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Integration and Optimization of Unit Operations
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Integration and
Optimization of Unit
Operations
Review of Unit Operations from R&D
to Production: Impacts of Upstream and
Downstream Process Decisions
Edited by
Barry A. Perlmutter
President, Perlmutter & Idea Development LLC, Matthews, NC, United States
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
ISBN: 978-0-12-823502-7
v
vi Contents
8.5 General operation of a pressure filter 10.1.2 Identify key automation systems
dryer 183 and technology 219
8.5.1 GMP issues and cleaning 189 10.1.3 Identify advanced control
8.5.2 Filter safety interlocks 189 schemes 220
8.5.3 Operational issues 190 10.1.4 Estimate system size 221
8.6 Final remarks 190 10.1.5 Site planning overall
philosophy 221
9. Process automation systems 10.2 Front end engineering design 226
10.2.1 Basic automation
Nick Harbud
requirements 226
9.1 Process automation in production 10.2.2 Advanced process control 226
facilities 191 10.2.3 The MAC, and why you should
9.2 Process control system use one 226
(continuous process) 191 10.2.4 Other automation systems 227
9.2.1 Controlling the process 191 10.2.5 Functional safety 228
9.2.2 Operating the plant 193 10.2.6 Change management for
9.2.3 Integrating automation process automation 228
systems 194 10.3 Delivery phase, detailed engineering,
9.2.4 Enterprise interfaces 195 and procurement 229
9.2.5 Types of process control 10.3.1 Process automation design
system 195 documentation 229
9.3 Process control systems 10.3.2 Automation system design
(batch process) 197 and software configuration 230
9.4 Safety instrumented systems 201 10.3.3 Factory acceptance testing 230
9.4.1 Identifying the hazards 203 10.3.4 Shipment and site
9.4.2 Assessing the risks 203 preservation 231
9.4.3 High integrity pressure protection 10.4 Installation and commissioning 231
systems 205 10.4.1 Manpower plan 231
9.4.4 Cybersecurity risk assessment 206 10.4.2 Infrastructure and overheads
9.4.5 Validation and proving 206 plan 232
9.5 Alarm management systems 207 10.4.3 PAS media plan 233
9.6 Machinery protection 209 10.4.4 PAS change management
9.6.1 Vibration monitoring system 209 plan 233
9.6.2 Compressor and turbine control 10.4.5 PAS security plan 233
systems 209 10.4.6 PAS integration plan 233
9.7 Measurement, and other fun things to 10.4.7 PAS maintenance plan 234
do with instruments 212 10.4.8 PAS user administration
9.7.1 Diagnostics—Is it working? 213 plan 234
9.7.2 Control in the field 214 10.4.9 PAS turnover plan 235
9.7.3 The growth of digital 10.5 Automation system operation and
communications protocols 214 obsolescence 235
9.7.4 HART 214 10.5.1 Hardware maintenance
9.7.5 Fieldbus 215 and obsolescence 235
9.7.6 Ditching the wires 216 10.5.2 Software maintenance and
9.7.7 Instrument asset management change 235
systems (IAMS) 217 10.5.3 Disaster recovery 236
9.8 The effect of technology on process 10.6 Conclusion 237
automation 217
11.4 The new paradigm of autonomous 12.10.2 The new way: Break the
operations 240 paradigm 269
11.5 Upgrading the level of automation 245 12.10.3 What was saved? 270
11.6 Where to start when considering 12.10.4 In conclusion: Every
investment in higher levels of perspective matters 271
autonomy 246 12.11 Final remarks 271
11.7 Conclusions 247 References 271
Further reading 271
12. Mixing and blending
13. Process development and
Stephanie Shira integration by mathematical
12.1 Introduction: Why mixing modeling and simulation tools
matters 249 Nima Yazdanpanah
12.2 Upstream considerations 249
12.2.1 Before the shafts 250 13.1 Fundamentals and workflow 273
12.2.2 The first shaft 250 13.2 The steps for building a mathematical
12.2.3 Distributive vs dispersive model 275
mixing 253 13.3 Steady-state and dynamic
12.3 The second shaft 254 simulations 277
12.3.1 High speed dispersion and low 13.4 Process simulation for
speed scraping: The traditional optimization 277
dual-shaft mixer 254 13.4.1 Construction of the optimization
