Journal of Functional Foods

Journal of Functional Foods 98 (2022) 105276
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Functional Foods

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jff
An outlook on modern and sustainable approaches to the management of

grape pomace by integrating green processes, biotechnologies and
advanced biomedical approaches
Matteo Perra a, Gianluigi Bacchetta a, b, Aldo Muntoni c, d, Giorgia De Gioannis c, d,
Ines Castangia a, Hiba N. Rajha e, f, Maria Letizia Manca a, *, Maria Manconi a
a
DISVA – Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Via Ospedale 72, 09124 Cagliari, Italy
b
Hortus Botanicus Karalitanus, University of Cagliari, V.le Sant’Ignazio da Laconi 11, 09123 Cagliari, Italy
c
DICAAR – Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture, University of Cagliari, Piazza D’Armi 1, 09123 Cagliari, Italy
d
IGAG-CNR, Environmental Geology and Geoengineering Institute of the National Research Council – Piazza D’Armi 1, 09123 Cagliari, Italy
e
Centre d’Analyses et de Recherche, Unité de Recherche Technologies et Valorisations Agro- Alimentaire, Faculté des Sciences, Université Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth, P.O.
Box 17-5208, Riad El Solh, Beirut 1104 2020, Lebanon
f
Ecole Supérieure d’Ingénieurs de Beyrouth (ESIB), Université Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth, CST Mkalles Mar Roukos, Riad El Solh, Beirut 1107 2050, Lebanon
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Grape pomace is the main solid residue of wine industry, mainly composed of seeds, skins and stalks, all con
Circular economy taining high amounts of valuable phytochemicals. Considering its high potential, in this review, an outlook on
Polyphenols different resources and products, which can be obtained by the recovery of grape pomace is provided. Special
Grape pomace
attention has been devoted to the analysis of chemical, physical and biotechnological processes to be applied and
Recovery
Vitis vinifera
also to the high value compounds and products, such as supplements, nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals, that can
be manufactured. In particular, in the first part of the review, an update on the composition of grape pomace has
been provided along with the analysis of its traditional fate. In the second part, the more modern and green
approaches tested to the sustainable management of grape pomace are reported and discussed.
1. Introduction economic system, or vice versa, continue to represent one of the main
burdens for the sustainability of human life on the planet Earth (Euro
By 2050 the world will consume three times the available planet pean Commission, 2015, 2018). Agro-industrial residues represent one
Earth resources; to avoid this eventuality and limit resource dissipation, of the main waste flows both from a quantitative and qualitative point of
the European Union aims to achieve climate neutrality by the same year, view (Yaashikaa et al., 2022). Every year, approximately 1.6 billion tons
and the application of the principles of the Circular Economy is func of wastes are globally generated by the human food chain alone (Freitas
tional to the achievement of this objective (European Commission, et al., 2021). In Europe, around 89 million tons of food waste are pro
2020). Morseletto defines Circular Economy as “an economic model duced per year, whilst the total agricultural residue production amounts
aimed at the efficient use of resources through waste minimisation, long- to 367 million tons per year (Ravindran et al., 2018). From a qualitative
term value retention, reduction of primary resources, and closed loops of point of view, the incorrect management of these residues determines
products, product parts, and materials within the boundaries of envi serious environmental impacts such as the production of greenhouse
ronmental protection and socioeconomic benefits” that “has the poten gases (CO2 and CH4) and oxygen depletion, among others (Yaashikaa
tial to lead to sustainable development, while decoupling economic et al., 2022). On the other hand, the same characteristics make them
growth from the negative consequences of resource depletion and suitable for multiple valorisation options, from the extraction of com
environmental degradation” (Morseletto, 2020). Waste management pounds with high added value, to the production of energy or organic
plays a crucial role, as it can pave the way to Circular Economy imple building blocks through more or less intense demolition of the organic
mentation by closing loops and keeping precious resources within the matter (Gómez-García et al., 2021; Sodhi et al., 2022). This awareness
* Corresponding author at: Dept. of Scienze della Vita e dell’Ambiente, Sezione di Scienze del Farmaco, Italy.
E-mail address: mlmanca@unica.it (M.L. Manca).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2022.105276
Received 13 June 2022; Received in revised form 28 September 2022; Accepted 2 October 2022
Available online 7 October 2022
1756-4646/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Perra et al. Journal of Functional Foods 98 (2022) 105276
has fuelled an intense research activity focusing on the possible trans Table 1
formation of different agro-industrial wastes and by-products, such as Grape pomace: main chemical properties of interest.
