Vem 015 Merged Sas

Course Code: VEM015
Student Activity Sheet #1
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________
Lesson title: Introduction to Materials:

Anatomy - Yourself
Lesson Objectives: - Pen
1. To learn the different branches - Paper
of anatomy. - Reference
2. To acquaint students to the - Desktop/Laptop/Cellphone
dog and its family References:
- Dyce, K.M., Sack, W.O., Wensing, C.J.G. Testbook of
3. Veterinary Anatomy. (2009) Fourth Edition. Saunders
- Evans, H., De Lahunta, A. Miller’s Anatomy of the
Dog. (2012) Fourth Edition. Saunders
- Pasquini, C, Sprugeon, T, Pasquini, S. Anatomy of
Domestic Animals: Sytemic and Regional Approach.
(1989) Eleventh Edition. Sudz Publishing
Productivity Tip:
Welcome to Veterinary Anatomy! For this semester, I will introduce to you the terminologies that are
widely use in veterinary medicine. Enjoy your learning!
A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Welcome to Veterinary Anatomy! For this semester, I will be introducing to you the different
terminologies that we used a lot. And we will be focusing on man’s best friend, the dog. You will
find out why we study the dog’s anatomy first before moving on to other animals.
2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Kindly answer the WHAT I KNOW Column. Leave the WHAT I LEARNED COLUMN later.
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)
for me, Anatomy is a 1. What is anatomy?

study of structures
This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Course Code: VEM015

Base in 2. Why do we focus on the dog

for this semester?
3.What is binomial
nomenclature?
B.MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)
Definition of Terms
1. Anatomy- study of structures of a living organism
2. Physiology- study of the functions of these structures of a living organism
3. Embryology- study of the different structures of a developing embryo, as well as the

development of organs in uteru
4. Histology- study of the microscopic structures of the different organs of a living organism
5. Comparative Anatomy- study of structures of different living organisms with emphasis on their
differences such as absence or presence of certain structures
6. Applied and Clinical Anatomy- study of the how clinical cases are influenced by anatomy or
abnormalities in anatomy; also focuses on the impact of clinical cases to the anatomy of living
organisms
*For VAna 1 Gross Anatomy, the animal in focus is the dog (Canis familiaris).
- Dogs were one of the animals that were dissected by veterinarians and compared their
structures to that of the human.

Course Code: VEM015

Dog (Canis familiaris)

- first animal to be domesticated by man: ~ 20,000 years ago
- Humans were able to exploit the dog’s hunting skills and its territorial behavior
- In some cultures they serve as food
- Dogs are bred by man according to their purpose:
a. Sporting/Working
b. Non-sporting
c. Herding
d. Hound
e. Toy
f. Terriers
EVOLUTION OF DOG
● Miacid is the common ancestors of animals belonging to order, Carnivora.
● Miacid is believed to exist as early as the Cretaceous Period (200-65 million years ago) to
the Eocene Epoch (45 million years ago)
Figure 1. Miacid

Course Code: VEM015

Taxonomic Classification of the Dog
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
Genus: Canis
Species: familiaris
Binomial Nomenclature
- proposed by the Carl (Carolus) Linneaus, a Swedish taxonomist
- a system of naming living organisms since such organisms have different terms in every language
- only the genus and species is use in this system
RULES OF BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
1. The genus will always be named first, followed by the species, and it should be separated.
2. The first letter of the genus should and must be capitalized or in upper case; while the first letter in the
species is in lower case.
3. If written, the binomial system should be italized because it is Latin.
4. If it not written in italic, the genus and species must be underlined separately.
Additional Notes:
▪ There are 36 species of Canids in the world. These includes the wolves, coyotes, jackals and foxes.
▪ Last year (2015), the African Golden Wolf (Canis anthus) was the latest addition to the dog family.
▪ In 2015 the American Kennel Club (AKC) recognized the following new breeds: Miniature American
Shepherd Dog (USA), Lagotto Romagnolo (Italy) and Berger Picard (France)

Course Code: VEM015

▪ In 2016, the American Kennel Club recognized additional four new breeds: Bergamasco (Italy),
Cirneco dell’Etna (Italy), Spanish Water Dog(Spain) and Boerboel (South Africa)
▪ The American Hairless Terrier (USA), Pumi (Hungary) and Sloughi (North Africa) were three breeds
that were recognized by the American Kennel Club in 2017.
2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
A. List down 3 species of animals that belong to the Canid family along with their scientific names.
Write their scientific names in accordance to the Rules of Binomial Nomenclature.
SPORTING/ NON- HERDING HOUND TOY TERRIER

WORKING SPORTING
braque chow-chow border collie irish shih tzu american

français wolfhound staffordshire
gascogne terrier
labrador sharpei australian american toy poodle border

retriever cattle dog foxhound terrier
golden bulldog australian whippet pomeranian kerry blue

retriever shepherd terrier
English setter dalmatian croatian scottish french bull terrier

sheepdog deerhound bulldog
irish setters shiba inu dutch bloodhound chihuahua irish terrier

shepherd
B. List down 5 breeds on dogs according to what type of the

Course Code: VEM015

3) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

Short Quiz:
1.What is the scientific name of the dog?
Canis lupus familiaris
2.Which branch of anatomy that studies the development of the embryo inside the uterus and/or
egg?
Embryology
3.Who is the father of Taxonomy?
Carolus Linnaeus
4.Where is the country of origin of the Boerboel dog breed?
South Africa
5.What is the species of canid is latest member of the dog family?
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
Now that we have finally acquainted ourselves with the dog, if you have any questions kindly write
it below.

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________
________________________________________
Lesson title: Osteology: An Introduction Materials:

Lesson Objectives: - Yourself
1. To know the composition and development of bones. - Pen
2. To know the different types of bones - Paper
- Reference
3. - Desktop/Laptop/Cellphone
References:
- Dyce, K.M., Sack, W.O.,
Wensing, C.J.G. Testbook
of Veterinary Anatomy.
(2009) Fourth Edition.
Saunders
- Evans, H., De Lahunta, A.
Miller’s Anatomy of the
Dog. (2012) Fourth Edition.
Saunders
- Pasquini, C, Sprugeon, T,
Pasquini, S. Anatomy of
Domestic Animals: Sytemic
and Regional Approach.
(1989) Eleventh Edition.
Sudz Publishing
Productivity Tip:
There are 24 hours in a day: 8 hours for sleep, 8 hours of work/studying, 8 hours for leisure. Remember time
is also a currency.
In anatomy, we will start from the most internal system: The Skeletal System. Treat this as a building.
The bones serve as the framework of the body, pretty much like the steel foundations are in the
building. Osteology is the study of bones, and in today and the succeeding three more modules you will
get to know the different bones of the dog.

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________

Kindly answer the WHAT I KNOW Column. Answer the WHAT I LEARNED Column later
1.What will happen to the bone if it

does not have its organic matrix?
2. What is a splanchnic bone?
3.Aside from providing framework

and protection to vital organs,
what other function do bones do?
B.MAIN LESSON
I. Physical properties of bones
1 2
- organic; inorganic material
3 3
- Inorganic matrix of bone is a microcrystalline structure composed of calcium phosphate.
- The organic framework of bone can be preserved; but the inorganic part is dissolved.
- The organic material is made up of connective tissue, e.g. collagen
● If the bone does not have organic matrix, it is brittle and shatters easily.
● If the bone does not have inorganic matrix, it cannot resist compression.
II. Functions of the Bone

1. Gives support and rigidity
2. Acting as leverage for the muscles
3. Protect internal organs
4. Storage of minerals such as calcium, phosphorus and magnesium
5. Site for hematopoiesis
III. How Are Bones Formed?

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
1. Osteocytes (or bone cells) that form cartilage and bone are derived from the mesoderm germ layer
or neural crest of the embryo.
● Type 1 Collagen-most abundant protein of the organic bone matrix
2. Cartilages are often bone precursors.
3. Osteoblast, are bone-forming cells that synthesize extracellular collagenous and non-collagenous
proteins and proteoglycans, which are the building blocks of bone matrix.
4. Osteoblast also respond to circulating hormones and produce growth factors that mobilizes
osteoclast cells.
5. Formation of bone by osteoblasts and the resorption of bone by osteoclast are linked or “coupled”.
● Resorption- the loss of substance of the bone either by physiologic or pathologic means
IV. Type of Bone Formation or Ossification
1. HETEROPLASTIC
- Formed in tissue other than the skeleton
- As in the formation of the splanchnic or heterotrophic bones
- An indication of pathogenicity if formation of such bone is unusual.
2. ENDOCHONDRAL
- From preformed cartilage to bones
- Ex. Formation of the long bones
3. INTRAMEMBANOUS
- Bone formation without intervention of cartilage
- Bones are preformed in a fibroid membrane infiltrated by osteoclasts
- Flat bones in the skull, face, mandible and clavicles of cats.
V. Factors That Influence Bone Formation and Remodelling
1. Mechanical stress via muscle attachment

2. Nutrition
a. Vitamin 𝐷3 or cholecalciferol
b. Calcium
c. Phosphorus
d. Magnesium

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
3. Hormones
a. Calcitonin
b. Parathormone or parathyroid hormone
c. Estrogen
VI. Bone Structures
A. Compact Bone
o Also known as substantia compacta and/or substantia corticalis

o Developed in direct ratio to the stress to which the bone is subjected
o Thicker in the shaft of long bones
o Can attain uniform thickness where the bone circumference is least
o Of all dog breeds, adult Great Danes have the maximum thickness of the compact bones in
the femur and humerus at 3 mm thick (average).
o Increased tension from the muscles of ligaments can increase the thickness in areas where
the said muscles and ligaments are located.
B. Spongy Bone
o Also known as substantia spongiosa
o It is elaborated in the extremities of long bones, forms the internal substance of short and
irregular bones, and it is interposed between the compact layers of most flat bones.
o Consist of a complicated maze of crossing and connecting osseous leaves and spicules that
vary in shape and direction.
o Diploë- spongy bone of the skull
o Note: No spongy bone is present in the shaft of long bones.
C. Bone Marrow
1. Yellow Bone Marrow
- Also known as medulla ossium flava
- Found in adult bones, and is mostly made of fat
2. Red Bone Marrow
- Also known as medulla ossium rubra

- Found in fetus and neonates and in spongy bones
- Functions: erythrocyte (RBC) formation
● Bone marrow is usually found in long bones

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
● Medullary Cavity is a marrow-filled space in the bone cavity
D. Bone Layers
1. Periosteum
- an inverting layer of connective tissue that covers the non-articular surface of all bones
2. Endosteum
- similar to the periosteum structurally but thinner.
- lines the medullary cavities, being the condensed peripheral layer of the bone marrow.
3. Mucoperiosteum
-covering of bones that participate in forming boundaries of the respiratory or digestive system
-it can be found in the paranasal sinuses and contains mucous (goblet) cells.

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Note:
Both periosteum and endosteum, under emergency conditions, such as bone fracture
provide osteoblasts that help in the repair of the injury.
E. Parts of the Long Bone
1. DIAPHYSIS- the long shaft of a long bone

2. EPIPHYSIS-the enlarged ends (both proximal and distal extremities)
3. METAPHYSIS- the area/part where the epiphysis joined the diaphysis in a
mature bone.
4. ARTICULAR SURFACE- the smooth layer of hyaline cartilage over the
epiphysis where bone forms a joint with another bone
VII. Types of Bones
1. Long Bones- longer than wide, consisting of diaphysis and 2 epiphysis with their articular
cartilage
2. Short Bones- normally cube in shape
3. Flat Bones- 2 plates of compact bone, separated by bone.
4. Irregular Bones- complex and irregular shaped bones
5. Pneumatic Bones- these contain air-filled spaces known as sinuses which have the effect of
reducing the weight of the bone
6. Splanchnic/Heterotrophic Bones- bones arising from soft tissues
7. Sesamoid Bones- small bones embedded in a tendon; has resemblance to sesame seeds
VIII. Surface Contours and Markings of Bones (Pasquini, et al. 1989)
1. Canal: A tunnel through one or more bones.

Example: Vertebral Canal
2. Condyle: (knob) A large articular prominence, knuckle shaped paired articular surface
Example: Occipital condyles of the skull; condyles of the humerus, femur and tibia

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
3. Cotyloid Cavity: A deep articular depression

Example: Acetabulum of the hip joint
4. Crest: A prominent border or ridge.

Example: Crest of the hip bone, crest of the skull
5. Epicondyle: This is the prominence just proximal to a condyle
Example: Lateral epicondyle of the humerus or femur
6. Facet: A smooth, flat surface that is covered with hyaline cartilage.
Example: Articular facet of a thoracic vertebra for the rib
7. Fissure: A narrow cleft-like opening between adjacent bones.
8. Foramen: An opening through a bone
Example: Infraorbital foramen, foramen magnum, obturator foramen
9. Fossa: A small hallow.
Example: Mandibular fossa, olecranon fossa, radial fossa
10. Glenoid Cavity: A shallow, articular depression of the scapula.
11. Groove: A long narrow furrow accommodating a vessel, nerve or tendon.
Example: Grooves on the distal end of the radius
12. Head: A rounded, articular process
Example: Head of the humerus or femur
13. Line: A ridge less prominent than a crest.
14. Meatus (plural: meati or meatuses): A tube-like canal through a bone.
Example: External Auditory Meatus
15. Notch: A depression at the edge of a bone
Example: Semilunar notch of the ulna, popliteal notch of the tibia
16. Process: Any prominent, roughened projection from a bone
17. Spine: A sharp, slender process
Example: Spine of the vertebra and scapula
18. Trochanter: A large, blunt process found only on the femur.
Example: Greater, lesser and third trochanter

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
19. Trochlea: A pulley-shaped structure

Example: trochlea of the femur
20.Tubercle: A small, rounded process found in the humerus
Example: Greater and lesser tubercle
21. Tuberosity or tuber: A large,usually roughened process
Example: Ischial tuberosity
A. Write down words that you are not familiar with and provide its meaning. Make sure it’s not on my
notes.
B.Write down 1 example of bones based on its type.
TYPE OF BONE EXAMPLE
Long Bones
Short Bones
Flat Bones
Sesamoid Bones

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Irregular Bones
Splanchnic Bones
Pneumatic Bones

Now you can answer the What I Learn column.

1. Which bone can you find the greater trochanter?
2. What type bone that arise from soft tissues?
3. Why is the yellow bone marrow yellow?
4. What type of ossification is seen in long bones?
5. This is the process where the bone loses its substance due to either pathological
of physiological causes.

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
I know this is quite a long read, but this will paved the way for the other modules. In case you have any
questions, kindly write it down below.

