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Chapter 1: Seeking: Finding Happiness in Relationships in a Complex World
Multiple Choice Questions

1) Research suggests a person’s happiness level is
A) genetically influenced.
B) environmentally influenced.
C) a simple matter of brain chemistry.
D) influenced by both genetics and environment.
Answer: D
Bloom’s Level: Remember
Page Ref: 7-8
2) Most people in the United States marry

A) for love.
B) to have children.
C) to provide emotional support to a spouse.
D) to gain financial support.
Answer: A
Page Ref: 10
3) The U. S. only recognizes which of the following forms of marriages as legal?

A) polygamy
B) polyandry
C) monogamy
D) monopoly
Answer: C
Page Ref: 11
4) According to the text, the “traditional” definition of family includes

A) foster families.
B) cohabitating couples and their biological children.
C) affiliated kin.
D) those related by blood, marriage, or adoption.
Answer: D
Page Ref: 13
5) The family into which one is born and raised is called a

A) family of orientation.
B) family of procreation.
C) nuclear family.
D) binuclear family.
Answer: A
Page Ref: 14
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1
Marriages, Families, and Intimate Relationships, 3rd edition
6) The binuclear family is best describes as

A) a family in which members live in to different households.
B) children born into a new blended family.
C) a single-parent family.
D) adult children returning to live with their parents.
Answer: A
Page Ref: 14
7) Relatives who are related by blood, marriage, remarriage, or adoption are called
A) extended family.
B) affiliated kin.
C) kin.
D) family of origin.
Answer: C
Page Ref: 15
8) The pattern of residence most often found in North America is ___________, while the pattern of residence most
often found in the rest of the world is ____________.
A) neolocal / matrilocal
B) neolocal / patrilocal
C) patrilocal / neolocal
D) matrilocal / neolocal
Answer: B
Page Ref: 14
9) William Goode identified all of the following except _________ as one of the four benefits of families.
A) economic benefits
B) physical security
C) proximity
D) familiarity
Answer: B
Bloom’s Level: Understand
Page Ref: 16-17
10) Which of the following are characteristics of individualism?

A) Families increased their self-sufficiency as a group.
B) Values for self-fulfillment became important.
C) Family collective goals became increasingly more important.
D) Work became more group-focused.
Answer: B
Page Ref: 32
11) Abraham Maslow identified all of the following except _________ as one of the hierarchy of human needs.
A) safety
B) self-actualization
C) belongingness
D) marriage
Answer: D
Page Ref: 4-5

2
Chapter One: Seeking: Finding Happiness in Relationships in a Complex World
12) When countries’ economies become more interdependent,

A) globalization occurs.
B) families can benefits through more goods and services.
C) families can suffer due to job loss to foreign markets.
D) All of the above are true.
Answer: D
Page Ref: 33; 35
13) An Internet user who uses websites like Facebook and YouTube is enjoying
A) Web 2.0.
B) the World Wide Web (as it was conceived by Tim Berners-Lee).
C) Web 3.0
D) the originally conceived Internet.
Answer: A
Page Ref: 32-33
14) According to the text, which of the following statements is true?

A) Increased materialistic consumption is correlated with increased happiness.
B) Health levels do not appear to affect happiness.
C) Happiness is linked to the ability to manage the natural desire to have more.
D) All of the above are true.
Answer: C
Page Ref: 7-8
15) From the standpoint of _____________, production of offspring is the most important reason for marriage.
A) individuals
B) religious institutions
C) law
D) society
Answer: D
Page Ref: 13
16) The swelling number of Americans between the ages of 48 and 66 is due to
A) suburbanization.
B) the child-centered culture..
C) the Baby Boom.
D) globalization..
Answer: C
Bloom’s Level: Apply
Page Ref: 32-33
17) Pierre lives with his father, mother, brother, sister, grandmother, aunt, cousin, and godfather; Pierre lives with
his
A) extended family.
B) kin.
C) affiliated kin.
D) All of the above are correct.
Answer: D
Page Ref: 15
18) Why did many slave owners encourage slave breeding?

3
A) They wanted to achieve dominance over slaves.

B) They needed a supply of slaves after slave imports were abolished.
C) They desired to foster familism among slaves.
D) They wanted more female slaves.
Answer: B
Page Ref: 21
True/False Questions
1) The media and popular culture impacts perceptions of love and marriage.
Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 3
2) Happiness can be influenced by one’s ethnic culture.

Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 8
3) Twenty-five percent of college students stated they would marry for reasons other than love.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 10
4) Common-law marriage is legally recognized in twenty-two states.

Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 11
5) Affiliated kin are those acquired through marriage.

Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 15
6) Familism is a major part of traditional Mexican and Chinese families.

Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 32
7) The majority of Native Americans live on reservations in the U. S. today.

Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 43
8) Family size in the U. S. has stabilized at approximately four per household.