sugarcane straw, garlic skin, spent coffee grounds, apple, olive mill, Parameter Value References
wineries and breweries (Gómez-García et al., 2021; Hernández et al., a
Total polyphenols (mg GAE 5402–6010 (Makris et al., 2007; Spinei &
2021; Hernández-Varela et al., 2022; Leite et al., 2021; Roasa et al., per 100 g) Oroian, 2021)
2021; Robledo-Ortíz et al., 2021; Tinoco-Caicedo et al., 2021). Ash (g/100 g) 2–7 (Kandylis et al., 2021)
In this vast context, grapes rank fourth as the most produced fruit in Protein (g/100 g) 5–14 (Bender et al., 2020; Kandylis
the world with almost 80 million tons in 2018 (FAO, 2018). According to et al., 2021)
Lipids (g/100 g) 1–13 (Kandylis et al., 2021)
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) 38 % of global grape pro Total dietary fibre (g/100 g) 17–88 (Antonić et al., 2020)
duction occurs in Europe, followed by Asia (35 %) and Americas (19 %). Cellulose (g/100 g) 7–9 (Bender et al., 2020; el Achkar
Italy counts around eight million tons per year and is the leader among et al., 2016)
the European countries, globally second only to China (FAO, 2018; Hemicellulose (g/100 g) 6–22 (Bender et al., 2020; el Achkar
et al., 2016)
ISTAT, 2020). Most of the worldwide grape production is used to pro
Lignin (g/100 g) 11–23 (Bender et al., 2020; el Achkar
duce wine and spirits, and the winemaking process is characterised by et al., 2016)
the generation of a large volume of waste and by-products (i.e., grape pH 3.34–3.94 (Bender et al., 2020; el Achkar
pomace) over a limited period of the year, which exacerbates the envi et al., 2016)
ronmental and economic problems (Kalli et al., 2018). As for other Moisture content (%) 50–82 (Iqbal et al., 2021)
TSb (g/kg w/w) 434–451 (da Ros et al., 2016; el Achkar
production sectors, the best solution to these problems lies in the et al., 2016)
adoption of an approach consistent with the dictates of the Circular VSc (g/kg w/w) 371–425 (da Ros et al., 2016; el Achkar
Economy, which allows to optimize not only waste management, but et al., 2016)
also energy and water consumption, as well as to open market options CODd (g O2/kg w/w) 223–610 (el Achkar et al., 2016; Kassongo
et al., 2022)
previously unthinkable (Goyal et al., 2018). Consistently to this phi e
BMP (LNCH4/kg VS) 116–360 (da Ros et al., 2016; Dinuccio
losophy, in the last few decades different potential strategies have been et al., 2010)
proposed to recover resources from grape waste and by-products (Allaw a
Gallic Acid Equivalents;
et al., 2020; Chebbi et al., 2021; Ferri et al., 2020; Leite et al., 2021). b
Total Solids;
The review aims is to provide an outlook on different approches and c
Volatile Solids;
processes, which have been applied using grape pomace along with the d
Chemical Oxygen Demand;
resources and products, which can be obtained. Particular attention has e
Biochemical Methane Potential.
been paid to sustainable methodologies capable of allowing the recovery
of compounds and products characterized by high added value such as
and tannins, useful as supplements for colour development in wine (e.g.,
supplements, nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals, especially the most
Pinot noir) because they increase the concentration of stable pigments
innovative obtained using nanocarriers. It is in fact the authors’ opinion
by 40 % (de Torres et al., 2015; Pedroza et al., 2013; Sparrow et al.,
that the greatest potential for valorisation of agro-industrial waste lies in
2020). In recent years, the skin of red and white grape has been studied
the extraction of the phytochemicals and molecules with high added
as a source of phytochemicals having several potential health-promoting
value that, being present in high amount, make precious these bio
effects (Bomfim et al., 2019; Deng et al., 2011; Dwyer et al., 2014;
masses. To be sustainable and economically exploitable, their manage
Hogervorst et al., 2017; Kurek et al., 2019; Sri Harsha et al., 2014).
ment must then be integrated and completed with other treatments
Indeed, especially the red one, it is rich in phenolic compounds such as
aimed at the demolition, stabilization and reorganization of the bulk of
stilbenes, triterpenes, anthocyanins, tannins and hydroxybenzoic de
the organic matter.
rivative acids (Deng et al., 2011; Hogervorst et al., 2017; Liazid et al.,
2011; Manconi et al., 2017; Orbán et al., 2009; Pugajeva et al., 2018).
2. Composition of grape pomace
Stalks, the skeleton of the grape bunch, account for about 25 % by
weight of grape pomace (Jin, Yang, et al., 2018; Ping et al., 2011). Grape
Grape pomace represents the main solid residue generated during
stalks mainly consist of lignified tissues, due to the high quantities of
pressing and fermentation processes of winemaking. It is mainly
fibres such as cellulose (30–36 %), hemicelluloses (21–25 %) and lignin
composed of skins, stalks and seeds (Jin, Yang, et al., 2018). The amount
(17–40 %); the wide range of values depends on grape variety, colour,
of grape pomace produced during the winemaking process depends on
vinification processes and even the destemmed used (Ping et al., 2011;
various factors, such as grape cultivar, soil characteristics, wine pro
Prozil et al., 2012). Stalks are also considered a precious source of
duction process and even the kind of equipment used, which in tourn
valuable compounds (Bertran et al., 2004; Egüés et al., 2013; Manca
affect their composition as previously reported (Dwyer et al., 2014;
et al., 2019; Ozdemir et al., 2014; Portinho et al., 2017; Ruiz-Moreno
Hogervorst et al., 2017; Ioannidou et al., 2022). According to Dwyer
et al., 2015; Spatafora et al., 2013; Villaescusa et al., 2004). Their
et al. (2014), pomace represents approximately 25 % of the original
main phenolics compounds are tannins, essentially procyanidins (Manca
grape weight (Dwyer et al., 2014). According to the Italian Central
et al., 2019; Ping et al., 2011; Teixeira et al., 2018).
