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 Contents

List of Exercises vii

Contents of Audio CD xi

Preface xiii

UNIT 1 Laying the Foundation 1 10 Diphthongs 77

A Focus on Pronunciation 78
1 Thinking About the English Phonology System: Pronunciation 83
Syllables and Sounds 2
The Syllable 2
11 Rhotic/Controlled /r/
Parts of a Syllable 3
Types of Syllables 10 Diphthongs 84
Phonology and Phonetics 12 Pronunciation 87
Dialects and Accents 15
12 Term Review and
2 English Orthography 17 Practice 89

3 Paying Attention to Sounds 24

UNIT 3 Consonants 99
4 Term Review and Practice 29 13 Overview 100
Consonants and Vowels 102
Classification of Consonants 102
UNIT 2 The Vowel System 39 Voicing 103
Place of Articulation 104
5 Overview 40 Manner of Articulation 105
Characteristics of Vowel Sounds 42
Types of Vowels 44
14 Stop‐Plosives 112
The Vowel Quadrilateral 44
A Focus on Pronunciation 112
Pronunciation Notes 120
6 Monophthongs: Front Vowels 46
15 Fricatives 121
7 Monophthongs: Back Vowels 52 A Focus on Pronunciation 121

8 Monophthongs: Front and Back 58 16 Affricates 131

A Focus on Pronunciation 58 A Focus on Pronunciation 131
Allophonic Variations 59
Practice 61
17 Nasals 139
Pronunciation Notes: Dialectal Variations 67

18 Liquids 147
9 Central Vowels 71
Symbols for the Mid‐Central Vowels in Stressed
Syllables 71 19 Glides 157
Symbols for the Mid‐Central Vowels in Unstressed A Focus on Pronunciation 162
Syllables 74
Pronunciation Variation of Central Vowels 75 20 Term Review and Practice 164

v
vi Contents

UNIT 4 Transcription: The Details 183 Appendix 229

21 Overview of Transcription 184
Transcribing Speech 184 References 233

22 Stress 194
Glossary 235
Vowels in Stressed and Unstressed Syllables 194
Two‐Syllable Words 195
Stress Changes with the Addition of Prefixes and Answer Key 237
Suffixes 197
How to Decide which Syllable has the Primary
Stress? 200 Index 263
Reduction of Vowels to Schwa in Unstressed
Syllables 214
Noticing Vowel Alternations with Changes in Stress
Patterns 216
The Impact of Morphophonemic Changes on Stress and
Vowel/Consonant Changes 218
 List of Exercises
Chapter Exercise Name Chapter Exercise Name

1 1-A Counting Syllables 3 6-C Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:

1-B Distinguishing Consonants in a Words with /i/ 47
Word in Reference to the Vowel 6-D Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
Sound 4 with /ɪ/ 48
1-C Focus on Consonants: Identifying 6-E Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Onsets and Codas 5 Words with /ɪ/ 48
1-D Finding Words with the Same Coda 6 6-F Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
1-E Finding Words with the Same Onset 6 with /e/ 49

1-F Creating Syllable Trees 8 6-G Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:

Words with /e/ 49
1-G Finding Words That Rhyme 9
6-H Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
1-H Identifying Syllable Parts 9 with /ɛ/ 50
1-I Determining Syllable Type: Open 6-I Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
versus Closed 11 Words with /ɛ/ 50
1-J Determining Syllable Type: Simple 6-J Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
versus Complex 12 with /æ/ 51

2 2-A Finding Consonant Sequences and 6-K Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Digraphs 20 Words with /æ/ 51

3 3-A Counting Sounds in Words 24 7 7-A Sorting by Vowel Sound 52

3-B Making Comparisons: Numbers of 7-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words

Sounds in Words 27 with /u/ 53

3-C Counting Sounds: Find the Errors 27 7-C Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Words with /u/ 53
4 4-A Sorting Words by Number of 7-D Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
Syllables 30 with /ʊ/ 54
4-B Manipulating Onsets and Codas 31 7-E Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
4-C Counting Sounds in Words 32 Words with /ʊ/ 54
4-D Making More Comparisons: Number 7-F Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
of Sounds in Words 33 with /o/ 55
4-E Reversing Sounds in Words 34 7-G Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Words with /o/ 55
4-F Sorting Words by Number of
Sounds 34 7-H Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
with /ɔ/ 56
4-G Applying Terms: Finding Words 35
7-I Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
4-H Applying Syllable Terms: What’s on
Words with /ɔ/ 56
the Line? 36
7-J Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
4-I Syllable Talk: Matching Terms with
with /ɑ/ 57
Definitions 36
7-K Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
4-J True‐False 36
Words with /ɑ/ 57
4-K Identify the Term 37
8 8-A Common Bonds 61
5 5-A Tuning into the Vowel Sounds in 8-B Identify the Vowel 61
Words 40
8-C Working with the Vowel
6 6-A Sorting by Vowel Sound 46 Quadrilateral 62
6-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words 8-D Identifying the Vowel
with /i/ 47 Changes 63
vii
viii List of Exercises

Chapter Exercise Name Chapter Exercise Name

8-E Vowel Classification Practice: 13-C Determining the Voicing of
Creating Words 64 Consonant Sounds 103
8-F Identifying the Vowel in Words 65 13-D Determining Place of
8-G Reading IPA Symbols 66 Articulation 104
13-E Determining Manner of
9 9-A Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words Articulation 108
with /ʌ/ 72
9-B Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
14 14-A Common Bonds 112
Words with /ʌ/ 72 14-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 115
9-C Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words 14-C Writing Words with Phonetic
with /ɝ/ 73 Symbols 115
9-D Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols: 14-D Solving Word Equations 116
Words with /ɝ/ 73 14-E Writing Word Equations 117
9-E Challenge: Two‐Syllable Words with 14-F State the Change 118
Central Vowels 75 14-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset) with
Stop‐Plosive Sounds 118
10 10-A Sorting Words with Diphthongs 77
14-H Creating Minimal Pairs (Coda) with
10-B Identifying the Correct Symbol for
Stop‐Plosive Sounds 119
Diphthongs 81
14-I Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
10-C Counting Sounds in Words 81
with Sequences 120
10-D Decoding Phonetic Symbols:
14-J Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Phonemic Diphthongs 82
Words with Sequences 120
10-E Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Phonemic Diphthongs 82 15 15-A Common Bonds 123
15-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 123
11 11-A Sorting Words by Vowel Sounds 84
15-C Writing Words with Phonetic
11-B Identifying the Correct Symbol for Symbols 124
Controlled /r/ Diphthongs 86
15-D Solving Word Equations 125
11-C Decoding Phonetic Symbols:
15-E Writing Word Equations 126
Controlled /r/ Diphthongs 87
11-D Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols: 15-F State the Change 127
Controlled /r/ Diphthongs 87 15-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset) with
Fricatives 127
12 12-A Find What Is Asked 90 15-H Creating Minimal Pairs (Coda) with
12-B Counting Sounds 91 Fricatives 128
12-C Compare/Contrast Phonetic 15-I Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
Characteristics of Vowels and with Sequences 129
Diphthongs 91 15-J Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
12-D Odd One Out 92 Words with Sequences 130
12-E Identifying the Vowel Sound 93
16 16-A Common Bonds 132
12-F Vowel Change‐Up 94 16-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 132
12-G Identifying the Vowel 95 16-C Writing Words with Phonetic
12-H Judge the Transcription 96 Symbols 133
12-I What’s the Word? 96 16-D Solving Word Equations 133
12-J Decode the Symbols 98 16-E Writing Word Equations 134
16-F State the Change 135
13 13-A Onset Comparison 100
16-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset) with
13-B Coda Comparison 101
Obstruents 136
 List of Exercises ix

