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© 1999 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form
by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, record¬
ing, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing
from the publisher.
This book was set in Baskerville by Asco Typesetters, Hong Kong, and
was printed and bound in the United States of America.
Palmer, Stephen E.
Vision science—photons to phenomenology / Stephen E. Palmer,
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-262-16183-4
1. Vision. 2. Visual perception. 3. Cognitive science.
I. Title.
QP475.P24 1999
612.8'4—dc21 99-11785
CIP
In loving memory of my mentor, colleague, and
friend, Irvin Rock (1922—1995), who taught me
more about visual perception than everyone else
combined and who showed me by example what
it means to be a scientist.
Preface xvii
I Foundations 1
Appendix A: Psychophysical
Methods 665
Brief Contents
Contents
I Foundations 1
Contents x
Fuzzy Set Theory 140 4.4.1 Physiological Evidence 193
Primary, Derived, and Composite Color 4.4.2 Perceptual Evidence 195
Categories 141
xi Contents
5.5.10 Integrating Information Sources 247 6.5.4 The Role of Instructions 304
Dominance 247 6.6 Development of Perceptual Organization 305
Compromise 248 6.6.1 The Habituation Paradigm 306
Interaction 249 6.6.2 The Development of Grouping 306
5.6 Development of Depth Perception 249
5.6.1 Ocular Information 250 7 Perceiving Object Properties and
5.6.2 Stereoscopic Information 251 Parts 311
5.6.3 Dynamic Information 252
Constancy and Illusion 312
5.6.4 Pictorial Information 252
Modes of Perception: Proximal and Distal 313
Contents xii
Global Precedence 355 Comparison Processes 414
Configural Orientation Effects 357 Decision Processes 414
Word, Object, and Configural 9.2 Phenomena of Perceptual Categorization 416
Superiority Effects 359 9.2.1 Categorical Hierarchies 416
Prototypes 417
Representing Shape and Structure 362 Basic-Level Categories 418
Entry-Level Categories 419
8.1 Shape Equivalence 363
9.2.2 Perspective Viewing Conditions 420
8.1.1 Defining Objective Shape 364
Canonical Perspective 421
8.1.2 Invariant Features 365
Priming Effects 424
8.1.3 Transformational Alignment 367
Orientation Effects 426
8.1.4 Object-Centered Reference Frames 368
9.2.3 Part Structure 427
Geometric Coordinate Systems 369
9.2.4 Contextual Effects 428
Perceptual Reference Frames 370
9.2.5 Visual Agnosia 431
Accounting for Failures of Shape
9.3 Theories of Object Categorization 433
Equivalence 371
9.3.1 Recognition by Components Theory 434
Orientation and Shape 373
Geons 434
Heuristics in Reference Frame
Nonaccidental Features 435
Selection 374
Geon Relations 436
8.2 Theories of Shape Representation 377
Stages of Object Categorization in
8.2.1 Templates 377
RBC 437
Strengths 378
A Neural Network Implementation 438
Weaknesses 379
9.3.2 Accounting for Empirical Phenomena 440
8.2.2 Fourier Spectra 383
Typicality Effects 440
Strengths 384
Entry-Level Categories 440
Weaknesses 384
Viewing Conditions 441
8.2.3 Features and Dimensions 385
Part Structures 442
Multidimensional Representations 387
Contextual Effects 442
Multifeatural Representations 390
Visual Agnosia 443
Strengths 391
Weaknesses 443
Weaknesses 392
9.3.3 Viewpoint-Specific Theories 444
8.2.4 Structural Descriptions 394
The Case for Multiple Views 444
Shape Primitives 396
Aspect Graphs 445
Strengths 397
Alignment with 3-D Models 448
Weaknesses 397
Alignment with 2-D View
8.3 Figural Goodness and Pragnanz 398
Combinations 448
8.3.1 Theories of Figural Goodness 399
Weaknesses 451
Classical Information Theory 399
9.4 Identifying Letters and Words 453
Rotation and Reflection Subsets 400
9.4.1 Identifying Letters 453
Symmetry Subgroups 401
9.4.2 Identifying Words and Letters Within
8.3.2 Structural Information Theory 402
Words 455
Primitive Codes 403
