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IMPLICATURE 5
Conversational Maxims 5
SPEECH ACTS 7
A Taxonomy of Illocutionary Acts 8
Felicity Conditions 9
Explicit versus Nonexplicit Illocutionary Acts 11
Direct versus Indirect Illocutionary Acts 13
Expressed versus Implied Locutionary Acts 16
Literal versus Nonliteral Locutionary Acts 18
Overview of Speech Act Theory 19

SUMMARY 21
SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS 21
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 21
EXPLORATORY EXERCISES 24

CHAPTER THREE: Semantics 26

BACKGROUND 27
SENSE 29
REFERENCE 34
TRUTH 38
SUMMARY 43
SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS 44
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 44
EXPLORATORY EXERCISES 46

CHAPTER FOUR: Syntax 47

CATEGORIES 48
LEFT-TO-RIGHT ORDERING 49
CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE 53
X-BAR SYNTAX 60
TRANSFORMATIONS 63

Movement 65
Constraints on Movement 69

SUMMARY 72
SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS 72
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 72
EXPLORATORY EXERCISE 78

CHAPTER FIVE : Morphology 79

MORPHEMES 80
LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL MORPHEMES 82
FREE AND BOUND MORPHEMES 82
INFLECTIONAL AND DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES 83
Inflectional Affixes 83
Derivational Affixes 88
Differences between Types of Affixes 89

WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES 93
SUMMARY 95
SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS 95
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 96
EXPLORATORY EXERCISES 98

CHAPTER SIX: Phonology 99

VOCAL TRACT 100

SEGMENTS 101
PHONEMIC ALPHABET 102
Vowels 102
Consonants 105
LEVELS OF REPRESENTATION 110
PHONOLOGICAL RULES 113
Aspiration 113
Vowel Lengthening 115
Vowe
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air, have the advantage of good water, and form plantations of the
mandioca and the cane. A few leagues north of the preceding is the
parish of the Lady of Conceiçao of Montemor o Velho, the
inhabitants of which are whites and Indians, which latter are
diminishing, as in other places, with the augmentation of the first.
Mecejanna is ten miles to the south-east of the capital, near a
lake, having a church of the Lady of Conceiçao.
Soure, situated near the eastern margin of the river Siara, fifteen
miles from the sea, and the same distance from the capital, has a
church dedicated to May de Deos.
Arronches, which has for titular patroness the Lady of Humildes,
is distant seven miles from the capital, towards the south.
The three last are Indian towns, with some whites and mesticos,
who cultivate mandioca, cotton, rice, legumes, &c. The whole were
founded in places selected for the establishments of Christianized
Indians. They are all small but capable of becoming considerable, if
their inhabitants were possessed of more activity and intelligence.
In the vicinity of the sources of the river Jaguaribe, are the
parishes of St. Mattheus, in the district of Inhamuz; of the Lady of
Paz, in the district of Arneyros, formerly a Christianized Indian town.
Cattle and the necessaries of life are their principal productions.
 CHAP. XXI.
PROVINCE OF PIAUHY.

