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Di quibus imperium est animarum, Umbræque silentes,
Et Chaos, et Phlegethon, loca nocte silentia late,
Sit mihi fas audita loqui; sit, numine vestro
Pandere res alta terrâ et caligine mersas.
Virgil. Æn. vi. 264.

Ye Mighty Ones, who sway the Souls that go

Amid the marvels of the world below!
Ye, silent Shades, who sit and hear around!
Chaos! and Streams that burn beneath the ground!
All, all forgive, if by your converse stirred,
My lips shall utter what my ears have heard;
If I shall speak of things of doubtful birth,
Deep sunk in darkness, as deep sunk in earth.
 INTRODUCTION.

Of the Palætiological Sciences.

W Edesign
now approach the last Class of Sciences which enter into the
of the present work; and of these, Geology is the
representative, whose history we shall therefore briefly follow. By the
Class of Sciences to which I have referred it, I mean to point out
those researches in which the object is, to ascend from the present
state of things to a more ancient condition, from which the present is
derived by intelligible causes.

The sciences which treat of causes have sometimes been termed

ætiological, from αἰτία, a cause: but this term would not sufficiently
describe the speculations of which we now speak; since it might
include sciences which treat of Permanent Causality, like Mechanics,
as well as inquiries concerning Progressive Causation. The
investigations which I now wish to group together, deal, not only with
the possible, but with the actual past; and a portion of that science
on which we are about to enter, Geology, has properly been termed
Palæontology, since it treats of beings which formerly existed. 1
Hence, combining these two notions, 2 Palætiology appears to be a
term not inappropriate, to describe those speculations which thus
refer to actual past events, and attempt to explain them by laws of
causation.
1 Πάλαι, ὄντα

2 Πάλαι, αἰτία
 Such speculations are not confined to the world of inert matter; we
have examples of them in inquiries concerning the monuments of the
art and labor of distant ages; in examinations into the origin and
early progress of states and cities, customs and languages; as well
as in researches concerning the causes and formations of mountains
and rocks, the imbedding of fossils in strata, and their elevation from
the bottom of the ocean. All these speculations are connected by this
bond,—that they endeavor to ascend to a past state of things, by the
aid of the evidence of the present. In asserting, with Cuvier, that 500
“The geologist is an antiquary of a new order,” we do not mark a
fanciful and superficial resemblance of employment merely, but a
real and philosophical connexion of the principles of investigation.
The organic fossils which occur in the rock, and the medals which
we find in the ruins of ancient cities, are to be studied in a similar
spirit and for a similar purpose. Indeed, it is not always easy to know
where the task of the geologist ends, and that of the antiquary
begins. The study of ancient geography may involve us in the
examination of the causes by which the forms of coasts and plains
are changed; the ancient mound or scarped rock may force upon us
the problem, whether its form is the work of nature or of man; the
ruined temple may exhibit the traces of time in its changed level, and
sea-worn columns; and thus the antiquarian of the earth may be
brought into the very middle of the domain belonging to the
antiquarian of art.

Such a union of these different kinds of archæological

investigations has, in fact, repeatedly occurred. The changes which
have taken place in the temple of Jupiter Serapis, near Puzzuoli, are
of the sort which have just been described; and this is only one
example of a large class of objects;—the monuments of art
converted into records of natural events. And on a wider scale, we
find Cuvier, in his inquiries into geological changes, bringing together
historical and physical evidence. Dr. Prichard, in his Researches into
the Physical History of Man, has shown that to execute such a
design as his, we must combine the knowledge of the physiological
laws of nature with the traditions of history and the philosophical
comparison of languages. And even if we refuse to admit, as part of
the business of geology, inquiries concerning the origin and physical
history of the present population of the globe; still the geologist is
compelled to take an interest in such inquiries, in order to
understand matters which rigorously belong to his proper domain; for
the ascertained history of the present state of things offers the best
means of throwing light upon the causes of past changes. Mr. Lyell
quotes Dr. Prichard’s book more frequently than any geological work
of the same extent.