12.3.2 More intense dispersion problem and its
(double the shafts, quadruple components 279
the blades of a traditional 13.5 Process development workflow for
disperser): The dual-shaft continuous manufacturing 280
disperser 255 13.5.1 Process integration and steady-
12.3.3 Dual-shaft disperser case study state simulation 281
and performance review 258 13.5.2 Dynamic process modeling
12.4 The third shaft 258 and control 283
12.5 Additional mixer design 13.6 Correlation between CQAs, CPPs,
considerations 258 CMAs 286
12.6 Rheology considerations 260 References 292
12.7 Overmixing is just as bad as
undermixing: Know the finishing 14. Process safety
point 261
Kaushik Basak
12.7.1 Kitchen connection 261
12.7.2 Case study: “Pancake lumps” 14.1 Lab-scale operations 293
on the production floor 261 14.1.1 Safety and hazards 293
12.7.3 Compensating behaviors result 14.1.2 Key issues for lab-scale
from inadequate products 262 operation 294
12.8 Reliable scale-up 262 14.2 Pilot plant operations 297
12.8.1 Hydraulic ram discharge 14.2.1 Safety and hazards 297
press 263 14.2.2 Key issues for pilot plant
12.9 Mechanical aspects and operations 299
troubleshooting 264 14.2.3 Pilot plant sizing, issues,
12.9.1 Blade health 264 decisions, and trade-offs 301
12.9.2 Understanding shear (rates and 14.3 Production scale operations 303
flow regimes) 265 14.3.1 Safety and hazards 303
12.10 Case study: Why push toward 14.3.2 Key issues for production scale
efficiency? 266 operation 304
12.10.1 The old way: Paradigm 266 References 305
Contents ix
Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ Barry A. Perlmutter (125, 433), Perlmutter & Idea Devel-
contributions begin. opment LLC, Matthews, NC, United States
Brooke Albin (1), Research & Development, MATRIC Venkata Ramanujam (413), McDermott Inc., Houston,
(Mid-Atlantic Technology, Research & Innovation TX, United States
Center), South Charleston, WV, United States Jose M. Sentmanat (113, 125), Liquid Filtration Specialist,
John Anderson (373), Engineering & Process Sciences, LLC, Conroe, TX, United States
Dow Chemical, Midland, MI, United States Stephanie Shira (249), Myers Mixers, Cudahy, CA, United
Bob Barnes (413), Project & Process Consultant, Prova- States
tions LLC, Gregory, TX, United States Ugur Tuzun (317), Churchill College, University of
Kaushik Basak (293, 345, 351), Principal Engineer Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
(SMPO), Shell plc., Shell Technology Centre, Jay Van der Vlugt (355), Cannabinoid Sciences, Nectar
Bangalore, India Health Sciences Inc., Victoria, BC, Canada
Joep Font Freide (339), FFTechnology, Guildford, United Mike Williams (239), Process Automation, ARC
Kingdom Advisory, Dedham, MA, United States
Alan Gabelman, Ph.D., P.E. (13, 69), Gabelman Process Nima Yazdanpanah (273), Engineering and Development,
Solutions, LLC, West Chester, OH, United States Procegence, Chevy Chase, MD, United States
Nick Harbud (191, 219), C.Eng., F.I.Chem.E., Newbury, Hongben Zhou (145), BHS-Sonthofen Process Tech-
United Kingdom nology GmbH & Co. KG, Herrsching, Germany
Ron Leng (373), Engineering & Process Science, Dow
Chemical, Midland, MI, United States
Badrie Luckiram, BSc, MSc, CEng, MIChemE (133,
177, 307), Pharmaceutical & Process Engineer, London,
United Kingdom
xiii
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About the editor
Barry A. Perlmutter is President of Perlmutter & Idea Development LLC (P&ID). He has 40 years of technical engi-
neering and business marketing experience in solid-liquid separation, filtration, centrifugation, and process drying. His
skills focus on process solutions, innovation strategy, and business development and market expansion. Barry has published
and presented worldwide and is responsible for introducing many European technologies into the marketplace. He is an
author of Elsevier’s Solid-Liquid Filtration - Practical Guides in Chemical Engineering handbook and a new e-book
Framework for Selecting Automated Solid-Liquid Filtration Technologies for Clarification Applications.