Chapter Exercise Name Chapter Exercise Name

16-H Creating Minimal Pairs (Coda) with 19-H Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
Obstruents 137 with Sequences 163
16-I Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words 19-I Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
with Sequences 137 Words with Sequences 163
16-J Writing Words in Phonetic
20 20-A Identifying Common Bonds 165
Symbols: Words with
Sequences 138 20-B Odd One Out 166
20-C Provide the Sounds That Are
17 17-A Common Bonds 139 Requested 166
17-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 139 20-D How Are the Onsets Different? 167
17-C Writing Words with Phonetic 20-E How Are the Codas Different? 168
Symbols 140
20-F Decoding Phonetic Symbols 169
17-D Solving Word Equations 141
20-G Focus on Interdental Fricatives 169
17-E Writing Word Equations 142
20-H Differentiating Between the
17-F State the Change 143 Interdental Fricatives 171
17-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset) with 20-I Finding the Palatal Glide /j/ 172
Nasals and Obstruents 143
20-J Focus on Nasal Consonants 172
17-H Creating Minimal Pairs (Coda) with
20-K Follow the Clues 174
Nasals and Obstruents 144
20-L Follow More Clues 175
17-I Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
with Sequences 145 20-M Explain the Changes 175
17-J Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols: 20-N Identify More Changes 176
Words with Sequences 146 20-O Counting and Indentifying Sounds in
Words 177
18 18-A Common Bonds 147
20-P Identify the Third Speech Sound in
18-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 147 Words 178
18-C Writing Words with Phonetic 20-Q Find the Words That Are
Symbols 148 Requested 179
18-D Solving Word Equations 149 20-R More or Less 180
18-E Writing Word Equations 151 20-S Mind Your Manners 180
18-F State the Change 153
21 21-A Vowel Sounds with Velar Nasal 186
18-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset)
with Liquids, Nasals, and 21-B Identifying the Velar Nasal in
Obstruents 153 Singleton and Sequence Contexts 186

18-H Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words 21-C Select the Correct Transcriptions 187
with Sequences 154 21-D Transcription Practice: Velar
18-I Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols: Nasal 187
Words with Sequences 155 21-E Transcribing Words with Bound
Morphemes /s/, /z/, /əz/ or /t/,
19 19-A Common Bonds 157 /d/, /əd/ 188
19-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 157 21-F Transcription Practice: Velar Nasals
19-C Writing Words with Phonetic and Bound Morphemes 190
Symbols 158 21-G Transcription Practice: Glides 191
19-D Solving Word Equations 158 21-H Determining the Correct
19-E Writing Word Equations 159 Transcription 191
19-F State the Change 160 21-I Judge the Transcription 192

19-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset) with 21-J Decode Symbols: What’s the
Sonorants and Obstruents 161 Word? 193
x List of Exercises

Chapter Exercise Name Chapter Exercise Name

22-N Identifying Stress Patterns In

22 22-A Odd One Out: Stress Patterns 196
Two‐Syllable Words 209
22-B Transcribing The Suffix –ing /ɪŋ/ 198
22-O Identify the Correct
22-C Identifying –y and –ly Suffixes That Transcription 210
Would Use /ɪ/ 199
22-P Identifying the Syllable That Is Not
22-D Transcription Practice: –y and –ly Stressed 211
Suffixes 199
22-Q Sorting U.S. States by Stress
22-E Sorting Words by Stress Patterns 201 Patterns 212
22-F Transcription Practice: /ɚ/ in Final 22-R Determining Which Syllable
Unstressed Syllables 202 Receives Primary Stress 213
22-G Transcription Practice: Schwa in 22-S Transcribing Stress Changes 220
Suffixes 202
22-T Select the Most Reasonable
22-H Transcription Practice: Unstressed Transcription from the Choices
First Syllables 203 Provided 221
22-I Transcription Practice: Syllabic 22-U Sorting Words by Stress
/l/ 204 Pattern 223
22-J Two Syllable Central Vowel Sort 204 22-V Determining Which
22-K Sorting Words by Stress Syllable Receives Primary
Pattern 206 Stress 224
22-L Where’s the Stress? 208 22-W Transcription Practice: Schwa in
22-M Judge the Accuracy of the Unstressed Syllables 225
Transcription 208 22-X What’s the Word? 227
 Contents of Audio CD
41 Tracks; Total play time 56 minutes, 42 seconds
Track Contents Time
1 Transcription practice set 1: Front/back monophthongs in isolation 1:24
2 Transcription practice set 2: Front/back monophthongs in CV/VC syllables 1:26
3 Transcription practice set 3: Front/back monophthongs in CV/VC syllables 1:25
4 Transcription practice set 4: All monophthongs in CVC syllables 1:26
5 Transcription practice set 5: Phonemic diphthongs in simple syllables 1:28
6 Transcription practice set 6: All monophthongs and phonemic diphthongs in simple syllables 1:24
7 Transcription practice set 7: Controlled /r/ diphthongs in simple syllables 1:28
8 Transcription practice set 8: All vowels in simple syllables 1:23
9 Transcription practice set 9: Stop‐plosives in simple syllables 1:22
10 Transcription practice set 10: Fricatives/affricates in simple syllables 1:25
11 Transcription practice set 11: All obstruents in simple syllables 1:22
12 Transcription practice set 12: All sonorants in simple syllables 1:20
13 Transcription practice set 13: Prevocalic sequences 1:19
14 Transcription practice set 14: Postvocalic sequences 1:19
15 Transcription practice set 15: Pre‐ and postvocalic sequences 1:23
16 Examples of coarticulation 1:00
17 Examples of alveolar flap/tap :37
18 Examples of glottal stop for intervocalic /t/ :28
19 Examples of /l/ productions 1:15
20 Examples of velar nasal with and without /g / :41
21 Introduction to stress: Vowels in stressed and unstressed syllables 1:26
22 Compound words :31
23 Stress patterns in nouns and verbs 1:04
24 Sample sentences with nouns and verbs :49
25 Exercise 22‐A 1:57
26 Exercise 22‐E 1:14
27 Exercise 22‐F :47
28 Exercise 22‐G :41
29 Exercise 22‐H :51
30 Exercise 22‐I :40
31 Exercise 22‐J 1:29
32 Exercise 22‐K 2:39
33 Exercise 22‐L 1:29
34 Exercise 22‐N 1:53
35 Exercise 22‐P :52
36 Exercise 22‐R 1:43
37 Reduction of vowels to schwa in unstressed syllables 1:32
38 Exercise 22‐S 2:15
39 Exercise 22‐U 1:35
40 Exercise 22‐V 1:24
41 Exercise 22‐W 4:33