Boundaries—First Settlers—Cattle Fazendas—Mountains—

Mineralogy—Rivers—Towns.
This province derives its name from one of the rivers which water
it, and was created in the year 1718, being till that period a comarca
of Maranham, but did not begin to have governors before 1758. It is
computed to comprise four hundred miles from north to south, and
one hundred and seventy of medium width. Its form is almost
triangular, having more than three hundred and forty miles on the
southern side, where it is confined by the province of Pernambuco,
and about sixty on the northern side, where it is washed by the
ocean. On the east it is bounded by the province of Siara, from
which it is separated by the serra of Hibiapaba, on the west by the
river Parnahiba, which divides it from Maranham. The country is
almost generally low and flat, interspersed with small hills and
extensive plains, principally sandy, in great part destitute of trees,
and also in places of shrubs. It exhibits herbage during the period of
rains, or whilst the soil preserves any humidity, but it is soon
shrivelled up on the return of the sun’s parching rays. This province
has various streams all tributary to the important river Parnahiba.
The winter commences in October, and lasts till April, accompanied
with thunder and rain. The wind prevails at the beginning from the
north, and afterwards passes round to the south. The climate is hot,
and fevers reign in some districts. In the northern part, the days and
nights are equal all the year, and in the southern districts of the
province there is only a difference of half an hour. This territory was
possessed by various nations, generally not numerous, whose
reduction or repulsion did not consume much time or expenditure of
lives, differing in this respect from many other provinces of much
less extent, and arising from the concurring circumstances of the
great deficiency of woods and serras, which in almost all the other
districts served the savages for retreat and refuge. Those who
afforded the greatest difficulty in subduing them, were a tribe living in
the vicinity of the river Poty, commanded by a domestic Indian, who
had fled from an aldeia of Pernambuco, and who animated them to a
desperate resistance, until he perished in swimming across the
Parnahiba. Mandu Ladino was the common name by which this
chieftain was designated.
More than fifty years had elapsed without any intelligence of the
existence of wild Indians within the precincts of the province, when,
about the year 1760, on its southern side, a band appeared, who
from that period have annoyed the colonists very much, and have
compelled them to abandon a great number of fazendas for breeding
cattle. The whites give this tribe the appellation of Pimenteiras, in
consequence of there being a situation so denominated in the district
which they occupy. They have their dwelling places between the
heads of the rivers Piauhy and Gurguea, near the boundary of the
province, being surrounded by the establishments of the Portuguese.
Within their territory there is a large lake abounding with fish, near
which they take up their residence for a considerable period of the
year. It is conjectured that they were, or at least in part, descendants
of various families who lived domesticated with the whites in the
vicinity of Quebrobo, and from whom they deserted about the year
1685, in order to avoid marching under the banners of the forces
equipped against their Indian brethren. Their hostilities commenced
in consequence of a dog being killed in the vicinity of Gurguea,
whither they had proceeded upon an occasion of hunting. In a
frustrated assault which they made, eighty bows were found, from
which it was inferred they had a considerably greater number of men
capable of using that weapon. Domingos Jorge, a Paulista, and
Domingos Affonso, from Maffra, in Portugal, were the first persons
who began the conquest of this province. Towards the year 1674, the
latter possessed a fazenda for breeding cattle on the northern side of
the river St. Francisco. The great injury which he there sustained
from the central Indians, and the desire of augmenting his fortune
with similar possessions, urged him to undertake the conquest of the
northern country, for which object he assembled all the people he
could accumulate, and having passed the serra of Dois Irmaos, (Two
Brothers,) towards the north, he, fortunately for himself, encountered
the Paulista before mentioned, who was in the progress of reducing
Indians to captivity, and they afforded mutual succour to each other.
Having ultimately captured a considerable number, and caused the
remainder to retire, the Paulista returned to his country with the
greater part of the captive Indians, and the European remained
master of the territory. Other companies made similar entries into
this district, the said Affonso always remaining supreme captain of
the whole, and the vast possessions thus acquired by the entrance
of various parties, received the denomination of Certam. It is said
that he established above fifty fazendas for the breeding of large
cattle, and that he gave away and sold many during his life. It is
however certain, that at his death, he left thirty, and appointed the
Jesuits of the College of Bahia administrators of them, ordering the
revenues of eleven to be appropriated for dowries to young virgins,
to the clothing of widows, and to succour other necessities of the
poor. With the rest they were to augment the number of fazendas,
but it is said that they only established three more. With the
extinction of this sect, the whole passed under the administration of
the crown, and are preserved in the same state by the inspection of
three administrators, each having eleven fazendas in his jurisdiction,
with three hundred milreas of salary. They occupy the territory
through which the rivers Piauhy and Caninde flow, from the
boundary of the province to the north of the capital, in the vicinity of
which there are some principal ones. The privilege of forming
establishments within their lands is not granted to any one, where
the slaves of the fazendas work alone for their subsistence and
clothing. The cattle arriving at a certain age are conducted by the
purchasers principally to Bahia and its reconcave. Those of the
northern district descend to Maranham, others are driven to
Pernambuco.
Mountains.—This province has no serras of any consequence, if
we except the cordillera which limits it on the east, and that from
whence emanate the divers branches of the Parnahiba. In the
interior alone there are trifling hills, and some small morros, which
even in the country have not acquired any names.
The serra denominated Dois Irmaos consists of two small mounts
in the southern confines, between which the road passes from the
capital to the river St. Francisco.
Mineralogy.—Gold, iron, lead, copperas, pumice stone,
saltpetre, mineral salt, magnete, talc, grindstone, red lead, parget,
potters’ earth, and abundance of calcareous stone.
Rivers.—The river Parnahiba is formed of three currents of the
same name, the origins of which are in the skirts or proximity of the
serra which limits the province on the south-west. Its first tributary is
the river Balsas, the only one which joins it by the left margin. A short
distance below this confluence, the river Urussuhy enters it on the
right, and comes from the same serra. Eighty miles lower, the
Gurguea is incorporated with it; one hundred miles further it receives
the Caninde, and twenty more, the Poty. After one hundred and thirty
miles, the mouth of the river Longa is met with, a little lower than
which a small arm issues from the Parnahiba to the east, which
traverses a large lake called Encantada, and forms an island of
