare on the west coast of Scotland, and Ireland, and in North America.
Order 6. Restiaceæ. A small, especially S. African and S. Australian,
xerophilous order (about 235 species), which is quite similar in habit to the
Juncaceæ and Cyperaceæ. The leaves are often reduced to sheaths. The flowers
are diœcious, the perianth as in Juncus, but the outer series of stamens
suppressed. The ovary and fruit as in Eriocaulaceæ; the ovary, however, may be
unilocular, and the fruit a nut. Restio, etc.
Order 7. Centrolepidaceæ. These are the most reduced plants in the family;
small grass- or rush-like herbs. The flowers are very small, naked. Stamens 1–2,
carpels 1–∞. 32 species. Australia.—Centrolepis (flowers generally ☿ with 1
stamen and 2–∞ carpels).

Family 5. Liliifloræ.
The flower is constructed on the general monocotyledonous type,
with 5 alternating, 3-merous whorls (Fig. 278), but exceptions are
found as in the Iridaceæ (Fig. 279) by the suppression of the inner
whorl of stamens; in a few the position in relation to the bract differs
from that represented in Fig. 278, and in some instead of the
trimerous, di- or tetramerous flowers are found (e.g. Majanthemum,
Paris). Flowers generally regular, hermaphrodite, with simple,
petaloid, coloured perianth (except, for example, Bromeliaceæ);
ovary trilocular, generally with 2 ovules or 2 rows of ovules in the
inner angle of each loculus (Fig. 304 C, D). Endosperm always
present.—A very natural family, of which some divisions in part
overlap each other. The habit varies; the leaves are however long,
entire, with parallel venation, except in Dioscoreaceæ (Fig. 313).
In the first orders of this family the flowers are hypogynous, and in the first of all
the styles are free, and the capsule dehisces septicidally; in the following the
flowers are epigynous and in some reduced in number or unisexual; capsule with
loculicidal dehiscence, or a berry.
Hypogynous flowers: Colchicaceæ, Liliaceæ, Convallariaceæ, Bromeliaceæ
(in part).
Epigynous flowers: Amaryllidaceæ, Iridaceæ, Bromeliaceæ (in part),
Dioscoreaceæ.
 Order 1. Colchicaceæ. The flower (Fig. 304 A) is ☿, regular,
hypogynous, trimerous in all five whorls (6 stamens); anthers usually
extrorse. Gynœceum with 3 free styles (A, D); fruit a capsule with
septicidal dehiscence (E); embryo very small (F). The underground
stem is generally a corm or rhizome, seldom a bulb.
A. Veratreæ.—Veratrum; perennial herbs, stem tall with long
internodes and broad, folded leaves; the flowers andromonœcious,
with free, widely opening perianth-leaves (Fig. 304 A), and globular
anthers; inflorescence a panicle.—Zygadenus, Melanthium,
Schœnocaulon, Uvularia, Tricyrtis.
B. Tofieldieæ.—Narthecium and Tofieldia have leaves alternate
(arranged in two rows), sword-like and borne in rosettes; racemes or
spikes. Narthecium forms an exception to the order by having a
simple style and fruit with loculicidal dehiscence; Tofieldia by the
introrse anthers. In this they are related to the Liliaceæ. Narthecium
has poisonous properties, like many other Colchicaceæ.