Statistics Institute, around 88 % of the grape harvested in Italy is used to
Seeds account for another 25 % by weight of grape pomace, and
produce wine, corresponding to 7.231.542 tons of grapes per year,
contain mainly oil, around 8–20 % by weight, beside phenolic com
which would produce around 1.807.886 tons of pomace (ISTAT, 2020).
pounds and oligosaccharides (Bordiga et al., 2019; Jin, Yang, et al.,
Grape pomace is considered a low-value material, mainly used for
2018; Khan et al., 2020). The seed oil is a mixture of saturated and
ethanol distillation but overlooking its high content in bioactive phy
unsaturated fatty acids having high nutritional and beneficial effects
tochemicals, in particular polyphenols, and its physico-chemical prop
(Guo et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2020; Manca et al., 2019; Taranu et al.,
erties (Table 1) (Dwyer et al., 2014).
2019; Unusan, 2020). The oil is rarely recovered despite having a high
Grape skin represents the main constituent of grape pomace,
value on the market, probably due to the difficulties of separating the
approximately 50 % of the total grape pomace weight (Jin, Yang, et al.,
seeds from the other pomace fractions (Jin et al., 2021).
2018), characterised by a high content of fibres and sugars. The fibres
content is highly variable, spanning the ranges 51–56 % by weight in red
3. Direct uses of grape pomace
grape and 17–28 % in white one, respectively; the skin of red grape is
also rich in crude protein, fat and ash (inorganic residue) (Deng et al.,
Direct uses of grape pomace include distillation, animal feeding and
2011). Other compounds contained in high amount are anthocyanins
2
land spreading in a controlled manner (Badouard et al., 2021; Ilyas matter contents (Cortés et al., 2020). It is reasonable to assume that
et al., 2021). Distillation is the traditional use of grape pomace, espe pomace is composted in a mixture with other residues typical of an agro-
cially in the Old Continent and over time has given rise to different local industrial context. In this respect, Martinez et al. evaluated the evolution
names for spirits (e.g., Grappa in Italy, Zivania in Cyprus, Eaux de vie de of chemical, microbiological, biochemical and phytotoxicity parameters
marc in France) (Botelho et al., 2020). In Italy, with around 135 dis during composting of grape pomace mixed with different other residues
tilleries, spirit production from grape pomace distillation is an important such as horse and goat manure, pruning residues, oat straw, and yeast
industrial activity, with a production of 85,000 hL of pure alcohol fermentation residues (Martínez Salgado et al., 2019). Not surprisingly,
equivalents in 2018 (Cisneros-Yupanqui et al., 2021; Giannetti et al., the final products obtained in a mixture with animal waste such as goat
2019). Pomace distillation consists in heating them to lead the evapo or horse manure proved to be suitable as fertilising soil improvers,
ration of ethanol and other volatile substances, cooling of the vapours to thanks to the content of nutrients and classified as a category according
obtain a liquid enriched in ethanol. The liquid may be redistilled, or to Chilean National Standard. The same authors in previous studies had
rectified, several times to increase the purity and achieve a flavoured applied innovative criteria for qualitative analysis of composts produced
spirit (IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to from pomace and goat residues observing promising results (Martínez
Humans. et al., 1988). Spirit production through distillation entails the et al., 2016). The possibility of obtaining good quality composts from
use of resources, as well as significant costs and carbon dioxide emis pomace does not seem to necessarily derive from co-treatment with
sions. Moreover, the process yields huge volumes of distilled pomace, to other residual substrates. Moldes et al. have produced composts starting
be managed as waste, and acid wastewater, which is characterised by only from grape seeds, stalks and skins, obtained from white grape va
high chemical oxygen demand, darkish colour, and the presence of riety cultivated in Ourense (Spain), mixed in different proportions,
phenolic compounds that may inhibit biological treatment (Strong & obtaining a product that has been effective on land cultivated with ray
Burgess, 2008). The distilled grape pomace is a processed residue rich in grass crops (Moldes et al., 2007). Nistor et al. composted for six months
fibres and polyphenols, that could be extracted and recovered, though fresh local grape pomace (Paulian village, Arad County) and applied the
the process proved to be difficult as compared to the application to fresh final product in a local vineyard according to a 20 t/ha dosage; the
pomace. This has led to the study of highly effective extraction methods quality of produced grape did not change and the wine did not undergo
such as those based on the combined use of pulsed solvents and enzymes any detrimental effect (Nistor et al., 2014).