about five miles in length, of proportionate width, flat, and in the form
of half a circle. Twenty miles further, this river divides itself into two
rather unequal currents, and ultimately enters the ocean by six
mouths, formed by five islands of various sizes, which are never
submerged, and some of them afford pasture for cattle. The eastern
branch and the most considerable is denominated Hyguarassu, the
next Barravelha, that which follows is called Barra do Meio; the
fourth, Barra do Caju; the fifth, Barra das Cannarias, the most
western Tutoya, by which the small river of the same name is
discharged. Thirty miles is reckoned between the two extreme
embouchures. This river, by which barks of considerable burden
proceed up to the confluence of the Balsas, affords navigation very
nearly to its origin to canoes, which use the sail for eight days, the
remainder always the oar and the vara, rendering the voyage long
and tedious. This river has no falls, only currents, the largest of
which render it necessary to relieve the barks of half their cargoes.
Its bed is winding, and generally wide and handsome. Amongst
many other fish which it affords the most esteemed are the sorubin,
camurupin, piratinga, fidalgo, mandin, pirapemba, piranha, and
trahira.
 The river Poty, to which was given the name of the people who
inhabited the country through which it flows at its commencement,
originates on the western side of the mountain from whence the
Jaguaribe before described issues, in the district of St. Joze. After a
course of about fifty miles, traversing plains which abound with
cattle, and fifteen miles below the arraial of the Piranhas, where
there is a hermitage of the Lord Bom Jesus, it opens a narrow
passage across the cordillera, forming various interesting cascades.
Issuing from thence, it receives by the right margin the considerable
stream Macambira, that flows from the Serra Cocos. Thirty-five miles
below this confluence, it is united on the left by the small river
Marvao; and about the same distance further, it receives by the
same side the river St. Victor, which comes from the plains of Lagoa,
with more than seventy miles of course, and brings with it the small
rivers St. Nicolau and Berlengas. Upwards of seventy miles below
this point, it discharges itself into the ocean. Its bed is for the most
part wide, and its current tranquil. Canoes advance up some
leagues; and upon its margins is cultivated good tobacco.
The river Gurguea issues from a stony part of the skirts of the
serra of its name, which is a portion of that before mentioned, where
the river Urussuhy has its origin. After flowing seventy miles north, it
gathers on the right the Pirahim, and, continuing in the same
direction for one hundred and seventy miles more, it falls into the
Parnahiba. Its current is rapid, and almost universally through a flat
country, abounding with cattle. It affords navigation only during the
winter, has one fall a few leagues above its mouth, and its waters are
of a greenish colour.
The river Pirahim originates nine leagues to the east of the
preceding, at the base of the same serra, which forms the boundary
on the side of Pernambuco, and, after seventy miles of course
northward, it traverses the lake Pernagua, and fifty miles lower
enters the Parnahiba. It runs almost generally between narrow
banks, and with considerable depth through a solid soil.
The Caninde has its source near Serra Dois Irmaos, runs
northward, and passes within two miles of Oeyras; and seventy
miles further its waters are absorbed by the Parnahiba, after a
course of one hundred and eighty miles, through a flat country rich in
cattle; it runs at first only as a current during the period of rains. In
the angle of its confluence there is an extensive plain, well adapted
for the foundation of a town, and within its precincts every branch of
agriculture would not fail to flourish.
The Itahim rises near the southern boundary of the province,
passes near the serra Vermelha, flowing for a considerable space
parallel with the Caninde, which it joins on the right eighteen miles
above Oeyras, after having traversed an extensive country
abounding with cattle. Its largest confluent is the small river Guaribis,
which has a considerable course, and joins it, by the right margin,
eight miles above its mouth.
The Piauhy, from which the province derives its name, originates
near the boundary, runs north, and enters the Caninde fifty miles
below the capital, after a course of one hundred and forty miles,
through lands affording pasturage for cattle.
The river Longa rises in the campos of the town of Campo Maior,
passing it within eight miles, and taking a northerly direction. Among
other small rivers which enlarge it, are the Sorubim, the Maratahoan,
running through a bed of amolar stone, and the Piracruca, which
comes from the Serra Hibiapaba. It is only considerable during rains,
and navigable for the space of twenty miles to the situation of
Victoria. Near its margins, which abound with cattle and capibaras,
there are many lakes: some are considerable, and have small
islands, but the whole are dried up immediately the river begins to be
impoverished by drought.
Phytology.—This province has few woods, and those of little
extent; but possesses trees of good timber for building. The
carnahuba and piassaba trees are very numerous in some districts.
Cocoa-nut trees appear only in the vicinity of the sea. Quinaquina, or
Jesuits’ bark, is said to grow here. The soil is in parts substantial,
and appropriated to the culture of mandioca, Indian corn, legumes,
rice, the cane, and tobacco, producing sufficient of all for the
consumption of the country. The tobacco upon the margins of the
Parnahiba passes in the opinion of many for the best in the Brazil; at
least it is dearer, and preferred to the approved quality of Bahia.
There are large plantations of the cotton tree, the produce of which
furnishes a considerable branch of commerce. Jalap and
ipecacuanha are not unknown; as also, among other fruit trees of the
plains, the ambuzo, the jabuticaba, and the mangaba; the jaca and
mango trees are rare. The orange and banana trees are not
common to all places; but the atta, or pine tree, prospers almost in
all parts, and produces fruit in perfection. European fruit trees
scarcely appear. The fig and the vine acquire little size and fructify in
small quantity.
Zoology.—The abundance and good quality of pasturage which
is met with in all the districts, and generally without many portions
appropriated to agriculture, has caused the lands, almost in all parts,
to be destined for breeding cattle, which are prodigiously numerous,
and constitute the main property in the country; and this province
may be considered the great mart for the supply of beef to
Maranham, Pernambuco, and Bahia, at which places the cattle
arrive in much better condition than at Rio de Janeiro. Horses are
not bred beyond the wants of the country. Sheep are numerous, and
goats much less so; but if the inhabitants were industrious, and well
acquainted with cutting and tanning the skins, they would form a
considerable branch of commerce. All the wild animals of the
neighbouring provinces are well known here; deer are the most
numerous. In the short extent of the coast of this province there are
no islands, capes, nor points; and the only port is that of the river
Hyguarassu, capable of receiving sumacas, which formerly
navigated to the town of St. Joao, but at present remain eight miles
below it, in consequence of the river diminishing in depth. The
entrance, besides, is dangerous.
The towns of this province are the following:—
 Oeyras
Parnahiba
Marvao
Campo Maior
Vallenca
Jerumenha
Pernagua.