Fig. 304.—Veratrum: A flower; B stamen; C transverse section of ovary; D

gynœceum, with one carpel bisected longitudinally, and the third removed; E fruit
after dehiscence; F longitudinal section of a seed.
C. Colchiceæ.—Colchicum (Autumn Crocus); perennial herbs,
with a long, funnel-shaped, gamophyllous perianth, and introrse
anthers. The flowers of C. autumnale spring up immediately from the
underground stem, which is in reality a corm formed of one
internode. Colchicum autumnale flowers in autumn without leaves; in spring the
radical foliage-leaves appear simultaneously with the fruit. The flower is
protogynous, and is pollinated by insects (humble-bees, etc.) which seek the
honey secreted by the free part of the stamen a little way down the tube. The
length of the tube protects the fruit, and not, as in other cases, the nectary.—
Bulbocodium and Merendera have unguiculate perianth-leaves, free, but closing
together like a tube.
175 species; chiefly in North America and South Africa. Tofieldia is an Arctic
plant. The order is rich in pungent, poisonous alkaloids (veratrin, colchicin, etc.).
Officinal; the seeds of Colchicum autumnale (Europe) and Schœnocaulon
officinale (Mexico), and the rhizome of Veratrum album (mountains of Central
Europe).
 Fig. 305.—Colchicum autumnale. A Corm seen from the
front: k corm; s′ s″ scale-leaves embracing the flower-stalk;
wh base of flower-stalk with roots (w). B Longitudinal
section of corm and flower-stalk: hh brown membrane
surrounding the underground portion of the plant; st flower-
and leaf-stalk of previous year, the swollen basal portion
forming the reservoir of reserve material. The new plant is a
lateral shoot from the base of the corm (k) and has the
 following parts: the base bearing the roots (w), the central
part (k’) which becomes the corm in the next year, the axis
bearing the scale-leaves (s’, s″), the foliage-leaves (l, l′″),
and the flowers (b, b’) which are borne in the axils of the
uppermost foliage-leaves.
Order 2. Liliaceæ (Lilies). Flowers as in the Colchicaceæ but
with introrse anthers; ovary free, 3-locular, with single style; capsule
3-locular with loculicidal dehiscence.—The majority are herbs with
bulbs; the inflorescence is terminal. In many species reproduction
takes place by means of bulbils (small bulbs) formed in the axils of
the foliage-leaves (e.g. Lilium bulbiferum, lancifolium, etc., Gagea
lancifolia, etc.), or in the bracts of the inflorescence (many species of
Allium); in many species several buds are developed as bulbs in the
axils of the bulb-scales themselves (accessory buds arising close
together), and in some the formation of buds is common on the
leaves.
A. Tulipeæ, Tulip Group. Bulbs. The aerial, elongated stem
bears the foliage-leaves. Flowers few but generally large, with free
perianth-leaves. Tulipa; style absent, no honey; flowers generally
solitary, erect.—Fritillaria perianth campanulate with a round or
oblong nectary at the base of each perianth-leaf.—Lilium; perianth
widely open, generally turned back with a covered nectary-groove in
the centre of each segment. Anthers versatile.—Lloydia;
Erythronium.
B. Hyacintheæ, Hyacinth Group. Bulbs. Leaves radical; aerial
stem leafless with raceme or spike. In some the perianth-segments
are free, in others united. Honey is produced often in glands or in the
septa of the ovary (septal glands).—Ornithogalum has a leafy stem;
Scilla; Eucomis has a tuft of floral-leaves above the raceme;
Agraphis; Hyacinthus; Puschkinia; Chionodoxa; Muscari; Veltheimia;
Urginea.
C. Allieæ, Onion Group. Generally bulbs. Leaves radical. Stem
leafless with a compound umbellate or capitate inflorescence of
unipared helicoid cymes, which before flowering are surrounded by
two broad involucral leaves.—Allium. Filaments often petaloid and bidentate;
in many species bulbils are found in the inflorescence.—Some species have flat
leaves: A. sativum, Garlic; A. porrum, Leek; A. ursinum; others have round, hollow