xi
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface
About This Workbook etc., we give minimal attention to the particular sounds in
the overall message because our ability to process speech
If 10 professors who taught the undergraduate phonetics and print is very rapid and automatic. This automaticity,
courses at their respective universities came together, each however, can disrupt adult students from attending to the
of them would approach the acquisition of phonetics and sound system of their language as they are faced with the
subsequent transcription skills differently. I recall my own task of learning a symbol system that is based solely on
phonetics course, taken more than 30 years ago, taught what sounds are heard. Since becoming competent in lit-
by a professor in broadcasting (although I was majoring eracy, we have learned to bypass the auditory channel and
in communication disorders). We spent 50 minutes, three solely focus our attention on the visual forms of words.
times per week, transcribing words spoken by the profes- Van Riper and Smith (1979) refer to this as being “eye-
sor. Pianissimo is one such word that has not left my mem- minded” rather than “ear-minded.” For adult students,
ory bank! who are about to learn about the English sound system and
My background in language and phonology, and my acquire a new symbol system (IPA), attention needs to shift
research in phonological awareness and early literacy back to the auditory and kinesthetic characteristics of those
skills, have informed the way I teach my own phonetics sounds (i.e., return to being ear-minded). Learning to apply
course. I treat learning the International Phonetic Alphabet the IPA when transcribing speech will eventually require a
(IPA) in much the same way as children learn to read. balance of being both ear-minded and eye minded.
Awareness of sounds needs to be addressed prior to learn- I have learned a great deal from my students over the
ing which symbols are used to represent those sounds. past 15 years. My students have taught me that they need
Additionally, conventions of the written symbol system repeated exposure to the symbols in order to use them
need attention. Because the foundation for the IPA is accurately and efficiently. Some students encounter diffi-
sounds, it is imperative that the nuances in the pronuncia- culty isolating sounds and matching them to a new sym-
tion of sounds also are emphasized. bol. Without a solid foundation, these students encounter
The primary focus of this workbook is to prepare difficulty with subsequent transcription skills and clinical
students to be able to transcribe speech phonetically by application remains problematic. Other students seem to
increasing their awareness and knowledge about the be able to match sounds to the IPA symbols with ease, yet
English sound system, their knowledge of how individual they do not always have a solid understanding of articu-
sounds are formed, and their understanding of how sounds latory phonetics for efficient and effective application in
combine to form words. This workbook presents an active clinical situations. In order to be able to accurately tran-
learning tool for individuals studying articulatory phonet- scribe the speech of others, students need to learn about
ics and English pronunciation skills. Its goal is to provide how sounds are formed, how those sounds change in dif-
a “sound” foundation from which transcription skills can ferent contexts, what symbols represent those sounds, and
develop. This workbook is not the “typical” phonetics what rules guide the use of those symbols.
workbook. Using this workbook will provide students with Because of these issues, this workbook is based on a
a sufficient foundation needed to learn to attend to sounds “meta” approach to learning. Meta skills require that con-
in words so that learning and applying a new symbol sys- scious attention be given to a specific entity apart from
tem will be a successful experience for them. Because one understanding the meaning. To be meta requires knowl-
of its goals is to provide a sound foundation from which edge to become explicit, rather than implicit. Becoming
transcription can build, this workbook slows down the explicitly aware of the phonological structure of our lan-
learning process so that students have an opportunity to guage is a cognitive task and one that requires focused
develop the skills and strategies they need before they are attention, active learning, a great deal of practice, and a fair
required to use them. amount of reflection. Additionally, increasing awareness
In order to learn and use the IPA for transcribing of the orthographic system is needed in order to effectively
speech, students must attend to the sound structure of the shift our attention to the sounds on which that system is
language. Becoming aware of the sounds of English pho- based. The content in this workbook is presented in such a
nology can be challenging because a typical student has not way that students have to think about sounds in an explicit
paid attention to individual sounds since mastering reading manner. Information is presented in order to create cogni-
and spelling. Although we hear language on a daily basis in tive dissonance in students so that they are encouraged to
the form of conversation, television programs, music, etc., make sense from what is presented to them. My goal is to
and encounter print on a daily basis by reading, texting, have the individuals who use this workbook think about