Answer: FALSE

4
Page Ref: 28
9) Sociological research indicates that approximately two-thirds of married couples who

reported being unhappy said they were happy five years later.
Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 5
10) Married people tend to report higher levels of happiness than single people.
Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 5-6
11) Psychologist Ed Diener states that “materialism is toxic for happiness.” This statement
means that if one learns to control his/her desires for tangible things, he/she will be happier.
Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 8
12) A child can live in a binuclear and blended family at the same time.
Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 14
13) People migrated to cities during the Industrial Revolution, when the production of goods
shifted from home-based human labor to machines and factories, because they yearned for city
life and factory work.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 23-24
14) Middle-class men took clerical and white-collar government jobs during the Great
Depression in order to bolster their families’ financial well-being.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 25-26
15) Television sitcoms like Leave It to Beaver and Father Knows Best accurately represent the
typical 1950s family.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 27
Short Answer Questions
1) Describe the “Postmodern” family. Give two examples mentioned in the text.
5

Page Ref: 14-15
2) Discuss why most service jobs have not helped the American family.
Page Ref: 35
3) Discuss how Web 2.0 impacts dating in the U. S. Cite an example.
Page Ref: 33
4) Illustrate neolocal, patrilocal, and matrilocal residences as they are portrayed by the media.
Give at least one example for each type.
Page Ref: 15-16
5) Dramatize at least two of the seven significant trends altering the look of the American family
by giving current examples of each.
Page Ref: 27-30
6) Contrast the iGeneration with older Americans.

Bloom’s Level: Analyze
Page Ref: 34
7) Contrast the 2009 demographic trends of Non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics (Latinos).
Page Ref: 39-40
8) Distinguish between the family of orientation and the family of procreation.

Page Ref: 14
9) Support the idea that the 2007-2009 recession led to an increase households featuring
extended families.
Bloom’s Level: Evaluate
Page Ref: 16
10) Do you agree that all families offer economic benefits, proximity, familiarity, and
continuity? Why or why not?
Page Ref: 16-17
11) Defend Vern Bengston’s assertion, “Children Are No Worse Off with Other Kinds of
Parental Arrangements [than with two-parent families].”
Page Ref: 30

6
Essay Questions
1) Illustrate positive and negative aspects of communications technology.
Page Ref: 34
2) Compare and contrast some family characteristics of colonial era Latino, African American,
and Native American groups as mentioned in the text.
Page Ref: 19; 21-23
3) Does current media programming reflect the changes that have occurred in the American
family? Why or why not?
Page Ref: 27-29
4) Do you think monogamy and exclusivity required in a marriage? Why or why not?
Page Ref: 11-12
5) Projected demography assumes that the domination of the white European majority will slip
to 53% by 2050. What effects of this decrease can you predict?
Bloom’s Level: Create
Page Ref: 37-43
6) List and describe at least three ways that developments in technology have affected your own
relationships, marriage, and/or family life.
Bloom’s Level: Create
Page Ref: 32-33

7
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here, in their characteristic depths, the Tetractinellida fall below the
Hexactinellida, and far below the Monaxonida in numbers. Again, the
Monaxonida are commoner than Hexactinellida in deep water of 201
to 1000 fathoms, and it is not till depths of 1000 fathoms are passed
that Hexactinellida prevail, finally preponderating over the
Monaxonida in the ratio of 2:1.
The Calcarea and Ceratosa are strictly shallow-water forms. It is a

fact well worth consideration that the stations at which sponges have
been found are situated, quite irrespective of depth, more or less in
the neighbourhood of land. In the case of Calcarea and Ceratosa
this is to be expected, seeing that shallow water is commonest near
land, but it is surprising that it should be true also of the
Hexactinellida and of the deep-water species of Tetractinellida and of
Monaxonida.
While the family groups are cosmopolitan, this is not true of genera
and species. The distribution of genera and species makes it
possible to define certain geographical provinces for sponges as for
other animals. That this is so, is due to the existence of ocean tracts
bare of islands; for ocean currents, can act as distributing agents
with success only if they flow along a coast or across an ocean
studded with islands. It is, of course, the larval forms which will be
transported; whether they will ever develop to the adult condition
depends on whether the current carrying them passes over a bottom
suitable to their species before metamorphosis occurs and the young
sponge sinks. If such a bottom is passed over, and if the depth is
one which can be supported by the particular species in question,
then a new station may thus be established for that species.
The distance over which a larva may be carried depends on the

speed of the current by which it is borne, and on the length of time
occupied by its metamorphosis. Certain of the ocean currents
accomplish 500 miles in six days; this gives some idea of the
distance which may intervene between the birthplace and the final
station of a sponge; for six days is not an excessive interval to allow
for the larval period of at any rate some species.
Distribution in Time.—All that space permits us to say on the