Course Code: VEM015
Teachers’ Guide Module #3
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Lesson title: Lesson No. 3 Axial Skeleton: Skull, Mandible, Materials:

Hyoid Apparatus
1. To know the different bones of the skull, mandible, hyoid
apparatus - Pen
2. To know the specific parts of these bones
- Paper
- Desktop/Laptop/Cellphone
References:
- Dyce, K.M., Sack, W.O.,

Wensing, C.J.G. Testbook of
Veterinary Anatomy. (2009) Fourth
Edition. Saunders
- Evans, H., De Lahunta, A.

Miller’s Anatomy of the Dog. (2012)
Fourth Edition. Saunders
Pasquini, C, Sprugeon, T,
Pasquini, S. Anatomy of Domestic
Animals: Sytemic and Regional
Approach. (1989) Eleventh Edition.
Sudz Publishing
Productivity Tip:
The lecture and the laboratory go hand-in-hand. So while studying for the lab, it won’t hurt not to read your
lecture notes, and vice versa.
You may have already meet them in the lab, but today we will refresh your memory with the same topic
in lecture. This will facilitate your familiarity with the bones and the specific parts.

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart

Kindly answer only the What I Know Column, save for What I Learned for later activity?
1. How many total bones are
present in the skull
2. What is a cranium?
3. What is foramen
orbitorotundum?
B.MAIN LESSON
I. Breakdown of Canine Skeleton
A. Axial Skeleton
1. Vertebral Column ------------------------- 50
2. Skull and Hyoid Apparatus-------------- 50
3. Ribs and Sternum-------------------------- 34
134
B. Appendicular Skeleton
1. Thoracic Limbs------------------------------ 90
2. Pelvic Limbs--------------------------------- 96
180
C. Heterotropic Bone
Os penis------------------------------------------ 1
TOTAL: 321
II. Bones of the Skull
-Divided into two parts:
a.) Cranium- the part of the skull that houses the brain

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Paired:
PAIRED:
1. Exoccipital 3. Frontal
2. Parietal 4. Temporal
Unpaired:
1. Supraoccipital 4. Basisphenoid
2. Interparietal 5. Presphenoid
3. Basioccipital 6. Ethmoid
b.) Face or Facial- the area where the eyes, nose and mouth are located.
- consists of 36 bones
Paired:
1. Incisive 6. Zygomatic
2. Nasal 7. Palatine
3. Maxilla 8. Lacrimal
4. Dorsal Concha 9. Pterygoid
5. Ventral Concha 10. Mandible
Unpaired: 1. Vomer
c.) Bones of the Hyoid Apparatus
Paired: 1. Stylohyoid Unpaired: 1. Basihyoid
2. Epihyoid
3. Ceratohyoid
4. Thyrohyoid

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
d.) Bones of the Ears/ Auditory Ossicles
1. Malleus 2. Incus 3. Stapes
BONES OF THE CRANIUM
1. Occipital Bone
- The caudal aspect of both the cranial cavity and the skull as a whole.
2. Temporal Bone
-The caudolateral wall of the cranial cavity.
3. Parietal Bone
-This serves as the roof of the cranial cavity with the frontal bone in all domestic animals except the ox
and pig.
4. Frontal Bone.
-The rostral part of the cranial cavity’s roof in most domestic animals and the entire roof in the ox and pig.
5. Ethmoid Bone
-The unpaired bone forming the cranial cavity’s rostral wall.
6. Sphenoid Bone
-The unpaired bone forming the cranial cavity floor.
Bones of the Face
1. Nasal Bones
-The nasal cavity’s osseous roof along with the cranial part of the frontal bone.
2. Maxillary Bone or Maxilla
-The lateral part of the face, part of the hard palate holding the upper cheek teeth (pre-molar and molar)

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
3. Incisive Bone
-The rostral bone holding the upper incisors
4. Palatine Bone
-This forms the hard palate along with the maxillary and incisive bone.
5. Zygomatic or Malar Bone
-The cranial part of the zygomatic arch.
6. Lacrimal Bone
-The medial surface of the orbit.
7. Ventral Nasal Concha
-A scroll of bone located in the nasal cavity.
8. Pterygoid Bones
-The small paired bones in the part of the nasopharynx.
9. Vomer
-The unpaired bone forming part of the osseous nasal septum.
10. Mandible
-The large bone articulating with the skull supporting all of the lower teeth.
Bones on the Lateral Surface of the Skull (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
1. Zygomatic Arch
-The bony arch forming the lateral wallof the orbit
-It consists of the zygomatic processes of the temporal bone.
2. Orbit
-The bony socket holding the eye.

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
3. Lacrimal Canal
-The canal into the nasal cavity beginning in the medial margins of the orbit located in the lacrimal bone.
4. Infraorbital Foramen
-The rostral opening of the infraorbital canal, located in the maxilla.
5. Occipital condyles
-The paired structures lateral to the foramen magnum which articulates with the first cervical vertebra.
6. Jugular Process.
-The ventral projection near the occipital condyles.
7. External Accoustic Meatus
-The large opening to the zygomatic arch where the external ear attaches.
Bones on the Dorsal Surface of the Skull
1. Nuchal Crest
-The transverse ridge at the transition from the dorsal to the caudal aspect of the skull.
2. Temporal Fossa
-The depression formed by the temporal and parietal bones.
3. Nasal aperature
-The rostral bony opening into the nasal cavity.
4. Cornual Process
-The process of the frontal bone that is enclosed by horn.
Bones on the Ventral Surface of the Skull
1. Foramen Magnum
-The large opening into the cranial cavity for continuity of the spinal cord and brain.

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
2. Tympanic Bulla
-The smooth bulbous enlargement on the ventral side of the temporal bone.
3. Mandibular Fossa
-The area on the zygomatic arch for articulation with the condyle of the mandible.
4. Optic Canal
-The passageway for the optic nerve from the brain to the eyeball.
-It is cranial to many other foramina for the passage of other cranial nerves.
5. Choanae (Singular: Choana)
-Also known as Internal Nares
-The bony openings, at the caudal end of the hard palate, leading from the nasal cavity into the pharynx.
6. Hard Palate
-The horizontal parts of the incisive, palatine and maxillary bones, separating the nasal cavity into the pharynx.
Bones on the Sagittal Section of the Skull
1. Cranial Cavity
-The space in the cranium containing the brain, meninges, and blood vessels.
2. Hypophyseal Fossa
-The depression in the cranial cavity’s floor (sphenoid bone), holding the pituitary gland (hypophysis)
3. Cribriform Plate
-The rostral part of the cranial cavity’s wall.
-Many holes in this part of the ethmoid bone allow the passage of olfactory nerve (Cranial Nerve I).
4. Nasal Cavity
-The hollow space behind the nose, surrounded by the “facial” bones.

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
-It is divided in half longitudinally by the nasal septum, and is filled by the ventral nasal conchae and
ethmoturbinates.
5. Ventral Nasal Concha
-A scroll of bone filling the rostral part of the nasal cavity.
6. Dorsal Nasal Concha
-The largest of the ethmoid bone’s nasal turbinates.
7. Ethmoid Bone
-The bone in the caudal nasal cavity
-It has many bony scrolls called ethnoturbinates and its cribriform plate form the cranial cavity’s rostral wall.
8. Frontal Sinus
-The cavity (paranasal sinus) within the frontal bone.
Parts of the Mandible
Mandible (Lower Jaw Bone)
- The largest and only mobile bone of the mammalian skull.
-It holds the lower teeth and consists of a right and left half united at the mandibular symphysis.
1. Body
-The horizontal part bearing the lower incisor, canine, premolar and molar teeth.
2. Mental Foramen
-The rostral opening of the mandibular canal.
3. Ramus
-The vertical part of the mandible bearing no teeth.
4. Articular Process/ Condylar Process

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
-The smooth process which articulates with temporal bone’s mandibular fossa to form the temporomandibular
joint.
5. Mandibular Foramen
-The opening on the medial side of the mandible’s ramus leading into the mandibular canal.
OPENINGS OF THE SKULL
OPENINGS STRUCTURES FACTS
1. Infraorbital Foramen Infraorbital nerve (Branch of

CN V)
2. Fossa for Lacrimal canal Leads to the lacrimal

foramen and canal
3. Maxillary Foramen Infraorbital Nerve (Branch of Caudal opening of the

CN V) infraorbital canal
4. Cribriform Foramina Olfactory nerve (CN I)
5. Optic Canal Optic Nerve (CN II)
6. Orbital Fissure CN III, IV, Ophthalmic

Division of CN v and CN VI
(Carnivores and Horses
only)
7. Round Foramen Maxillary Division (CN )

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
8. Foramen obitorotundum CN III, IV, , combined orbital

and round foramen
(Ox and Pig)
9. Oval Foramen Mandibular Division (CN )

part of foramen lacerum in
pigs and horses
10. Foramen Lacerum Internal carotid artery ( and

CN in pigs and horses
11. Internal Accoustic Vestibulocochlear Nerve

Meatus (CN VIII)
12. Jugular Foramen CN IX, X and XI
13. Tympanooccipital CN IX, X and XI External Opening of

Fissures (Carnivores) Jugular Foramen
14. Stylomastoid foramen Facial Nerve (CN VII)
15. Mandibular Foramen CN (Mandibular Alveolar

Nerve)
NOTE:
Chihuahuas are born to have fontanels (or ‘hubon’ in the Cebuano language). Unlike in humans, the
chihuahua’s fontanel is present throughout their lives.

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Paranasal Sinuses (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
-These are air-filled cavities within some bones of the skull.
-They are lined by a mucous membrane and communicate with the nasal cavity.
-The frontal and maxillary sinuses are the best known sinuses.
- Other sinuses: sphenoid, palatine, lacrimal and conchal sinuses.
1. Frontal Sinus
-The paranasal sinus found in the frontal bones of all domestic species.
2. Maxillary Sinus
-The paranasal sinus in the maxillary bone that drains into the nasal cavity through the nasomaxillary opening.
Note:
Dogs have a maxillary recess between bones in the area of the maxillary bone, not inside the maxillary bone.
HYOID APPARATUS
-Has a U-shaped
-Other authors describe this as looking like a flying trapeze
-Consists of a number of bones that articulate with each other
-This suspends the larynx andtongue from the skull
a. Basihyoid d. Epihyoid
b. Thyrohyoid e. Stylohyoid

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
c. Ceratohyoid
-They are connected with cartilage.
NOTE: Dogs and other carnivores lack the lingual process of the basihyoid bone. The lingual process is the
Adam’s Apple that is more prominent in human males.
Enumerate some terms that you are not familiar with and provide for its meaning.

Course Code: VEM015
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Now you may answer the questions of the What I Know Column.

1. What is the only unpaired bone on the face?
2. Which set of bones supports the tongue?
3. What breed of dog has fontanel for the rest of it’s life?
4. Do dogs have foramen orbitorotundum?
5. What animal has the tympanooccipital fissure?
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
If you have any questions, kindly write below:

Course Code:VEM015

Lesson title: Lecture Module 4 Materials:

Osteology: Bones of the Vertebrae, - Yourself
Ribs and Sternum - Pen
Lesson Objectives: - Paper
1. To know the different bones and - Reference
corresponding parts of the - Desktop/Laptop/Cellphone
vertebrae, ribs and sternum.
2. To know the difference of each References:
type of vertebrae and ribs.
- Dyce, K.M., Sack, W.O., Wensing, C.J.G. Textbook of
1. Veterinary Anatomy. (2009) Fourth Edition. Saunders
- Evans, H., De Lahunta, A. Miller’s Anatomy of the Dog.
(2012) Fourth Edition. Saunders
Domestic Animals: Systemic and Regional Approach.
Productivity Tip:
Always remember that you are in competition with no one other than yourself.
To wrap up our axial skeleton, we will discuss the different bones of the vertebrae, ribs and
sternum and their corresponding different parts. We already tackled this in the laboratory,
however it won’t hurt to refresh again on this topic.

On the table below are the three questions regarding our topics for today. Kindly answer first the
WHAT I KNOW Column. Answer the WHAT I LEARNED Column after Activity 3.

Course Code:VEM015

1. Is there a difference in
the different bones of the
vertebrae?
2. How can you differentiate
a sternal rib from an
asternal rib?
3. Does the number of
sternal segments
correspond also to the
number of ribs present?
B.MAIN LESSON
The Vertebrae (Backbone)
- Composed of irregular-shaped bones that make up the spinal column

- They are grouped according to location:
1. Cervical 2. Thoracic 3. Lumbar 4. Sacral 5. Coccygeal or Caudal
- All vertebrae have common features: (1) body, (2) vertebral arch, (3) vertebral foramen and (4)
vertebral processes. (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
CANINE VERTEBRAL FORMULA: C7 T13 L7 S3 Co20-23
Markings and Surfaces of the Vertebrae
1. Intervertebral Foramen
- This is the opening between vertebrae formed by the caudal and cranial notches of adjacent
vertebrae.
- This opening serves as the passageway of the spinal nerves.
2. Intervertebral Discs
- These are made of fibrocartilage connecting the bodies of adjacent vertebrae.

Course Code:VEM015

3. Vertebral Arch
- Also known as the neural arch
- This is the dorsal part that compose of two (2) pedicles and two (2) laminae.
4. Vertebral Foramen
-The space formed by the vertebral arch and the body.(Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
-All vertebral foramina of all vertebrae form the vertebral canal, where the spinal cord passes
through.
5. Body
-The ventral portion of the vertebra that is thick and is shaped like a spool.
-The cranial part is convex, while the caudal part is concave.
6. Spinous Process or Spine

-This is the dorsal projection of the vertebral arch.
7. Transverse Processes
- This is the lateral projection of the vertebral arch.
8. Articular Processes
- These are four (4) articular processes: two (2) cranial and two (2) caudal.
- The articular processes articulate with the articular processes of the adjacent vertebrae.
NOTE:
-The spine and the transverse processes provide sites for muscle attachment.
- The articular processes form the synovial joints with adjacent vertebrae.
I. CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
- The vertebrae that is located in the neck.
- All mammals possess seven (7) cervical vertebrae.
- They are characterized to have transverse foramen except for C7.
Transverse Foramen- The hole through the transverse processes of forming the transverse canal.
1. Atlas (C1)
- The first cervical vertebra named for its support of the head. (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
- It is articulated with the occipital condyles to form the atlanto-occipital joint (“yes” joint).
- This is an atypical vertebrae because it does not have a body and a spinous process.