xiii
xiv Preface

the sounds of the English language as they never have in perception. This unit lays the foundation for the informa-
the past. My primary aim throughout this workbook is to tion and exercises that will be introduced in Units 2 and 3.
design exercises for students to become reacquainted with The focus then moves to the production of individual
the English sound system through discovery. As they com- sounds (articulatory phonetics) and the IPA symbols that
plete the exercises, I would like for them to experience represent them. The second unit focuses on the vowel sys-
“ah-ha” moments as they make sense of the phonological tem of the English language. Vowels are presented first
system of English. because, in my experience, students are challenged more
by vowels than consonants. Because the symbols for 16
consonant sounds are the same in the IPA and the Roman
Explanation of Organizational alphabet, students can immediately be exposed to the vowel
Framework symbols in the context of words. Unit 2 provides exercises
for the learner to focus on the specific characteristics that
The overall presentation of information is deliberate, help to distinguish vowels from each other. It details the
explicit, and systematic to promote successful learning. individual vowels in the vowel system: 14 monophthongs
The first challenge it presents to students is to think about (Chapters 6, 7, and 9), diphthongs (Chapter 10), and rhotic/
sounds in the face of orthography (Unit 1). It then intro- controlled-r diphthongs and triphthongs (Chapter 11).
duces the vowels (Unit 2) and consonants (Unit 3) of the Understanding the specific vowel characteristics within
English phonology system. Pronunciation information, the context of the vowel quadrilateral is emphasized in the
including allophonic, dialectal, and accent variations, are exercises presented in Chapter 8 so that students under-
included within each of these units. Lastly, the topics of stand the classification of monophthongs and come to
broad transcription and word stress are introduced (Unit view the vowel quadrilateral as a useful tool in future clini-
4). Most published texts provide these three levels (i.e., cal decision making.
awareness, IPA symbols and articulatory phonetics infor- Unit 3 concentrates on the 25 consonant sounds in
mation, transcription) simultaneously, despite the fact that the English language. How consonants are classified is
most students do not learn these skills in that way. Most addressed first, and the introduction of voicing, place,
instructors supplement existing phonetics workbooks with and manner of articulation is introduced through expe-
additional practice material to insure student learning. It is riential sorting exercises (Chapter 13). The six manner
the aim of this workbook to systematically lead students classes serve as the organizational framework when indi-
through each level separately so they are able to learn new vidual sounds are described and detailed (Chapters 14–19).
information on a firmer foundation. Each chapter presents the sounds within a specific man-
The chapters within each unit lay the foundation, ner class, along with their characteristics. Once students
provide the pertinent content, and then provide ample learn the characteristics of each sound, they will be able to
practice for students to adequately learn the specifics compare and contrast sounds with each other. For speech–
and meet the established goals. The exercises build upon language pathology students, this will serve as a foundation
each other so that each student can learn solidly by taking for understanding development, phonological patterns and
from what they have previously learned and applying the processes, and articulation errors. Included in each chapter
knowledge to new material. This systematic approach to in this unit is pronunciation information (in the form of
learning provides a layering of information to scaffold stu- allowable differences) that will help students understand
dent learning. Along with a variety of practice exercises, their own and others’ sound production in words. This will
questions are posed to students to encourage them to think be followed by exercises to practice the information for
about their sound system and reflect upon specific areas. consonant singletons. Students will be asked to (1) “read”
The final chapter in each unit provides a review of terms phonetic symbols to create a familiar word, (2) translate
(Units 1–3), a focus on pronunciation (Units 2 and 3), and the sounds in a word into phonetic symbols, (3) use an
additional practice that elaborates and extends previous “equation” of phonetic information to make words, and
exercises. (4) write a phonetic equation for presented words. The
The first unit focuses on phonological awareness (i.e., consonant sounds in each manner class will then be intro-
awareness of syllables, onsets, rimes, and sounds) as well duced in the context of consonant sequences. Two familiar
as orthographic knowledge (i.e., knowledge about how exercises (reading phonetic symbols to make words and
spoken language is represented in print) and introduces writing a word in phonetic symbols) will assist students in
students to basic terminology. It briefly presents the con- focusing on the consonant sounds in sequences. Additional
cepts of phonology, phonemes, allophones, coarticulation, exercises are included in the final chapter to provide addi-
assimilation, dialects, and accents and alerts students to tional exposure to sounds that are frequently problematic
the impact these concepts may have on pronunciation and for students.
 Preface xv

Up until this point in the workbook, individual sounds Acknowledgments

in single-syllable words were emphasized using broad pho-
nemic transcription. Unit 4 discusses phonetic transcription The exercises for this workbook grew out teaching CSD
and the role it plays in clinical application. Specific rules 215, “Clinical Phonetics” at Illinois State University. I
when transcribing consonants and vowels are presented. thank the approximately 100 students each year who chal-
The role of stress in pronunciation and transcription is lenge me to do my best work. I am grateful to my past
introduced and elaborated. Exercises in reading phonetic teaching assistants Beth Maher, Renee Moore, Kandace
symbols as well as in transcribing words into symbols are Davis, and Melissa Griffin who helped me creatively
included to achieve the automaticity required for clinical find ways for students to learn and practice the symbols
application. This unit serves as the basis for transcription needed for transcription. A special thank you goes to my
exercises that occur next in the training of speech–language present teaching assistant, Ashley Ciecko, who was a
pathologists; that is, word productions are presented live or constant in assisting me when this workbook was taking
via tape presentation, and students translate what they hear shape over the past several semesters. Gratitude also goes
into phonetic symbols. Practicing transcription in this way to Sarah Huey, Christi Patterson, Maggie O’Shea, and
is outside the scope of this workbook. Jessica Uhlir, who assisted in providing their viewpoints
The supplemental audio CD that accompanies this and ideas as well as researching specific areas. Thanks
workbook serves several purposes. Fifteen practice tran- to the Pearson reviewers, Jean Andruski, Wayne State
scription sets are provided to assist the retrieval of the IPA University; Raymond Dalfonso, Kutztown University;
symbols upon hearing a nonsense syllable. Five tracks are and Laureen O’Hanlon, California State University of
provided that demonstrate pronunciation notes. Half of Sacramento. I am grateful to Elizabeth Harbers Warden
the content of the CD provides auditory models of content and Clare Maksimovich who knew nothing about pho-
and exercises from Chapter 22: Stress. Although listen- netics but were careful proofreaders. A special thank you
ing to the CD is not required to complete the exercises in also goes to Aaron Paolucci who recorded and produced
Chapter 22, it will be helpful to students because stress is the audio CD and Connie de Veer, Mark de Veer, Gwen
difficult to detect when listening to one’s own speech. de Veer, and Jeb Burris for their voices. This workbook
Most of the pronunciations used in this book reflect would not have been possible without the efforts of the
the author’s Midwestern (central Illinois) dialect. When Pearson “team.” Many thanks to Steve Dragin and Karen
transcribing a word that is not presented orally, your pro- Mason for their leadership and support, and Carrie Fox and
nunciation patterns may differ. Be assured that differences Shylaja Gattupalli and their teams for their work with the
are not errors. Based on your own dialect, how you pro- final production.
nounce specific sounds (especially vowels) may be dif-
ferent from those presented in the exercises. Please check
with your instructor for explanations of differences. To the Student About to Embark
on This Sound Journey
I hope these exercises increase your awareness of how
New! CourseSmart eTextbook Available complex and amazing speech sound perception and pro-
duction can be. Because this workbook is about sounds, it
CourseSmart is an exciting new choice for students look- is important for you to listen and feel your own pronuncia-
ing to save money. As an alternative to purchasing the tions and listen and watch how others produce their sounds
printed textbook, students can purchase an electronic ver- in words, phrases, and sentences. The sounds in the words
sion of the same content. With a CourseSmart eTextbook, used in the exercises, especially the vowel sounds, may
students can search the text, make notes online, print out not reflect your own pronunciation. There is a great deal
reading assignments that incorporate lecture notes, and of variability in how the vowels, and sometimes the con-
bookmark important passages for later review. For more sonants, in words are produced. Be patient with yourself
information, or to purchase access to the CourseSmart as you learn to train your mind to focus on sounds. May
eTextbook, visit www.coursesmart.com. your travels be filled with many insights into what most
speakers take for granted!
Van Riper, C., & Smith, D. (1979). An introduction to General
American phonetics. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
This page intentionally left blank
UNIT