palaeontology of sponges has been said under the headings of the
respective classes. We can here merely refer to the chronological
table shown in Fig. 123:[281]—
Fig. 123.—Table to indicate distribution of Sponges in time.
Flints.—The ultimate source of all the silica in the sea and fresh-
water areas is to be found in the decomposition of igneous rocks
such as granite. The quantity of silica present in solution in sea water
is exceedingly small, amounting to about one-and-a-half parts in
100,000; it certainly is not much more in average fresh water. This is
no doubt due to its extraction by diatoms, which begin to extract it
almost as soon as it is set free from the parent rock. It is from this
small quantity that the siliceous sponges derive the supply from
which they form their spicules. Hence it would appear that for the
formation of one ounce of spicules at least one ton of sea water must
pass through the body of the sponge. Obviously from such a weak
solution the deposition of silica will not occur by ordinary physical
agencies; it requires the unexplained action of living organisms. This
may account for the fact that deposits of flint and chert are always
associated with organic remains, such as Sponges and Radiolaria.
By some process, the details of which are not yet understood, the
silica of the skeleton passes into solution. In Calcareous deposits, a
replacement of the carbonate of lime by the silica takes place, so
that in the case of chalk the shells of Foraminifera, such as
Globigerina and Textularia and those of Coccoliths, are converted
into a siliceous chalk. Thus a siliceous chalk is the first stage in the
formation of a flint.
A further deposition of silica then follows, cementing this pulverulent

material into a hard white porous flint. It is white for the same reason
that snow is white. The deposition of silica continues, and the flint
becomes at first grey and at last apparently black (black as ice is
black on a pond). Frequently flints are found in all stages of
formation: siliceous chalk with the corroded remains of sponge
spicules may be found in the interior, black flint blotched with grey
forming the mass of the nodule, while the exterior is completed by a
thin layer of white porous flint. This layer must not be confused with
the white layer which is frequently met with on the surface of
weathered flints, which is due to a subsequent solution of some of
the silica, so that by a process of unbuilding, the flint is brought back
to the incompleted flint in its second stage. In the chalk adjacent to
the flints, hollow casts of large sponge spicules may sometimes be
observed, proving the fact, which is however unexplained, of the
solution of the spicular silica. The formation of the flints appears to
have taken place, to some extent at least, long after the death of the
sponge, and even subsequent to the elevation of the chalk far above
the sea-level, as is shown by the occurrence of layers of flints in the
joints of the solid chalk.[282]
COELENTERATA AND CTENOPHORA
BY
S. J. HICKSON, M.A., F.R.S.

Formerly Fellow and now Honorary Fellow of Downing College, Beyer Professor of
Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
CHAPTER X
COELENTERATA
INTRODUCTION—CLASSIFICATION—HYDROZOA—
ELEUTHEROBLASTEA—MILLEPORINA—GYMNOBLASTEA—
CALYPTOBLASTEA—GRAPTOLITOIDEA—STYLASTERINA
The great division of the animal kingdom called Coelenterata was

constituted in 1847 by E. Leuckart for those animals which are
commonly known as polyps and jelly-fishes. Cuvier had previously
included these forms in his division Radiata or Zoophyta, when they
were associated with the Starfishes, Brittle-stars, and the other
Echinodermata.
The splitting up of the Cuvierian division was rendered necessary by

the progress of anatomical discovery, for whereas the
Echinodermata possess an alimentary canal distinct from the other
cavities of the body, in the polyps and jelly-fishes there is only one
cavity to serve the purposes of digestion and the circulation of fluids.
The name Coelenterata (κοῖλος = hollow, ἔντερον = the alimentary
canal) was therefore introduced, and it may be taken to signify the
important anatomical feature that the body-cavity (or coelom) and
the cavity of the alimentary canal (or enteron) of these animals are
not separate and distinct as they are in Echinoderms and most other
animals.
Many Coelenterata have a pronounced radial symmetry, the body

being star-like, with the organs arranged symmetrically on lines
radiating from a common centre. In this respect they have a
superficial resemblance to many of the Echinodermata, which are
also radially symmetrical in the adult stage. But it cannot be insisted
upon too strongly that this superficial resemblance of the
Coelenterata and Echinodermata has no genetic significance. The
radial symmetry has been acquired in the two divisions along
different lines of descent, and has no further significance than the
adaptation of different animals to somewhat similar conditions of life.
It is not only in the animals formerly classed by Cuvier as Radiata,
but in sedentary worms, Polyzoa, Brachiopoda, and even
Cephalopoda among the Mollusca, that we find a radial arrangement
of some of the organs. It is interesting in this connexion to note that
the word "polyp," so frequently applied to the individual Coelenterate
animal or zooid, was originally introduced on a fancied resemblance
of a Hydra to a small Cuttle-fish (Fr. Poulpe, Lat. Polypus).
The body of the Coelenterate, then, consists of a body-wall

enclosing a single cavity ("coelenteron"). The body-wall consists of
an inner and an outer layer of cells, originally called by Allman the
"endoderm" and "ectoderm" respectively. Between the two layers
there is a substance chemically allied to mucin and usually of a jelly-
like consistency, for which the convenient term "mesogloea,"
introduced by G. C. Bourne, is used (Fig. 125).
The mesogloea may be very thin and inconspicuous, as it is in Hydra

and many other sedentary forms, or it may become very thick, as in
the jelly-fishes and some of the sedentary Alcyonaria. When it is very
thick it is penetrated by wandering isolated cells from the ectoderm
or endoderm, by strings of cells or by cell-lined canals; but even
when it is cellular it must not be confounded with the third germinal
layer or mesoblast which characterises the higher groups of animals,
from which it differs essentially in origin and other characters. The
Coelenterata are two-layered animals (Diploblastica), in contrast to
the Metazoa with three layers of cells (Triploblastica). The growth
of the mesogloea in many Coelenterata leads to modifications of the
shape of the coelenteric cavity in various directions. In the Anthozoa,
for example, the growth of vertical bands of mesogloea covered by
endoderm divides the peripheral parts of the cavity into a series of
intermesenterial compartments in open communication with the axial
part of the cavity; and in the jelly-fishes the growth of the mesogloea
reduces the cavity of the outer regions of the disc to a series of
vessel-like canals.
Another character, of great importance, possessed by all