Again, we may notice another common circumstance in the

studies which we are grouping together as palætiological, diverse as
they are in their subjects. In all of them we have the same kind of
manifestations of a number of successive changes, each springing
out of a preceding state; and in all, the phenomena at each step
become more and more complicated, by involving the results of all
that has preceded, modified by supervening agencies. The general
aspect of all these 501 trains of change is similar, and offers the
same features for description. The relics and ruins of the earlier
states are preserved, mutilated and dead, in the products of later
times. The analogical figures by which we are tempted to express
this relation are philosophically true. It is more than a mere fanciful
description, to say that in languages, customs, forms of Society,
political institutions, we see a number of formations super-imposed
upon one another, each of which is, for the most part, an
assemblage of fragments and results of the preceding condition.
Though our comparison might be bold, it would be just, if we were to
assert, that the English language is a conglomerate of Latin words,
bound together in a Saxon cement; the fragments of the Latin being
partly portions introduced directly from the parent quarry, with all
their sharp edges, and partly pebbles of the same material, obscured
and shaped by long rolling in a Norman or some other channel. Thus
the study of palætiology in the materials of the earth, is only a type of
similar studies with respect to all the elements, which, in the history
of the earth’s inhabitants, have been constantly undergoing a series
of connected changes.

But, wide as is the view which such considerations give us of the

class of sciences to which geology belongs, they extend still further.
“The science of the changes which have taken place in the organic
kingdoms of nature,” (such is the description which has been given
of Geology, 3 ) may, by following another set of connexions, be
extended beyond “the modifications of the surface of our own
planet.” For we cannot doubt that some resemblance of a closer or
looser kind, has obtained between the changes and causes of
change, on other bodies of the universe, and on our own. The
appearances of something of the kind of volcanic action on the
surface of the moon, are not to be mistaken. And the inquiries
concerning the origin of our planet and of our solar system, inquiries
to which Geology irresistibly impels her students, direct us to ask
what information the rest of the universe can supply, bearing upon
this subject. It has been thought by some, that we can trace
systems, more or less like our solar system, in the process of
formation; the nebulous matter, which is at first expansive and
attenuated, condensing gradually into suns and planets. Whether
this Nebular Hypothesis be tenable or not, I shall not here inquire;
but the discussion of such a question would be closely connected
with 502 geology, both in its interests and in its methods. If men are
ever able to frame a science of the past changes by which the
universe has been brought into its present condition, this science will
be properly described as Cosmical Palætiology.
3 Lyell, Principles of Geology, p. 1.

These palætiological sciences might properly be called historical, if

that term were sufficiently precise: for they are all of the nature of
history, being concerned with the succession of events: and the part
of history which deals with the past causes of events, is, in fact, a
moral palætiology. But the phrase Natural History has so
accustomed us to a use of the word history in which we have nothing
to do with time, that, if we were to employ the word historical to
describe the palætiological sciences, it would be in constant danger
of being misunderstood. The fact is, as Mohs has said, that Natural
History, when systematically treated, rigorously excludes all that is
historical; for it classes objects by their permanent and universal
properties, and has nothing to do with the narration of particular and
casual facts. And this is an inconsistency which we shall not attempt
to rectify.

All palætiological sciences, since they undertake to refer changes

to their causes, assume a certain classification of the phenomena
which change brings forth, and a knowledge of the operation of the
causes of change. These phenomena, these causes, are very
different, in the branches of knowledge which I have thus classed
together. The natural features of the earth’s surface, the works of art,
the institutions of society, the forms of language, taken together, are
undoubtedly a very wide collection of subjects of speculation; and
the kinds of causation which apply to them are no less varied. Of the
causes of change in the inorganic and organic world,—the peculiar
principles of Geology—we shall hereafter have to speak. As these
must be studied by the geologist, so, in like manner, the tendencies,
instincts, faculties, principles, which direct man to architecture and
sculpture, to civil government, to rational and grammatical speech,
and which have determined the circumstances of his progress in
these paths, must be in a great degree known to the Palætiologist of
Art, of Society, and of Language, respectively, in order that he may
speculate soundly upon his peculiar subject. With these matters we
shall not here meddle, confining ourselves, in our exemplification of
the conditions and progress of such sciences, to the case of
Geology.