Barry began his career with the US Environmental Protection Agency and then entered the world of solid-liquid sep-
aration at Pall Corporation. For 11 years, he continued at Rosenmund Inc. as VP of Engineering and Sales including Comber
and Guedu Dryers and Ferrum Centrifuges. From the process industries, Barry joined Process Efficiency Products, now part
of Amiad USA, as a Director of Marketing and Sales for the manufacturing of filtration, separation and adsorption
technologies for cooling tower and HVAC water, process fluids, and water and wastewater treatment. He then became
President & Managing Director of BHS-Filtration Inc. (BHS-Sonthofen Inc.) where he grew the filtration, drying, mixing,
and recycling business of BHS for more than 20 years including the integration of AVA GmbH dryers. His current
company, P&ID, allows Barry to provide consulting services for process and project development with operating
companies and business development, marketing, and sales strategies for process technology suppliers.
He received his BS degree in Chemistry from Albany State (NY) University, MS degree from the School of Engineering
at Washington University, St. Louis, and an MBA from the University of Illinois, Chicago.
xv
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Preface
Over my career of 40 years in the process industry, writing has always been a passion for me. It represents an opportunity to
convey concepts, ideas, and technical information in a manner that makes sense to the audience. While I never had any
formalized journalism or writing training, this skill somehow developed on its own through my continuing learning,
reading, and speaking/presenting on the topics of solid-liquid separation, centrifugation, drying, and other process
equipment and technologies as well as business development and innovation. This work has spanned over 40 countries
on 6 continents.
I began writing when I was a young Environmental Scientist with the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).
During those years, I issued Code of Federal Register rules and justifications, approved, of course, by the Branch Manager
and eventually the Regional Administrator. Several of my reports are still available should you be eager to read “EPA 905/
5-81-002: Economic Impact of Implementing VOC Group II Rules in Ohio” or “EPA 905/9-82-005: Air Quality Non-
Attainment Areas in Region 5.”
From the USEPA, I joined Pall Corporation and continued my writing in their marketing group where I issued my first
filtration paper in 1982, WER 5300—Principles of Filtration. This paper had to be approved by Dr. Pall before it was issued.
My writing continued, and one of my tag lines was “like the Sheriff in the Wild West, my role is to bring order from chaos in
the filtration industry.”
My technical and marketing application articles—more than 150 to date—culminated in 2015 with the publication of
my first book for Elsevier, the handbook of Solid-Liquid Filtration. Part of Elsevier’s Practical Guides in Chemical Engi-
neering, where each book provides a focused introductory view on a single subject, the Handbook required almost 1 year to
write. The fun and challenge of that task have further been rewarded with year-to-date sales of more than 900 copies.
Now here we are at the current book, Integration and Optimization of Unit Process Operations. On the strength of the
handbook’s market acceptance, Elsevier asked me to propose a second book. They suggested that based upon my
experience, I edit a book unique to the chemical process industry (CPI). I welcomed the opportunity.
The problem in the marketplace, as I see it, is the type of engineers trained. In the early 1970s, companies wanted staff
with an “I-shaped” skill level. Someone with “I-shaped” skills has a deep (vertical) expertise in one area and practically no
experience or knowledge in other areas. This person is typically known as a specialist. In the 1980s, the industry wanted
“T-shaped” professionals. The vertical bar on the T represents strong knowledge in a specific discipline. The horizontal bar
represents a wide (horizontal) yet shallow knowledge in other areas. This allows the person to be able to collaborate across
other disciplines and acquire new skills or knowledge. Now, however, with the rapid proliferation of technological
advances and the cross-disciplinary nature of work, we need “Key-shaped” engineers who have several areas of expertise
with varying degrees of depth. This book addresses this need.
First, what this book is not is another textbook for designing equipment and technology. There are many references,
university courses, etc., for this work and teaching the “nuts and bolts” of pumps, heat exchangers, distillation towers,
thermodynamics, etc.
This book takes a different approach to share up-to-date and practical information on chemical unit operations from the
R&D stage to scale-up and demonstration to commercialization and optimization. At each stage, the information presented
differs as the technology and issues faced at the lab scale change in commercialization and optimization. This book takes a
broader view and encourages a “Key-shaped” approach to chemical engineering.
As the chemical industry changes and becomes more integrated worldwide, information exchange is needed. This
exchange must include not only principles of operation, but also practical knowledge transfer. This book addresses
this need.