Coelenterata is the "nematocyst" or "thread-cell" (Fig. 124). This is
an organ produced within the body of a cell called the "cnidoblast,"
and it consists of a vesicular wall or capsule, surrounding a cavity
filled with fluid containing a long and usually spirally coiled thread
continuous with the wall of the vesicle. When the nematocyst is fully
developed and receives a stimulus of a certain character, the thread
is shot out with great velocity and causes a sting on any part of an
animal that is sufficiently delicate to be wounded by it.
The morphology and physiology of the nematocysts are subjects of

very great difficulty and complication, and cannot be discussed in
these pages. It may, however, be said that by some authorities the
cnidoblast is supposed to be an extremely modified form of mucous
or gland cell, and that the discharge of the nematocyst is subject to
the control of a primitive nervous system that is continuous through
the body of the zooid.
There is a considerable range of structure in the nematocysts of the

Coelenterata. In Alcyonium and in many other Alcyonaria they are
very small (in Alcyonium the nematocyst is 0.0075 mm. in length
previous to discharge), and when discharged exhibit a simple oval
capsule with a plain thread attached to it. In Hydra (Fig. 124) there
are at least two kinds of nematocysts, and in the larger kind (0.02
mm. in length previous to discharge) the base of the thread is beset
with a series of recurved hooks, which during the act of discharge
probably assist in making a wound in the organism attacked for the
injection of the irritant fluid, and possibly hold the structure in position
while the thread is being discharged. In the large kind of nematocyst
of Millepora and of Cerianthus there is a band of spirally arranged
but very minute thorns in the middle of the thread, but none at the
base. In some of the Siphonophora the undischarged nematocysts
reach their maximum size, nearly 0.05 mm. in length.
Fig. 124.—Nematocyst (Nem) of Hydra grisea, enclosed within the cnidoblast.

CNC, Cnidocil; f, thread of nematocyst; Mf, myophan threads in cnidoblast;
N, nucleus of cnidoblast. (After Schneider.)
When a nematocyst has once been discharged it is usually rejected

from the body, and its place in the tissue is taken by a new
nematocyst formed by a new cnidoblast; but in the thread of the
large kind of nematocyst of Millepora there is a very delicate band,
which appears to be similar to the myophan thread in the stalk of a
Vorticella. Dr. Willey[283] has made the important observation that in
this coral the nematocyst threads can be withdrawn after discharge,
the retraction being effected with great rapidity. The "cnidoblast" is a
specially modified cell. It sometimes bears at its free extremity a
delicate process, the "cnidocil," which is supposed to be adapted to
the reception of the special stimuli that determine the discharge of
the nematocyst. In many species delicate contractile fibres (Fig. 124,
Mf) can be seen in the substance of the cnidoblast, and in others its
basal part is drawn out into a long and probably contractile stalk
("cnidopod"), attached to the mesogloea below.
There can be little doubt that new nematocysts are constantly
formed during life to replace those that have been discharged and
lost. Each nematocyst is developed within the cell-substance of a
cnidoblast which is derived from the undifferentiated interstitial cell-
groups. During this process the cnidoblast does not necessarily
remain stationary, but may wander some considerable distance from
its place of origin.[284] This habit of migration of the cnidoblast
renders it difficult to determine whether the ectoderm alone, or both
ectoderm and endoderm, can give rise to nematocysts. In the
majority of Coelenterates the nematocysts are confined to the
ectoderm, but in many Anthozoa, Scyphozoa, and Siphonophora
they are found in tissues that are certainly or probably endodermic in
origin. It has not been definitely proved in any case that the
cnidoblast cells that form these nematocysts have originally been
formed in the endoderm, and it is possible that they are always
derived from ectoderm cells which migrate into the endoderm.
It is probably true that all Coelenterata have nematocysts, and that,

in the few cases in which it has been stated that they are absent
(e.g. Sarcophytum), they have been overlooked. It cannot, however,
be definitely stated that similar structures do not occur in other
animals. The nematocysts of the Mollusc Aeolis are not the product
of its own tissues, but are introduced into the body with its food.[285]
The nematocysts that occur in the Infusorian Epistylis umbellaria and
in the Dinoflagellate Polykrikos (p. 131) require reinvestigation, but if
it should prove that they are the product of the Protozoa they cannot
be regarded as strictly homologous with those of Coelenterata. In
many of the Turbellaria, however, and in some of the Nemertine
worms, nematocysts occur in the epidermis which appear to be
undoubtedly the products of these animals.
The Coelenterata are divided into three classes:—

1. Hydrozoa.—Without stomodaeum and mesenteries. Sexual cells
discharged directly to the exterior.
2. Scyphozoa.—Without stomodaeum and mesenteries. Sexual

cells discharged into the coelenteric cavity.
3. Anthozoa = Actinozoa.—With stomodaeum and mesenteries.