Course Code:VEM015

Vertebral Arch- The part of the atlas that connect the wing ventrally to form the vertebral foramen.
Wings- Also known as the alae

- The modified transverse process.
2. Axis(C2)
- The second cervical vertebra.
- It possess a ridge-like spinous process and the dens.
Dens- This is a peg-like process located cranially forming a pivot articulation with the atlas, thus the
pivotal motion (the “no” joint)
II. THORACIC VERTEBRAE

- The vertebrae of the chest or thorax.
- This is often characterized by articular facets where the ribs are attached.
- They are also known to have prominent spinous processes.
1. Anticlinal Vertebra
- The thoracic vertebra with the most vertically oriented spine.
- In dogs, the anticlincal vertebra is .
NOTE: Spines of the thoracic vertebrae that are cranially located are inclined caudally, while
the spines of the caudal thoracic vertebrae are inclined cranially.
2. Costal Fovea
- These are the two (2) facets for articulation with the rib’s head, located on the caudal and
cranial end of the vertebral bodies of most of the thoracic vertebrae. (Pasquini and
Spurgeon, 1988)
3. Transverse Costal Fovea

- This is the facet on the transverse process that is articulated with the tubercle of the same
numbered rib.
III. LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

- These are the vertebrae of the lower back region(loin)
- They have large size and long plate-like transverse processes.
IV. SACRAL VERTEBRAE or SACRUM

-This is a large bone that is actually a fusion of the large sacral bone

Course Code:VEM015

- This articulates with the hip joint.

-Sacral canal- the term for the vertebral canal through the sacrum.
1. Sacral Foramina
- There are two (2): dorsal and ventral foramina.
- They serve as the passageway for the spinal nerves.
2. Wings
- The lateral part of the sacrum that articulates the os coxae to form the sacroiliac joint.
NOTES: The spinous processes in dogs are not fused.
V. CAUDAL VERTEBRAE
- The vertebrae of the tail.
- They become progressively smaller caudally or distally.
THORAX
- This is the bony cavity that is formed by the sternum, ribs, costal cartilages, and bodies of the thoracic
vertebrae.
- Function: Encloses and protects the heart and the lungs.
I. RIBS
- These are long, curved bones that form the lateral wall of the thorax.
Types of Ribs
A. Sternal (True) Ribs

- Their costal cartilages articulate with the sternum.
- In dogs, the first nine (9) ribs are sternal.
B. Asternal (False) Ribs

- These are ribs wherein the costal cartilages unite to form the costal arch thus indirectly joining
them to the sternum.
- Rib number 10, 11 and 12 are asternal ribs in dogs.
C. Floating Ribs
- Found only in dogs.
- The costal cartilage does not the sternum
Parts of a Rib (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)

Course Code:VEM015

1. Head
- This articulates with the caudal and cranial costal fovea of adjacent thoracic vertebrae and the
intervening intervertebral disc.
2.Tubercle
- This articulates with the transverse process of the same numbered vertebra.
3. Intercostal Space
- Space between adjacent ribs
COSTAL CARTILAGE- These are bar of cartilage made up of hyaline that either connects the bony rib to
the sternum or to the costal arch, or just the free end.
COSTAL ARCH- This is a curved structure formed by the costal cartilages of the false rib.
II. STERNUM
- aka Breastbone
- This is made up of seven (7) unpaired sternebrae that forms the flooring of the thorax.
Parts of the Sternum
1. Manubrium (Latin: handle)

- This is the expanded first sternebra.
2. Xiphoid Process (Greek: xiphois- sword)

- The last sternebra that is thin and horizontal that is capped by the xiphoid cartilage.
NOTE: There is a formula on the number of sternal segments is based on the number of sternal ribs
minus one
List down the terms that you are not familiar with, research for their meaning and write it down.

Course Code:VEM015


Kindly write down your answer to the What I know Column

1. True or False. Dogs have floating ribs.
2. What is the other term for C1?
3. What do you call the group of vertebrae in the loin area?
4. What do you call the first segment of the sternum?
5. What connective tissue connects the ribs to the sternum?

Course Code:VEM015

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
* All animals will have varied vertebral formula depending on the species, there are some that will
depend on the breed.
* They also vary in the number of ribs, whether sternal or asternal.
* Only dogs have the floating rib.

Course Code: VEM 015
Student Activity Sheets #5

Lesson title:Osteology: Bones of the Forelegs Materials:

1. 1. To get to know the different bones and their - Pen
parts of the forelegs - Paper
- Reference
References:
- Dyce, K.M., Sack, W.O., Wensing, C.J.G.

Testbook of Veterinary Anatomy. (2009) Fourth
Edition. Saunders
- Evans, H., De Lahunta, A. Miller’s Anatomy

of the Dog. (2012) Fourth Edition. Saunders
Pasquini, C, Sprugeon, T, Pasquini, S. Anatomy of
Domestic Animals: Sytemic and Regional
Approach. (1989) Eleventh Edition. Sudz
PublishingReferences:
{List of references used for the lesson}
Productivity Tip:
Love without commitment is useless. Always remember the reason why you chose this course, and
commit yourself to fulfill your dream.
We already discussed the different parts of the axial skeleton, now we move to the appendicular
skeleton starting with the bones of forelegs or front legs.



Kindly answer the WHAT I KNOW Column only. The What I Learned Column will be answered later.
1. Enumerate three bones
of the forelegs
2. Do dogs have the
intermediate carpal
bone?
3. What do you call the tip
of the distal phalanx?
B.MAIN LESSON
I. Scapula
II. Humerus
III. Antebrachium
A. Radius
B. Ulna
IV. Manus
A. Carpus/Carpals
B. Metacarpus/ Metacarpals
C. Phalanges
I. Scapula (Shoulder Blade) (plural: scapulae)

- Flat, triangular shape bone of the shoulder
Parts of the Scapula
1. Spine of the Scapula

- This is the long projection that divides the scapula’s lateral surface.
2. Acromion
-The expanded portion of the scapula’s spine found on its distal end.
3. Supraspinous fossa
- This is the cranial area to the spine.
- Provides attachment for the supraspinatus muscle.


4. Infraspinous fossa
-This is the caudal part to the spine.
- Provides muscle attachment to the infraspinatus muscle.
5. Subscapular fossa
- The costal or medial surface of the scapula.
- Provides muscle attachment for the subscapular muscle.
6. Glenoid Cavity
- A shallow cavity that articulates with the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joint.
7. Scapular Cartilage
- The cartilage located in the dorsal border of the scapula.
Borders of the Scapula
a. Dorsal Border B. Cranial Border C. Caudal Border
Angles of the Scapula
a. Cranial Angle b. Caudal Angle
II. Humerus
- This is the largest bone of the thoracic limb that proximally articulates with the scapula.
- Distally, this bone articulates with the radius and ulna, forming the elbow joint.
PARTS OF THE HUMERUS
1. Head
- A rounded process that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula.
2. Intertubicular (Bicipital) Groove

- The sulcus between the greater and lesser tubercles through which the tendon of the biceps brachii muscle
runs. (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
3. Greater (Lateral) Tubercle

- A process located craniolateral to the head which serves as an attachment for many muscles.
- “Point of the shoulder” is a surface feature formed by the greater tubercle.
4. Lesser (Medial) Tubercle

- Found on the medial side of the head
5. Shaft or Body
-The diaphysis (cylindrical part) connect to two epiphysis.


6. Deltoid Tuberosity
- This is a tuberosity found on the diaphysis of the humerus.
7. Humeral condyle
- The entire distal extremity of the humerus that includes two (2) articular areas: humeral capitulum and
humeral trochlea, the two (2) fossae and the lateral and medial epicondyles.
8. Epicondyles
a. Lateral
- Found in the lateral distal part of the humerus
- This gives rise to the extensors of the forearm, functionally known as the extensor epicondyle.
b. Medial
- Found in the medial distal part of the humerus
- Provides attachment for the flexor muscles of the forearm.
9. Olecranon Fossa
- This is the caudal depression receiving the proximal end of the ulna on extension of the elbow.
10. Radial Fossa

- A depression opposite of the olecranon fossa receiving the proximal end of the radius on the flexion with the
elbow.
11. Supratrocheal Foramen

- A hole between the olecranon and radial fossae
- Found only in dogs, sometimes in pigs
III. Antebrachium (Forearm)
A. Radius
- Latin for spoke of a wheel
- Articulates with the humerus and ulna to form the elbow joint, and the carpals and ulna to form
the proximal carpal joint.
PARTS OF THE RADIUS
1. Head
- The proximal end that articulates with the humerus and ulna.
2. Carpal Articular Process

-The distal part that articulates with the proximal carpal bones.


B. Ulna
- Latin for elbow
- Long, thin bone serving mainly for muscle attachment.
- Proximally, it is articulated with the humerus and radius
- Distally, it articulates with the radius and proximal carpal bones.
PART OF THE ULNA
1. Olecranon
- Proximal part that provides a lever for the extensor muscles of the elbow.
- This is the point of the elbow
2. Trochlear (Semilunar) Notch

- The depression for articulation with the humerus and ending in the anconeal process. (Pasquini and
Spurgeon, 1988)
3. Anconeal Process
- This is the proximal end of the trochlear notch which upon the elbow extension fits into the olecranon fossa.
4. Styloid Process of the Ulna

- The pointed distal part
5. Interosseous Space
- The space between the ulna and radius which can only be seen in carnivores.
NOTE:Some species of animals have the proximal part of the ulna attached to the radius as seen in horses
and ruminants. Thus, these animals cannot supinate and pronate their antebrachium.
IV. Manus
- The distal part of the thoracic limb.
- Forepaw in carnivores
- Consist of: CARPUS, METACARPUS, PHALANGES and ASSOCIATED SESAMOID BONES.
A. Carpus
- Latin for wrist
- Consist of two (2) rows: proximal and distal.
- The number of carpal bones varies in between species due to fusion between bones or
absence of one or more bones.
- Pigs have the most carpal bones with eight (8).
- Dogs have seven (7) carpal bones.


Proximal Row
Cr(Radia Carpal Bonel)- The largest and is medially located
Ci(Intermediate Carpal Bone)- Located between the radial and ulnar carpal bones
Cu(Ulnar Carpal Bone)- Laterally located
Ca (Accessory Carpal Bone)

- Projects behind the carpus with the ulnar carpal bone
- Muscles attach only to this bone.
Distal Row: C1, C2, C3, C4
Note:In dogs, the radial and intermediate carpal bones are fused to form the radial carpal bone. Thus
making the canine carpal bone count to seven (7) instead of eight (8).
B.Metacarpus
- In between the carpus and digits.
- There are five (5) metacarpal bones from medial to lateral.
- Each bone has 1) a base articulating with the carpus, 2) head that articulates with the
proximal phalanx and 3) shaft.
- At least one (1) sesamoid bone is associated with each metacarpal.
- Species differ in number of bones due to absence or fusion.
- Dogs have five (5) metacarpal bones.
o Dew Claw (Metacarpal I)

- Found in dogs
- This is a reduced bone and does not bear weight.
A. Digits
- synonymous to fingers and toes in humans
- consist of three (3) phalanges and a number of sesamoid bones.
PARTS OF THE PHALANGES
1. Dew Claw or Paradigit

- The first digit, size is reduced and only has two (2) phalanges: the proximal and distal


2. Proximal Phalanx
- The first phalanx
- Divided into the base, body and head
3. Middle Phalanx
- Has the same structure as the proximal phalanx, but shorter
- Not present in the first digit
4. Distal Phalanx
- This carries the horny claw
- Has two (2) processes:
a. Flexor Process
- Located in the palmar side
- Provides insertion for the deep digital flexor tendon
b. Extensor Process
- Located on the dorsal proximal part of the four main digits that provide insertion for the
tendons of the common digital extensor muscle.
5. Ungual Process
- The tapered, cone-shaped process covered by the horny claw (Pasquini and Spurgeon,
1988)
6. Horny Claw
- Synonymous to fingernails in humans that covers the ungula process.
7. Palmar Sesamoid Bones

- There are 9 in dogs: two (2) each on the four main digits and one (1) on the dew claw.
- Located at the metacarpophalangeal joint.
Get your bones and recheck the parts in accordance with their descriptions on the notes.
As always, kindly write down the words that you are not familiar with, and write down their
meaning.

Kindly write down your answers on the WHAT I KNOW Column.



1. How many carpal bones do dogs have?
2. What do you call the depression for articulation with the humerus and ending in the anconeal
process?
3. What do you call the tuberosity found in the diaphysis of the humerus?
4. The expanded portion on the distal part of the spine of the scapula.
5. The name of this bone is derived from the Latin word spoke of a wheel.
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
Write down your questions here.

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Lesson title: Module 6 Osteology: Bones of the Materials:

Hind Leg - Yourself
1. To get to know the bones and their - Pen
corresponding parts of the hindlegs. -References
1. References:
Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy. (2009) Fourth
Edition. Saunders
Domestic Animals: Systemic and Regional
Approach. (1989) Eleventh Edition. Sudz Publishing
Productivity Tip:
“One thousand days of lessons for discipline; ten thousand days of lessons for mastery.” -Miyamoto
Musashi, Japanese Samurai and Philosopher
So we are now in the last topic for Osteology; the bones of the hind legs. Now, I have been thinking as I
was writing this module to include this in our laboratory exercises for Period 1.
I think it makes sense since it goes hand-in-hand with our topics in the lecture.

Kindly write down your answers on the What I Know Column only. Answer the What I Learned Column
as we go along.