The journey of survey which we have attempted to perform over

the field of human knowledge, although carefully directed according
to the paths and divisions of the physical sciences, has already 503
conducted us to the boundaries of physical science, and gives us a
glimpse of the region beyond. In following the history of Life, we
found ourselves led to notice the perceptive and active faculties of
man; it appeared that there was a ready passage from physiology to
psychology, from physics to metaphysics. In the class of sciences
now under notice, we are, at a different point, carried from the world
of matter to the world of thought and feeling,—from things to men.
For, as we have already said, the science of the causes of change
includes the productions of Man as well as of Nature. The history of
the earth, and the history of the earth’s inhabitants, as collected from
phenomena, are governed by the same principles. Thus the portions
of knowledge which seek to travel back towards the origin, whether
of inert things or of the works of man, resemble each other. Both of
them treat of events as connected by the thread of time and
causation. In both we endeavor to learn accurately what the present
is, and hence what the past has been. Both are historical sciences in
the same sense.

It must be recollected that I am now speaking of history as

ætiological;—as it investigates causes, and as it does this in a
scientific, that is, in a rigorous and systematic, manner. And I may
observe here, though I cannot now dwell on the subject, that all
ætiological sciences will consist of three portions; the Description of
the facts and phenomena;—the general Theory of the causes of
change appropriate to the case;—and the Application of the theory to
the facts. Thus, taking Geology for our example, we must have, first
Descriptive or Phenomenal Geology; next, the exposition of the
general principles by which such phenomena can be produced,
which we may term Geological Dynamics; and, lastly, doctrines
hence derived, as to what have been the causes of the existing state
of things, which we may call Physical Geology.

These three branches of geology may be found frequently or

constantly combined in the works of writers on the subject, and it
may not always be easy to discriminate exactly what belongs to each
subject. 4 But the analogy of this science with others, its present 504
condition and future fortunes, will derive great illustration from such a
distribution of its history; and in this point of view, therefore, we shall
briefly treat of it; dividing the history of Geological Dynamics, for the
sake of convenience, into two Chapters, one referring to inorganic,
and one to organic, phenomena.
4 The Wernerians, in distinguishing their study from Geology, and
designating it as Geognosy, the knowledge of the earth, appear to
have intended to select Descriptive Geology for their peculiar
field. In like manner, the original aim of the Geological Society of
London, which was formed (1807) “with a view to record and
multiply observations,” recognized the possibility of a Descriptive
Geology separate from the other portions of the science.
DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY.
 CHAPTER I.

Prelude to Systematic Descriptive Geology

Sect. 1.—Ancient Notices of Geological Facts.

T HE recent history of Geology, as to its most important points, is

bound up with what is doing at present from day to day; and that
portion of the history of the science which belongs to the past, has
been amply treated by other writers. 5 I shall, therefore, pass rapidly
over the series of events of which this history consists; and shall only
attempt to mention what may seem to illustrate and confirm my own
view of its state and principles.
5 As MM. Lyell, Fitton, Conybeare, in our own country.