1 Laying the Foundation

Read the following groups of words aloud:
fear gear wear
meat sweat great
tough cough dough
perk cork work
chef shoe sure
who whoa white
While reading these words, you soon realize that the spellings you see do not
always reflect the sounds you hear.
As a student about to learn the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), you
must think more about the sounds in the words you use than about their spellings.
To do this, you need to become reacquainted with the sounds of the English lan-
guage. Van Riper and Smith (1979) refer to this as becoming “ear-minded” rather
than “eye-minded.”
The goals for the first unit include:
● To reacquaint you with the sound make-up of words in the English language
● To assist you in differentiating between the sounds you hear and the letters
you see when looking at a word
● To introduce you to basic terminology that will be used throughout the
workbook
● To provide you with exercises to improve your attention to sounds in words
in order to prepare you to learn a new symbol system—the IPA
● To introduce you to the concept of coarticulation and how it influences your
perception and production of sounds in words and connected speech
● To introduce you to the concept of dialects and accents and how these influ-
ence your perception and production of sounds

1
CHAPTER
Thinking About the
English Phonology System:
1 Syllables and Sounds

P
honology refers to the sound system of a language. The phonological sys-
tem of a language consists of (1) the group of specific sounds used in that
language, (2) the permissible variations of those sounds when produced,
and (3) the particular rules for combining those sounds.
Two groups of sounds make up a phonology system: consonants and vowels.
Consonants are speech sounds produced as a result of air moving through the
vocal tract encountering some constriction or obstruction. The articulators (i.e.,
lips, front teeth, lower jaw, tongue, or the velum) close the vocal tract in some
way by interfering with, obstructing, or modifying the outgoing breath stream to
produce these types of sounds. As a result, consonants are referred to as closed
sounds. The consonants in a word can be by themselves (singleton) or in a series
(sequence). An example of a word with consonant singletons is bat; an example
of a word with consonant sequences is stops. When consonants are in a sequence,
each consonant sound retains its identity during pronunciation. Sequences can
occur within a syllable (cluster) or across syllables. Both sequences in the earlier
example of stops can be referred to as a cluster; however, the sequences in the
words basket and husband fall across syllables.
Vowels are speech sounds produced as a result of air moving through a rela-
tively open vocal tract. Although movement of the articulators (i.e., lips, tongue,
and jaw) changes the shape of the mouth, producing different vowel sounds, the
breath stream remains unimpeded. Vowels contain the most acoustic energy and
therefore are perceived as stronger sounds (as compared with consonants).
Consonants and vowels serve different functions in our sound system. Both con-
tribute to the clearness and intelligibility of speech. Because they are the most prom-
inent, vowels carry the intonation and prosody of our language. Consonants act as
dividing units, assisting in creating boundaries in words. Think about talking while
yawning or saying something with a pen in your mouth. Depending on the context,
the listener may still understand your message because of the intonation. What is
lacking, however, is the finer distinctions and clarity made by the consonants.

The Syllable
A syllable is a unit of pronunciation consisting of a vowel sound alone or a vowel
sound with the consonants that precede or follow it. There is only one vowel sound
in a syllable. When adjacent vowels are produced as separate sounds, separate
syllables are formed (e.g., helium, rodeo). An exception to this definition is when
a consonant can serve as the nucleus of a syllable. Only three consonants (i.e., m,
n, and l) can serve this role. This special circumstance will be explained in Unit 4.
2
 Thinking About the English Phonology System: Syllables and Sounds 3

Parts of a Syllable
Vowels
Vowels are essential to syllable formation. A syllable must contain a vowel sound.
Each vowel serves as the nucleus of the syllable. Because a vowel sound has the
strongest acoustic energy, they are often referred to as the peak of the syllable.
Vowel = peak/nucleus

EXERCISE 1-A: COUNTING SYLLABLES

Say each word aloud and count the number of syllables you hear in the following words. Write the
correct number of the line that follows each word.

happy ________ catastrophe ________ sequential ________

alphabet ________ alligator ________ boys ________

retroactive ________ appropriate ________ introduce ________

imagination ________ ditches ________ oncoming ________

psychological ________ include ________ overwhelming ________

grounded ________ computer ________ spindle ________

unspeakable ________ spilled ________ unilateral ________

Return to your answers. The number of syllables = the number of vowel sounds you hear in each word.
Think of 20 more words. Say each word aloud and count the number of syllables in each.

SOMETHING TO There are many words that may be pronounced with different syllable
CONSIDER counts. Consider the following words: every, boundary, usually. Can you
say them two different ways? Think of other words that can be pronounced
Pronunciation with different syllable counts.
Variance

Consonants
Because the vowel sound is the nucleus of the syllable, consonants are described by
their relationship to the vowel. Prevocalic consonants (singleton or sequence) are
those consonants that come before the vowel. Postvocalic consonants (singleton or
sequence) are those consonants that come after the vowel. These two terms refer to
4 Chapter 1

the consonant placement within a syllable. When the word (rather than the syllable)
is the unit of pronunciation, the term intervocalic may be included. Intervocalic
consonants (singletons or sequences) are those consonants that are between vowels
in a word with two or more syllables.