Oeyras, to which King Joseph gave the title of city, with this
appellation, in honour of his celebrated secretary, the first count of
that name, was denominated until then the town of Mocha, having
been so created in the reign of John V. about the year 1718; and,
although it has been from this period the capital of the province, it
does not yet surpass a small town; but is well enough supplied, and
well situated near the right margin of a stream, which, three miles
lower, falls into the Caninde. It is two hundred and fifty miles to the
south of St. Joam de Parnahiba, and upwards of three hundred to
the south-south-east of St. Luiz of Maranham; one hundred and forty
in the same direction from Cachias; and between six and seven
hundred miles to the west of the town of Pernambuco. The church is
dedicated to the Lady of Victory, and it has also the hermitages of
Conceiçao and Rozario. The houses are generally of clay and
timber, whitened with potters’ earth; and the greater part of its
inhabitants are Europeans.
Parnahiba, a middling town, and the principal in the province, is
advantageously situated upon a point on the right margin of the
eastern branch of the river from which its name is borrowed, in
sandy ground, fifteen miles from the sea. It has some houses of one
story, which are not seen in any other towns of the province; and the
streets are generally unpaved. It is the deposit of a great quantity of
cotton and hides, and has a church dedicated to the Lady of Graca.
The inhabitants draw their water from the river or from cacimbas,
and are frequently attacked with fevers. In 1811, it became the
residence of a Juiz de Fora, and a custom-house was at the same
time established. Within its district large and excellent melons grow,
also water-melons throughout the year.
 Campo Maior is a town in a state of mediocrity, well situated upon
the margin, and eight miles above the embouchure of the small river
Sorubim, of which it formerly had the name. It is thirty miles distant
from Parnahiba, near a profound lake, stored with fish and good
water. Besides the church dedicated to St. Antonio, it has a
hermitage of the Lady of Rozario. The small river Maratahoan
washes its district, from the bed of which are drawn excellent
grindstones. The inhabitants breed cattle, and cultivate cotton and
the necessaries of life.
Vallenca, primitively Catinguinha, is a small town, situated upon
an insignificant stream, which fifteen miles lower enters the river St.
Victor. Its church is dedicated to the Lady of O. Within its district
there is saltpetre, and good pasturage, where many cattle are bred.
Twenty-five miles distant is the chapel of the Lady of Conceiçao, and
in its environs are cultivated the necessaries of life peculiar to the
country.
Marvao, whose first name was Rancho do Prato, is also a small
place, situated in a plain twenty miles above the mouth of the small
river so called, on the margin of which graze herds of large cattle,
constituting the wealth of its dwellers. The Lady of Desterro is the
patroness of its church, and within the district there is silver and
pumice-stone.
Jerumenha is an insignificant town, upon the margin and fifteen
miles above the embouchure of the Gurguea, of which it had
originally the name. It has a church dedicated to St. Antonio; and the
inhabitants breed cattle and cultivate the common necessaries of
life. They are frequently attacked with fevers.
Pernagua is a small town and well situated upon the western
margin of a lake fifteen miles in length, near eight in width, deep, well
stored with fish, and traversed by the river Pirahim. It has a fine
church of stone, dedicated to the Lady of Livramento; having flat
environs, small hills only being seen at a distance. The inhabitants,
amongst whom are some Europeans, raise cattle and horses; and
besides other agricultural productions, the sugar cane, of which is
made rapaduras, and an ardent spirit. It is above fifty miles distant
from the southern limits of the province, about the same from the
river Preto, and above one hundred and thirty miles from the town of
St. Francisco das Chagas. In its district there are portions of ground
appropriated to the culture of tobacco.
The lake of Pernagua which is reduced to eight miles of length,
and four in width, during the dry season, was formed, it is said, by an
extraordinary overflowing of the river, since the Portuguese were
masters of the country.
The considerable arraial of Piracruca, well situated near the small
river of its name, forty miles distant from the mouth of the Longa, has
the best church of the province. In its district there are copperas and
the real Jesuits’ bark. The inhabitants have large plantations of
cotton, mandioca, and sugar; from the latter rum and rapaduras are
made.
The aldeia and Indian parish of St. Gonçalo d’Amarante, is in a
well selected and fertile district, where any other class of people
would ere this have rendered agriculture flourishing, lived in
abundance, and have become rich. It is eighteen miles from the
mouth of the Caninde, and seventy north of the capital; and was
founded about the year 1766, for the habitation of nine hundred
Guegues, who occupied the country about the heads of the
Parnahiba, and sixteen hundred Acroas, who lived more to the
southward. Some time having elapsed, the whole deserted: they
were, however, subsequently re-conquered, and re-established in
the same place, which has ever since been going into a state of
decay.
The parish of the Lady of Merces, whose first inhabitants were
mainly Jahico Indians, lies between the Itahim, and the small river
Guaribas. All the parishioners live dispersed, the vicar being the only
resident near the church, which is about seventy miles from the
capital.
The two last parishes were created a few years ago, and formerly
belonged to that of the capital; in whose extensive district there are
yet to be remarked the chapel of Our Lady of Humildes, not far
removed from the heads of the Caninde; that of St. Ignacio, near the
same river, and thirty-five miles from the capital; that of St. Joam,
near the origin of the Piauhy; and the Lady of Nazareth, upon the
margin of the said river, forty miles from Oeyras; also the Lady of
Conceiçao, in the situation of Bocayna, near the small river
Guaribas.
The considerable arraial of Poti, advantageously situated near
the embouchure of the river which affords it the name, has already
some commerce, and might easily become a considerable
povoaçao. All the people are within the diocese of the bishop of
Maranham, who has a vicar-general at Oeyras. The literary subsidy,
as it is denominated, arising from an impost upon cattle in this
province, is important enough. But there was not till within this few
years a single royal professor, as they are so imposingly styled, in
any part of it, for either the primitive letters or Latin; but instead of
any knowledge of the classics being diffused amongst the population
of the Brazil, by these titled masters, it is altogether unlettered; in
fact, I have seen some of those royal preceptors unattended by a
single pupil.
 CHAP. XXII.
PROVINCE OF MARANHAM.