Agreeably to the order already pointed out, I shall notice, in the

first place, Phenomenal Geology, or the description of the facts, as
distinct from the inquiry into their causes. It is manifest that such a
merely descriptive kind of knowledge may exist; and it probably will
not be contested, that such knowledge ought to be collected, before
we attempt to frame theories concerning the causes of the
phenomena. But it must be observed, that we are here speaking of
the formation of a science; and that it is not a collection of
miscellaneous, unconnected, unarranged knowledge that can be
considered as constituting science; but a methodical, coherent, and,
as far as possible, complete body of facts, exhibiting fully the
condition of the earth as regards those circumstances which are the
subject matter of geological speculation. Such a Descriptive Geology
is a pre-requisite to Physical Geology, just as Phenomenal
Astronomy necessarily preceded Physical Astronomy, or as
Classificatory Botany is a necessary accompaniment to Botanical
Physiology. We may observe also that Descriptive Geology, such as
we now speak of, is one of the classificatory sciences, like 506
Mineralogy or Botany: and will be found to exhibit some of the
features of that class of sciences.

Since, then, our History of Descriptive Geology is to include only

systematic and scientific descriptions of the earth or portions of it, we
pass over, at once, all the casual and insulated statements of facts,
though they may be geological facts, which occur in early writers;
such, for instance, as the remark of Herodotus, 6 that there are shells
in the mountains of Egypt; or the general statements which Ovid puts
in the mouth of Pythagoras: 7

Vidi ego quod fuerat solidissima tellus,

Esse fretum; vidi factas ex æquore terras,
Et procul a pelago conchæ jacuere marinæ.

6 ii. 12.

7 Met. xv. 262.

We may remark here already how generally there are mingled with
descriptive notices of such geological facts, speculations concerning
their causes. Herodotus refers to the circumstance just quoted, for
the purpose of showing that Egypt was formerly a gulf of the sea;
and the passage of the Roman poet is part of a series of
exemplifications which he gives of the philosophical tenet, that
nothing perishes but everything changes. It will be only by constant
attention that we shall be able to keep our provinces of geology
distinct.
 Sect. 2.—Early Descriptions and Collections of Fossils.

If we look, as we have proposed to do, for systematic and exact

knowledge of geological facts, we find nothing which we can properly
adduce till we come to modern times. But when facts such as those
already mentioned, (that sea-shells and other marine objects are
found imbedded in rocks,) and other circumstances in the structure
of the Earth, had attracted considerable attention, the exact
examination, collection, and record of these circumstances began to
be attempted. Among such steps in Descriptive Geology, we may
notice descriptions and pictures of fossils, descriptions of veins and
mines, collections of organic and inorganic fossils, maps of the
mineral structure of countries, and finally, the discoveries concerning
the superposition of strata, the constancy of their organic contents,
their correspondence in different countries, and such great general
relations of the materials and features of the earth as have been
discovered up to the present time. 507 Without attempting to assign
to every important advance its author, I shall briefly exemplify each
of the modes of contributing to descriptive geology which I have just
enumerated.