9.4.3 The Interactive Activation Model 458
Removing Redundancies 403
Feature Level 458
Information Load 404
Letter Level 458
Applications to Perceptual
Word Level 459
Organization 405
Word-to-Letter Feedback 460
Strengths 405
Problems 460
Weaknesses 405
xiii Contents
10.1.2 Continuous Motion 469 Launching, Triggering, and Entraining
Adaptation and Aftereffects 470 Events 513
Simultaneous Motion Contrast 470 Perceiving Mass Relations 514
The Autokinetic Effect 471 10.4.3 Intuitive Physics 515
10.1.3 Apparent Motion 471 Recognizing versus Generating
Early Gestalt Investigations 472 Answers 515
Motion Picture Technology 473 Particle versus Extended Body
The Correspondence Problem of Motion 517
Apparent Motion 474
Short-Range versus Long-Range 11 Visual Selection: Eye Movements and
Apparent Motion 477
Attention 519
The Aperture Problem 479
11.1 Eye Movements 520
10.1.4 Physiological Mechanisms 481
11.1.1 Types of Eye Movements 521
The Magno and Parvo Systems 481
Physiological Nystagmus 521
Cortical Analysis of Motion 482
Saccadic Movements 523
Neuropsychology of Motion
Smooth Pursuit Movements 524
Perception 483
Vergence Movements 525
10.1.5 Computational Theories 484
Vestibular Movements 525
Delay-and-Compare Networks 484
Optokinetic Movements 526
Edge-Based Models 485
11.1.2 The Physiology of the Oculomotor
Spatial-Frequency-Based Models 485
System 527
Integrating Local Motion 486
11.1.3 Saccadic Exploration of the Visual
10.2 Object Motion 487
Environment 528
10.2.1 Perceiving Object Velocity 487
Patterns of Fixations 528
10.2.2 Depth and Motion 488
Transsaccadic Integration 531
Rigid Motion in Depth 489
11.2 Visual Attention 531
The Kinetic Depth Effect 489
11.2.1 Early versus Late Selection 533
The Rigidity Heuristic and the
Auditory Attention 533
Correspondence Problem 490
The Inattention Paradigm 534
The Stereo-Kinetic Effect 491
The Attentional Blink 537
Perception of Nonrigid Motion 492
Change Blindness 538
10.2.3 Long-Range Apparent Motion 493
Intentionally Ignored Information 539
Apparent Rotation 493
11.2.2 Costs and Benefits of Attention 541
Curved Apparent Motion 495
The Attentional Cuing Paradigm 542
Conditions for Long-Range Apparent
Motion 497 Voluntary versus Involuntary Shifts of
Attention 543
10.2.4 Dynamic Perceptual Organization 498
Grouping by Movement 498 Three Components of Shifting
Attention 544
Configural Motion 499
11.2.3 Theories of Spatial Attention 544
Induced Motion 501
Kinetic Completion and Illusory The Spotlight Metaphor 545
10.3.1 Induced Motion of the Self 504 11.2.4 Selective Attention to Properties 549
Contents XIV
Illusory Conjunctions 558 Image Size Effects 607
Problems with Feature Integration Mental Psychophysics 608
Theory 559 Reinterpreting Images 608
Object Files 561 12.2.4 Kosslyn’s Model of Imagery 609
11.2.7 The Physiology of Attention 563 12.2.5 The Relation of Imagery to
Unilateral Neglect 563 Perception 611
Balint’s Syndrome 565 Behavioral Evidence 611
Brain Imaging Studies 566 Neuropsychological Evidence 612
Electrophysiological Studies 567 Brain Imaging Studies 613
11.2.8 Attention and Eye Movements 568
xv Contents
Working Memory Theories 648 The Delta Rule 682
The 2.5-D Sketch Theory of The Generalized Delta Rule 683
Consciousness 649 B. 2.2 Gradient Descent 683
13.4.2 Biological Theories 649 Input Vector Space 683
Activation Thresholds 650 Partitioning the Input Vector Space 684
Duration Thresholds 651 State Space 684
The Cortical Hypothesis 651 Weight Space 685
The Crick/Koch Conjectures 652 Weight-Error Space 686
ERTAS: The Extended Reticular- Gradient Descent 686
Thalamic Activating System 654 Local versus Global Minima 686
Causal Theories of Consciousness: An
Analogy 655
13.4.3 Consciousness and the Limits of
Appendix C: Color Technology 689
Science 656 C.l Additive versus Subtractive Color Mixture 690