(Guerrero et al., 2008). Overall, the extraction of valuable compounds Grape pomace has relatively low nitrogen and phosphorus contents,
from distilled pomace is a little studied topic (Cisneros-Yupanqui et al., an aspect that could negatively affect aerobic treatments while is much
2021). However, several authors have underlined the possibility of less relevant in anaerobic treatments, as biomass production per unit
extracting valuable compounds from “the waste of the waste” of wine mass of degraded substrate is significantly lower (Cáceres et al., 2012; da
production despite the severe operating conditions to which the pomace Ros et al., 2016). Pomace has sufficient trace elements for anaerobic
is subjected during distillation (Bordiga et al., 2015; Peralbo-Molina bacterial growth, and the high content of water does not have the
et al., 2012). negative effects it would have in the case of aerobic treatments where it
If pomace is not used for the distillation of spirits, it is often spread on slows down oxygen diffusion (Cáceres et al., 2012). Most of all, anaer
open areas. This management method involves significant environ obic digestion is considered to be one of the main future contributors to
mental risks as pomace may retard or inhibit germination due to its energy supply in many areas such as Europe (da Ros et al., 2016). El
chemical composition (Ahmad et al., 2020; Ilyas et al., 2021; Nayak Achkar et al. demonstrated that grape pomace can be an important
et al., 2018). In fact, the phenolic compounds contained in the grape energy source by performing batch anaerobic digestion aimed at
pomace have phytotoxic and antimicrobic effects (de Melo et al., 2017; methane production. They also upscaled their study by managing a
Olszewska et al., 2020). Furthermore, the contribution to the chemical continuous-fed pilot scale reactor that confirmed the biogas yields
characteristics of the soil is limited by the high presence of lignin, whose achievable at lab scale (el Achkar et al., 2016). By way of illustration, da
difficult degradability in the absence of pre-treatments prevents the Ros et al. estimated that the combustion of the biogas theoretically
release of polysaccharides that would be beneficial to soil (Troncozo generated through anaerobic digestion of the global production of grape
et al., 2019). For these reasons, in several European countries the land pomace could generate 1520 GWh/y of heat and 1245 GWh/y of elec
spreading must be subjected to dosage limits, whilst the use of pomace is tricity to be used by wineries themselves (da Ros et al., 2016).
encouraged for the production of high-quality composted soil improvers Anaerobic treatments do not necessarily have to be pushed to the
(Cortés et al., 2020). methanization of substrate. Acid-alcoholic fermentation is the funda
As an alternative to spreading on soil, the pomace is used as it is, for mental intermediate phase of anaerobic degradation and stopping the
animal feeding. In this respect, negative effects on livestock health process at this stage allows the recovery of products of great interest
should be emphasized; in particular, the high content of lignified fibres both in gaseous (H2) and in liquid phase (mainly volatile fatty acids).
and secondary metabolites (i.e., tannins and anthocyanins) can exert Among the volatile fatty acids, the production of succinic acid, a C-4
negative effects on digestion. Lignin is contained in high amounts in dicarboxylic acid with different applications in agricultural, food and
seeds and is digestion resistant, therefore it has a low nutritional intake pharmaceutical fields, is of particular interest (Filippi et al., 2021).
(Rouches et al., 2016). On the other hand, Guerra-Rivas et al. (2017) Filippi et al. developed a novel process to obtain both a high antioxidant
reported that the nutritive value of grape pomace from red wine depends extract and succinic acid from Greek red grape pomace. The substrates,
on the grape pulp presence as increasing contents lead to better di pre-treated with both alkaline and acidic solutions, were enzymatically
gestibility and higher intake of polyphenols and linoleic acid, with hydrolysed into a high sugar-content hydrolysate. The free sugars in the
beneficial effects on the quality of meat and milk (Guerra-Rivas et al., hydrolysate can be efficiently used as the substrate by Actinobacillus
2017). succinogenes for succinic acid production (Filippi et al., 2021). The vol
atile fatty acid pool obtained through grape pomace fermentation can be
4. Alternative approaches for grape pomace valorisation also used for the production of biopolymers (Altan Kamer et al., 2021;
Joulak et al., 2021). Altan Kamer et al. successfully used Turkish red
4.1. Biological treatments grape pomace as the substrate for Sphingomonas paucimobilis to produce
a biosynthesized gellan gum with better stability against temperature
Treatment of pomace through aerobic composting makes spreading changes than commercial gellan gum (Altan Kamer et al., 2021).
on soil virtuous instead of causing soil impairment and pollution. Fossil fuels represent one of the main sources to satisfy the constantly
Indeed, quality compost produced from grape pomace can significantly growing demand for electricity, heat and cooling. However, increasing
contribute to the improvement of soils characterised by depleted organic attention to climate change requires the use of greener approaches such
3
as renewable biofuels (Sirohi et al., 2020). Due to their abundance in Alibade et al. developed a green and highly efficient methodology to
carbohydrates, agro-industrial residues represent interesting renewable recover anthocyanin pigments from Greek red grape pomace (Alibade
lignocellulosic biomass sources for biofuel production (Hernández et al., et al., 2021). Such pigments are among the most valuable phytochemi
2021; Rodríguez et al., 2010). Jin et al. developed an integrated cals present in this by-product, indeed, cyanidin, delphinidin and mal
approach for the valorisation of grape pomace obtaining, among the vidin have beneficial properties and are widely used as pigments and
others, valuable biofuels. The red grape pomaces were collected in functional ingredients for beverages, foods, cosmetics and pharmaceu
Virginia (USA), during fall. In particular, they use the reducing sugars ticals (Soceanu et al., 2021). To be effectively sustainable, the recovery
obtained from the hydrolysation of cellulose and hemicellulose derived of valuable compounds must be carried out using low-impact extraction
from red grape pomace, to fed Clostridium beijerinckii and produce methods. In this respect, Alibade et al. tested the recover efficiency of
butanol, acetone and ethanol through fermentation (Jin, Neilson, et al., two glycerol-based deep eutectic solvents. The process was also inte
2018). grated with ultrasonic pre-treatment, which significantly increased the
extraction efficiency. The effectiveness of the two deep eutectic solvents
4.2. Thermal treatments was compared with that of water and water–ethanol, which proved to be
far less effective (Alibade et al., 2021).