First Donatory—Shipwreck of Persons intended for its Colonization—Establishment of the French—

Retaken—Foundation of Capital—Taken by the Dutch—Retaken—Agricultural Company—
Boundaries—Rivers, Ports, and Islands—Mineralogy—Phytology—Zoology—Indians—Povoaçoes—
City of Maranham—Commerce—Exports of Produce.
John III. was more peculiarly attentive to the prosperity and improvement of the Brazil, than any
other of the Portuguese sovereigns, with the exception of the present monarch, John VI. whose salutary
administration of power in the Transatlantic part of his dominions, may be regarded as the result of
those important events in Europe, which led to the removal of the Royal Family to this region, and the
consequent introduction of a more liberal intercourse with other nations. But these benefits are but the
dawnings of future civilization and improvement.
John III. in pursuance of his good wishes towards the Brazil, determined to partition the coast into
capitanias, and that denominated Maranhao, was presented by his Majesty to the historian Joam de
Barros. It is probable that this part of the coast had acquired that name from the circumstance of V. Y.
Pinson, after his discovery of Cape St. Augustin, having entered a gulf or the mouth of a great river,
which was unquestionably the Amazons, and whose waters not possessing the saline qualities of the
ocean, he called Mara-non, (not sea.) Hence followed the Portuguese denomination of this territory
Maranhao, and Maranham by the English, resulting from the false notion which the Portuguese at first
entertained that it was the great river. Its donatory, Joam de Barros, being a man of noble spirit, and
determined to do the utmost for the colonization of this important donation, united with his own
inadequate means those of the Cavalheiros Fernando Alvarez and Ayres da Cunha. It was unanimously
agreed that Ayres da Cunha should be intrusted with the settlement of the colony, which sailed from
Lisbon in 1535, consisting of nine hundred persons, including two sons of the donatory, with the
important addition of one hundred and thirteen horses.
This armament, comprising ten vessels, and considered the most powerful that had sailed for a long
period from the Tagus, was unfortunately wrecked upon the shoals which surround the island of
Maranham. Some persons escaped to the island of Medi or Boqueirao at the entrance of the bay; but
which not being adapted for the foundation of the colony, they abandoned and returned to Portugal by
the first vessel that appeared, excepting one individual, a blacksmith, called Pedro, or Pero, who
remained among the Indians, and rendered himself highly important and exceedingly useful to them, in
consequence of the variety of instruments he constructed of the iron taken from the fragments of the
wreck that were washed upon the beach. A daughter of a cacique, or prince, was bestowed upon him in
marriage, by whom he had two sons, both called Pedros, or Peros, from which the Indians thought the
Portuguese all had this name, and they usually gave that nation the appellation of Peros.
The severe disappointment which Barros sustained, not only in the loss of his property but of his two
sons, by this terrible disaster, deterred him from making any further attempt. And the same monarch
gave this territory to Luiz de Mello, and furnished him with three ships and two caravels, that he might
the more effectually execute his project, which was to penetrate by the river Amazons as far as the
eastern mines of Peru. He was not, however, much less unfortunate than Ayres da Cunha, the whole of
the armament being lost near the same place, excepting one caravel that escaped, and with which he
returned to Lisbon. These misfortunes attending the vessels that entered even the best anchorage place
of this province discouraged all those persons who were capable of colonizing its fertile land, but did not
prevent its being visited by other nations.
In the year 1594 M. Rifault, a Frenchman, entered the port of Maranham with three sail, where he left
Charles Vaux and a small number of his crew. This weak colony was reinforced in the year 1612 by M.
Ravardiere. Two years afterwards Jeronimo d’Albuquerque Coelho was despatched from Pernambuco
by order of the governor, Gaspar de Souza, to expel those intruders, over whom, after some attacks, he
gained very little advantage, by a capitulation which he entered into with them. Alexandre de Moura,
who arrived there the following year with a strong force, proposed, instead of the capitulation, the
evacuation of the place by the French, to which their commander, from the weak condition of the colony,
was under the necessity of acceding. This event, occurring on the 1st of November, induced Moura to
give the name of Todos os Santos to the island, which it did not however long retain.
Jeronimo d’Albuquerque was left here by Alexandre de Moura with the post of captao-mor, and was
instructed to found a povoaçao and continue the conquest of this new province on account of the
government. He preferred the situation which had been selected by the French, where he commenced
the capital, in the increase and defence of which he was occupied till the year 1618, when he died, and
was succeeded by his son, Antonio d’Albuquerque, as temporary governor for more than a year, when
Domingos da Costa Machado was appointed to this situation. In the beginning of his government Jorge
de Lemos arrived there with two hundred families from the Azores, in three vessels, at his own cost.
In 1621 there was a very great mortality amongst the domestic Indians, caused by the small pox.
Part of this loss was remedied in the same year by the transmission of forty families, also from the
islands of the Azores, by the provedor-mor, Antonio Ferraira Bitancourt, in pursuance of an arrangement
made with the crown.
Antonio Moniz Barreiros succeeded to this government in 1622, to whom the senate, in the name of
the people, presented a requisition that he would not consent to the establishment of the Jesuits there,
as it was thought the introduction of their principles among the Indians would not be favourable to the
colonists. He established two sugar works, in accomplishment of the obligation his father, of the same
name, was under from being appointed provedor-mor of the treasury at Bahia.
Some time before Barreiros began his government the court of Madrid (in 1621) resolved to form the
conquests of Maranham into a new state of the same name, and for its governor was nominated D.
Diogo de Carcoma, whose refusal occasioned the appointment of D. Francisco de Moura. This
individual not going, Francisco Coelho de Carvalho was elected, who sailed from the Tagus in March,
1624, and disembarked at Pernambuco, where the irruptions of the Dutch detained him nearly two
years, so that he did not arrive at the capital of Maranham till 1626, having previously taken possession
of the fort of Siara, which then formed a part of this province. In the following year he visited the
province of Grand Para and entered the bay of Gurupy, where he established a povoaçao, which he
called Vera Cruz, and died in the twelfth year of his government.
In 1641, when John IV. again had an ambassador at the Dutch court, which had recognised him as
the legitimate sovereign of Portugal, a Dutch vessel arrived at Maranham, under the pretence of having
been driven there by a violent tempest, and requested that assistance which in such cases is customary
for friendly nations to afford to each other. The credulous friendship of the governor was taken