Relational Structure 657 C. 1.1 Adding versus Multiplying Spectra 691
The Isomorphism Constraint 658 C.l.2 Maxwell’s Color Triangle 691
Relation to Functionalism 659 C. 1.3 C.I.E. Color Space 692
Biology to the Rescue? 661 C.1.4 Subtractive Color Mixture Space? 693
C.2 Color Television 694
C.3 Paints and Dyes 696
Appendix A: Psychophysical Methods 665 C.3.1 Subtractive Combination of Paints 696
A. 1 Measuring Thresholds 665 C.3.2 Additive Combination of Paints 697
A. 1.1 Method of Adjustment 666 C.4 Color Photography 697
A. 1.2 Method of Limits 666 C.5 Color Printing 699
A. 1.3 Method of Constant Stimuli 666
A. 1.4 The Theoretical Status of Thresholds 667
A.2 Signal Detection Theory 668
Glossary 701
A.2.1 Response Bias 668 References 737
A.2.2 The Signal Detection Paradigm 668 Name Index 771
A.2.3 The Theory of Signal Detectability 669 Subject Index 780
A.3 Difference Thresholds 671
A.3.1 Just Noticeable Differences 671
A.3.2 Weber’s Law 671
A. 4 Psychophysical Scaling 672
A.4.1 Fechner’s Law 672
A. 4.2 Stevens’s Law 673
Contents xvi
Preface Writing this book has been a long and difficult under¬
taking. Because several good textbooks are available
that present the basic facts about vision in a clear and
readable fashion, the reader may wonder why I em¬
barked on this journey. Indeed, I often wonder myself!
It was not that I thought I could do a better job at what
these other books do. Truthfully, I doubt I could. It was
that I felt the need for a different kind of textbook, one
that accurately reflects the way most modern research
scientists think about vision. In fact, the scientific under¬
standing of visual perception has changed profoundly
over the past 25 years, and almost all the current text¬
books are still in the “old” mold in both structure and
content. New results are included, of course, but the
new approach to vision is not.
So what is this new approach? The change in the na¬
ture of visual research began in the 1970s, resulting
from the gradual emergence of an interdisciplinary field
that I will call vision science. It arose at the intersection
of several existing disciplines in which scientists were
concerned with image understanding: how the structure
of optical images was (or could be) processed to extract
useful information about the environment. Perceptual
psychologists, psychophysicists, computer scientists, neu¬
rophysiologists, and neuropsychologists who study vision
started talking and listening to each other at this time
because they began to recognize that they were working
on the same problem from different but compatible and
complementary perspectives. Vision science is a branch
of a larger interdisciplinary endeavor known as cogni¬
tive science that began at about the same time. Cog¬
nitive science is the study of all mental states and
processes—not just visual ones—from an even greater
variety of methodologically distinct fields, including not
only psychology, computer science, and neuroscience,
but also linguistics, philosophy, anthropology, sociology,
and others. In my own view, vision science is not just one
branch of cognitive science, but the single most co-
herent, integrated, and successful branch of cognitive falsity as in the crucial role they play in understanding
science. known phenomena and in predicting new ones. Given
Central to this new approach is the idea that vision is that we have few, if any, truly adequate theories in
a kind of computation. In living organisms, it occurs in vision science yet, virtually every insight we have into
eyes and brains through complex neural information known phenomena and every predicted new one have
processing, but it can, at least in theory, also take place been generated by incorrect theories! They are, quite
when information from video cameras is fed to properly simply, an essential component of vision science.