Like all organic materials, pomace is potentially suitable for the Guo et al. found out that a 0.5 % grape seed extract solution can:
thermal treatments of combustion, gasification and pyrolysis. As far as decrease the growth rate of various bacteria and yeast in roast chicken
combustion is concerned, Benetto et al. evaluated the production of during low-temperature storage; reduce the fat oxidation rate; and
pellets from grape pomace (Benetto et al., 2015). The results of the study maintain colour stability. Compared with normal packaging, the inno
highlighted that the energetic potential of these pellets is equivalent to vative storage method, which combines the use of grape seed extract
19.8 GJ/t dry matter on average, a promising value in view of full-scale solution with modified atmosphere packaging, may effectively extend
applications. Pyrolysis, performed at temperatures spanning the shelf life of food, preserving its quality for more than 21 days (Guo
300–800 ◦ C, is of great interest from a circular economy perspective et al., 2020).
since, compared to thermal oxidation by combustion, it allows the
chemical value of the feed material to be recovered. Furthermore, the 4.4. Extraction of polyphenols and manufacturing of health-promoting
characteristics of the process mean that no organochlorine micro added-value products: An example of optimal economic valorisation
pollutants are produced.
In an agro-industrial context, pyrolysis could be used to convert As already mentioned, grape pomace is characterised by a high
agricultural wastes to organic biochar (Sirohi et al., 2020). Madadian content of valuable phytochemicals with health-promoting properties,
et al. investigated the application of pyrolysis to different wine residues which can be used to manufacture food nutrients, supplements, nutra
and found that the activation energy for grape pomace spans ceuticals, cosmeceuticals and medical devices, meeting the interest of
29.96–41.32 kJ/mol, enough to support the feasibility of using this by- consumers (Hoss et al., 2021; Sirohi et al., 2020). Indeed, modern so
product as a source of energy for agro-industrial activities (Madadian ciety is increasingly paying attention to these products to counteract the
et al., 2022). A recent study focused on the valorisation of grape pomace risks connected with the modern lifestyle worldwide, characterized by
through solid–liquid extraction followed by pyrolysis, also assessing the stress, lack of both sleep and physical activity, consumption of junk food,
impact of extraction of phenols on pomace thermal conversion (Almeida alcohol, smoke and drugs. These unhealthy habits together with envi
et al., 2022). The use as adsorbent material of the char produced through ronmental pollution can cause oxidative stress, which is a pre-
pyrolysis of grape pomace is of great interest. In recent years, several pathological condition characterised by an overproduction of reactive
studies were performed aiming at recovering adsorbent materials for oxygen species (ROS) that endogenous antioxidants are not capable of
heavy metals and pesticides (Diaz-Ramirez et al., 2021; Yoon et al., completely neutralizing. Oxidative stress plays a crucial role in the
2021). Yoon et al. were able to produce a biochar at low pyrolytic pathogenesis of severe conditions and chronic diseases causing alter
temperature (i.e., 350 ◦ C) and tested it as an adsorbent to remove the ation of membrane, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which is pri
pesticide cymoxanil achieving a maximum adsorption capacity of 161 marily associated with ageing, but also with a wide range of pathological
mg cymoxanil /g biochar at pH 7 (Yoon et al., 2021). processes including atherosclerosis, carcinogenesis, ischemia reperfu
Hydrothermal carbonization, also known as wet pyrolysis, appears to sion injury, and neurodegenerative disorders (Farías et al., 2016).