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
1. What bone of the os coxae

is the most caudal?
2. What do you call the two
sesamoid bones on the
caudo-distal portion of the
femur?
3. Do the canine tarsal bones
have the same number as
their carpal bones?
B.MAIN LESSON
BONES OF THE PELVIC LIMB
I. OS COXAE
A.ILIUM
B. ISCHIUM
C. PUBIS
D. ACETABULAR BONE
II. FEMUR
III. CRUS
A. TIBIA
B. FIBULA
IV. SESAMOID BONES
A. PATELLA
B. FABELLAE
V. PES
A. TARSALS/TARSUS
B.METATARSALS/METATARSUS
C. DIGITS
I. OS COXAE
A. ILIUM
- The largest and most cranial bone
PARTS of the ILIUM
1. WINGS- The cranial nearly sagittal part of the ilium that is laterally concave
2.. BODY- The narrow, more irregular caudal part that expands caudally that forms the cranial 2/5

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
of the acetabulum
3. ILIAC CREST- It is composed of the tuber sacrale and tuber coxae and forms the cranial
border of the ilium between these two tubera.
4. CAUDAL DORSAL ILIAC SPINE- An eminent on the iliac crest located dorsal to the iliosacral
joint between the thick parts.
5. CRANIAL DORSAL ILIAC SPINE- An obtuse angle located between the cranial and the dorsal
borders
6. TUBER SACRALE-.Compose of the mentioned spines and the intermediate border.
7. ALAR SPINE- A small eminence on the thin ventral border approximately 1 cm caudal to the
cranial ventral iliac spine.
8. GREATER ISCHIATIC NOTCH- A concavity located caudal to the tuber sacrale and on the
dorsal border of the body of the ilium.
9. TUBER COXAE- Compose of the cranial ventral iliac spine and the adjacent latero-ventral
projection of the wings of the ilium.
10. ISCHIATIC SPINE- A slight convexity dorsal to the acetabulum that is found in the dorsal
border of the body of the ilium and the dorsal border of the ischium
11. GLUTEAL SURFACE

- The whole external surface of the bone.
- Found on the wings of lateral and slightly dorsal parts of the wings of ilium.
- Origin for the gluteal muscles.
12. SACROPELVIC SURFACE

- Found in the wings of the ilium
- Articulates with the wings of the sacrum by synchondrosis
13. ILIAC TUBEROSITY

- A rough protruding eminence in the sacropelvic surface located dorsal to the auricular surface.
B. ISCHIUM
- The caudal third of the os coxae
- Consist of the following: body, ramus, table and tuberosity

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
1. BODY of the ISCHIUM- Cranial part, lateral to the obturator foramen
2. ISCHIATIC SPINE- Found on the dorsal border which is slightly concave
3. LESSER ISCHIATIC NOTCH- In a live animal, this is converted into a large opening by the
sacrotuberous ligament.
4. RAMUS- Located medial to the obturator foramen and is continuous caudally with the ischium.
5. ISCHIATIC SYMPHYSIS- Medial border of the ramus
6. ISCHIATIC TABLE
- Largest component of the ischium
- Curved on its dorsomedial aspect dorsolateral aspect faces medially
7. ISCHIATIC ARCH- Caudomedial border of the ischiatic table
8. ISCHIATIC TUBEROSITY
- Caudolateral part of the ischium that is caudolateral to the ischiatic table and lateral to the ischiatic
arch.
- Wide that gradually thickens from the medial to the lateral sie where it ends in a pronounced rough
protuberance
- Caudal end of the sacrotuberous ligament attaches to the dorsal surface of this part.
- Biceps femoris, semitendinosus and semimebranosus (Hamstring Muscles) origins are on the
ventral side.
C. PUBIS
- Dorsoventrally compressed
- Curved bar of bone that extends from the ilium and ischium laterally to the pubic symphysis
1. BODY- Central flat triangular part of the bone, forming the craniomedial border of the
(obturator) foramen
2. ILIOPUBIC EMINENCE- Located on the cranial border of the cranial ramus as it joins the
ilium.
3. VENTRAL PUBIC TUBERCLE- Located cranioventral surface of the pubis adjacent to the
pubic symphysis
4. PECTEN
- Found in the cranial border of the pubis stretching from the iliopubic eminence to the
symphysis
- Also known as ventromedial part of the terminal line

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
- Along with the pubic tubercle serves as attachment for the pubic tendon
- All muscles of the abdomen except for transversus abdominis are wholly or partly attached to
this part.
D. ACETABULAR BONE
-The fourth bone of the os coxae.
- As fetuses, the puppies’ acetabular bones are separate entities.
- This bone becomes incorporated and fused with the three other bones of the os
coxae by 15 weeks post-partum.
1. ACETABULUM
- Latin for Vinegar Cup
- The concavity articulating with the femoral head.
- Formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, pubic and acetabular bone
- The ligament of the femoral head attaches to the fossa in the acetabulum.
OTHER PARTS OF THE OS COXAE
1. OBTURATOR FORAMEN- The large opening on the pubis

2. PELVIC SYMPHYSIS- The junction of the right and left os coxae between the two (2) pubic and
two (2) ischial bones.
II. FEMUR
- Heaviest bone in the body
- Proximally articulates with the hip bone forming the hip joint
- Distally with the tibia and fibula, and the patella forming the stifle point
1. HEAD- Smooth process that articulates with the acetabulum of the os coxae.
2. FOVEA CAPITIS- A depression on the head of the femur for attachment of the round
ligament of the femur.
3. GREATER TROCHANTER- The large prominence found on the opposite side of the head.
4. LESSER TROCHANTER- The prominence found on the distal part of the head.
5. THIRD TROCHANTER
- A prominence on the lateral side located distal to the greater trochanter.
- Absent in ruminant

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
6. CONDYLES
- Greek for Knuckles
- There are two (2):the medial and lateral condyles.
- These two prominences articulate with the tibia and the menisci.
7. FEMORAL TROCHLEA
- Latin for PULLEY
- It has two grooves articulating with the patella bounded by two ridges
- Medial part is thicker
III. CRUS- Latin for Leg

* INTEROSSEOUS SPACE- separates the tibia and fibula
A. TIBIA
- shin bone
- medial located long crucial bone
1. CONDYLE
- Greek for Knuckles
- Divided into lateral and medial condyles
- These two articulates with the corresponding femoral condyle and meniscus.
2. TIBIAL TUBEROSITY
- A large proximal cranial process where the muscles and the patellar ligament are attached.
B. FIBULA
- Also known as the calf bone
- Latin for pin or skewer
- Thin and long bone wearing little weight.
- Serves as muscle attachment for gastrocnemius
- Articulates distally with the tibia and the fibular tarsal bone.
1. LATERAL MALLEOLUS- Distal end of the fibula
NOTE: Carnivores have separate tibia and fibula. Both bones are separated by the interosseous space.
IV. SESAMOID BONES
A. PATELLA
- Also known as knee cap
- Largest of the sesamoid bones

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
- Oval or ovate in shape and curved

- The curvature allows the bone to articulate with the trochlea of the femur.
- Ossification in the tendon of insertion of the large extensor muscle of the stifle, the quadriceps
femoris.
PARTS OF THE PATELLA
1. BASE
- Blunt
- Proximally facing
- May extend beyond the adjacent articular surface
2. APEX
- Distally located
- Slightly more pointed than the base and does not extend beyond the articular surface.
3. ARTICULAR SURFACE
- Smooth, convex in all directions and several nutrient foramen enter the bone on its
medial side.
FUNCTION OF THE PATELLA
1. Alters the pull of the tendon of the quadriceps

2. Protects the tendon
3. Provides a greater bearing surface for the tendon to play on the trochlea of
the femur than would be possible without it.
B. FABELLAE
- Latin for Little Bean
- Two (2) sesamoid bones found above the condyles.
- These are embedded in the heads of the gastrocnemius muscles of the dog.
- Present only in carnivores
V. BONES OF THE PES
A. TARSUS or HOCK
- Greek for “tarsos” which means flat
- Dogs have seven (7) tarsal bones
- Divided into two (2) rows: proximal and distal
- The proximal row consist of the tibial tarsal and fibular tarsal bones

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
- Distal row: Central, First, Second, Third and Fourth tarsal bones
1. TIBIAL TARSAL BONE

- Latin term: TALUS
- Also known as the ankle bone
- Largest bone of the tarsus
- Located on the dorsomedial side
- Articulates its trochlea with the tibia and fibula in dogs.
2. FIBULAR TARSAL BONE

- Latin term: CALCANEUS
- Also known as the heel
- Found lateral to the tibial tarsal bone
a. Calcanean Tuberosity- The large process of the fibular tarsal bone serving as a lever
arm for the common calcanean tendon (Achilles Tendon).
B. METATARSAL and C. DIGITS

- Same pattern as that of the forelimbs
- Except for the number of metatarsal present
- Dogs normally have five (5) metatarsals
CLINICAL ANATOMY
● There are times that dogs have a fifth metatarsals. Veterinarians often suggest having this removed
since it can be a potential source for injuries.
● Hip Dysplasia is a condition where the head of the femur popped out or is luxated from the
acetabulum. Often times ,it is caused by traumatic injuries or abnormal anatomy. The German
Shepherd Dogs are prone to this type of injury due to its shallow acetabulum.
Try to correlate the lessons with laboratory exercise. Use your bones to check if the descriptions
matched with what is said on your lecture notes.
As always write down the different words that you are not familiar with and write down its corresponding
meaning.

Now answer the questions on WHAT I LEARNED Column.

1. What is the largest bone of the pes?

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
2. This is the rough protruding eminence in the sacropelvic surface located dorsal to the auricular
surface of the ilium.
3. A depression on the head of the femur for attachment of the round ligament of the femur.
4. A large proximal cranial process where the muscles and the patellar ligament are attached in
the tibia.
5. Site one function of the patella.
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
We have ended our modules for Osteology. Up next we will discuss Arthrology or Joints.
To wrap this up, recollect and enumerate the lessons you have learned in this chapter.

Course Code: VEM015L
Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Lesson title: Module 6 Muscles of the Thoracic Limb Materials:

1. To know the different muscles of the thoracic limb - Pen
2. To be familiar with the blood vessels and nerves of the - Paper
thoracic limb - Bones of the hind limbs
1. - Desktop/Laptop/ Cellphone
References:
1. Evans, HE and De
Lahunta, A. Guide to the
Dissection of the Dog
(2009). Seventh
Edition.Saunders
Productivity Tip:
Watch, listen and learn
1) Introduction
For Period 2, we only have the muscles of the thoracic limb and pelvic limb. And we will start with the
muscles of the thoracic limb. Aside from muscles, though we will also encounter blood vessels as well
as nerves that we might encounter on an actual carcass. Cadaver by the way is for humans.
2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1

Kindly answer the WHAT I KNOW Chart first; leave What I Learned Column until Activity 4.

1. Name 3 extrinsic muscles
of forelegs?
2. On which side can you find
the flexor muscles of the
forearm?
B.MAIN LESSON

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
1) Activity 2: Content Notes

I. Extrinsic Muscles of the Thoracic Limb
A. Trapezius
B. Cutaneous Trunci
C. Deep Pectoral
D. Omotransversarius
E. Superficial Pectorals/Pectoralis Superficialis** **-Do not mention
1. Transverse Superficial Pectorals *-Mention only
2. Descending Superficial Pectorals
F. Cleidobrachialis
G. Latissimus Dorsi*
II. Muscles of the Scapula
A. Infraspinatus
B. Supraspinatus
C. Subscapularis
D. Deltoideus
E. Teres Major
F. Teres Minor
III. Muscles of the Humerus
A. Triceps Brachii**
1. Long Head of Triceps Brachii
2. Lateral Head of Triceps Brachii
3. Medial Head of Triceps Brachii
B. Brachialis
C. Biceps brachii
D. Coracobrachialis
E. Tensor Fasciae Antebrachii
IV. Muscles of the Radius and Ulna
A. Extensor Carpi Radialis
B. Extensor Digitorum Communis
C. Extensor Digitorum Lateralis
D. Ulnaris Lateralis
E. Abductor Digiti I Longus
F. Extensor Digit I and II
G. Flexor Carpi Ulnaris
H. Flexpor Digitorum Superficialis
I. Flexor Carpi Radialis
V. Landmarks
A. Brachial Plexus

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
B. Cephalic Vein

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Figure 6.1 Muscle of the Forelegs
Figure 6.2 Extrinsic Muscles of the Forelegs

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Figure 6.3 Muscles that are Attached to the Humerus and Scapula (Lateral Side)

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Figure 6.5 Muscles of the Scapula and Humerus (Medial Side)

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Figure 6.6 Muscles of the Thoracic Limb (Medial Surface)

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Figure 6.7 Muscles of the Forearm (Lateral Side)

Now, kindly answer the WHAT I LEARNED Column in the first part.
3) Activity 5: Check for Understanding: Online Quiz

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
Pictures and videos of the muscles will be uploaded in the Facebook group.

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Lesson title: Module 7 Muscles of the Pelvic Limb Materials:

1. To know the different muscles of the hind legs. - Pen
2. To be familiar blood vessels and nerves in the area. - Paper
- Bones of the hind limbs
- Desktop/Laptop/ Cellphone
References:
1. Evans, HE and De
Lahunta, A. Guide to the
Dissection of the Dog
(2009). Seventh
Edition.Saunders
Productivity Tip:
Anything that is worth it, won’t come easy.
1) Introduction
The last topic for Period 2. Muscles will take some time to master, thus we only concentrate on two
exercises for this period.

1. Where can you spot the
adductor muscles
2. What nerve that can be
seen when the vasti
muscles of the quadriceps
femoris muscle are
dissected?
B.MAIN LESSON
I. Muscles of the Femur

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
A. Sartorius
B. Tensor Fasciae Latae
C. Gluteus Medius
D. Gluteus Superficialis
E. Gluteus Profundus
F. Biceps Femoris
G. Semimembranosus
H. Semitendinosus
I. Levator Ani
J. Rectus Abdominis
K. Quadriceps Femoris**
1. Rectus Femoris
2. Vastus Medialis
3. Vastus Lateralis
4. Vastus Intermedius*
L. Pectineus
M. Adductor
N. Gracilis
O. Coccygeus
P. Popliteus
Q. Quadratus Femoris
R. Piriformis
II. Muscles of the Tibia and Fibula

A. Gastrocnemius
B. Tibialis Cranialis
C. Peroneus Longus
D. Lateral Deep Digital Flexor
E. Superficial Digital Flexor
F. Long Digital Extensor
G. Peroneus Brevis

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Figure 7.1 Muscles of the Hindlegs

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Figure 7.2 Muscles of the Hind Legs

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________
Figure 7.3 Muscles of the Hind Legs
Figure 7.4 Muscles of the Thigh (Medial Aspect)

Name: Class number:

____________________________________________________________ _______
_____ Date:
________________________________________

Now, kindly answer the WHAT I LEARNED Column in the first part.
3) Activity 5: Check for Understanding Online Quiz
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning
And that’s a wrap. We are done with period 2..

Course Code: VEM015
Student Activity Sheet # 7

Lesson title: Module 7 Introduction to Materials:

Arthrology - Yourself
Objectives: - Pen
1. 1. To know what is arthrology -Paper
2. 2. To know the different classification of joints -References
3. 3. To know the components of the synovial - Desktop/Laptop/Cellphone
joint
4. 4. To know what are the different movements References:
of joints -Dyce, K.M., Sack, W.O., Wensing, C.J.G. Testbook of
Veterinary Anatomy. (2009) Fourth Edition.
Saunders
Domestic Animals: Sytemic and Regional Approach.
Productivity Tip:
“To Become Who You Might Be, Let Go Of Who You Are.”- Lao Tzu
If you want to become a veterinarian, you have to let go of the things that hinder your dreams. If you
are lazy, you have to let it go. If you are scared, you have to let it go. This journey entails a lot of
sacrifices. But think of this that at the end of it all, it was worth it. And looking back, you might just
laugh it off.
Now that we are done with bones, let’s talk about joints. So the last modules that you will be
dealing with for Period 1 focus on Joints.