Engineers must be able to ask questions of I-shaped and T-shaped professionals to develop creative solutions. This book
addresses the needs of engineers who want to increase their skill levels in various disciplines so that they can develop,
commercialize, and optimize processes.
xvii
xviii Preface
Some theory is included to provide the necessary background of the specific unit operation, but as stated previously, this
is not the main emphasis. Each chapter discusses practical aspects and illustrates the impacts of upstream process decisions
on downstream operations. Chapters also include troubleshooting at each process stage and suggest questions to ask to
develop creative solutions to process problems.
The engineer using this book will be able to take the content and apply it to the task at hand. For example, if you are
working on a process and need information on electrical and controls, you will find this. If you are a new project manager,
you will find a chapter on how to develop a project from beginning to final acceptance and start-up. Whether you are a start-
up or producing millions of tons/year, you will find the necessary guidance. I hope that this will be your “go-to book” along
the way as you grow and expand your skills and career.
The organization of the chapters follows that of a chemical operating company no matter the size of the operation. It
begins with crystallization and fermentation. Then, there are discussions of the process equipment followed by automation,
mixing and blending, process modeling and safety, and commissioning. We then discuss optimization, project man-
agement, techno-economic analysis, and “putting it all together.” The book concludes with a chapter on decommissioning
which is important, as processes change, products change, and the market itself changes.
Two more topics in the book deserve a separate mention. First, there is a chapter on hemp, cannabis, CBD or canna-
bidiols, and biomass. This is a new and flourishing industry, and many of the readers of this book may be drawn into this
process area. Finally, we discuss sustainability and holistic integration and optimization of chemical processes and con-
sumer product manufacturing. This chapter explores the impacts of environmental, socio-ecological, and economic issues
on decision making requiring the application of holistic systems modeling in process and product design to evaluate the
related consequences.
Finally, the text, as you will see, varies from chapter to chapter, as all contributing authors come from differing back-
grounds and experiences. This, I believe, it one of the greatest strengths of this book. Besides the United States, we have
authors from India, Germany, United Kingdom, Ireland, Netherlands, and Canada. Their experience encompasses process
engineers, technology suppliers, plant managers, academia, governmental agencies, consultants, and start-up to Fortune
500 companies. Each author brings a unique approach to problem solving and plant operations. An approach and expertise
they have so graciously taken the time to share.
As one author commented: “We, as a community, really have a responsibility to help and support younger engineers
and/or people who are thinking of going into the profession. We particularly need to mentor people from non-traditional
backgrounds who just need some encouragement and support, otherwise there is the danger of them becoming discouraged
and falling away from the profession. We need diversity in this profession.”
This book embraces that diversity. Thank you to all the authors who spent time researching and writing to contribute
your chapters. You are the backbone of this book. I have enjoyed working with you and truly hope that our paths will
cross again.
Thanking everyone I’ve worked with over my 40 years for their guidance, influence, help, and assistance would take a
book itself. As I reflect on my career and the many worldwide friends that I have had the pleasure of meeting over all these
years, I am truly grateful to each one of you. Let me say that the word “friends” in my mind are colleagues, customers,
competitors, suppliers, publishers, editors, and many others who have helped me to succeed. I have been fortunate through
hard work, long hours, and a personal goal of making each and every one of our contacts an informative and productive
experience to build many long-lasting relationships and, more importantly, invaluable friendships over all these years. It
has been these relationships that keep me striving to give back to our engineering community.
A heartfelt thank you also to my parents, my wife Michelle, and my family, friends, trainers, and yogis for supporting me
all these years and being part of my life. You all have heard the stories, and while you may not have fully understood all, you
have been there for me forever. Thank you, thank you, and thank you again.
I now must give one final thanks to Jenn Goddu who started with me in 2014 as my technical associate, editor, friend,
and all-around writer as I publish, blog, post, and tweet. Her skills are completely beyond reproach.
And, to the readers of this book, I hope that the information from the experiences of the contributing authors will help
you to succeed in your careers and personal growth. Thank you.
Crystallization
Brooke Albin
Research & Development, MATRIC (Mid-Atlantic Technology, Research & Innovation Center), South Charleston, WV, United States
Crystallizer process design requires attention to many varied factors. This chapter discusses fundamentals and laboratory
scale process development, pilot scale crystallization studies, and commercialization of crystallization processes to provide
an overview of the considerations in this area of solids processing.
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