be even more suitable for the valorisation of agro-industrial residues as However, when the endogenous defence is not able to mitigate the
the reactions involved require the presence of water, therefore the damaging effects of ROS, external antioxidants can be introduced by the
process is directly applicable to biomasses characterized by significant daily consumption of crops, food matrices or supplements aiming at
water content. This process simulates the natural formation of coal by reducing, or at least slowing down, the oxidation processes in the whole
the decomposition of organic matter in process water, under tempera body (Lobo et al., 2010; Manca et al., 2020; Winiarska-Mieczan et al.,
ture conditions spanning 180–250 ◦ C (Garrido et al., 2021). The process 2020). The long-term daily intake or the topical application of natural
yields carbonaceous materials that can be used for different purposes. antioxidants, especially polyphenolic compounds, can prevent the onset
Salaudeen et al. studied the effects of hydrothermal carbonization on the of damages associated with oxidative stress, contributing to the main
steam gasification of different fruit wastes, including grape pomace. The tenance of human health (Bacchetti et al., 2019). Phenolic compounds,
work disclosed that the process can potentially reduce tar formation by vitamins and some minerals (selenium and zinc) are the most important
removing low quality volatile compounds, but further studies are and effective agents against oxidative stress (Brewer, 2011). They act by
needed (Salaudeen et al., 2021). scavenging oxidative species, quenching singlet oxygen, chelating
metals, breaking free radical chain reactions and reducing the concen
4.3. Extraction of valuable compounds tration of ROS. The antioxidant power is strictly dependent on the
mechanism adopted by each compound and the ability to reduce or
The extraction of valuable compounds is particularly consistent with avoid peroxidation processes: phenolic compounds are effective in
the principles of the Circular Economy as it allows the recovery of trapping free radicals, but less in chelating metals; flavonoids can
products with high added value, in turn favouring the effective inte effectively scavenge free radicals and chelate metals. Phenolic com
gration of residual flows into an economic market system. In perspec pounds represent one of the most important groups of natural products
tive, it is not unthinkable to hypothesize that the extraction of valuable in plants, with more than 5000 chemicals (Fiore et al., 2020). They are
compounds could be combined with other processes useful to complete generally classified into two groups: flavonoids and non-flavonoids.
the valorisation, i.e., composting (Perra et al., 2022). Because of their ever-growing demand, polyphenols have a huge
4
market potential (Leite et al., 2021). Their market value was 580 million Solid-liquid extraction is one of the classical conventional methods
US$ in 2011 and it is expected to reach 2.08 billion by 2025 (Leite et al., applied to extract phytochemicals from grape pomace. It relies on the
2021). interaction between phytochemicals and different solvents and involves
Like fresh fruits, grape pomace is a largely available and cheap the use of different concentrations of solvents. The main disadvantages
source of polyphenols, since the main part of these phytochemicals does of this method are the high cost of used solvents, the low yield of
not pass in the wine but remains in the residual product. It has been extraction, the high temperature required and the long extraction time
estimated that approximately 70 % of the phenolics remain within the (Sirohi et al., 2020). These problems can be overcome by coupling sol
pomace after the winemaking process (Dwyer et al., 2014). Several id–liquid extraction with ultrasound and/or grinding of the raw material
studies confirmed the health-promoting effects of grape and grape- to reduce the time and temperature of extraction (da Rocha & Noreña,
derived products, which are connected to their phytochemical content 2020; Perra et al., 2021). Indeed, during conventional extraction,
characterised by high antioxidant power (Nassiri-Asl & Hosseinzadeh, bioactive compounds are exposed to high temperatures for long periods,
2009). In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that the consumption of which can cause oxidation and degradation (da Rocha & Noreña, 2020).
fresh grape is associated with the reduction of pathological processes, Ultrasounds and grinding can accelerate the interaction between phy
mainly because of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-age, anti tochemicals and the extractive solution, thus avoiding the application of
cholesterolemic, antimicrobial, antiviral, cardioprotective, neuro high temperatures and long times of extraction, enhancing extraction
protective and anti-cancer properties of the phytochemicals contained in yield and phytochemical composition, and reducing environmental and
this fruit (Barbalho et al., 2020; Yang & Xiao, 2013). Epidemiological economic issues (da Rocha & Noreña, 2020). The advantages of
evidence has linked the consumption of grapes with a reduced risk of ultrasound-assisted extraction have been investigated for several years.
chronic diseases, including neurodegenerative and cardiovascular dis The mechanism involved is cavitation, that generates bubbles on the
eases (Bertelli & Das, n.d.; Dohadwala & Vita, 2009). Singh et al. re surface of the solid matrix, which can cause, among the others, particle
ported that the consumption of grape powder in SKH-1 hairless mice breakdown, surface peeling and erosion (Alibade et al., 2021). In their
resulted in a marked inhibition of skin tumour incidence and a delay in study, Goula et al. confirmed the advantages of the ultrasound-assisted
the onset of tumorigenesis (Singh et al., 2019). The treatment was extraction process in terms of time needed and extraction yield of
associated with an enhanced repair of damaged DNA in the skin, a polyphenols. Indeed, only 10 min in aqueous ethanol were needed to
reduced proliferation and increased apoptosis of cancer cells, and a recover polyphenols from Greek red grape pomace with a high yield
modulation of several oxidative markers, especially those connected against conventional extraction that was 100 times longer (Goula et al.,
with the inhibition of oxidative stress and the metabolism of ROS. 2016).