leaves: A. cepa, Onion; A. fistulosum, Winter Onion; A. ascalonicum, Eschalot; A.
schænoprasum, Chive.—Gagea; honey is secreted at the base of the
perianth, no special nectary; inflorescence few-flowered.—
Agapanthus; Triteleia.
D. Anthericeæ. Rhizome; raceme; the leaves not fleshy and thick.—
Anthericum; Asphodelus; Bulbine; Chlorophytum; Bowiea has an almost leafless
stem with curved, climbing branches.
E. Aloineæ, Aloes. Stem generally aerial and tree-like, bearing on its summit
thick, fleshy leaves, often with a thorny edge (Fig. 306). Raceme branched or
unbranched.—Aloë; Gasteria; Yucca (has secondary thickening, p. 274).
F. Hemerocallideæ. Phormium, (Ph. tenax. New Zealand Flax); Funckia
(Hosta); Hemerocallis.
At this point the following are best placed: Aphyllanthes (A. monspeliensis);
Xanthorrhæa (Black-boy); Xerotes; Lomandra; Kingia; the very membranous, dry
perianth of the last resembles that of the Juncaceæ, and also there are only 1–few
ovules in the loculi.
Pollination by insects. Honey in some is produced on the perianth (see
Tulipeæ), in others by glands on the carpels (in the septa and parietal placentæ,
septal glands): Hyacinthus, Allium, Anthericum, Asphodelus, Yucca, Funckia,
Hemerocallis, etc. Some Allium-species are protandrous. Fritillaria is visited by
bees, Lilium martagon by moths, L. bulbiferum by butterflies, Phormium (New
Zealand) by honey-birds.
 Fig. 306.—Aloë.
About 1,580 species; rare in cold climates; their home is in sunny plains with
firm, hard soil, and warm or mild climate, particularly in the Old World (S. Africa;
As. Steppes; Mediterranean); at the commencement of spring the flowers appear
in great profusion, and after the course of a few weeks disappear; during the hot
season their life lies dormant in the bulb, hidden underground. The woody species
are tropical.—The majority of the introduced Liliaceæ (Fritillaria imperialis, Crown-
imperial; Lilium candidum; Tulipa gesneriana; Hyacinth; Muscari-species; Scilla-
species; Ornithogalum nutans; Hemerocallis fulva and flava; Asphodelus luteus
and albus) come from the Mediterranean and W. Asia; Funckia from China and
Japan; several Lilies from Japan and the Himalayas; Agapanthus from the Cape;
Allium sativum is a native of the Kerghis-Steppes; A. cepa from Persia (?); A.
ascalonicum is not known wild (according to others a native of Asia Minor),
perhaps a form of A. cepa; A. schænoprasum from the N. temp. region.
Many bulbs have pungent properties; many Onions are used as culinary plants.
The bast fibres of Phormium tenax (New Zealand Flax) are used technically. Dyes
are obtained from the Aloe; gum for varnish from the stem of Xanthorrhæa hostile
and australe. Officinal; “Aloes,” the dried sap of S. African species of Aloe (A.
Africana, A. ferox, etc.); the bulb known as “Squills” from Urginea (Scilla) maritima
(Mediterranean).

Order 3. Convallariaceæ. This order differs from the Liliaceæ in

having the fruit a berry (Fig. 308) and in never being bulbous; the
seeds are less numerous.
A. Convallarieæ, Lily of the Valley Group. Rhizome (Fig.
307) and normal foliage-leaves.—Polygonatum: rhizome creeping;
aerial shoot leafy, bearing the flowers in racemes in the axils of the
foliage-leaves; perianth tubular. P. multiflorum (Solomon’s seal), P.
officinale, etc.—Majanthemum: flower 2-merous; perianth almost
polyphyllous, spreading. Smilacina. Streptopus (S. amplexifolius; the
flowers or inflorescence unite with the entire succeeding internode).
—Convallaria (1 species C. majalis, Lily of the valley); flowers in
terminal racemes; 2 basal foliage-leaves; perianth globose, bell-
shaped. Reineckea carnea (Japan, China) in gardens.—Paris (P.
quadrifolia, Herb-Paris); flowers solitary, terminal, 4-merous,
polyphyllous; styles 4, free (approaching the Colchicaceæ; it is also
poisonous); a whorl of 4 (-more) 3-nerved, reticulate leaves on each
shoot.—Ornamental plants: species of Trillium, Aspidistra elatior
(Japan).