programmed digital computers. This idea has had an In this book I have therefore taken the position that it
important unifying effect on the study of vision, en¬ is just as important for students of vision to understand
abling psychologists, computer scientists, and physiolo¬ theories as to know about phenomena. Most chapters
gists to relate their findings to each other in the common include a healthy dose of theory, and some (e.g., Chap¬
language of computation. Vision researchers from dis¬ ters 2 and 8) are almost entirely theoretical. But I have
parate fields now read and cite each other’s work regu¬ tried to do more than simply catalog bits and pieces of
larly, participate in interdisciplinary conferences, and existing theory; I have tried to present a theoretical syn¬
collaborate on joint research projects. Indeed, the study thesis that is internally consistent and globally coherent.
of vision is rapidly becoming a unified field in which This is a tall order, to be sure, for the classical theories
the boundaries between the component disciplines have of visual perception seem so different as to be diametri¬
become largely transparent. cally opposed. Structuralist theory, for example, claimed
This interdisciplinary convergence has dominated the that wholes are nothing but associations of elementary
cutting edge of vision research for more than two dec¬ parts, whereas Gestalt theory championed the primacy
ades, but it is curiously underrepresented or even absent of wholes over parts. Helmholtz’s theory of unconscious
in most modern textbooks about perception. One reason inference claimed that vision is mediated by thoughtlike
is that most textbooks that cover vision also include deductions, whereas Gibson’s ecological theory coun¬
hearing, taste, touch, and smell. With the exception of tered that perception is direct and unmediated. How
hearing, the computational approach has not yet gained can a theoretically coherent position be fashioned from
a firm foothold in these other sensory modalities. The such diverse and contradictory components? I do not
attempt to provide a consistent framework for research claim to have succeeded completely in this synthesis, for
in all modalities thus precludes using the computational I do have to deny some important tenets of certain posi¬
approach so dominant in vision research. tions. But not many. Much has been made of differences
Another reason the computational approach to vision that are more apparent than real, and I believe that the
has not been well represented in textbooks is that its computational approach presented in this book can span
essential core is theoretical, and introductory textbook the vast majority of them without strain. The strong
authors tend to shy away from theory. The reasons are form of Gibson’s claim for direct perception is an ex¬
several, having to do partly with many authors’ lack of ception, but weaker forms of this view are quite com¬
computational background, partly with the difficulty of patible with the computational view taken in this book,
presenting complex quantitative theories clearly without as I explain in Chapter 2.
overwhelming the reader, and partly with students’ de¬ The unified theoretical viewpoint I present is not so
sire to learn only things that are “right.” In the final much my own theory as my construction of what I think
analysis, all phenomena are “right,” and all theories of as the current “modal theory.” Experts on vision will
(except one) are presumably “wrong”—although some naturally find aspects of it to which they take exception,
are “wronger” than others. Students are understandably but I believe the vast majority will find it consistent with
wary of expending much effort on learning a theory that most of their firmly held beliefs. The theoretical frame¬
is surely flawed in some way or other. Such consid¬ work I advocate owes much to the influential proposals
erations have led to a generation of textbooks that are as of the late David Marr and his colleagues at MIT, but
theoretically neutral as possible, usually by being as this is true of the field in general. In many cases, I have
atheoretical as possible. But the importance of theories generalized Marr’s specific proposals to make clear how
in science lies not so much in their ultimate truth or his own detailed theories were examples of a more gen-
Preface xviii
eral framework into which a variety of other specific because they are precisely what makes an interdisciplin¬
theories fit quite comfortably. Even so, I do not consider ary approach desirable. What is needed is a group of
the view I describe as exclusively or even primarily vision scientists who are well versed in all these dis¬
Marr’s; it owes just as much to classical perceptual theo¬ ciplines. It is my sincere hope that this book will help
rists such as Helmholtz, Wertheimer, Gibson, and Rock. create such a community of scientists.