Sexual cells discharged into the coelenteric cavity.
The full meaning of the brief statements concerning the structure of

the three classes given above cannot be explained until the general
anatomy of the classes has been described. It may be stated,
however, in this place that many authors believe that structures
corresponding with the stomodaeum and mesenteries of Anthozoa
do occur in the Scyphozoa, which they therefore include in the class
Anthozoa.
Among the more familiar animals included in the class Hydrozoa

may be mentioned the fresh-water polyp Hydra, the Hydroid
zoophytes, many of the smaller Medusae or jelly-fish, the
Portuguese Man-of-war (Physalia), and a few of the corals.
Included in the Scyphozoa are the large jelly-fish found floating on

the sea or cast up on the beach on the British shores.
The Anthozoa include the Sea-anemones, nearly all the Stony

Corals, the Sea-fans, the Black Corals, the Dead-men's fingers
(Alcyonium), the Sea-pens, and the Precious Coral of commerce.
CLASS I. HYDROZOA
In this Class of Coelenterata two types of body-form may be found.
In such a genus as Obelia there is a fixed branching colony of
zooids, and each zooid consists of a simple tubular body-wall
composed of the two layers of cells, the ectoderm and the endoderm
(Fig. 125), terminating distally in a conical mound—the
"hypostome"—which is perforated by the mouth and surrounded by a
crown of tentacles. This fixed colony, the "hydrosome," feeds and
increases in size by gemmation, but does not produce sexual cells.
The hydrosome produces at a certain season of the year a number
of buds, which develop into small bell-like jelly-fish called the
"Medusae," which swim away from the parent stock and produce the
sexual cells. The Medusa (Fig. 126) consists of a delicate dome-
shaped contractile bell, perforated by radial canals and fringed with
tentacles; and from its centre there depends, like the clapper of a
bell, a tubular process, the manubrium, which bears the mouth at its
extremity. This free-swimming sexual stage in the life-history of
Obelia is called the "medusome."
It is difficult to determine whether, in the evolution of the Hydrozoa,

the hydrosome preceded the medusome or vice versâ. By some
authors the medusome is regarded as a specially modified sexual
individual of the hydrosome colony. By others the medusome is
regarded as the typical adult Hydrozoon form, and the zooids of the
hydrosome as nutritive individuals arrested in their development to
give support to it. Whatever may be the right interpretation of the
facts, however, it is found that in some forms the medusome stage is
more or less degenerate and the hydrosome is predominant,
whereas in others the hydrosome is degenerate or inconspicuous
and the medusome is predominant. Finally, in some cases there are
no traces, even in development, of a medusome stage, and the life-
history is completed in the hydrosome, while in others the
hydrosome stages are lost and the life-history is completed in the
medusome.
If a conspicuous hydrosome stage is represented by H, a

conspicuous medusome stage by M, an inconspicuous or
degenerate hydrosome stage by h, an inconspicuous or degenerate
medusome stage by m, and the fertilised ovum by O, the life-
histories of the Hydrozoa may be represented by the following
formulæ:—
1. O — H — O (Hydra)
2. O—H—m—O (Sertularia)
3. O—H—M—O (Obelia)
4. O—h—M—O (Liriope)
5. O — M — O (Geryonia)
The structure of the hydrosome is usually very simple. It consists of

a branched tube opening by mouths at the ends of the branches and
closed at the base. The body-wall is built up of ectoderm and
endoderm. Between these layers there is a thin non-cellular lamella,
the mesogloea.
In a great many Hydrozoa the ectoderm secretes a chitinous

protective tube called the "perisarc." The mouth is usually a small
round aperture situated on the summit of the hypostome, and at the
base of the hypostome there may be one or two crowns of tentacles
or an area bearing irregularly scattered tentacles. The tentacles may
be hollow, containing a cavity continuous with the coelenteric cavity
of the body; or solid, the endoderm cells arranged in a single row
forming an axial support for the ectoderm. The ectoderm of the
tentacles is provided with numerous nematocysts, usually arranged
in groups or clusters on the distal two-thirds of their length, but
sometimes confined to a cap-like swelling at the extremity (capitate
tentacles). The hydrosome may be a single zooid producing others
asexually by gemmation (or more rarely by fission), which become
free from the parent, or it may be a colony of zooids in organic
connexion with one another formed by the continuous gemmation of
the original zooid derived from the fertilised ovum and its asexually
produced offspring. When the hydrosome is a colony of zooids,
specialisation of certain individuals for particular functions may
occur, and the colony becomes dimorphic or polymorphic.
Fig. 125.—Diagram of a vertical section through a hydrosome. Coel,
Coelenteron; Ect, ectoderm; End, endoderm. Between the ectoderm and
the endoderm there is a thin mesogloea not represented in the diagram. M,
mouth; T, tentacle.
The medusome is more complicated in structure than the