Course Code: VEM015


Kindly answer ths WHAT I KNOW Column. Leave the What I Learned Column for a later activity.
1. What is the study for
joints?
2. What is a synovial joint?
3. What is the classification

of the sutures on the
skull based on its
function?
B.MAIN LESSON
II. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
A. FIBROUS JOINTS
- Functionally a fixed, immoveable joint
- The bones are united by a fibrous tissue allowing little or no movement.
Arthrology
- Derived from the Greek words, “Arthros” which means joints and “Logos” which
means study.
- Literally means, study of joints
JOINTS or ARTICULATION
Ø A union or junction between two (2) or more bones of the skeleton.
I. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
A. Immoveable or Synarthrosis Joint (Synarthroidal Joint)

- Fibrous union allowing little or no movement
- Example: sutures found in the bones of the skull

Course Code: VEM015


Course Code: VEM015

Figure 7.1 Sutures of the SKull
B. Slighly Moveable or Amphiarthrosis Joint (Amphiarthroidal Joint)

- Allows only slight motion, the opposed bones being connected by fibrocartilage.
- Example: Between vertebral bones
Figure 7.2 Intervertebral Disc
C. Freely moveable Joint or Diarthrosis (Diarthroidal Joint)

- Permits relatively free movement
- Example: Hip or Shoulder Joint
- These are often temporary joints that later ossify in the process called SYNTOSIS.
1. SUTURE
- A fibrous joint between the skull bones
- Ossified as the animal matures
2. SYNDESMOSIS
- Derived from a Greek word, “syndesmos” which means ligament
- A fibrous joint uniting two (2) bones by a sheet of fibrous tissue (like the
ligament or interosseus fibrous membrane)
- Examples: attachments between the costal cartilages in the costal arch and the

Course Code: VEM015

interosseous membrane between the radius and ulna in carnivores.
3. GOMPHOSIS
- The name for the implantation of the teeth into the alveoli of the jaw bone.
- This is not a true joint since the teeth are not part of the skeleton.
B. CARTILAGINOUS JOINT
- A joint that is united by fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage or even both
1. Primary Cartilaginous Joint (Synchondrosis)

- A temporary joint of hyaline cartilage
- The epiphyseal plates allow growth of the bone, then ossifies with
maturity, eliminating the joint
- The costchondral junctions, however, persist throughout the animal’s
life.
- Synchondrosis becomes syntosis
- Example: the cartilaginous epiphyseal plates uniting the diaphysis and
epiphyses of immature bones.
2. Secondary Cartilaginous Joint or Fibrocartilaginous Joint (Symphysis)

- Functionally a slightly moveable joint.
- The bones are united with fibrocartilage and possible hyaline cartilage
- Although they may or may not ossify with age, they always limit the
joints’ motion.
- Classified as amphiarthroidal joints
- Examples: Pelvic Symphysis, Joints between the sternebrae and
vertebral bodies
C. SYNOVIAL JOINT
- Moveable thus classified as diarthroidal
- Characterized by its mobility, joint cavity, articular cartilage, a synovial
membrane and fibrous capsule
PARTS OF A SYNOVIAL JOINT
1. Joint Capsule

Course Code: VEM015

- The two-layered structure surrounding the joint.

- Made up of an outer fibrous layer and an inner synovial membrane.
A. Fibrous Layer
- aka Capsular Ligament
- White fibrous tissue and yellow elastic fibrous layer of the joint capsule.
- Attaches to the periosteum on or near the margin of the articular cartilage
- Thickness varies from joint to joint and within each joint.
B. Synovial Membrane
- Forming the inner lining of the fibrous layer, it is highly vascular, nerve rich and
produces synovial fluid.
- The membrane may extend outside the fibrous layer to communicate with a
synovial sheath or form a bursa under a tendon or ligament
2. Synovial Fluid
- A viscous liquid produced by the synovial membrane to lubricate the joint and supply nutrients
and remove waste from the hyaline articular cartilage.
3. Articular Cartilage
- The translucent, bluish-tinged cartilage usually hyaline that covers the articular ends of bones to
reduce the effects of concussion and friction by its compressibility, elasticity and smoothness.
- Varying in thickness between and within joints, the cartilage is thickest in areas of highest
pressure and friction.
- Synovial fluid supplies nutrients and removes waste products due to having no vascular or nerve
supply.
4. Ligaments
- These are strong bands of white fibrous tissue uniting bones that function to keep joint surfaces
in apposition.
- Usually inelastic and may be in intracapsular or extracapsular.
a. Intracapsular Ligaments
- Located within the joint capsule
- Not considered in the joint space because the synovial membrane reflects over them
-Example: Cruciate ligament of the stifle
b. Extracapsular Ligaments
- Developing outside of or as part

Course Code: VEM015

5. Joint Cavity
- A unique feature of a synovial joint
- It is little more than a potential space containing a trace of synovial joint.
6. Meniscus or Disc
- A plate of fibrocartilage partially or completely dividing a joint cavity.
- This allows a greater variety of motion and alleviate concussion
- Found only in the stifle and temporo-mandibular joints.
7. Bursa
- A sac-like structure found between different tissues which reduces friction between these
tissues.
- Resembles a synovial joint in that its walls consist of connective tissue lined by a synovial
membrane.
-Bursas are located between skin and bones, tendons and bones, muscles and bones, ligaments
and bones.
8. Synovial Sheath
- A structure similar to a bursa that is wrapped completely around a tendon.
- It reduces friction between the tendon and underlying bone.

Course Code: VEM015

Figure 7.3 Synovial Joint
CLASSIFICATION OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
A. According to Number of Articular Surface
1. Simple Joint
- Two (2) articular surfaces enclosed in a joint capsule.
- Example: Shoulder Joint
2. Compound Joint

Course Code: VEM015

- More than two (2) articular surfaces enclosed within the same joint
- Example: Stifle Joint
B. Classification of Movement
1. Plane (Arthroidal) Joint

- Two (2) flat articular surfaces allowing a simple gliding or sliding motion.
- Most plane joints can move only in one direction (uniaxial)
- Example: Carpal, small tarsal bones; cranial and caudal articulation between vertebrae
2. Ball-and-Socket (Spheroidal) Joint

- Multiaxial
- A joint consisting of a spheroidal head fitting into a pit of socket allowing universal
movement.
- Examples: Shoulder and Hip Joints
3. Hinge (Ginglymus) Joint

- Uniaxial
- All movement at right angles to the bones involved
- Flexion and Extension Movement
- Example: Elbow Joint, Interphalangeal Joints

Course Code: VEM015

Figure 7.5 Elbow Joint
4. Pivot (Trochoid Joint)

- Uniaxial
- Allows rotation around a longitudinal axis of a bone.
- Example: Atlanto-axial joint

Course Code: VEM015

Figure 7.6 Atlanto-axial Joint
5. Ellipsoid or Condyloid Joint

- A biaxial joint formed by an oval-shaped condyle of one bone fitting into an elliptical cavity
of another bone.
6. Saddle or Sellaris Joint

- Saddle shaped-bone ends that meet at right angle forma saddle joint
- Movement: Can rotate a little and move sideways and back and forth
- Example: Base of the thumb
C. MOVEMENT of the SYNOVIAL JOINT
1. FLEXION- Decreasing the angle between two (2) bones
2. EXTENSION- Increasing the angle between two (2) bones
3. DORSAL and VENTRAL FLEXION- Bending the spinal column dorsally or ventrally
4. ABDUCTION- Moving a part away from the median plane, or a digit away from the axis
of the limb.
5. ADDUCTION- Moving a part towards the median plane or a digit towards the axis of

Course Code: VEM015

the limb.
6. CIRCUMDUCTION- Movement circumscribing a shape
7. ROTATION
- Movement around the long axis of the part
- Example: radio-ulnar joints in carnivores
8. UNIVERSAL- All the movements mentioned.
Joint Type of Joint according to Movement

Function
Atlanto-Occipital Joint
Dew Claw
Stifle Joint
Costochondral Joint

Kindly answer the WHAT I KNOW Column from the previous table.

1. Aside from primates, what other animal has saddle joints?
2. and 3. Enumerate 2 parts where you can find the meniscus?
4. What is the other term for pivot joint?
5. What type of cartilage is the articular cartilage

Course Code: VEM015

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
Question:Why do you think the menisci are found in the stifle and temporo-mandibular joint?
Answer: This is because these two joints experience the most pressure. Without the meniscus in
the temporo-mandibular joint, it is very painful even in opening and closing the jaws, and chewing
could be a challenge. In the stifle joint, even if most of the animals are quadripeds, but still the
hind legs still bears the full weight of the animal.
Question: IS there another animal aside from primates that have thumbs?
Answer: Yes. The panda has thumbs to help their grip on their primary diet, the bamboo.


Lesson title: The Different Joints in the Materials:

Body of an Animal - Yourself
1. 1. To know what type of joints are present in - Pen
the dog’s body - Reference
2. To know its corresponding movements - Desktop/Laptop/Cellphone
References:
-Dyce, K.M., Sack, W.O., Wensing, C.J.G. Testbook
of Veterinary Anatomy. (2009) Fourth Edition.
Saunders
- Evans, H., De Lahunta, A. Miller’s Anatomy of
the Dog. (2012) Fourth Edition. Saunders
-
Productivity Tip:
“Learning is an experience. Everything else is information.”- Albert Einstein, Physicist and Nobel Prize
Winner
For this module, the students will learn the different joints in the animal’s body, their type and
what movements they do. The students will learn the role of ligaments in joints.

Kindly answer the What I Know Column; leave the What I Learned Column for a later activity.

1. What is a nuchal
ligament?


2. What type of joint is seen

in the costochondral
joint?
3. What movement does the
tibia and fibula do?
B.MAIN LESSON
JOINTS OF THE THORACIC LIMB
1. SHOULDER JOINT
- Type of Synovial Joint: Spheroid Type (Ball-and-Socket) Joint

- Also known as glenohumeral or scapula-humeral joint
- Loose joint capsule with no true collateral ligament
- Muscles crossing this joint provide support thus shoulder luxation is rare in dogs
- Movement: Universal, chiefly for flexion and extension
2. ELBOW JOINT
- Type of Synovial Joint: Ginglymus (Hinge) Joint
- Movement: Flexion and extension
- Has joint capsule in which the sac encloses all three (3) articular parts
- Has the medial and lateral collateral ligaments
3. CARPAL JOINTS
- Type of Synovial Joint: Ginglymus (Hinge) Joint
- Movement: flexion and extension
- Three main joints of the carpus:
a. Between the radius and ulna and the proximal row of carpals
b. Between the proximal and distal carpals
c. Between the distal carpals and the metacarpals
- Ligaments: Two (2) collateral ligament and many intercarpal ligament between
individuals
4. METACARPOPHALANGEAL JOINT
- Type of Synovial Joint: Modified ginglymus (hinge) joint


- Movement: flexion and extension

- Articulations between the metacarpals and the proximal phalanges including the
palmar sesamoids
5. PHALANGEAL JOINTS
- Type of Synovial Joint: ginglymus (hinge) joint
- Two types of phalangeal Joint- both have joint capsule and collateral ligaments
a. Proximal Interphalangeal Joint- Between the proximal and middle phalanges
b. Distal Interphalangeal Joint- Between the middle and distal phalanges
* The collateral ligaments and many ligament attaching to the sesamoid bones. In horses,the
sesamoidean ligaments are important in the animal’s stay apparatus.
JOINTS OF THE PELVIC LIMBS
1. SACROILIAC JOINT
- Relatively immovable synovial and fibrous articulation between the sacrum and ilium
- A tight joint capsule reinforced by sacroiliac ligament.
SACROTUBEROUS LIGAMENT
- The connective tissue extending from the sacrum and first two (2) caudal vertebrae to
the ischiatic tuberosity
- In dogs, this is composed of a band of connective tissue.
- However, this is absent in cats
2. PELVIC SYMPHYSIS
- Symphyseal, slightly moveable
- Made of fibrocartilage
- Found between the two (2) os coxae
- Initially united by cartilage in young animals, but as the animal matures, it becomes
ossified
3. HIP JOINT
- Also known as coxal or coxofemoral joint
- Type of synovial joint: Spheroidal (ball-and-socket) joint
- Characterized by having a roomy joint capsule with intrinsic ligament that strengthens
the joint


- Movement: Freely moveable or diarthroidial, universal (includes: flexion, extension,

abduction-adduction, medial and lateral rotation and circumduction)
ROUND LIGAMENT
- Also known as ligament of the head of the femur

- A short band extending from the acetabular cavity to the fovea capitis of the head of the
femur.
4. STIFLE JOINT
- Also known as: Genual
- Derived from the Latin term “genu” which means knee
- Type of synovial joint: Ginglymus (hinge) joint
- Compound joint between the femur, patella, tibia and fibula
a. FEMOROPATELLAR JOINT
- Joint shared by the patella and the trochlea of the femur
- Has spacious joint capsule
PATELLAR LIGAMENT
- This is a strong band attaching the patella to tibial tuberosity
- This ligament is the tendon insertion of the quadricep femoris muscle and the sesamoid
bone of this tendon, the patella
- In carnivores, pigs and small ruminants, they have only one (1) patellar ligament
- Large ruminants and horses have three (3) patellar ligaments: lateral, middle, medial
b. FEMOROTIBIAL JOINT
- Articulation between the femoral condyles and tibia and the interposing
menisci
MEDIAL and LATERAL MENISCI or SEMILUNAR CARTILAGES

- Crescent-shaped fibrocartilaginous discs between the tibial and femoral articulating
condyles
- This is to compensate for incongruences of friction of articulating bone by acting as shock
absorbers.