The interweaving of such diverse theoretical ideas is not In addition to being used as a textbook, I hope that
difficult to achieve, provided one avoids divisive dogma this book will be useful as a reference text for members
and instead concentrates on the positive contributions of of the expanding vision science community. Although
each view. the sections describing one’s own field of specialization
Because the book is much more theoretical and inter¬ may seem elementary, the rest of the book can provide
disciplinary than most perception textbooks, it is corre¬ useful background material and relatively sophisticated
spondingly longer and more difficult. It is designed for introductions to other areas of vision research. The cov¬
an upper division undergraduate course or an entry-level erage is not intended to be at the same level as a profes¬
graduate course on vision, most likely as part of a pro¬ sional handbook, in which each chapter is expected to
gram of study in psychology, cognitive science, or op¬ be a definitive treatment of a specific topic written by a
tometry. I have tried to explain both theories and world-class expert for an audience of other experts, but
phenomena clearly enough to be understood by intelli¬ it is also more accessible and internally consistent than
gent, motivated students with no prior background in any handbook I have ever seen. It is therefore particu¬
the field of vision. I do presume that readers have some larly useful for someone who wants to get a global view
basic understanding of behavioral experiments, com¬ of vision science—the “lay of the land,” if you will—
puter programming, and neurobiology. Those who are within which the focused chapters that one finds in pro¬
unfamiliar with this material may find certain portions fessional handbooks will fit comfortably and make more
of the text more difficult and have to work harder as a sense.
result, but the technical prerequisites are intended to be
Organization of the Book
relatively few and low-level, mainly high school geome¬
try and algebra.
Because the aim of this book is to integrate material
Despite the strongly interdisciplinary nature of this
across disciplines, each chapter includes findings from
book, it is written primarily from a psychological per¬
many different approaches. There is no “physiology
spective. The reason is simply that I am a psychologist
chapter,” no “psychophysics chapter,” no “devel¬
by training, and no matter how seriously I have read the
opmental chapter,” no “neuropsychology chapter,” and
literature in computer vision and visual neuroscience,
no “computational chapter” in which the separate and
the core of my viewpoint is still psychological. In keep¬
often conflicting mini-views within each of these dis¬
ing with this perspective, I have avoided presenting the
ciplines can be conveniently described in isolation. I
complex mathematical details that would be central to a
have avoided this approach because it compartmental¬
computer scientist’s presentation of the same topics and
izes knowledge, blocking the kind of synthesis that I am
the biological details that would figure prominently in a
trying to achieve and that I view as essential for progress
neuroscientist’s presentation. By the same token, I have
in the field. Rather, the topic of each chapter is discussed
included details of experimental methods and results
from the perspectives of all relevant disciplines, some¬
that they might well have omitted by nonpsychologists.
times including those that writers of textbooks on vision
Vision science may have made the boundaries between
traditionally ignore, such as computer science, philoso¬
disciplines more transparent, but it has not eliminated
phy, and linguistic anthropology. Even within the more
them. Psychologists still perform experiments on sighted
standard visual disciplines, the coverage is not uniform
organisms, computer scientists still write programs that
because the distribution of knowledge is not uniform.
extract and transform optical information, and neuro¬
We know a great deal more about the physiology of
scientists still study the structure and function of the
early image processing, for example, than we do about
visual nervous system. Such methodological differences
the physiology of categorization and visual imagery.
will not disappear. Indeed, they should not disappear,
XIX Preface
This unevenness is merely a reflection of the current (Chapter 9). This material on spatial processing of im¬
state of understanding. ages is the heart and soul of classical visual perception.
The overall organization of the book is defined by Because it is much more complex than color processing,
its three parts: Foundations, Spatial Vision, and Visual we understand it much less well. It is hard at times not to
Dynamics. be overwhelmed by the mountains of facts and frus¬
trated at the lack of good theory, but I believe we are
Foundations. The Foundations section covers a basic beginning to get some clearer notion of how this all fits
introduction to the interdisciplinary science of vision. together.