Ammollo et al. evaluated the effect of grape consumption on coagulation Besides ultrasound-assisted extraction, other green and innovative
and fibrinolysis in healthy volunteers. They concluded that chronic techniques are microwave-assisted, supercritical fluid and pressurised
grape consumption induces sustained anticoagulant and profibrinolytic liquid extractions. The first method involves the heating of the solid
effects with potential benefits for human health (Ammollo et al., 2017). sample suspended in a proper solvent with microwaves. By applying a
Svezia et al. evaluated the in vivo effects of long-term intake of Tuscany direct electromagnetic field, this extraction increases cell breakdowns
Sangiovese grape juice in a murine model of myocardial ischemia and in and the consequent release of bioactive molecules under less aggressive
healthy human subjects. Results supported the development of a novel conditions (Figueroa et al., 2021). Microwave-assisted extraction can be
grape nutraceutical product for cardio protection (Svezia et al., 2020). successfully coupled with eutectic solvents, considerably reducing
Nash et al. provided an overview of recent trials on the positive effects of extraction time from 3.56 to 1 h, and still obtaining a high yield of
the consumption of grape and red wine polyphenols on gut microbiota in proanthocyanidins (Neto et al., 2022). In recent years, pressurised liquid
humans (Nash et al., 2018). They concluded that, despite the limited extraction has gained considerable interest as a promising and green
number of studies available, dietary intake of polyphenols derived from extraction technology (Leyva-Jiménez et al., 2021). It is based on the
red wine and grape juice seems to modulate the gut microbiota and application of high temperatures and pressures that produces high-
contribute to beneficial microbial ecology, enhancing human health. quality extracts by modifying the dielectric constant of solvents used
Vislocky and Fernandez (2010) examined the published studies on the (Leyva-Jiménez et al., 2021). Li et al. developed a green and efficient
human health benefits associated with grapes and grape products. extraction method using pressurised liquid extraction to separate anti
Several beneficial activities have been underlined, such as improved oxidants from grape skins. The skins were obtained from different grape
endothelial function, decreased LDL oxidation, reduction of athero varieties cultivated in the Jilin province (China). The developed method
sclerosis and oxidative processes (Vislocky & Fernandez, 2010). reduces run time and has higher extraction yields than those of con
Furthermore, other studies confirmed the positive effect of grape prod ventional solvent extraction, it can also be utilized to extract phyto
ucts in counteracting cardiovascular, diabetes, cancer and Alzheimer’s chemicals from all grape species (Li et al., 2019). Supercritical fluid
or other neurodegenerative diseases connected with the stimulation of extraction has been receiving growing interest as a sustainable tech
the immune system as antivirals, even if these data must be confirmed by nology that uses supercritical fluid to obtain phytochemicals without the
further studies. The antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, need of organic solvents (Leyva-Jiménez et al., 2020). This extraction is
anti-lipid-oxidation, anti-neurodegenerative and anti-cardiovascular generally used to obtain purified phytochemicals from grape pomace,
activities related to the consumption of grape have also been especially for thermosensitive compounds (Pazir et al., 2021; Sirohi
confirmed by Yang and Xiao (Yang & Xiao, 2013). Overall results un et al., 2020). Despite its merits, it is less efficient when compared to
derline the preventive and health-promoting properties of grape and its pressurised liquid extraction (Otero-Pareja et al., 2015). Otero-Pareja
by-products. et al. compared the efficiency of the two high-pressure extraction
As reported above, extraction of phytochemicals represents one of techniques, supercritical fluid extraction and pressurised liquid extrac
the main steps towards grape pomace valorisation, to achieve a lower tion, to obtain phytochemicals from grape pomace. The study underlines
environmental impact and to make this winemaking by-product a that pressurised liquid extraction using a hydro-alcoholic mixture as
valuable source of profit. In order to do this, easy, scalable, environ solvent, is more efficient than the pressurised liquid extraction using
mental and economical suitable methods are needed to be industrially CO2 and 20 % of ethanol, and it achieves a higher phenolic and antho
exploited. The study of such methods is the focus of new green chemistry cyanin extraction yield (Otero-Pareja et al., 2015).
and technologies, which avoid the use of expensive and environmental Another key step to the actual manufacturing of health-promoting
harmful organic solvents (methanol, acetone, hexane, chloroform) or products from grape pomace is the development of adequate dosage
acidic solutions typically used in the conventional extraction procedures forms to be used in food nutrients, supplements, nutraceuticals, cos
(Chowdhary et al., 2021; Portilla Rivera et al., 2021). meceuticals and medical devices (Balea et al., 2018; Carra et al., 2022;
5
Kulichová et al., 2018). The suitable design of the formulations can et al., 2020). The obtained grape pomace extract-loaded nanocapsules
facilitate the phytochemical administration and, above all, improve had high encapsulation efficiency, ~95 % for soy protein nanocapsules
their bioavailability and efficacy. However, it is possible to use the and carried high quantities of polyphenols as indicated by FTIR spectra.
extract of pomace as it is, as proved by Balea et al. that demonstrated the Both nanocapsules exerted a protective effect on the encapsulated
cardioprotective effect against myocardial ischemia by reducing oxida polyphenols which were kinetically released from them, proving to be
tive stress (Balea et al., 2018). Unfortunately, most of the naturally potentially used as food antioxidant materials (Gaber Ahmed et al.,
occurring phenols are characterised by poor water solubility and high 2020).