EXERCISE 1-B: DISTINGUISHING CONSONANTS IN A WORD IN REFERENCE TO THE VOWEL SOUND

Say each word aloud. Classify the consonant sounds in each word in terms of their relationship to the
vowel.

Word Prevocalic Consonants Intervocalic Consonants Postvocalic Consonants

me
up
not
vase
skip
bend
helps
wagon
basket
consonants

Although the vowel is essential to syllable for-

REMINDER mation, consonants are not necessary. When con-
Consonants within a syllable unit: Onsets are sonants are present in a syllable, they are defined
prevocalic consonants; codas are postvocalic. by their relationship to the vowel nucleus. The
consonant(s) that precede the vowel in a syllable
Singleton: consonant sound by itself is/are termed the onset; the consonant(s) that fol-
Sequence: two or more adjacent consonant low the vowel in a syllable is/are termed the coda.
sounds; each consonant sound retains its Remember, consonant sounds can be alone before
identity during pronunciation. or after a vowel (singleton), or two or more conso-
nant sounds can be adjacent to each other before or
after a vowel (sequence).
 Thinking About the English Phonology System: Syllables and Sounds 5

EXERCISE 1-C: FOCUS ON CONSONANTS: IDENTIFYING ONSETS AND CODAS

Say each of the following words aloud. Identify which consonant sounds/let-
ters make up the onset and which sounds/letters make up the coda. Be care-
ful—not all of the words will have an onset; not all of the words will have a
coda. Remember to focus on the sounds you hear when you pronounce each
word rather than the letters you see. Try not to be tricked by the spelling!

goat onset ________ coda ________

path onset ________ coda ________

snake onset ________ coda ________

try onset ________ coda ________

word onset ________ coda ________

bulb onset ________ coda ________

eight onset ________ coda ________

rips onset ________ coda ________

frost onset ________ coda ________

book onset ________ coda ________

own onset ________ coda ________

thread onset ________ coda ________

left onset ________ coda ________

if onset ________ coda ________

be onset ________ coda ________

6 Chapter 1

EXERCISE 1-D: FINDING WORDS WITH THE SAME CODA

Read the words in each row aloud; focus on the ending consonant sounds. Find
the two words in the row with the same coda. Cross out the word that does not
share the same coda with the other two. Remember to focus on the sounds you
hear when you pronounce each word rather than the letters you see.

picks fox cups

noise nose voice
bathe mouth bath
comb tub some
eyes less cheese
cape help deep
feud mud hoped
beige vague dog
sponge wrong arrange
slept hoped robbed
laugh stove leaf
licorice mustache research
box hunks sphinx
talked strict tagged
whisk wax flask

EXERCISE 1-E: FINDING WORDS WITH THE SAME ONSET

Read the words in each row aloud; focus on the beginning consonant sounds.
Find the two words in the row with the same onset. Cross out the word that does
not share the same onset with the other two. Remember to focus on the sounds
you hear when you pronounce each word rather than the letters you see.

the thaw thumb

chorus chore kite
honor horse who
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 PLANT OR ANIMAL?

D ID you ever stop to ask yourself, “What is the difference

between a plant and an animal?” because this is the place
where that question should be answered.
“Why, an animal is altogether different from a plant,” you answer,
perhaps a little scornfully. “I have no trouble in telling which is which.”
It is very natural that you should feel this way. A cow or a horse,
for example, is not at all like a tree; and when you think of animals,
you think of the ones you know best, and likewise of plants.
But wise men have discovered plants that look and act so much
like animals, and animals that look and act so much like plants, that
at one time they say, “Now, these are animals, surely,” and a little
later exclaim, “No, after all, these are plants;” and they take a long
time to make up their minds as to whether certain objects are plants
or animals.
And already even you children have discovered that the plants you
know best belong to families, and have children, and care for them in
a very motherly fashion; that they drink earth food with their roots,
and eat carbon food with their leaves; and soon you will find that
they do many other things which once upon a time you would have
thought it a great joke to be told a plant could do.
You remember my telling you of one little plant cell that could
swim; and there are some animals, you know, that are rooted to one
spot as we usually think only a plant is rooted.
What, then, is the difference between a plant and an animal?
Leaf Green and Sunbeam between them put life into what had no
life before; and the living plant matter, which they help to make, is
that which animals cannot make themselves, yet which they cannot
live without, for this living matter is absolutely necessary to them as
food.
 And the one real difference between a plant and an animal is this,
—a plant can make out of certain dead substances the living matter
that all animals must have for food; an animal cannot do this.
HOW WE ARE HELPED BY LEAF GREEN AND
SUNBEAM

T HE cell in which Leaf Green lives has no little mouths such as

we saw in the picture some time ago.
Its walls are so delicate that the carbonic-acid gas passes through
them quite easily,—as easily as the gas escaping from an unlighted
jet in the schoolroom could pass to your nose even if you wore a veil,
or as easily as water would pass through a piece of muslin.
But between Leaf Green’s cell and the outer air are other cells,—
those which make up the outer covering or skin of the leaf. These
are arranged so as to form the openings or mouths about which we
have read. By means of these mouths the gas makes its way
through the leaf’s thick skin.
The plant needs as food the carbon in this gas, and so keeps fast
hold of it; but the oxygen is not needed for this purpose, and so it is
pushed back into the air.
Now, we learned in the last chapter of one very great service
rendered to animals by plants. We learned that plants took carbon
from the air, and turned this into food for animals.
But there is still another way in which plants serve animals. And
once more it is the work of Leaf Green and Sunbeam that is of such
importance to us; for when they take hold of the carbon, making it
into living food for man and beast, they take from the air the gas that
is poisonous, and send back into the air the gas which gives life and
health.
This poisonous gas which they lay hold of, you remember, is
carbonic-acid gas; and carbonic-acid gas is what we animals send
out of our bodies with every breath, for it is the part of the air which
poisons us. When the schoolroom is so close that our heads ache, it
is because so many children have been breathing out this gas, and
we are forced to take it back into our bodies again.
 But when this gas is stolen by the plant, and robbed of its carbon,
it is no longer carbonic-acid gas. Nothing of it is left but the oxygen
which is pushed out through the cell walls; and this oxygen is as
good to breathe as the other gas (carbon and oxygen mixed) is bad.
So the plant finds good what we find poisonous. It takes in and
keeps that which hurts us (the carbon), and sends out that which
helps us (the oxygen).
So you see that our lives depend on the lives of plants in two
ways:—
1. The plants give us the food we need for life.
2. The plants take from the air the gas that poisons us, and give to
the air the gas which we need for life and health.
And in both cases it is Leaf Green and Sunbeam who are making
life possible for us.
Remember the great services of these two fairies when next you
pass a green tree which is bathing itself in sunshine.
 HOW A PLANT BREATHES