Chapter 1 introduces the problem of visual perception
and sets forth an interdisciplinary framework for ap¬ Visual Dynamics. The final section concerns percep¬
proaching it. It covers many of the most important tual dynamics: how visual perception and its aftereffects
perceptual, optical, and physiological facts on which change over time. Perception of motion and events is
vision is based. Chapter 2 then discusses theoretical the first topic considered (Chapter 10), being essentially
approaches to vision from an historical perspective. It an extension of spatial perception to the domain of
covers the classical theories of vision as well as the infor¬ space-time. Then we discuss ways in which the visual
mation processing (or computational) approach, includ¬ system selects different information over time by making-
ing several important proposals from the work of the overt eye movements and covert attentional adjustments
late David Marr (1982) that play a large role in defining (Chapter 11). Next we consider memory for visual infor¬
the superstructure of the rest of the book. The key idea mation within a multistore framework—iconic memory,
is that visual perception can be analyzed into a sequence short-term visual memory, and long-term visual mem¬
of four basic stages: one that deals with extracting image ory—and examine how such stored information can be
structure (Marr’s “primal sketch”), one that deals with reconstructed and transformed in visual imagery (Chap¬
recovering surfaces in depth (Marr’s “2.5-D sketch”), ter 12). Finally, Chapter 13 takes up what is perhaps the
one that deals with describing 3-D objects (Marr’s “vol¬ most fascinating of all topics: the nature of visual
umetric descriptions”), and one that deals with identify¬ awareness (and its absence in certain neurological syn¬
ing objects in terms of known categories. This sequence dromes) and various attempts at explaining it. This topic
of processes—which I call image-based, surface-based, object- is very much on the cutting edge of modern vision sci¬
based, and category-based—is then traced for each of the ence and is finally getting the attention that it deserves.
major topics covered in the book: color, space, and mo¬
tion perception. The final chapter of the Foundations Tailoring the Book to Different Needs
section, Chapter 3, is a long but important one. It tells
Because the book contains more topics and material
“the color story,” which spans vision science from the
than can comfortably fit into any single-term under¬
physiology of retinal receptors to the linguistic analysis
graduate course, instructors are encouraged to be selec¬
of color names in different cultures of the world. Its
tive in using it. I have included too much rather than too
importance derives from the fact that the current under¬
little because I find it easier to skip what I do not want to
standing of color processing illustrates better than any
cover in a single unified textbook than to find external
other single example in all of cognitive science why an
readings that cover the desired material at an appropri¬
integrated, interdisciplinary approach is necessary for a
ate level and in a framework that is compatible with the
complete understanding of a perceptual domain.
main textbook—a nearly impossible task, I have found.
There are several ways of tailoring the present book
Spatial Vision. Chapters 4 through 9 cover spatial
to different needs. Most obviously, certain chapters can
perception as a sequence of processes: extracting image
be skipped in their entirety. For example, if color is not
structure (Chapter 4), recovering oriented surfaces in
a high priority, Chapter 3 can be omitted with only
depth (Chapter 5), organizing perception into coherent
minor ramifications for later chapters. Chapter 10 on
objects (Chapter 6), perceiving object properties and
motion perception is likewise reasonably independent of
parts (Chapter 7), representing shape (Chapter 8), and
the rest of the book. For courses that are restricted to
identifying objects as members of known categories
Preface xx
classical visual perception, Chapter 11 on eye move¬ doubtless have made in his absence. After Irv’s death,
ments and attention and Chapter 12 on memory and Arien Mack, one of Irv’s most distinguished students
imagery are probably the least relevant. A course em¬ and collaborators, became my primary reviewer for the
phasizing high-level vision can reasonably omit Chapter remaining chapters of the book. One or the other of
4 on image-based processing. them has read and commented on every chapter.
Another approach to selective coverage is omitting Many other experts in vision science have also read
subsections within chapters. For traditional courses on more limited portions of the book, either at my own
the psychology of vision, the sections on computational request or at that of MIT Press, and provided valuable
theory and other technical material may be eliminated comments on material in their specialty areas. I wish to
or assigned as optional. (One effective approach I have thank the following scholars, plus several anonymous re¬
used is to teach an honors section of the course for addi¬ viewers, for the time and effort they spent in evaluating
tional credit in which the more difficult material is portions of the manuscript:
required and other sections for which it is not.) Elimi¬
Chapter 1: Irvin Rock, Jack Gallant, Paul Kube
nating this material has the advantages of making the
Chapter 2: Irvin Rock, James Cutting, Ulric Neisser,
book substantially shorter and easier to understand for
Paul Kube, Jitendra Malik, and an anonymous re¬
students with less technical backgrounds. The devel¬
viewer
opmental sections can also generally be omitted without
Chapter 3: Irvin Rock, Karen DeValois, Alan Gilchrist,
much affecting the book’s continuity and cohesion.