The study of organic fossils was first pursued with connexion and
system in Italy. The hills which on each side skirt the mountain-range
of the Apennines are singularly rich in remains of marine animals.
When these remarkable objects drew the attention of thoughtful
men, controversies soon arose whether they really were the remains
of living creatures, or the productions of some capricious or
mysterious power by which the forms of such creatures were
mimicked; and again, if the shells were really the spoils of the sea,
whether they had been carried to the hills by the deluge of which the
Scripture speaks, or whether they indicated revolutions of the earth
of a different kind. The earlier works which contain the descriptions
of the phenomena have, in almost all instances, by far the greater
part of their pages occupied with these speculations; indeed, the
facts could not be studied without leading to such inferences, and
would not have been collected but for the interest which such
reasonings possessed. As one of the first persons who applied a
sound and vigorous intellect to these subjects, we may notice the
celebrated painter Leonardo da Vinci, whom we have already had to
refer to as one of the founders of the modern mechanical sciences.
He strenuously asserts the contents of the rocks to be real shells,
and maintains the reality of the changes of the domain of land and
sea which these spoils of the ocean imply. “You will tell me,” he says,
“that nature and the influence of the stars have formed these shelly
forms in the mountains; then show me a place in the mountains
where the stars at the present day make shelly forms of different
ages, and of different species in the same place. And how, with that,
will you explain the gravel which is hardened in stages at different
heights in the mountains?” He then mentions several other
particulars respecting these evidences that the existing mountains
were formerly in the bed of the sea. Leonardo died in 1519. At
present we refer to geological essays like his, only so far as they are
descriptive. Going onwards with this view, we may notice Fracastoro,
who wrote concerning the petrifactions which were brought to light in
the mountains of Verona, when, in 1517, they were excavated for the
purpose of repairing the city. Little was done in the way of collection
of facts for some time after this. In 1669, Steno, a Dane resident in
Italy, put forth his treatise, De Solido intra Solidum naturaliter
contento; and the 508 following year, Augustino Scilla, a Sicilian
painter, published a Latin epistle, De Corporibus Marinis
Lapidescentibus, illustrated by good engravings of fossil-shells,
teeth, and corals. 8 After another interval of speculative controversy,
we come to Antonio Vallisneri, whose letters, De’ Corpi Marini che
su’ Monti si trovano, appeared at Venice in 1721. In these letters he
describes the fossils of Monte Bolca, and attempts to trace the
extent of the marine deposits of Italy, 9 and to distinguish the most
important of the fossils. Similar descriptions and figures were
published with reference to our own country at a later period. In
1766, Brander’s Fossilia Hantoniensia, or Hampshire Fossils,
appeared; containing excellent figures of fossil shells from a part of
the south coast of England; and similar works came forth in other
parts of Europe.
8 Augustine Scilla’s original drawings of fossil shells, teeth, and
corals, from which the engravings mentioned in the text were
executed, as well as the natural objects from which the drawings
were made, were bought by Woodward, and are now in the
Woodwardian Museum at Cambridge.

9 p. 20.

However exact might be the descriptions and figures thus

produced, they could not give such complete information as the
objects themselves, collected and permanently preserved in
museums. Vallisneri says, 10 that having begun to collect fossils for
the purpose of forming a grotto, he selected the best, and preserved
them “as a noble diversion for the more curious.” The museum of
Calceolarius at Verona contained a celebrated collection of such
remains. A copious description of it appeared in 1622. Such
collections had been made from an earlier period, and catalogues of
them published. Thus Gessner’s work, De Rerum Fossilium,
Lapidum et Gemmarum Figuris (1565), contains a catalogue of the
cabinet of petrifactions collected by John Kentman; many catalogues
of the same kind appeared in the seventeenth century. 11 Lhwyd’s
Lythophylacii Britannici Iconographia, published at Oxford in 1669,
and exhibiting a very ample catalogue of English Fossils contained in
the Ashmolean Museum, may be noticed as one of these.
10 p. 1.

11 Parkinson, Organic Remains, vol. i. p. 20.

One of the most remarkable occurrences in the progress of

descriptive geology in England, was the formation of a geological
museum by William Woodward as early as 1695. This collection,
formed with great labor, systematically arranged, and carefully
catalogued, he bequeathed to the University of Cambridge; founding
and endowing 509 at the same time a professorship of the study of
geology. The Woodwardian Museum still subsists, a monument of
the sagacity with which its author so early saw the importance of
such a collection.

Collections and descriptions of fossils, including in the term

specimens of minerals of all kinds, as well as organic remains, were
frequently made, and especially in places where mining was
cultivated; but under such circumstances, they scarcely tended at all
to that general and complete knowledge of the earth of which we are
now tracing the progress.

In more modern times, collections may be said to be the most

important books of the geologist, at least next to the strata
themselves. The identifications and arrangements of our best
geologists, the immense studies of fossil anatomy by Cuvier and
others, have been conducted mainly by means of collections of
specimens. They are more important in this study than in botany,
because specimens which contain important geological information
are both more rare and more permanent. Plants, though each
individual is perishable, perpetuate and diffuse their kind; while the
organic impression on a stone, if lost, may never occur in a second
instance; but, on the other hand, if it be preserved in the museum,
the individual is almost as permanent in this case, as the species in
the other.