advantage of by the Dutch, who suddenly possessed themselves of the capital, and with facility
subjugated the rest of the province; from whence, however, they were expelled by the Portuguese in
1643.
All the governors of this province had not the titles of captains-general of the state; occasionally
Grand Para enjoyed this pre-eminence. All proceedings that admitted of appeal after the sentence of the
magistrates, in all the provinces, were always referred to the court, and their bishops immediately upon
creation became suffragans of the metropolitan of Lisbon.
The subjection of the Portuguese nation to a foreign sceptre, the pretensions of the Dutch to the
Brazil, afterwards the prolonged war preceding the reversion of the crown, and, finally, the alleged long
existing destructive abuses of the Braganza family, are adduced as plausible reasons for the
unflourishing state of the Brazil for nearly a century and a half.
With the change of hemisphere the first colonists are also said to have changed their customs,
entering into the pursuits of agriculture with no spirit, alike regarding improvement and instruction with
indifference, and preferring the idiom of the barbarous Tupinambas to their own. The various Jesuitical
missionaries, however, made great progress in the conversion of the Indians, and in which they would
have been more successful had not the colonists degenerated so much and relaxed in their obedience
to the laws. The Portuguese language began to be generally used in the year 1755, and at this epoch
agriculture assumed a more flourishing aspect, in consequence of the creation of a public company,
which included the province of Para. Its capital amounted to one million two hundred thousand
crusades, which was raised by twelve hundred shares; the possession of ten shares rendered each
individual eligible to the administration of the affairs of the company, which was decried by some as
introductory of ignorance and a system of destruction.
This province is bounded on the north by the ocean, on the west by the province of Para, on the
south by those of Goyaz and Piauhy, and on the east by the latter. It is of a triangular form, extending
nearly four hundred miles from north to south on its western side, and about three hundred and fifty
miles from west to east along the coast, lying between 1° and 7½° south latitude. Its vicinity to the
equator renders the climate hot. The thunderstorms introduce the winter season, which begin in the
southern districts about the month of October, where the longest day is twelve hours and a half. In the
northern part of the province there is scarcely any difference between the day and night all the year. The
country is mostly uneven, but without any mountains of considerable elevation. It has large and
numerous rivers, and is mainly covered with woods, affording a variety and abundance of excellent
timber.
Rivers, Ports, and Islands.—About two miles within the bar of the channel of Tutoya, (the western
branch of the river Parnahyba and the eastern limits of this province,) the river of the same name is
discharged, after a short course, being only of note as far as the tide ascends. In front of its mouth is a
small island, which forms an anchorage place.
Fifteen miles to the west of Tutoya bar is the Perguicas, which is large, and affords good anchorage
for small vessels within the eastern point. Following a handsome beach of white sand for about thirty
miles, denominated the Lancoes, and at its termination another of about twelve miles, covered with
mangroves, is the river Marim, which flows through a fertile soil and is discharged by three mouths.
Passing the western mouth of this river the coast changes its direction to the south-west, and forms a
gulf or bay of about thirty-five miles in extent, in which is situated the island of Maranham, (twenty miles
long from north-east to south-west, and fifteen at its greatest width,) forming, with the continent, two
bays, one to the east, called St. Joze, and the other to the west, St. Marcos, each about six miles in
width, communicating by a narrow strait, denominated the river Mosquito, fifteen miles long, and
separating the island from the continent: this island, almost covered with woods, has some eminences
and fifteen perennial streams.
Seven miles beyond the Marim the Perea discharges itself, and is navigable for a considerable
distance. Almost in front of it is an island of the same name, near to which is another, called Raza, and
not far distant that of St. Anna. The river Moconandiva follows, and after it the Mamuna, which is
discharged by two mouths, the western one being called Aragatuba; the interval between it and the
Perea, about twelve miles, is an archipelago. Twenty-eight miles further is discharged the large river
Mony, which originates about twenty-five miles from the margin of the Parnahyba, and six miles above
its mouth receives the Iguara, which waters a country where the necessaries of life are only partially
cultivated. Three miles west of the Mony is the vast embouchure of the large river Itapicuru, being the
most considerable of the province. It originates in the district of Balsas, the most southern portion of
Maranham, where it already assumes the appearance of a large river, running north-east to Cachias,
one hundred miles above which it receives on the left the Alpercatas, of equal size, and which comes
from the territory of the Tymbyra Indians, whither it affords navigation to canoes. In Cachias it changes
its direction to the north-west, and passes by two parishes of the same name, where the tide and the
navigation of large barks with the sail terminate. Its current is rapid and the course winding, generally
through extensive woods. The fishermen who use the line about the heads of this river, occasionally
catch a species of small eel whose electric powers are greater than the torpedo, conveying its influence
up the line and rod, and benumbing the arm, so that it cannot be moved; this electrical effect is
attributed to a stone the fish has in its head, and which is much esteemed by the superstitious, who
attach many virtues to it. Humboldt tried many interesting experiments with this fish, whose electric fire
is exhausted after many discharges; amongst other trials of its power were the driving horses into a
pond and compelling them to withstand the gradually decreasing shocks of a great many of them. The
two last rivers enter the bay of St. Joze.
About twenty miles further west, at the bottom of the bay of St. Marcos and the same distance south-
west of the capital is the mouth of the large river Meary, or Mearim, sometimes called Maranham, which
originates also in the southern part of the province, describing numerous windings, and increasing by
the addition of various streams, among which is the Grajehu. Its bed is deep and wide, and the current
so rapid that it suspends the progress of the tide for a considerable period, and produces by this
opposition an extraordinary agitation of the waters, which is called Pororocas; when the tide has
vanquished its opponent it flows up for three hours with astonishing rapidity. This phenomenon occupies
a space of nearly fifteen miles, occasioning a loud noise, and there are situations, called esperas, where
canoes wait until the tide re-advances, and then continue their voyage without danger. This large river,
which has the least depth at its extended mouth where vessels can only enter with the tide, affords
navigation to the centre of the province, where a large fall interrupts it. It traverses the territories of the