C. Lawrence Hardin, Paul Kay, and an anonymous
For students with strong scientific backgrounds who
reviewer
are highly motivated to learn about modern vision
Chapter 4: Irvin Rock, Jitendra Malik, Jack Gallant,
science, I encourage instructors to use as much of the
Ken Nakayama, and an anonymous reviewer
book as possible. It is perfectly reasonable, for example,
Chapter 5: Irvin Rock, Jitendra Malik, Ken Nakayama,
to cover the entire book in a graduate course on vision
and an anonymous reviewer
that lasts a full semester.
Chapter 6: Irvin Rock, Jitendra Malik, and Michael
Kubovy
Acknowledgments
Chapter 7: Irvin Rock, Arien Mack, and an anonymous
There are many people I wish to thank for helping me in reviewer
various phases of writing this book. First and foremost, I Chapter 8: Irvin Rock, John Hummel, and an anony¬
gratefully acknowledge my debt to my late colleague mous reviewer
and friend, Irvin Rock, to whom this book is dedicated. Chapter 9: Irvin Rock, John Hummel, and an anony¬
Irv not only taught me about perception in his own gen¬ mous reviewer
tle, probing, inimitable way, but he also read and com¬ Chapter 10: Arien Mack, James Cutting, Dennis Prof¬
mented on earlier drafts of the first nine chapters before fitt, and an anonymous reviewer
his death in 1995. Moreover, his 1975 textbook An Intro¬ Chapter 11: Arien Mack, Michael Posner, Anne Treis-
duction to Perception served as a model for this one in cer¬ man, and William Prinzmetal
tain important ways. In that book, Irv tried to present Chapter 12: Arien Mack and Martha Farah
the phenomena of visual perception at an introductory Chapter 13: Arien Mack, Alison Gopnik, John Watson,
level yet within a coherent and principled theoretical Bruce Mangan, Bernard Baars, and C. Lawrence
view of perception as a problem solving process. While Hardin
it was still in print, it was my favorite perception text, Appendix A: Ken Nakayama and Ervin Hafter
and I know that some instructors continue to use it in Appendix B: John Kruschke and Jerome Leldman
photocopied readers to this day. Appendix C: Alan Gilchrist
Irv’s influence on this book has been substantial, as Several students, postdoctoral fellows, and visitors in
careful readers will surely discover. Had he lived, I be¬ my lab have also taken the time to comment on various
lieve his continued contributions would have improved portions of the book. Without differentiating among
it further and kept me from making some mistakes I chapters, I wish to thank Daniel Levitin, Elisabeth Pa-
xxi Preface
chiere, Joel Norman, Akira Shimaya, Diane Beck, Justin
Beck, Sheryl Ehrlich, Craig Fox, Jonathan Neff, Charles
Schreiber, and Christopher Stecker for their helpful
comments. In addition, I would like to thank Christo¬
pher Linnett, Sheryl Ehrlich, Diane Beck, Thomas
Leung, William Prinzmetal, Gregory Larson for doing
some of the more complex and technical illustra¬
tions, Lisa Hamilton for working on design issues, and
Richard Powers for improving my work environment.
For their help in copy editing and preparing the final
manuscript for production, I would like to thank Bar¬
bara Willette and Peggy Gordon, respectively. Last, but
not least, I must thank Edward Hubbard for his tireless
help in tracking down references, obtaining permission
to reprint figures, checking page proofs, and generally
overseeing the final stages of preparing the manuscript
for publication.
This book took a long time to write—certainly a good
deal longer than I had planned or than I would like to
admit—and its writing put a significant strain on all
other aspects of my life. During this time, many people
have contributed emotional support and understanding,
for which they are due both thanks for their help and
apologies for the time this project has stolen from them.
They include Paul Harris, Stephen Forsling, David
Shiver, and Andy Utiger, as well as Linda, Emily, and
Nathan Palmer.
Preface XXII
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