I shall proceed to notice another mode in which such information

was conveyed.

Sect. 3.—First Construction of Geological Maps.

Dr. Lister, a learned physician, sent to the Royal Society, in 1683,

a proposal for maps of soils or minerals; in which he suggested that
in the map of England, for example, each soil and its boundaries
might be distinguished by color, or in some other way. Such a mode
of expressing and connecting our knowledge of the materials of the
earth was, perhaps, obvious, when the mass of knowledge became
considerable. In 1720, Fontenelle, in his observations on a paper of
De Reaumur’s, which contained an account of a deposit of fossil-
shells in Touraine, says, that in order to reason on such cases, “we
must have a kind of geographical charts, constructed according to
the collection of shells found in the earth.” But he justly adds, “What
a quantity of observations, and what time would it not require to form
such maps!”

The execution of such projects required, not merely great labor,

but 510 several steps in generalization and classification, before it
could take place. Still such attempts were made. In 1743, was
published, A new Philosophico-chorographical Chart of East Kent,
invented and delineated by Christopher Packe, M.D.; in which,
however, the main object is rather to express the course of the
valleys than the materials of the country. Guettard formed the project
of a mineralogical map of France, and Monnet carried this scheme
into effect in 1780, 12 “by order of the king.” In these maps, however,
the country is not considered as divided into soils, still less strata; but
each part is marked with its predominant mineral only. The spirit of
generalization which constitutes the main value of such a work is
wanting.
12 Atlas et Description Minéralogique de la France, entrepris par
ordre du Roi, par MM. Guettard et Monnet, Paris, 1780, pp. 212,
with 31 maps.

Geological maps belong strictly to Descriptive Geology; they are

free from those wide and doubtful speculations which form so large a
portion of the earlier geological books. Yet even geological maps
cannot be usefully or consistently constructed without considerable
steps of classification and generalization. When, in our own time,
geologists were become weary of controversies respecting theory,
they applied themselves with extraordinary zeal to the construction
of stratigraphical maps of various countries; flattering themselves
that in this way they were merely recording incontestable facts and
differences. Nor do I mean to intimate that their facts were doubtful,
or their distinctions arbitrary. But still they were facts interpreted,
associated, and represented, by means of the classifications and
general laws which earlier geologists had established; and thus even
Descriptive Geology has been brought into existence as a science
by the formation of systems and the discovery of principles. At this
we cannot be surprized, when we recollect the many steps which the
formation of Classificatory Botany required. We must now notice
some of the discoveries which tended to the formation of Systematic
Descriptive Geology. 511
 CHAPTER II.

Formation of Systematic Descriptive Geology.

Sect. 1.—Discovery of the Order and Stratification of the Materials of

the Earth.

T HAT the substances of which the earth is framed are not

scattered and mixed at random, but possess identity and
continuity to a considerable extent, Lister was aware, when he
proposed his map. But there is, in his suggestions, nothing relating
to stratification; nor any order of position, still less of time, assigned
to these materials. Woodward, however, appears to have been fully
aware of the general law of stratification. On collecting information
from all parts, “the result was,” he says, “that in time I was
abundantly assured that the circumstances of these things in
remoter countries were much the same with those of ours here: that
the stone, and other terrestrial matter in France, Flanders, Holland,
Spain, Italy, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden, was distinguished into
strata or layers, as it is in England; that these strata were divided by
parallel fissures; that there were enclosed in the stone and all the
other denser kinds of terrestrial matter, great numbers of the shells,
and other productions of the sea, in the same manner as in that of
this island.” 13 So remarkable a truth, thus collected from a copious
collection of particulars by a patient induction, was an important step
in the science.
13 Natural History of the Earth, 1723.