MEDIAL (TIBIAL) and LATERAL (FIBULAR) COLLATERAL LIGAMENTS

- Stabilize both the lateral and medial side of the joints
CRANIAL and CAUDAL CRUCIATE LIGAMENTS

- Resembles a cross
- These are two (2) intraacrticular ligament for tibial attachment
Figure 8.1 Stifle Joint


Figure 8.3 Stifle Joint


Figure 8.3 Cross-section of a stifle joint
c. TIBIOFIBULAR JOINT
- Between the lateral condyle of the tibia and head of the fibula
5. PROXIMAL TIBIOFIBULAR JOINT

- Head of the fibula articulate with the tibia by a plane of synovial joint
6. DISTAL TIBIOFIBULAR JOINT

- Forms a synovial joint of the distal parts of the bones mentioned.
7. TARSAL JOINT
- Also known as the hock joint
- Type of synovial joint: Compound ginglymus (hinge) joint
- Movement: Uniaxial (Flexion and Extension)
- Consist of:
a. Between the proximal and distal part of the tibia and fibula
b. Between the proximal and distal rows of the tarsals
c. Between individual tarsal bones
d. Between the distal row and the metatarsals


MEDIAL and LATERAL COLLATERAL LIGAMENTS

- Strong bands on either side of the tarsus or tibial tarsal bone
LONG PLANTAR LIGAMENT- Well developed ligament on the plantar side of the calcaneous
(fibular tarsal bone) connecting the fibular tarsal bone to the metatarsals
8. INTERMETATARSAL, METATARSOPHALANGEAL and INTERPHALANGEAL JOINTS

- Similar to thoracic limb
JOINTS OF THE HEAD
1. TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT
- A condylar joint between the condyle of the mandible and the mandibular fossa of the temporal
bone. (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
- Has loose capsular joint in which the lateral side is strengthened to form a lateral ligament
Figure 8.4 Temporo-Mandibular Joint
ARTICULAR DISC


- A thin meniscus lying between the two (2) articular surface of the temporomandibular
joint.
2. SUTURES OF THE SKULL

- These are fibrous joints between the skull bones
a. SYMPHYSIS OF THE MANDIBLE

- This is an amphiarthrosis joint (cartilaginous) that joins the right and left mandibular
bodies.
JOINTS OF THE AUDITORY OSSICLES
- All three (3) bones of the middle ear articulate with each other
- Type of joint according to structure: Synovial Joints
- The stapes(the innermost of the three) articulates with the vestibular window by a fibrous
joint or syndesmosis
- All three (3) bones are held together by a number of ligaments
JOINTS OF THE HYOID APPARATUS
- Synovial articulation between the bones of the hyoid apparatus and between the thyroid
bone and the cranial cornu of the thyroid cartilage
- Tympanohyoid cartilage forms a syndesmosis with the skull zed part of the temporal bone
JOINTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
a. CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS or SYMPHYSIS

- Formed by intervertebral discs
b. SYNOVIAL JOINTS
- Formed by the cranial and caudal articular process
- The atlanto-occipital and atlanto-axial joints are atypical intervertebral articulations
1. ATLANTO-OCCIPITAL JOINT
- Type of Synovial Joint: Modified ginglymus shared between the occipital condyles and the
cranial articular surfaces of the atlas
- Has spacious joint capsule
- Has three (3) membranes: dorso, ventral and lateral atlanto-occipital membranes that
strengthened the joint capsule.


2. ATLANTO-AXIAL JOINT
- Type of synovial joint: Pivot or Trochoid Joint
- Has a loose joint capsule
- Apical ligament of the dens connects the apex of the dens to the occipital
- Transverse atlantal ligament connects to the two (2) arches of the atlas, crossing over the
dens of the axis, thus holding the dens against the ventral arch of the atlas
LIGAMENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
1. NUCHAL LIGAMENT
- Yellow-elastic structures that connects the upper cervical vertebrae or the skull with the
spinous process of the thoracic vertebrae
- Supports the head
- In dogs, this is a single band of connective tissue extending from the spinous process of the
axis to the spinous process of T1.


Figure 8.6 Nuchal Ligamant
2. VENTRAL LONGITUDINAL LIGAMENT

- Tendinous band lying on the ventral surfaces of the vertebrae from the axis to the sacrum
- Prevents spinal over-extension
3. DORSAL LONGITUDINAL LIGAMENT

- Tendinous band on the floor of the vertebral canal from the axis to the sacrum
- Prevents over flexion of the spine


4. INTERSPINOUS LIGAMENT
- These are the fibers connecting the entire length of adjacent vertebral spine
INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS- Layers of fibrocartilage between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae

which consist of an outer fibrous ring and inner pulpy nucleus.
A. FIBROUS RING- Bands of parallel fibers connecting adjoining vertebral bodies
B. PULPY NUCLEUS- The semifluid remnants of the notochord by the fibrous ring
JOINTS OF THE RIBS
1. COSTOVERTEBRAL JOINTS
- Has two (2) articulations
- Head of the rib forms a spheroidal synovial joint with the costal fovea of the adjacent
vertebra
- Tubercle of the rib forms an arthroidal (plane) synovial joint with the transverse costal
fovea
- Each articulation has a joint capsule and corresponding ligaments: radiate ligament of
the head, intercapital, costotransverse ligament and ligament of the neck
2. STERNOCOSTAL JOINTS
- Type of synovial joint: Pivot or Trochoid
- Shared by the first eight (8) costal cartilages and the sternum
- Each has a joint capsule and ligament: dorsal and ventral sternocostal, radiate ligaments,
costoxiphoid ligaments, sternal ligament
3. COSTOCHONDRAL JOINTS
- Type of joint: Syndesmosis
- Shared between the ribs and the costal cartilages
- No synovial cavities
A. Fill in the blanks. You may add additional columns if you want to.
Joint Type of Joint Movement


1. Sternocostal Joint
2. Tarsal Joint
3. Shoulder Joint
4. Atlanto-axial Joint
5. MAndibular Symphysis
B. What is the difference between tendon from ligament?

Kindly answer the What I Know Chart.

1. What ligament that is found in the ox coxae is not present in cats?
2. How many patellar ligaments do carabaos have?
3. This is the remnant of the notochord by the fibrous ring.
4. What movement is seen in the hock joint of the animal?
5. What type of joint is the costochondral joint?
C. LESSON WRAP-UP


That ends our topics for period 1. IF you have any questions or clarifications, feel free to ask below
and we will discuss this in our online class.

Course Code: VEM015

Lesson title: Lesson No. 11 THE HEART Materials:

Lesson Objectives:
1. To know the different structures found in - Yourself
the heart
- Pen
- Paper
References:

Testbook of Veterinary Anatomy. (2009) Fourth
Edition. Saunders
- Evans, H., De Lahunta, A. Miller’s Anatomy of

the Dog. (2012) Fourth Edition. Saunders
Domestic Animals: Sytemic and Regional
Approach. (1989) Eleventh Edition. Sudz
Publishing
Productivity Tip:
Keep going.
1) Introduction: Welcome to the Circulatory System! And I decided to turn this chapter into two parts
since the discussion about the heart is quite long and so are about the blood cells and blood
vessels.

Course Code: VEM015


1. What are the 3 main

layers of the heart?
2. Can you name the 4

chambers of the heart?
3. What is the Arterial

Ligament?
B.MAIN LESSON
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
● Consists of the heart, blood vessels and lymphatics (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
● Consists of two (2) principal divisions:
a. Blood Vascular System b. Lymph Vascular System
FUNCTION of the CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. Provides transportation for the nutrients required by the different organs and tissues
2. Removes waste and other metabolic by-products from the cells
3. Provides immunity from diseases
HEART
- This is a muscular organ that drives the circulatory system

- It is composed of striated muscles with involuntary innervation
- Mammalian heart has four chambers, Reptilian heart has three.
- And it has specific input channels, the veins and specific output channels, the arteries.
- In dogs, one can hear the heartbeat of puppies at 22-23 days in utero.

Course Code: VEM015

Figure 11.1 Heart
PARTS of the HEART
I. PERICARDIUM
- Also known as the heart sac
- This is a fibroserous envelope of the heart
- Divided into the fibrous (external or outer part) and serous part (inner/external part)
- The serous part is divided into parietal and visceral layer
A. Fibrous Pericardium (pericardium fibrosus)

- A thin, tough sac that contains the serous pericardium, a small amount of fluid and the heart.
(deLahunta and Evans, 2013)
- Most of the outer surface is covered by and adhered to the pericardial mediastinal pleura
- The thymus, which is found in young dogs, is in contact with the pericardium in variable portion of
its cranial surface.
- The inner surface is lined by the parietal layer of the serous pericardium.
- The base of this pericardium is continuous with the adventitia of the arteries and veins of the
heart.

Course Code: VEM015

- PHRENICOPERICARDIAC LIGAMENT- a dorsoventrically flattened band of yellow elastic fascicles

in the heart’s apex
B. Serous Pericardium (pericardium serosum)

- Forms a closed cavity into which approximately one half of its wall is invaginated by the heart to
form its visceral layer, the smooth, outer covering of the heart, the epicardium. (deLahunta and
Evans, 2013)
- The uninvaginated part forms the parietal layer.
- PERICARDIAL CAVITY- located between the two layers of the serous pericardium, the smallest
serous cavity.
1. Parietal Layer (Lamina Parietalis)
- Firmly fused to fibrous pericardium that it is impossible to separate this layer to the fibrous
pericardium
- Composed of interlacing collagen fibers
2. Visceral Layer (Lamina Visceralis)

- Attached to the heart muscle, except along the grooves where fat and the coronary vessels or
their branches intervene.
- Has elastic fibers
- Transverse sinus of the pericardium is a U-shaped passage between the right and left sides of the
pericardial cavity, passes between the aorta and pulmonary trunk cranially and the pulmonary
veins caudally.
LAYERS of the HEART (“CARDIUM”)
1. Epicardium
- “EPI”-means being on top of
- This is a thin layer of mesothelium covering the surface of the heart
- This is the visceral layer of the serous pericardium (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
2. Myocardium
- “MYO”- means the muscular part

Course Code: VEM015

- The muscle layer that makes up the thickness of the cardiac wall
3. Endocardium
- “ENDO”- means being inside of
- This is the thin mesothelial layer lining the atria and ventricles
- This is continuous with the endothelial lining of the great vessels entering the heart
❖ The heart has a base and an apex

a. BASE
- This is the hilus of the organ facing dorsoventrally
- Receives the great veins and sends out the great arteries (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
b. APEX
- This is the caudoventral most part of the heart always formed by the left ventricle.
Figure 11.2 Cardiac Chambers
The Cardiac Chambers
● The heart has four chambers

Course Code: VEM015

● It has two atria that receives blood, and pump it down into the respective ventricles
● The two ventricles pump blood away from the heart
1. RIGHT ATRIUM
- The compartment that receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava
Structures Found in the Right Atrium
a. Right Auricle (auricle- Latin for little ear)

- Blind pockets of the atria, characterized by the pectinate muscles on its wall.
b. Pectinate Muscles
- Interdigitaitng, crisscrossing muscular bands in the wall of both auricles. (Pasquini and Spurgeon,
1988)
c. Interatrial Septum
- This serves as the wall that separates the two atria.
- The oval fossa which is a shallow depression in the interatrial septum is the remnant of the
foramen ovale.
d. Coronary Sinus
- This is the terminal part of the cardiac vein that opens into the right atrium.
The Five Openings of the Right Atrium
a. Cranial Vena Cava Opening

b. Caudal Vena Cava Opening
c. Azygous Vein Opening
d. Coronary Sinus Opening
e. Right Atrio-Ventricular Orifice
2. RIGHT VENTRICLE

Course Code: VEM015

- This is the compartment that receives blood from the right atrium and pumping it through the
pulmonary trunk.
- The right ventricle’s wall is thinner than the left due to the less pressure required to move blood
through the lungs than the body.
Structures Found in the Right Ventricle
e. Right Atrioventricular (AV) Opening

- The opening between the right atrium and right ventricles, functionally opened and closed by the
right atrioventricular valve. (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
f. Conus Arteriosus
- This is the dilation of the right ventricle to the pulmonary trunk
g. Pulmonary Opening
- This is the opening of the pulmonary trunk that is protected by the pulmonary valve
3. LEFT ATRIUM
- The chamber that receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins.
Structures Found in the Left Atrium
a. Left Auricle
- A blind pocket with characteristic pectinate muscles as seen in the right auricle
4. LEFT VENTRICLE
- The chamber that receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium, then sends itout to the
systemic circulation through the aorta.
- Has thicker walls than the right ventricle due to the higher pumping pressure required for the
oxygenated blood to be pump into the systemic circulation.
-
Structures Found in the Left Ventricle

Course Code: VEM015

a. Left Atrioventricular (AV) Orifice or Opening

- The opening between the left atrium and the left ventricle that is operated by the left
atrioventricular valve
b. Aortic Opening
- The opening from the left ventricle into the aorta. (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
- AORTIC VALVE- prevents the backflow from the aorta into the left ventricle
Structures that Can be Seen in Both Ventricles
a. Papillary Muscles
- These are muscular projections serving as origins for chordae tendinae of the atrioventricular
valves
b. Chordae Tendinae
- Also known as tendinous cords
- These are tough strands anchoring the free edges of the atrioventricular valves of the papillary
muscles
- Prevent eversion of the valve leaflets back into the atrium upon ventricular contraction.
c. Interventricular Septum
- The wall that separates both ventricles.
Figure 11.3 Atrium and Ventricle
Structures Found in the Surface of the Heart

Course Code: VEM015

a. Coronary Groove
- A depression that partially encircles the heart.
- This serves as an external indicator where the atria separates from the ventricles.
- Contains the coronary vessels
b. Conus
- This is the expanded outflow from the right ventricles into the pulmonary trunk.
- The only part that is spared of the coronary groove.
c. Paraconal Interventricular Groove
- External indicator of the interventricular septum.
- This groove descends the lateral side of the heart, adjacent to the conus, thus it is known as
paraconal.
d. Coronary Sinus
- The terminal part of the great coronary vein emptying into the right atrium.
e. Subsinosal Interventricular Groove
- The long depression on the caudal part of the heart’s right side.
- It is located below the coronary sinus.
- It also marks the interventricular septum externally.
f. Arterial Ligament
- Latin: Ligamentum artiosum
- Remnant of the fetal arterial duct connecting the pulmonary trunk and aorta. (Pasquini and
Spurgeon, 1988)

Course Code: VEM015

Figure 11.3 Surface of the Heart
Great Vessels of the Heart
1. CRANIAL VENA CAVA

- A large vein returning blood from the head, neck and the thoracic limbs to the right atrium.
(Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
2. CAUDAL VENA CAVA

- A large vein that returns blood from the part of the thorax, the viscera, pelvic limbs and fail to the
right atrium.
3. PULMONARY TRUNK
- The large vessel that carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricles to the two pulmonary
arteries and eventually to the lungs.
4. PULMONARY ARTERIES
- These are the two branches of the pulmonary trunk.