hydrosome, as it is adapted to the more varied conditions of a free-
swimming existence. The body is expanded to form a disc,
"umbrella," or bell, which bears at the edge or margin a number of
tentacles. The mouth is situated on the end of a hypostome, called
the "manubrium," situated in the centre of the radially symmetrical
body. The surface that bears the manubrium is called oral, and the
opposite surface is called aboral. The cavity partly enclosed by the
oral aspect of the body when it is cup- or bell-shaped is called the
"sub-umbrellar cavity."
In the medusome of nearly all Hydrozoa there is a narrow shelf

projecting inwards from the margin of the disc and guarding the
opening of the sub-umbrellar cavity, called the "velum."
The mouth leads through the manubrium into a flattened part of the
coelenteric cavity, which is usually called the gastric cavity, and from
this a number of canals pass radially through the mesogloea to join a
circular canal or ring-canal at the margin of the umbrella.
A special and important feature of the medusome is the presence of

sense-organs called the "ocelli" and "statocysts," situated at the
margin of the umbrella or at the base of the tentacles.
Fig. 126.—Diagram of a vertical section through a medusome. coel, Coelenteron;
M, mouth; Man, manubrium; R, radial canal; r, ring or circular canal; T,
tentacle; v, velum.
The ocelli may usually be recognised as opaque red or blue spots on

the bases of the tentacles, in marked contrast to their transparent
surroundings. The ocellus may consist simply of a cluster of
pigmented cells, or may be further differentiated as a cup of
pigmented cells filled with a spherical thickening of the cuticle to form
a lens. The exact function of the ocelli may not be fully understood,
but there can be little doubt that they are light-perceiving organs.
The function of the sense-organs known as statocysts, however, has

not yet been so satisfactorily determined. They were formerly
thought to be auditory organs, and were called "otocysts," but it
appears now that it is impossible on physical grounds for these
organs to be used for the perception of the waves of sound in water.
It is more probable that they are organs of the static function, that is,
the function of the perception of the position of the body in space,
and they are consequently called statocysts. In the Leptomedusae
each statocyst consists of a small vesicle in the mesogloea at the
margin of the umbrella, containing a hard, stony body called the
"statolith." In Geryonia and some other Trachomedusae the statolith
is carried by a short tentacular process, the "statorhab," projecting
into the vesicle; in other Trachomedusae, however, the vesicle is
open, but forms a hood for the protection of the statorhab; and in
others, but especially in the younger stages of development, the
statorhab is not sunk into the margin of the umbrella, and resembles
a short but loaded tentacle. Recent researches have shown that
there is a complete series of connecting links between the vesiculate
statocyst of the Leptomedusae and the free tentaculate statorhab of
the Trachomedusae, and there can be little doubt of their general
homology.
In the free-swimming or "Phanerocodonic" medusome the sexual
cells are borne by the ectoderm of the sub-umbrellar cavity either on
the walls of the manubrium or subjacent to the course of the radial
canals.
Order I. Eleutheroblastea.
This order is constituted mainly for the well-known genus Hydra. By
some authors Hydra is regarded as an aberrant member of the order
Gymnoblastea, to which it is undoubtedly in many respects allied,
but it presents so many features of special interest that it is better to
keep it in a distinct group.
Hydra is one of the few examples of exclusively fresh-water

Coelenterates, and like so many of the smaller fresh-water animals
its distribution is almost cosmopolitan. It occurs not only in Europe
and North America, but in New Zealand, Australia, tropical central
Africa, and tropical central America.
Hydra is found in this country in clear, still fresh water attached to the
stalks or leaves of weeds. When fully expanded it may be 25 mm. in
length, but when completely retracted the same individual may be
not more than 3 mm. long. The tubular body-wall is built up of
ectoderm and endoderm, enclosing a simple undivided coelenteric
cavity. The mouth is situated on the summit of the conical
hypostome, and at the base of this there is a crown of long, delicate,
but hollow tentacles. The number of tentacles is usually six in H.
vulgaris and H. oligactis,[286] and eight in H. viridis, but it is variable
in all species.
During the greater part of the summer the number of individuals is

rapidly increased by gemmation. The young Hydras produced by
gemmation are usually detached from their parents before they
themselves produce buds, but in H. oligactis the buds often remain
attached to the parent after they themselves have formed buds, and
thus a small colony is produced. Sexual reproduction usually
commences in this country in the summer and autumn, but as the
statements of trustworthy authors are conflicting, it is probable that
the time of appearance of the sexual organs varies according to the
conditions of the environment.
Individual specimens may be male, female, or hermaphrodite.