Gamella Indians and other barbarous nations. In the vicinity of the sea it flows through fine campinhas
of fertile land, where cattle are raised, a diversity of the necessaries of life, and cotton. One of its
principal and last confluents is the Pinnare, up which small craft proceed to the town of Vianna. The
coast beyond the Mearim inclines to the north, forming a bay ten miles in extent, about fifteen miles
beyond which is the bay of Cuma, nine miles long and three wide, open to the east, and receiving the
river Piracunan.
Twenty miles further is the bay called Cabello da Velha, six miles wide, nearly of equal length, and
receiving the river Cururupu. Its entrance is between two small islands surrounded with dangerous
shoals. In the proximity of the shore, half way between the two last bays, is a file of five islands, thickly
covered with woods; the largest is about four miles in length. About twenty miles further, the coast being
bordered by the same number of islands, is the embouchure of the Turynana, which has an extensive
course and here affords good anchorage for small vessels. In front of this is the island of St. Joam, the
most westerly of those alluded to; it is ten miles long from north-east to south-west, flat, covered with
woods, and occupied by birds and wild quadrupeds. A profound channel, three miles in width, separates
it from the continent; near its north-eastern point there is safe anchorage.
Further westward is the vast bay of Turyvassu, the limits of the province on the side of Para. It
receives a river of the same name, after flowing a great distance through extensive woods. The Indians,
who, under various appellations had the dominion of the island of Maranham and the adjoining
continent, were Tupinambas, and divided into small tribes.
Mineralogy.—Calcareous stone, copperas, alum, iron, lead, and silver, antimony, amianthus,
saltpetre, mineral salt, crystals, grindstone, and quarries or rocks of granite.
Phytology.—The Asiatic cocoa-nut tree grows sparingly, and only along the coast. The pine is
common, and fructifies in perfection. From the fruit of the mamona is extracted almost all the oil which is
used for lights. Here are trees of gum copal, storax, mastick, bensoin, dragons’ blood, the oil of
cupahyba, or capivi, the arariba, from whose bark is extracted a beautiful crimson colour, the
barbatimoe, cajue-nut ambuzo, cocoa, jabuticaba, mangaba, aracaza, babonilha, butua, ginger, jalap,
ipecacuanha, and the palm. The cane prospers in many situations, but its culture has been supplanted
by that of cotton, which constitutes the main article of exportation, and the principal wealth of the
country. Amongst resinous trees is also the sucuba, the gum of which passes for the ammoniac of the
Levant. The deity who presides over grain, the lifesustaining Ceres, has here but little influence, and rice
only is cultivated, but to a very great extent; the soil is equally well adapted to the produce of Indian
corn. The irregularity of the seasons does not permit the cultivation of wheat, rye, or barley. Water-
melons, melons, and pine-apples are excellent. The indigenous banana tree produces fruit in immense
profusion and of the best quality.
Zoology.—Cattle, sheep, and goats multiply here better than in the countries from which they were
imported, but do not improve in size nor in the flavour of their meat, neither are they very numerous, with
the exception of the first. Mules are bred here, also hogs, equal to the consumption of the country. All
the species of wild animals are met with, peculiar to the eastern provinces. The moco is numerous in all
parts. The birds of the plains, woods, and lakes, known in the other districts, are common here; and the
handsome guara abound in the proximity of the sea. There is in this part of South America a particular
species of silk worm, more prolific than the ordinary kinds of Bombay or Persia. The colour of the silk is
a dark yellow, and might be rendered a considerable branch of commerce, in consequence of the facility
which would attend its abundant cultivation, if any adequate attention was afforded to it. The insect
receives its nourishment from leaves of the orange and the pine tree, or atta, which is common in its
native country.
All the territory lying between the rivers Itapicuru and the Parnahyba has been for many years
evacuated by the Indians, as well as the northern part of that to the west of the first river, and is more or
less inhabited by whites, and Christianized Indians, mainly occupied in the cultivation of mandioca,
Indian corn, and legumes, and above all in the two vegetable articles of exportation, rice and cotton,
almost all the labour being performed by the hands of negroes, who exceed by many times the number
of the others. Families live for the most part dispersed. A certain proportion of land, where each
cultivator dwells, generally with all his family and slaves, is of itself considered an aldeia. There are few
aldeias compared with the extent of the province, having any considerable number of families, with the
exception of those which have been created parishes, many comprising sixty miles or more of district.
Excellent nets used for sleeping, and some coarse cottons, made into dresses, generally for slaves, are
manufactured here.
The southern portion of the western district of this province is still in the possession of the Indians, as
well as a great extent of the central part. The most northern tribe, bordering upon the Portuguese, are
called by them the Gamellas, in consequence of their prevailing custom of perforating and distending
the under lip, with a sort of calabash, or round piece of wood, which produces some resemblance to a
small gamella, or wooden bowl. They cultivate various necessaries of life, and live in cabanas, when
they are not out upon their hunting excursions, or gathering wild fruits. Their arms are the bow and
arrow, and a club of hard wood, denominated a mataranna, cornered at the thicker end and pointed at
the other.
The Timbyras occupy the country to the south of them, and are divided into two hordes, one
denominated Timbyras da Matta, (of the wood,) from living in the interior of forests; the other, Timbyras
de Canella Fina, from the delicate form of their legs. They rove in the desert plains, and are of such
amazing velocity, that they equal the swiftness of the horse. All use a bow made of a species of small
club, and another large one of violet wood, and flat. Those of the woods have in their territory a large
lake, and mines of salt, which they use, and cultivate mandioca and other necessaries, also some
cotton, of which they make their hammocks. They distil various beverages, more or less inebriating,
which last only for a short time, arising as much from the quality as the excess with which they use
them. From the period they begin to drink them, till they are finished, are days of folly, dedicated to
tumultuous dancing and dissension.
Proceeding southward, the Manajos are met with, who are of a white complexion, and occupy a
country to the west of Balsas, extending themselves to the margin of the Tucantins, where they receive
the name of Temembos. In their vicinity dwell the Bus and Cupinharos. The territory bounding this
province and Para is inhabited by the Gê Indians, who are divided into five tribes, distinguished by the
appellations of Auge, Crange, Cannacatage, Poncatage, and Paycoge, and almost without any
difference of language or customs.
The towns of this province are—
Alcantara
Guimarens
St. Joam de Cortes
Vianna
Moncao
Hycatu
Cachias
Tury
Vinhaes
Passo do Lumiar
Maranham.