Course Code: VEM015

5. PULMONARY VEINS
- These are the numerous vessels that empty into the left atrium.
- Carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart’s left atrium.
6. AORTA
- This is the major outflow from the left ventricle into the systemic circulation.
APPLIED and CLINICAL ANATOMY
Heartworm
● Scientific name: Dirofilaria immitis
● Transmitted by mosquitoes
● Zoonotic, can also affect humans
● Species affected: dogs and cats
● Can cause right-sided heart failure due to blockage of the right ventricle and pulmonary
trunk by the adult worms
● Adult heartworms are found in the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk (artery)
● Clinical Signs: Coughing at dawn and early evening, unproductive (hard) cough, shortness
or gasping for breath after strenuous exercise.

Course Code: VEM015

Figure 11.5 Canine heart with adult heartworm

3) Activity 5: Check for Understanding

An online quiz will be given

Course Code: VEM015

C. LESSON WRAP-UP


Lesson title: Lesson No. 12 Heart Valves Materials:

and Fetal Shunts
1. To know the heart valves and
shunts of fetal circulation - Pen
2. To know the different types of
circulation - Paper
References:

Veterinary Anatomy. (2009) Fourth Edition. Saunders

Productivity Tip:
Always have the end in mind.
1) Introduction
Oops, I think we will divide this chapter into 3. Knowing the heart valves and shunts is needed to
be learned.


1. What are shunts?
2. What are heart valves?
3. What is patent foramen

ovale?
B.MAIN LESSON
Activity 2: Content Notes
The Heart Valves
● These are structures guarding the opening between the atria and ventricles and the two (2) main
heart outflows: aorta and pulmonary trunk. (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
1. Atrioventricular Valves (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)

- These prevent backflow into the atria during ventricular (systolic) contractions
- Those valves are anchored in the ventricles of the chordae tendinae.
a. Right Atrioventricular (AV) Valve

- Also known as the tricuspid valve
- Operates the right atrioventricular opening
- Dogs only have two (2) cusps but with an intervening secondary cusps
- Other domestic species and humans, there are three (3) major cusps.
b. Left Atrioventricular Valve

- Also known as bicuspid or mitral valves
- Has similar function as the right atrioventricular valve, but have heavier structure due to the
greater pressure in the left ventricle during its contraction.


2. Aortic Valve
- Also known as semilunar valve
- Crescent moon in shape thus it is called, semilunar valve
- Consist of three semilunar cusps attached to the aortic fibrous ring in the aorta’s origin.
3. Pulmonary Valve (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)

- This is the valve between the conus of the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.
- Similar to the aortic valve but lighter in structure.
Figure 12.1 Heart Valves

● OS CORDIS (plural: ossa cordis)
- This is a splanchnic or heterotrophic bone located in between the atria and ventricles
- Provide attachment for the heart valves
- Found only in ruminants and older horses
- Sheep and goat: 1 os cordis
- Cattle, carabao and older horse: 2 ossa cordis
HEART AUSCULTATION (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
- Listening to heart sound using a stethoscope

- Heart sounds are caused by the closing of the different heart valves


- Ventricle contraction (systole) causes rise in ventricular pressure and closure of the
atrioventricular valves (first heart sound, “LUB”), and opening of the aortic and pulmonic
valves.
- During ventricular relaxation (diastole), the aortic and pulmonic valves close (second heart
sound, “DUB) due to back pressure in the aorta and pulmonary trunk.
o SYSTOLE- contraction of the ventricles, occurs between the first and second heart sounds
o DIASTOLE- relaxation of the ventricles, occurs between the second and first heart sounds
POINT of MAXIMUM INTENSITY (PMI)
- Puncta Maxima
- Spots on the thoracic wall where a valve sound is hear the loudest
- The stethoscope must be placed at these location in order to find the PMI.
a. LEFT ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVE

- Left intercostal space at the level of the olecranon
b. PULMONARY VALVE
- Left third intercostal space at the level of the olecranon
c. AORTIC VALVE
- Left fourth intercostal space at the level of the shoulder
d. RIGHT ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVE

- Right fourth intercostal space at the level of the olecranon
CIRCULATION
Four Types of Circulation
1. Pulmonic
2. Systemic


3. Fetal
4. Portal
I. PULMONIC CIRCULATION
- From the right side of the heart to the lungs
- The pulmonary trunk branches into two: one leading to the right, another to the left lung
- The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood coming from the lungs via the pulmonary
vein
II. SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

- From the left side of the heart to the rest of the body
- The oxygenated blood coming from the left side of the heart of the body via the aorta
III. FETAL CIRCULATION (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
● In uteru, the placenta functions as the lungs and liver of the fetus, supplying it with oxygen and
nutrients and remove fetal waste.
● Fetal lungs and liver are non-functional, but they still have blood supply to sustain nourishment on
their developing tissues
● Blood is diverted to “functional” tissues by three shunts in the fetal circulation: foramen ovale,
ductus ateriosus and ductus venosus.


Figure 12.2 Fetal Shunts

a. FORAMEN OVALE
- The opening found in the interatrial septum that allows the blood to proceed from the right to
the left atrium.
- It is double-walled structure with holes in each wall offset from each other.
- In uteru, the pressure is greater in the right atrium pushing blood through the hole in the the
right atrial wall between the two walls, and out the hole in the left atrial wall.
- Upon birth, the pressure in the left atrium exceeds that of the right, pushing the two walls
together, effectively closing the foramen.
b. DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS
- The shunt between the pulmonary trunk and aorta, diverting the fetal blood from the
pulmonic circulation to the systemic circulation
c. DUCTUS VENOSUS
- The fetal shunt from the umbilical vein directly through the liver to the caudal vena cava by
passing the liver sinusoids. (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)


Role of the Umbilicus
1. Umbilical Veins
- These are blood vessels that carry oxygen and nutrient-rich blood from the placenta to the
fetus
- Paired in the umbilical cord they become a single umbilical vein in the fetal abdomen it enters
the liver to join the portal vein.
2. Umbilical Artery
- The path of oxygen-depleted blood from the fetus to the placenta
- Arise from the internal iliac artery, and travel via the umbilical cord to reach the placenta.
o Ligamentum Arteriosum- adult remnant of the arterial duct between the pulmonary trunk and
aorta.
● Once the neonates are able to take their first breath, their lungs expand with air relieving the
pressure on the vessels and capillaries in the lungs, allowing them to expand.
● As the vessels open, resistance to blood flow drops, allowing more blood through the lungs
● The ductus arteriosus begins to close shortly after birth, eventually the ligamentum arteriosum,
causing more blood to reach the lungs
● The foramen ovale will be shut due to the great increase of blood through the lungs return through
the pulmonary veins to the left atrium
● Ductus venosus in the liver also begins to close.
● The closure of the three shunts gives neonates an adults circulation
IV. PORTAL CIRCULATION (https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/vethisto/chapter/9-hepatic-blood-

supply/)
- The portal circulation is a venous system that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract, gall
bladder, spleen, and pancreas.
- Venous blood coming from the gastrointestinal tract contains not only digested nutrients, but
also toxins and, frequently, microbes.
- The hepatic artery delivers highly-oxygenated blood to the liver; however, once within the
liver, blood from the hepatic artery and the portal vein empty into the hepatic sinusoids,
combining highly oxygenated blood (hepatic arterial supply) with poorly oxygenated blood
(portal vein supply).


- As a result, hepatocytes receive blood with reduced oxygenation.

- Further, when considering that blood flows from the portal triad towards the central vein,
blood arriving to hepatocytes surrounding the central vein is relatively poorly oxygenated.
- These concepts are important in the understanding of liver pathology and how regions of the
liver are differentially more susceptible to hypoxia.
- The hepatic sinusoid endothelium is fenestrated, containing spaces between adjacent
endothelial cells.
- These gaps in the endothelium allow passage of nutrients and other small compounds into
the perisinusoidal space (space of Disse) where hepatocytes are able to take up these
compounds.
- Microvilli on the surface of hepatocytes provide additional surface area for absorption of these
molecules.
- Additionally, proteins and lipoproteins produced by hepatocytes are transferred into
circulation in these perisinusoidal spaces.
Heart Murmur (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
- These are abnormal sounds caused by blood flow turbulence, due to valvular or non-valvular
problems
I. VALVULAR MURMUR (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)

- A sound due to a leaky or a narrowed valve
- One has to determine if the murmur is in systole or diastole by where it occurs to the natural
heart sounds and then which valves it is.
a. LEAKY (INSUFFICIENCY) MURMUR

- Caused by turbulence due to backflow through a not full closed valve
b. NARROWING (STENOSIS) MURMUR

- Constriction of the opening causing a turbulence past the opening


1. SYSTOLIC MURMUR
- Occurs between the first and second heart sounds, when the atrioventricular valves should be
fully closed and the aortic and pulmonic valves are open
2. DIASTOLIC MURMUR
- Occurs between the second and first heart sounds when the aortic and pulmonic valves
should be closed and the atrioventricular valves opened.
DIFFERENT VALVULAR MURMURS
a. Atrioventricular Leak or Insufficiency

- Systolic murmur with left atrioventricular insufficiency is the most common
b. Aortic Space or Pulmonic Stenosis

- Systolic Murmur with aortic stenosis is the most common
c. Atrioventricular Stenosis
- Diastolic Murmur (very rare)
d. Aortic or Pulmonic Insufficiency

- Diastolic Murmur (rare)
II. NON-VALVULAR MURMURS

- Mostly congenital causes
❖ CONGENITAL- disease or defect that arise upon birth
A. PATENT DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS (PDA)

- A failure of the fetal duct to close
- Murmur sounds like swirling washing machine
- Both have systolic and diastolic murmurs
B. PATENT FORAMENT OVALE

- An example of the interatrial septal defect


- This is the failure of the opening (foramen ovale) between the two (2) fetal atria to close.
C. INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTAL DEFECT

- Failure of interventricular septum to close
- Results in a systolic murmur loudest on the right side near the sternum
TETRALOGY of FALLOT
- This is a congenital cardiac abnormality characterized by the presence of a large ventricular
septal defect, pulmonic stenosis, dextroposition of the aorta, and right ventricular hypertrophy
- Blood shunts from the right ventricle to the left ventricle through the ventricular septal defect
- The blood flows from the right side of the heart to the left side because the pulmonic stenosis
increases resistance to blood flow out of the right ventricle to a point that is greater than
systemic vascular resistance.
- The delivery of deoxygenated blood to the systemic circulation results in systemic hypoxemia.
- Hypoxemia is often severe enough to cause cyanosis, either to cause cyanosis either at rest or
with exercise or stress.
(http://vetmed.ucdavis.edu/vmth/small_animal/cardio_kittleson/causes/case29/text.htm)

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning

Course Code: VEM015
Student Activity Sheet# 13

Lesson title: Lesson No. 13 The Blood Materials:

Vessels and Blood Cells
1. To know the difference of arteries,
veins and capillaries - Pen
2. To know the different blood cells
- Paper
References:


Productivity Tip:
If you have learned something new today, it will be forever.
1) Introduction
Last topic for the Circulatory System, and we will be learning the blood vessels and the blood cells.


Course Code: VEM015

1. What are the three layers

of the artery?
2. What is a macrophage?
B.MAIN LESSON
BLOOD VESSELS
- These are tubes that carry blood throughout an animal’s body.
A. ARTERIES
- Carry blood away from the heart under pressure (Aspinall and O’Reilly, 2004)
- Almost all arteries transport oxygenated blood to the capillary beds found within the tissues
- Only the pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood
- Arteries have thick walls that is composed of three layers: (Aspinall and O’Reilly)
1. Tunica Intima
o Consist of endothelial lining which is continuous throughout the entire circulatory system
and is also continuous with the endothelial covering of the heart valves
2. Tunica media
o Consist of smooth muscles and elastic tissue
3. Tunica adventitia
o Fibrous outercoat of artery
- Elastic nature of the arterial walls allows them to dilate or constrict and enables arteries to
withstand blood under high pressure as it leaves the heart
- Once the arteries enter the tissue, they give off collateral vessels that link up with each other to
form an anastomosis or network
- In cases of obstruction to one of these collateral vessels, the blood has an alternative route in
order for the cells to still receive oxygen and nutrients (Aspinall and O’Reilly,2004)

Course Code: VEM015

- The brain, kidneys and heart are the only organs that do not have the collateral vessel systems
- Such pattern is similar to how the tree branches-they branch but never join each other
- This mechanism prevents damage by a sudden drop in blood pressure
- However, if an end artery is occluded, since there is no alternative route, thus it may cause organ
failure, coma or even, death.
● ARTERIOLES- smaller and narrower arterial branch found in the tissues.
B. CAPILLARIES
- Small, thin walled permeable vessels which is composed of a single layer of endothelial cells
- Site for gas exchange in tissues, nutrient up-take and removal of metabolic waste such as carbon
dioxide and urea
● CAPILLARY BEDS- networks of capillaries that extend between the arterioles and the venules
within the tissues.
C. VEINS
- Carry blood towards the heart
- Relatively thin walls and carry deoxygenated blood under low pressure
- Only the pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood
- Have the same structure as arteries but have thinner smooth muscle and fewer elastic fibers
● VENULES- smallest veins that collect carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes from the capillary
beds in tissues.
▪ Veins are the most suitable sites for venipuncture being relatively superficial of the two large
vessels
▪ Most common vein use in companion animal practice is the cephalic vein located on the dorsal
surface of the lower thoracic limb.
▪ The lateral saphenous veins which run down on the lateral side of the hock, and the jugular veins
which run down on both sides of the neck along the jugular furrow are the other sites for
venipuncture.
AORTA and its BRANCHES

I. AORTA

Course Code: VEM015

A. Coronary Arteries- supply blood to the heart

B. Brachiocephalic Trunk- supplies blood to…
1. Common Carotid Artery- head
2. Right Subclavian Artery
a. Right Axillary Artery
a.1. Right Brachial Artery
3. Left Subclavian Artery

a. Left Axillary Artery
a.1. Left Brachial Artery
C. Spinal Arteries
D. Renal Arteries
E. Ovarian Arteries (female gonads)
F. Testicular Arteries (male gonads)
G. Coeliac Artery- stomach, spleen, liver
H. Cranial Mesenteric Artery- small intestine
I. Caudal Mesenteric Artery- large intestine
J. External Iliac Arteries
1. Femoral Arteries- hind legs
K. Internal Iliac Artery- pelvic viscera
VENOUS CIRCULATION
I. Cranial Vena Cava

A. Jugular Vein-from the head
B. Subclavian Veins- collect blood from the forelimb veins
1. Brachial Vein- deeper tissues
2. Cephalic Vein- superficial tissues
II. Caudal Vena Cava

Course Code: VEM015

- Returns deoxygenated blood from the pelvic region, hind limbs and abdominal viscera
III. Azygous Vein

- Arises in the abdomen and runs towards the heart passing through the diaphragm
- In the thorax, it runs dorsall and either joins the cranial vena cava or drains directly into the right
atrium
- Drains venous blood from the thoracic wall
IV. Coronary Veins

- Return deoxygenated blood from the heart to the heart itself.
BLOOD
I. Volume
● 10-11% of the body weight in hot blooded horses
● 8-9% in dogs
● 6-7% in cats, ruminants, laboratory rodents, and cold-blooded (draft) horses
● 5-6% in pigs
● Young, growing animals, the volume often exceeds 10% of the body weight
II. Composition
A. Cells
1. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
- Most numerous of the blood cells
2. Thrombocytes (Platelets)
- Second most numerous
3. Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
- Proportion of leukocytes present varies among species
- Primary function is protect the body from pathogens.
a. Neutrophils
- Most numerous leukocyte in carnivores
- The leukocyte responsible in fighting bacterial infections.
- Their granules stain violet in hematoxylin (blue) and eosin (red) stain.