Nussbaum[287] has published the interesting observation that when
the Hydras have been well fed the majority become female, when
the food supply has been greatly restricted the majority become
male, and when the food-supply is moderate in amount the majority
become hermaphrodite. The gonads are simply clusters of sexual
cells situated in the ectoderm. There is no evidence, derived from
either their structure or their development, to show that they
represent reduced medusiform gonophores. The testis produces a
number of minute spermatozoa. In the ovary, however, only one
large yolk-laden egg-cell reaches maturity by the absorption of the
other eggs. The ovum is fertilised while still within the gonad, and
undergoes the early stages of its development in that position. With
the differentiation of an outer layer of cells a chitinous protecting
membrane is formed, and the escape from the parent takes place.
[288] It seems probable that at this stage, namely, that of a protected
embryo, there is often a prolonged period of rest, during which it may
be carried by wind and other agencies for long distances without
injury.
The remarkable power that Hydra possesses of recovery from injury

and of regenerating lost parts was first pointed out by Trembley in his
classical memoir.[289]
A Hydra can be cut into a considerable number of pieces, and each

piece, provided both ectoderm and endoderm are represented in it,
will give rise by growth and regeneration to a complete zooid. There
is, however, a limit of size below which fragments of Hydra will not
regenerate, even if they contain cells of both layers. The statement
made by Trembley, that when a Hydra is turned inside out it will
continue to live in the introverted condition has not been confirmed,
and it seems probable that after the experiment has been made the
polyp remains in a paralysed condition for some time, and later
reverts, somewhat suddenly, to the normal condition by a reversal of
the process. There is certainly no substantial reason to believe that
under any circumstances the ectoderm can undertake the function of
the endoderm or the endoderm the functions of the ectoderm.
Fig. 127.—A series of drawings of Hydra, showing the attitudes it assumes

during one of the more rapid movements from place to place. 1, The Hydra
bending over to one side; 2, attaching itself to the support by the mouth and
tentacles; 3, drawing the sucker up to the mouth; 4, inverted; 5, refixing the
sucker; 6, reassuming the erect posture. (After Trembley.)
One of the characteristic features of Hydra is the slightly expanded,

disc-shaped aboral extremity usually called the "foot," an unfortunate
term for which the word "sucker" should be substituted. There are no
root-like tendrils or processes for attachment to the support such as
are found in most of the solitary Gymnoblastea. The attachment of
the body to the stem or weed or surface-film by this sucker enables
the animal to change its position at will. It may either progress slowly
by gliding along its support without the assistance of the tentacles, in
a manner similar to that observed in many Sea-anemones; or more
rapidly by a series of somersaults, as originally described by
Trembley. The latter mode of locomotion has been recently
described as follows:—"The body, expanded and with expanded
tentacles, bends over to one side. As soon as the tentacles touch the
bottom they attach themselves and contract. Now one of two things
happens. The foot may loosen its hold on the bottom and the body
contract. In this manner the animal comes to stand on its tentacles
with the foot pointing upward. The body now bends over again until
the foot attaches itself close to the attached tentacles. These loosen
in their turn, and so the Hydra is again in its normal position. In the
other case the foot is not detached, but glides along the support until
it stands close to the tentacles, which now loosen their hold."[290]
Hydra appears to be purely carnivorous. It will seize and swallow

Entomostraca of relatively great size, so that the body-wall bulges to
more than twice its normal diameter. But smaller Crustacea, Annelid
worms, and pieces of flesh are readily seized and swallowed by a
hungry Hydra. In H. viridis the chlorophyll corpuscles[291] of the
endoderm may possibly assist in the nourishment of the body by the
formation of starch in direct sunlight.
Three species of Hydra are usually recognised, but others which

may be merely local varieties or are comparatively rare have been
named.[292]
H. viridis.—Colour, grass-green. Average number of tentacles, eight.

Tentacles shorter than the body. Embryonic chitinous membrane
spherical and almost smooth.
H. vulgaris, Pallas (H. grisea, Linn.).—Colour, orange-brown.

Tentacles rather longer than the body, average number, six.
Embryonic chitinous membrane spherical, and covered with
numerous pointed branched spines.
H. oligactis, Pallas (H. fusca, Linn.).—Colour, brown. Tentacles

capable of great extension; sometimes, when fully expanded,
several times the length of the body. Average number, six.
Embryonic chitinous membrane plano-convex, its convex side only
covered with spines.
The genera Microhydra (Ryder) and Protohydra (Greeff) are

probably allied to Hydra, but as their sexual organs have not been
observed their real affinities are not yet determined. Microhydra
resembles Hydra in its general form and habits, and in its method of
reproduction by gemmation, but it has no tentacles. It was found in
fresh water in North America.
Protohydra[293] was found in the oyster-beds off Ostend, and

resembles Microhydra in the absence of tentacles. It multiplies by
transverse fission, but neither gemmation nor sexual reproduction
has been observed.
Haleremita is a minute hydriform zooid which is also marine. It was

found by Schaudinn[294] in the marine aquarium at Berlin in water
from Rovigno, on the Adriatic. It reproduces by gemmation, but
sexual organs have not been found.
Another very remarkable genus usually associated with the

Eleutheroblastea is Polypodium. At one stage of its life-history it has
the form of a spiral ribbon or stolon which is parasitic on the eggs of
the sturgeon (Acipenser ruthenus) in the river Volga.[295] This stolon
gives rise to a number of small Hydra-like zooids with twenty
tentacles, of which sixteen are filamentous and eight club-shaped.
These zooids multiply by longitudinal fission, and feed independently
on Infusoria, Rotifers, and other minute organisms. The stages
between these hydriform individuals and the parasitic stolon have
not been discovered.
Order II. Milleporina.