Alcantara, about ten miles north-west of the capital is a large town, with good houses, and agreeably
situated upon elevated ground, having four hermitages, a convent of slippered Carmalites, another of
Mercenaries, and a fort, seated upon the site where a Jesuitical hospicio existed. It was for some time
the capital of the capitania of Cuma, which terminated in the bay of Turyvassu, and its port is capable of
receiving sumacas. The cotton raised in its district is esteemed the best of the province. This article and
rice constitute the principal productions of the inhabitants. The salterns, three miles north of it, are
capable of furnishing excellent salt to many provinces, if they were administered, as in the time of the
Jesuits, to whom they belonged.
 Guimarens is a flourishing town, situated upon the northern side of the bay of Cuma, thirty miles
north-north-west of Alcantara, with a church of St. Joze. From its port are exported cotton, rice, and a
considerable quantity of farinha.
St. Joam de Cortes is a small and insignificant town, eighteen miles south of Guimarens, on the
southern margin of the bay of Cuma, producing farinha, with some cotton and rice.
Vianna is a middling town, and well situated upon the margin of the Maracu, a branch of the Pinnare,
in the vicinity of a large lake, about one hundred miles from the capital. The church is dedicated to Our
Lady of Conceiçao; and its inhabitants raise cotton, mandioca, and other necessaries of life common to
the country. They breed cattle and collect timber. In its district there is one of the best sugar works of the
province, and formerly belonging to the Jesuits.
Moncao, eighteen miles south of Vianna, is a small Indian town, with a church, upon the banks of the
Pinnare. Its inhabitants raise the provisions of life, some cotton, and follow fishing and hunting.
Hycatu, (good water,) an ancient town, and formerly considerable and flourishing, is situated near
the confluence of the Hyguara with the Mony, and has a church of Our Lady of Conceiçao. It was the
first residence of the governors of the province, and conceded many privileges to its senate. An
excellent quality of cotton constitutes the chief production of its inhabitants.
Cachias, a considerable and flourishing town upon the eastern margin of the Itapicuru, is two
hundred miles south-east of the capital, and nearly the same distance north-north-west of Oeyras. It has
a church of Our Lady of Conceiçao, and a hermitage of Razario; Aldeias Altas was its primitive name. A
Juiz de Fora has presided over its senate since the year 1809. The propensity to gambling amongst its
inhabitants has occasioned the ruin of many merchants of the capital. Within its extensive district a very
great quantity of cotton and rice is grown, for whose transmission to the parish of Rozario barks of
considerable burden are constructed for navigating in shoal water.
Upon the other side of the river is the parish of Trezidellas, whose parishioners are descended from
the Aborigines. They have a church of Our Lady of Razario.
One hundred miles above Cachias, and upon the margin of the Itapicuru, is the small arraial of
Principe Regente, commenced in June, 1807. The fertility of its surrounding country and the advantage
arising from canoes of considerable burden being able to navigate hither augur favourably for the future
prosperity of this new colony, where a hermitage already exists.
In the district of Balsas is the parish of St. Felis, whose inhabitants are farmers of cotton and
common necessaries.
Thirty miles south-south-west of Principe Regente is the arraial of St. Bento Pastos Bons, situated
amongst small hills, ten miles from the Parnahyba, and twenty-eight from the Itapicuru. Cattle and cotton
constitute the main property of its inhabitants.
Three miles north of Pastos Bons is the aldeia of St. Antonio, whose dwellers are a tribe of
Christianized Manago Indians, who live by hunting, and some agriculture.
Thirty-five miles from the sea, upon the margin of the Itapicuru, is the parish of Rozario, better known
by the name of Itapicuru Grande, whose inhabitants raise cattle and a considerable quantity of rice.
Here large canoes arrive from the capital, and are laden with the productions of this district, and those
that descend from the High Itapicuru and Balsas.
Twenty-eight miles further, and upon the margin of the same river, is the considerable povoaçao of
Itapicuru Mirim, with a church of Our Lady of Griefs, its inhabitants producing large quantities of cotton,
and the necessaries of life. Between the two preceding parishes is that of Lapa, in the site of St. Miguel.
Upon the margin of the Mearim, fifty miles from the sea, is the parish of N. Senhora of Nazareth,
whose inhabitants raise cattle, cotton, rice, &c. without gaining much wealth.
Tury is a villota, or small town, with only the appearance of an aldeia, but which may become more
considerable from its situation upon the large bay of the same name, and the fertility of its adjacent
territory, particularly after the pacification of the central Indians. The church is dedicated to St. Francisco
Xavier.