instability, which can result in a reduced efficacy in vivo. The formu Phospholipid vesicles ad hoc modified with specific ingredients seem
lation in products ad hoc tailored for the selected administration rout to be the ideal carriers for the delivery of these bioactive molecules, as
can permit to overcome these limitations. In recent decades, the delivery they are able to potentiate the efficacy of extracts and natural molecules
of phytochemicals from grape pomace in micro or nanocarriers has been locally (e.g., in skin and intestines) and systemically by improving their
proposed as an advanced and smart approach to improve their stability, bioavailability (Casula et al., 2021; Catalán-Latorre et al., 2018; Manca
bioavailability and biological activities at the target sites (Gaber Ahmed et al., 2020; Manconi et al., 2016; Perra et al., 2021). Manconi et al. in
et al., 2020; Simonetti et al., 2019; Vorobyova et al., 2021). For example, their work performed an environmentally friendly extraction to obtain a
Carra et al. efficiently developed microcapsules containing grape grape pomace extract with high phenolic content and antioxidant ac
pomace skin extract to enhance the thermal stability of grape phyto tivity. They used fresh Sardinian red grape pomaces, harvested in Oliena
chemicals and obtained a biocompatible and biodegradable product, (Italy) during fall. The obtained extract was incorporated in ad hoc
which has the potential for nutraceutical and cosmeceutical applications modified liposomes, obtaining polymer-associated liposomes with small
(Carra et al., 2022). Simonetti et al. developed innovative polymeric sizes and high entrapment efficiency. The polymer-associated liposomes
nanoparticles to improve the antifungal activity of grape pomace extract were more biocompatible and exerted a higher protective effect against
against Candida albicans. In particular, they obtained grape pomace oxidative stress in Caco-2 cells than the free extract, suggesting the
extract-loaded nanoparticles with high entrapment efficiency (~90 %), potential application of the novel formulations in the nutraceutical field
able to reduce, at 16 µg/ml, biofilm formation and mature biofilm by 63 (Manconi et al., 2016). More recently, Perra et al. formulated innovative
% and 50 %, respectively. While at 50 µg/ml the designed nanoparticles nanovesicles capable of both avoiding skin damages and promoting
reduced biofilm by 37 %, proving to be a promising nano delivery sys skincare. Conventional phospholipid vesicles were modified with glyc
tem with antifungal properties (Simonetti et al., 2019). Grape pomace erol or Montanov 82® or a combination of both, and were used as
extract has also been successfully encapsulated into innovative chitosan innovative carriers. The vesicles were characterised by high entrapment
and soy protein nanocapsules via nanoemulsification (Gaber Ahmed efficiency (~100 %), were highly biocompatible and capable of
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the different /processes aimed at valorising grape pomace.
6
protecting skin cells against oxidative damage to a better extent than the CRediT authorship contribution statement
free grape pomace skins extract, pointing out their potential application
into cosmeceutical and pharmaceutical fields (Perra et al., 2021). Matteo Perra: Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing
– original draft. Gianluigi Bacchetta: Supervision, Project administra
5. Conclusion tion, Validation, Writing – review & editing. Aldo Muntoni: Method
ology, Validation, Writing – review & editing. Giorgia De Gioannis:
Considering the analysed studies and their promising results, it is Methodology, Validation, Writing – review & editing. Ines Castangia:
possible to confirm that a transition of the wine-chain towards Circular Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing – review & edit
Economy based on more sustainable practices, reduced environmental ing. Hiba N. Rajha: Data curation, Writing – review & editing. Maria
impacts and recovery of valuable resources is possible, Fig. 1 (Goyal Letizia Manca: Investigation, Data curation, Writing – original draft.
et al., 2018). Maria Manconi: Supervision, Project administration, Writing – review
Although many of the approaches to grape pomace management & editing.
mentioned above are of considerable interest even taken individually,
the qualitative and quantitative optimization of recovery and the desire
to approximate the objective zero-waste require more articulated and Declaration of Competing Interest
integrated strategies. In the process chain approach, the phases of
extraction of valuable compounds must be the first in the treatment The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
chain to preserve their integrity and the possibility of an effective interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
commercialization. Once the valuable compounds are extracted, other the work reported in this paper.
treatments aimed at the valorisation of the bulk organic matter follow.
In this respect, the chain of processes that can be applied in sequence Data availability
could start, for instance, from the recovery of polyphenols through green
extraction, followed by more conventional treatments such as anaerobic The authors are unable or have chosen not to specify which data has
biodegradation to produce biogas combined with composting of the been used.
exhausted biomasses. Combination of treatments such as the one just
mentioned can give the management of agro-industrial waste matrices, Acknowledgments
those characteristics of profitability required by the principles of the
circular economy. By way of example, in their work, Farru et al. This publication has been produced with the financial assistance of
developed a cascade biorefinery starting from polyphenols recovery, the European Union under the ENI CBC Mediterranean Sea Basin Pro
through an eco-friendly and economic solid–liquid extraction, followed gramme in the framework of the BESTMEDGRAPE project. The authors
by the valorisation of the exhausted biomasses by hydrothermal thank MIUR and PON R&I for financing the Ph.D. grant.
carbonization and biogas production. In particular, the authors found
that the integration of processes can exert positive effects in terms of References
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Journal of Functional Foods 98 (2022) 105276

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Journal of Functional Foods

An outlook on modern and sustainable approaches to the management of

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