Millepora was formerly united with the Stylasterina to form the order
Hydrocorallina; but the increase of our knowledge of these Hydroid
corals tends rather to emphasise than to minimise the distinction of
Millepora from the Stylasterina.
Millepora resembles the Stylasterina in the production of a massive
calcareous skeleton and in the dimorphism of the zooids, but in the
characters of the sexual reproduction and in many minor anatomical
and histological peculiarities it is distinct. As there is only one genus,
Millepora, the account of its anatomy will serve as a description of
the order.
The skeleton (Fig. 128) consists of large lobate, plicate, ramified, or

encrusting masses of calcium carbonate, reaching a size of one or
two or more feet in height and breadth. The surface is perforated by
numerous pores of two distinct sizes; the larger—"gastropores"—are
about 0.25 mm. in diameter, and the smaller and more numerous
"dactylopores" about 0.15 mm. in diameter. In many specimens the
pores are arranged in definite cycles, each gastropore being
surrounded by a circle of 5-7 dactylopores; but more generally the
two kinds appear to be irregularly scattered on the surface.
When a branch or lobe of a Millepore is broken across and examined

in section, it is found that each pore is continued as a vertical tube
divided into sections by horizontal calcareous plates (Fig. 129, Tab).
These plates are the "tabulae," and constitute the character upon
which Millepora was formerly placed in the now discarded group of
Tabulate corals.
The coral skeleton is also perforated by a very fine reticulum of

canals, by which the pore-tubes are brought into communication with
one another. In the axis of the larger branches and in the centre of
the larger plates a considerable quantity of the skeleton is of an
irregular spongy character, caused by the disintegrating influence of
a boring filamentous Alga.[296]
Fig. 128.—A portion of a dried colony of Millepora, showing the larger pores
(gastropores) surrounded by cycles of smaller pores (dactylopores). At the
edges the cycles are not well defined.
The discovery that Millepora belongs to the Hydrozoa was made by

Agassiz[297] in 1859, but Moseley[298] was the first to give an
adequate account of the general anatomy. The colony consists of
two kinds of zooids—the short, thick gastrozooids (Fig. 129, G)
provided with a mouth and digestive endoderm, and the longer and
more slender mouthless dactylozooids (D)—united together by a
network of canals running in the porous channels of the superficial
layer of the corallum. The living tissues of the zooids extend down
the pore-tubes as far as the first tabulae, and below this level the
canal-system is degenerate and functionless. It is only a very thin
superficial stratum of the coral, therefore, that contains living tissues.
The zooids of Millepora are very contractile, and can be withdrawn

below the general surface of the coral into the shelter of the pore-
tubes. When a specimen is examined in its natural position on the
reef, the zooids are usually found to be thus contracted; but several
observers have seen the zooids expanded in the living condition. It is
probable that, as is the case with other corals, the expansion occurs
principally during the night.
The colony is provided with two kinds of nematocysts—the small

kind and the large. In some colonies they are powerful enough to

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Chapter 1: Seeking: Finding Happiness in Relationships in a Complex World

Multiple Choice Questions

2) Most people in the United States marry

3) The U. S. only recognizes which of the following forms of marriages as legal?

4) According to the text, the “traditional” definition of family includes

5) The family into which one is born and raised is called a

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

6) The binuclear family is best describes as

10) Which of the following are characteristics of individualism?

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

12) When countries’ economies become more interdependent,

14) According to the text, which of the following statements is true?

18) Why did many slave owners encourage slave breeding?

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

A) They wanted to achieve dominance over slaves.

2) Happiness can be influenced by one’s ethnic culture.

4) Common-law marriage is legally recognized in twenty-two states.

5) Affiliated kin are those acquired through marriage.

6) Familism is a major part of traditional Mexican and Chinese families.

7) The majority of Native Americans live on reservations in the U. S. today.

8) Family size in the U. S. has stabilized at approximately four per household.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

9) Sociological research indicates that approximately two-thirds of married couples who

Short Answer Questions

Bloom’s Level: Understand

6) Contrast the iGeneration with older Americans.

8) Distinguish between the family of orientation and the family of procreation.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Calcarea and Ceratosa are strictly shallow-water forms. It is a

The distance over which a larva may be carried depends on the

Distribution in Time.—All that space permits us to say on the

Fig. 123.—Table to indicate distribution of Sponges in time.

A further deposition of silica then follows, cementing this pulverulent

S. J. HICKSON, M.A., F.R.S.

The great division of the animal kingdom called Coelenterata was

The splitting up of the Cuvierian division was rendered necessary by

Many Coelenterata have a pronounced radial symmetry, the body

The body of the Coelenterate, then, consists of a body-wall

The mesogloea may be very thin and inconspicuous, as it is in Hydra

Another character, of great importance, possessed by all

The morphology and physiology of the nematocysts are subjects of

There is a considerable range of structure in the nematocysts of the

Fig. 124.—Nematocyst (Nem) of Hydra grisea, enclosed within the cnidoblast.

When a nematocyst has once been discharged it is usually rejected

It is probably true that all Coelenterata have nematocysts, and that,

The Coelenterata are divided into three classes:—

2. Scyphozoa.—Without stomodaeum and mesenteries. Sexual

3. Anthozoa = Actinozoa.—With stomodaeum and mesenteries.