P ERHAPS you have heard people say that it is not good to sleep
in a room with plants.
They say this, because they have heard that at night the plant
does not give out oxygen, but that it does give out the poisonous
carbonic-acid gas.
Now, you children know that part of this statement is true.
You know that the plant cannot give out oxygen at night, because
at that time there is no Sunbeam about to help Leaf Green tear apart
carbonic-acid gas and send the oxygen back into the air.
But how about the other part of the statement?
Is it true that at night plants give out the poisonous carbonic-acid
gas?
Both day and night, plants give out carbonic-acid gas; for though
plants, save in the sunlight, cannot eat by means of their little green
cells, they can breathe through the tiny mouths (Fig. 137) on the
under side of the leaf by night as well as by day.
And when either a plant or an animal breathes, it takes the life-
giving oxygen from out the air mixture, and keeps it for its own use.
But poisonous carbonic-acid gas is sent back into the air. Now, the
question is, whether a plant does most good or most harm to the air
by taking in and sending out the different gases.
Of course, it does good when it lets the oxygen out through its cell
walls, and stores away the carbon within itself; and it may seem to
do harm when through its leaf mouths it breathes in oxygen and
breathes out carbonic-acid gas.
There is only one key to unlock the matter, and that is this,—to find
out whether the plant does most towards poisoning or towards
purifying the air.
And that has been found out already.
 Wise men say that Leaf Green and Sunbeam do much more good
to the air than the little breathing mouths do harm. The two good
fairies take away a great deal of poison, and send back a great deal
of the helpful oxygen; while the tiny mouths neither rob the air of
much oxygen nor give it much poison. Indeed, the harm they do is so
small compared with the great good accomplished by Leaf Green
and Sunbeam, that even at night you need not worry at the thought
that you have plants in your room.
Perhaps you wonder that a plant does these two things that are so
exactly opposite to each other.
But a plant must breathe as well as eat; for when it breathes, it
takes in the precious oxygen which is just as necessary to its life as
to ours.
In summer, by the dusty roadside, you see plants almost white
with dust, looking quite ill and lifeless.
And they are both ill and lifeless; for their little leaf throats are so
choked that they cannot breathe in the oxygen they need, and in
consequence they are being slowly suffocated.
 THE DILIGENT TREE

N OW we have learned three things about plants, and especially

about leaves. We have learned—
1. That they perspire.
2. That they eat and drink.
3. That they breathe.
They perspire when the water passes through the leaf mouths into
the air.
They eat when Leaf Green and Sunbeam together manage to take
the carbon out of the carbonic-acid gas which has made its entrance
through the leaf mouth and the cell wall. They drink when the roots
suck in water and earth broth.
They breathe when the leaf mouths take from the air the oxygen,
and give back to it carbonic-acid gas.
The veins and veinlets, of which you see so many running through
a leaf, act in something the same way as the water pipes of a city;
for through these veins the watery food, the earth broth, is carried to
the different cells.
When one knows all that we know even now about a plant, one
looks at a tree covered with leaves with a good deal of admiration.
Just think of what is being done inside that quiet-looking tree!
Think of the millions of cells that go to make it up, each cell having
its own work to do! Think of the immense amount of business being
carried on within the trunk, inside the branches, and especially in
each green leaf! And when you have the chance, notice how hard
each leaf tries to get just as much sun and air as it possibly can.
In the first place, the thin, flat leaf blades are so spread out that
every part is exposed to the light and air.
 Then notice how the leaves are placed in reference to one
another.
Almost every single one is fastened to the tree so as to get its fair
share of sunshine.
When you think of the many thousands of leaves borne by one
tree, it astonishes you to see how seldom one leaf gets in another’s
light.
And the shapes of leaves are always suited to their arrangement
on the tree.
If you should take the leaves of a chestnut tree and replace them
by the leaves of a maple, you would find the maple leaves all getting
in each other’s way, or else you would see that they were taking up a
great deal more room than necessary.
But when a leaf is studied on its own tree, one sees that its shape
is the very best that could be imagined for its position.
And in the smaller plants we notice this same thing.
And when you remember that Leaf Green cannot feed the plant
unless Sunbeam comes to her assistance, you realize how
necessary it is that each leaf be within the reach of Sunbeam’s visits.
 LEAVES AND ROOTS

Y OU will be surprised to learn that the way in which a plant’s

leaves grow tells us something of the way in which its roots
grow.
Many of you have been overtaken far from home in a rainstorm,
and have sought shelter under a spreading tree. The ground directly
beneath the tree has kept almost dry even after some hours of rain,
but the earth just under the tips of the spreading branches got very
wet: for the great tree acted like a large umbrella; and when the
raindrops fell upon the smooth leaves, which sloped outward and
downward, they rolled from leaf to leaf till they reached the very
lowest, outermost leaves of all. From these they fell to the ground,
just as the drops that gather upon your umbrella run outward and
downward to the umbrella’s edge, and then off upon the ground.
So you can see that the circle of earth which marks the spread of
the branches above must be specially wet, as it received a great part
of the rain which fell upon the whole tree.
And whenever you see a tree which sheds the rain water in such a
circle, you can be pretty sure that, if you should dig into the earth a
ditch which followed this circle, you would soon reach the tips of the
new root branches of the tree.
You know that the root does the drinking for the plant; and only the
newest parts of the root, the fresh root tips, are really good for work
of this sort. You remember that the earth food is carried up the stem
to the leaves in a watery broth; and that if the water supply should
give out, the new plant cells would not get the broth which helps
them to grow, and to put out other cells, and so to build up the plant.
Now, as only the new root branches, near their tips, are able to
drink, if the water should leak through the earth in equal quantities
everywhere, much of it would be wasted; but when this water is
collected in certain spots within reach of the new root branches,
there is good reason to believe that these will be able to satisfy their
thirst.
By the shedding of the rain from the tips of the spreading branches
above, the water is collected in a ring, and so sinks into the earth;
and the root branches below spread out in just the same direction as
the tree branches above, till they find what they need, and drink their
fill.