Course Code: VEM015

b. Lymphocytes
- Most numerous leukocyte in ruminants and rodents
- The leukocyte responsible in fighting viruses, kill cancerous cells and produce
antibodies.
c. Monocytes
- When it is in the blood vessels
- Macrophages are monocytes not in circulation and are found in the organs.
- They act as detectors of pathogens (One of the sentinel cells), help out the neutrophils
in fighting bacterial infection (They are good indicators of the chronicity or how long the
infection has been.).
- They also initiate the platelets for the wound healing process.
d. Eosinophils
- Abundances of these cells suggest either allergy and/or parasitism.
- They stain red in hematoxylin and eosin stain.
e. Basophils
- Stains blue in hematoxylin and eosin stain.
Figure 13.1 Blood Cells

Course Code: VEM015

B. Plasma
- Consist of primarily of water that contains 6-8 g/dL of plasma proteins and 1.5-2.0 g/dL of
inorganic salts, lipids, carbohydrates, hormones and vitamins
PLASMA PROTEINS
A. Albumin (44%)
- A single protein that generally accounts nearly half of the total plasma
B. Globulins (52%)
1. Alpha (14%)
2. Beta (15%)
3. Gamma (23%)
C. Fibrinogen (4%)
- Only present in plasma
PLASMA vs. SERUM
● PLASMA
When prepared in the laboratory, the blood collected is placed with anticoagulant, followed by
centrifugation to remove the blood cells
● SERUM
If the blood collected, and it is placed in a container without anticoagulant, allowing it to clot, the
fluid obtained after centrifugation is called serum.
APPLIED and CLINICAL ANATOMY NOTES
DEATH by CHOCOLATE
● Chocolates, coffee and to a lesser extent tea have plant alkaloids that may be essential and
harmless to humans, but are deadly to dogs.
● One alkaloid that is abundant in chocolates is theobromine

Course Code: VEM015

● Theobromine, like caffeine is a stimulant

● This alkaloid increases calcium influx in the muscles thus increasing muscle contractions of
somatic and cardiac muscles
● Death is due to cardiac arrthymias, hyperthermia or respiratory failure
● 𝐿𝐷50 100-200 mg/kg body weight, but even at lower doses, death may occur.
1) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (

C. LESSON WRAP-UP


Lesson title:15 Respiratory System Materials:

1. To know the different organs that - Pen
are part of the respiratory - Paper
system. - Cellphone/Desktop/Tablet
References:
- Evans, HE and De Lahunta, A. Guide to the Dissection
of the Dog (2009). Seventh Edition.Saunders
Productivity Tip:
Rest is a must.
1) Introduction
This system is quite short as it does not have a lot of organs involve.

Kindly answer the first column. Leave the last column blank for now.
1.How many lobes are there in

the canine lungs?
2.What is trachea?


B.MAIN LESSON
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- Compose of the structures from the nares and oral cavity up to the lungs
- MAJOR FUNCTION: Transports and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
OTHER FUNCTIONS
1. Phonation- production of sound caused by movement of air across the vocal folds causing them
to vibrate.
2. Olfaction- sense of smell
3. Thermoregulation
- Through panting, helps control the dog’s core temperature via evaporation
- Lungs play a role in the acid-base balance
- Nose either humidifies or cools the air inhaled
I. NOSE
o Compose of the external nose, associated cartilages and the nasal cavity
A. External Nose- rostral structures slightly protruding from the face
1. Philtrum
o Derived from the Greek word: Philtron-love charm
o The groove in the middle of the nose that separates the nostrils
2. Nostrils (Nares)
o External openings into the nasal cavity
3. Bony Nasal Aperture (Immovable Nose)

o The rostral end of the nasal and incisive bone
● The moveable portion is compose of the nasal cartilages, ligaments and skin


4. Cartilage of the Nose

o Structures that give the nose its characteristic appearance
o Project rostrad from the bony nasal aperture
Figure 15.1 External Parts of Canine Nose


II. NASAL CAVITY

o The facial portion that extend from the nostrils to the choanae
1. Medial Nasal Septum

o A perpendicular portion that divides the nasal cavity to left and right halves
o Compose of bony, cartilaginous and membranous parts
o The nasal cartilages on each nostril are the cranial cartilaginous parts of the nasal septum
2. Nasal Conchae (Singular: Concha)

o Conchae- Latin for shells
o Bony scrolls that are covered by nasal mucosa and fill each half of the nasal cavity
o Together with the median nasal septum, the nasal conchae divide the nasal cavity into
meatuses (passageways)
a. Ventral Nasal Conchae

▪ Extensively folded structures filling the lumen of the nasal cavity
▪ Separate and distinct bones of the skull
b. Ethmoidal Conchae/ Ethmoturbinates
▪ Delicate, mucosa covered bony scrolls that fill the caudal parts of the nasal cavity
▪ Part of the ethmoid bone
● Dorsal Nasal Concha

o Upper Concha extending from the ethmoid bones cribriform plate to the rostral nasal
cavity
3. Nasal Meatus
o Passageways between the conchae of each half of the nasal cavity
a. Dorsal Nasal Meatus

o Narrow passageway between the dorsal nasal concha and the nasal bones leading into the
caudal nasal cavity
b. Middle Nasal Meatus


o Passageway between the dorsal concha and the ventral nasal concha leading into the
caudal nasal cavity
c. Common Nasal Meatus

o Narrow vertical space between the median nasal septum and conchae, from the roof to the
nasal cavity floor
o Continuous with the other meatuses laterally
d. Ventral Nasal Meatus

o Largest meatus located between the ventral nasal concha and the hard palate
o Directly leads into the nasopharynx
e. Nasopharyngeal Meatus
o Short passageway connecting the ventral nasal meatus with the choana on each side
(Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
4. Chonae
o The two (2) openings of the nasopharyngeal meatus into the nasopharynx that is separated
by the vomer.


Figure 15.2 Longitudinal Cross-section of the Nasal Cavity
Figure 15.2 Cross-section of the Nasal Cavity
III. LARYNX
o Greek for upper end windpipe
o Musculocartilaginous tube connecting the laryngopharynx with the trachea and containing
the vocal cords


o Compose of cartilages
1. Epiglottic Cartilage
o Most rostral that gives the structure to the epiglottis
● Epiglottis- separate food from air
2. Thyroid Cartilage
o Greek: Thyroideus- resembling a shield
o Largest cartilage, single and dorsally open
● Laryngeal Prominence- ventral projection of the thyroid cartilage, known as “Adam’s Apple” in
humans
3. Cricoid Cartilage
o Greek: Ring
o Signet shape ring-shaped cartilage connecting the thyroid cartilage and the trachea
4. Arytenoid Cartilage
o Paired
o Irregular cartilages articulating with the rostrodorsal border of the cricoid cartilages
● Vocal Process
o Ventral projection of the arytenoid cartilage providing attachment for the vocal cord
o The other end of the vocal chords are attach to the floor of the thyroid cartilage
NOTE: Dogs have sesamoid and interarytenoid laryngeal cartilages


Figure 15.4 Canine Larynx
IV. LARYNGEAL CAVITY

o Space enclosed by the laryngeal cartilages, muscles, ligaments and mucous membrane
1. Laryngeal Opening
o Passageway for air from the mouth or nose into the larynx
2. Laryngeal Ventricle
o Lateral depression between the ventricular and vocal folds
● Vestibular (Ventricular) Fold- Mucosal fold rostral to the vocal cord
3. Vocal Fold
- Mucosa-covered vocal ligaments and muscle caudal to the ventricle


- Extends from the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage to the interior floor of the thyroid
cartilage
4. Laryngeal Muscles
A. Dorsal Cricoarytenoid Muscle
- The only intrinsic muscle abducting the vocal folds to open the glottis
B. Vocal (Vocalis) Muscle

- Muscle of the vocal fold that extends from the thyroid cartilage to the vocal process of the
arytenoid cartilage
- Relaxes the vocal fold by pulling the arytenoid cartilage downward
PLEURA
- The serosal lining of the thoracic cavity and the thoracic organs
- Forms 2 pleural sacs on either side of the mediastimun
TYPES of PLEURA
1. Pulmonary (Visceral) Pleura

- Serosa on the lung surface
2. Parietal Pleura
- Serosa on the thoracic cavity not on the lungs
3. Pericardiac Pleura
- Serosa on either side of the pericardium
4. Costal Pleura
- Serosa lining the thoracic wall
5. Diaphragmatic Pleura
- Serosa on the diaphragm’s thoracic side


● Pulmonary Ligament
- The reflection of the pulmonary pleura from the left and right caudal lung lobes to the
mediastinal pleura
● Pleural Cavities
- Two cavities formed by the pleural sacs
- Thoracic organ evaginate into each pleural cavity carrying their visceral pleura with them, and
therefore are not in the pleural cavities
● Mediastinum
- Cleft between the right and left mediastinal pleura near the median thoracic plane
- Heart and its pericardium are located in the mediastinum, dividing it into cranial, middle
(heart location), caudal mediastinum
V. TRACHEA (Windpipe)
o A cartilaginous cylindrical tube extending from the larynx down the neck into the thorax to
terminates into the right and left bronchi
o Divided into two parts: Cervical and Thoracic
o Cervical Part- from the larynx to the thoracic inlet
o Thoracic Part- continuous to the bifurcation
o Made up of hyaline cartilage
o Tracheal rings are slender and U-shaped, the ends of the tracheal rings do not meet
dorsally so that the trachea has a membranous dorsal wall (Stokoe, 1946)
o C-Shape (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)
● Annular Ligaments- The fibroelastic tissue uniting thetracheal cartilages, making the trachea a
flexible tube. (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1988)


Figure 15.6 Bronchial Tree
BRONCHIAL TREE (Pasquini and Spurgeon, 1989)
I. Principal Bronchi (singular: Bronchus)

o Short, thick segment entering each lung’s hilus to divide into lobar bronchi
II. Lobar Bronchi

o Continuation of the principle bronchi ventilating one lobe and giving rise to segmental
bronchi
III. Segmental Bronchi

o Branches of the lobar bronchi ventilating a bronchiopulmonary segment
o Bronchiopulmonary segment- self-contained cone-shaped section of the lung tissue
within a lobe
IV. Bronchioles
o Small tubes with no cartilaginous support that arise from the segmental bronchi


o This is strictly the last conductive branches
V. Respirator Bronchioles
o Terminal bronchioles in which the walls contain some alveoli, and conduct and allow gas
exchange with blood
VI. Alveolar Ducts

o Passages from respiratory bronchioles completely surrounded by alveoli
VII. Alveolar Sacs

o Terminal part of the alveolar ducts that is completely surrounded by alveoli
VIII. Alveoli
o Thin-walled sacs for gas exchange
VI. LUNGS
o A paired organ for gas exchange that occupies most of the thorax
o Divided into lobes and interlobar fissure
o Left lung: 2 lobes; Right lung: 4 lobes
o Soft and spongy to the touch and crepitates when pressed
o In life, it is bright pink in color and floats in water
o Has two surfaces: Costal and mediastinal/medial
o Has two borders- dorsal and ventral
o Apex- lies adjacent to the thoracic inlet
o Base- lies adjacent to the diaphragm
o Diaphragmatic surface of each lung is concave against the diaphragm’s convex surface.
LOBES
Left Lung
1. Cranial Lobe 2. Caudal Lobe
Right Lung
1. Cranial Lobe 2. Accessory Lobe 3. Middle Lobe 4. Caudal Lobe


Figure 15.5 Canine Lungs
Cardiac Impression
- Formed by the heart on the lung median surface between the third and sixth rib
Hilus
- Found in the median surface where the primary bronchus and the pulmonary bronchial vessels
and nerve enter the lungs
Root of the Lung
- Aggregate structures that enter the lungs at the hilus
Cardiac Notch
- Opening between the lobes of the lungs where the heart sac comes in contact with the thoracic
wall
- Clinical Anatomy: Site for directing a needle for cardiac puncture without piercing the lung tissue.



Online Quiz
C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Vem 015 Merged Sas

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vem 015 Merged Sas

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vem 015 Merged Sas

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Course Code: VEM015

Student Activity Sheet #1

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Lesson title: Introduction to Materials:

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

for me, Anatomy is a 1. What is anatomy?

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Base in 2. Why do we focus on the dog

1. Anatomy- study of structures of a living organism

2. Physiology- study of the functions of these structures of a living organism

3. Embryology- study of the different structures of a developing embryo, as well as the

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Dog (Canis familiaris)

● Miacid is the common ancestors of animals belonging to order, Carnivora.

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Taxonomic Classification of the Dog

RULES OF BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

SPORTING/ NON- HERDING HOUND TOY TERRIER

braque chow-chow border collie irish shih tzu american

labrador sharpei australian american toy poodle border

golden bulldog australian whippet pomeranian kerry blue

English setter dalmatian croatian scottish french bull terrier

irish setters shiba inu dutch bloodhound chihuahua irish terrier

B. List down 5 breeds on dogs according to what type of the

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

3) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: Class number:

Lesson title: Osteology: An Introduction Materials:

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: Class number:

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

1.What will happen to the bone if it

2. What is a splanchnic bone?

3.Aside from providing framework

II. Functions of the Bone

2. Acting as leverage for the muscles

3. Protect internal organs

4. Storage of minerals such as calcium, phosphorus and magnesium

5. Site for hematopoiesis

III. How Are Bones Formed?

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: Class number:

2. Cartilages are often bone precursors.

IV. Type of Bone Formation or Ossification

1. Mechanical stress via muscle attachment

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: Class number:

VI. Bone Structures

o Also known as substantia compacta and/or substantia corticalis

2. Red Bone Marrow

- Also known as medulla ossium rubra

● Bone marrow is usually found in long bones

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _

Name: ___________________________________________________________ Class number: _