Fig. 138

So by the way in which a tree sheds the rain, you can tell just
where its root branches reach out underground.
In smaller plants you see much the same thing. Fig. 138 shows a
plant called the Caladium. You can see that the raindrops must roll
outward down these leaves, and fall upon the earth just above the
tips of the root branches.
Fig. 139 shows you the rhubarb plant. This has quite a different
sort of root. Now, if the rhubarb leaves were like those of the
Caladium, unless the rhubarb root-branches changed their direction,
these root-branches would grow very thirsty indeed.
 Fig. 139

But as it is, the water pours down these leaves toward the center
of the plant, and reaches the ground almost directly over the straight,
fleshy root, with its downward-growing branches; and we see that
these root-branches are watered by the leaves above just as
carefully as are those of the Caladium.
By knowing one thing about a plant, often you can guess that
another thing is so.
You understand now that when the leaves of a plant shed rain
water after the fashion of the Caladium, the chances are that its root-
branches spread out as far as the drip of the water; and that the root
of the rhubarb points almost straight downward, is told you by the
drip of water from the rhubarb leaves.
 LEAF VEINS

S OME time ago you learned that from the stem of a plant you
could guess the number of seed leaves which it brought into the
world, and that in the same way from the seed leaves you could
guess what kind of a stem it would build up.
From the way in which a leaf is veined you can guess both of
these things. You can guess what sort of a stem belongs to the plant,
and with how many seed leaves it began life.
When the little veins run in and out, forming a sort of network, we
say that the leaf is “net-veined.”

Fig. 140
 Fig. 141

Fig. 142

These leaves of the quince (Fig. 140), the maple (Fig. 141), and
the basswood (Fig. 142) are all net-veined.
Net-veined leaves are borne by plants which brought into the
world more than one seed leaf; and with the net-veined leaf we can
expect to find that stem which comes with more than one seed leaf,
—a stem where the skin or bark, the woody rings, and the soft
central pith, are clearly separated one from another.
 Fig. 143

Fig. 144

But a leaf such as that in Fig. 143 or that in Fig. 144, where the
veins do not branch off in a network, but run in unbroken lines side
by side,—such leaves as these tell you that they are borne by plants
which started life with only one seed leaf, and which have such a
stem as the cornstalk, where you see no woody rings or central pith.
These leaves are called “parallel-veined.”
I fear that you find all this a little difficult to understand and to
remember; but if you read it patiently, when you study the botany for
older children, I think it will come back to you and make your lessons
easier.
 LEAF SHAPES

A S I told you before, we should notice always the shape of a leaf.

Fig. 145
 It is much easier to describe some new plant we have met on our
walks if we remember the shape of its leaves.
Next summer I hope you will make a collection of leaves, pressing
and keeping them. I think you will be amazed at their great variety in
shape.

Fig. 146

Some you find long and narrow, others almost round. Some are
arrow-shaped, others star-shaped, others needle-shaped (Fig. 145).
Some are three-pointed like the maple leaf (Fig. 146); others deeply-
parted, like the oak leaf (Fig. 147).

Fig. 147
 Sometimes a large leaf is cut up into several little leaves. These
little leaves are called “leaflets.”

Fig. 148

The clover leaf (Fig. 148) has three leaflets.

Fig. 149

The locust leaf (Fig. 149) is cut into a great many leaflets.
The edge of one leaf (Fig. 150) is smooth, while that of another is
cut into little teeth (Fig. 151) like the teeth of a saw.
 Fig. 150

Fig. 151

I should like to know how many of you children, without looking

even at a picture save such as you carry in that little gallery in your
head, could describe correctly the shapes of some of our common
leaves. I should like to ask you to draw on the blackboard the rough
outlines of any leaves that you remember. If you think you could not
do this, will you not try, when next you see a leaf, to carry off in your
mind such a picture of it as to enable you to outline it on the
blackboard when you go back to the school room?
Really it does not take any more time to see a thing correctly than
to see it incorrectly. It takes a little more sense, that is all.
It takes some sense to give even one minute of honest thought to
the thing you are looking at.
You know some children who never seem to have all their
thoughts in one place at a time, and who in consequence never see
anything really well.
 It is better to stop doing a thing altogether than to do it in a foolish
sort of way; and it is foolish to start to do even the smallest thing,
and yet not do it.
The child who looks at even a leaf in a way to make it possible for
him to draw the outline of that leaf five minutes later, is likely to be
the child who goes in for both work and play with all his heart, and
who comes out as far ahead on the playground as he does in the
schoolroom.
Now, after that lecture, which some of you need badly enough
(and which I will tell you, as a great secret, I need not a little myself),
I want to point out a few more of the things that are worth noticing in
a leaf.
But perhaps it is better to save them for another chapter.
 HAIRY LEAVES

N OTICE always whether a leaf is smooth or hairy. Do you

remember the mullein that sends up its tall spires over the hill
pasture? The grayish leaves of this mullein are so hairy that they feel
almost like wool. What is the use of all this hair? It is not likely that a
plant would wrap itself in this hairy coat except for some good
reason.
It is believed that this coating of the mullein prevents animals from
eating the leaves, and so destroying the plant. In the mouth, these
hairs slip from the leaf blade, and cause a most unpleasant
sensation.
But usually the hairs on a leaf are helpful because they prevent
too much perspiration or giving-off of water. The more freely the hot
sun beats upon a leaf, the more quickly the water is drawn away
from it. You can see just how this is by hanging a wet towel in front of
the fire. In a very short time the heat from the burning coals draws
the water from the towel. But put a screen between the fire and the
towel, and the water passes off more slowly.
Now, the hairs on that side of the leaf which faces the sun act as a
screen from its fierce heat. We have learned how important it is that
the leaf should not part with its water more quickly than the roots can
make up the loss. We know that when a leaf does this, it wilts just as
a leaf wilts when it is picked and cut off from its water supply, on
account of the collapse of the walls of the many little cells which are
emptied of water.
So you can understand that plants which grow in dry, sunny
places, where there is little drinking water for the roots, and where
the sun beats constantly on the leaves, must take every care that
there is no waste of water.
And if you keep your eyes open, you will discover that many of the
plants which grow in such places screen themselves from the full
heat of the sun by a coat of hairs.