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E-teaching History
E-teaching History
Edited by

Joanna Wojdon
E-teaching History

Edited by Joanna Wojdon

This book first published 2016

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2016 by Joanna Wojdon and contributors

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-4438-8584-3

ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-8584-3
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ................................................................................................. 1

Digital or Cultural Challenges? A Polish History E-Textbook Written

by the Older Generation for the Younger One ............................................ 3
Przemysáaw Wiszewski

Shared Histories for a Europe without Dividing Lines: Origins

and Outcomes of a Council of Europe History Education Project ............ 21
Piotr Podemski

“Histotainment” on the Tablet PC and in the Bourbaki Museum .............. 38

Peter Gautschi

New Technology and the Potential and Limitations for Constructivist

Instructional Designers: A Multimedia History Textbook ...................... 50
Florian Sochatzy, Marcus Ventzke and Waltraud Schreiber

IT in History Teaching in Estonia: Challenges for the Teachers ............... 64

Mare Oja

History Teaching in the Era of Information Technology: The Trial

of the “Electronic School Bag” In Classroom History Teaching............... 75
Chencheng Shen, Zhongjie Meng and Yang Lu

Using Video Games to Teach High School History: The Case

of Civilization V ......................................................................................... 93
Alexandre Joly-Lavoie and Frédéric Yelle

Historical Agency and Videogame Play: A Case Study of Assassin's

Creed 3 .................................................................................................... 115
Vincent Boutonnet

Sid Meier’s Colonization: Between Public History and History

Education ................................................................................................. 134
Joanna Wojdon
vi E-teaching History

Smartphone Apps: Their Use of History and Use for History Teaching .... 141
Dennis Röder

Playing with the Past: Digital History and Historical Consciousness ..... 153
Emilia Salvanou

Digital Bildung and Allgemeinbildung: New Challenges

to and Potentials for History Didactics .................................................... 164
Harry Haue

Why is it Impermissible to Learn History Pleasurably? .......................... 173

Takahiro Kondo and Shuhei Tanaka

How Should Student History Teachers be Trained to Make Most

Effective Use of New Technology in their Teaching? Lessons
Learned from the English Experience ..................................................... 189
Terry Haydn

Notes on Contributors.............................................................................. 214

 INTRODUCTION

Using New Technologies to Enhance Teaching and Learning in

History (Routledge, 2013), edited by Terry Haydn, is an up-to-date set of
reflections by both academics and practicing teachers on various aspects of
introducing digital media into history classrooms. The authors concentrate
mostly on Internet resources, and especially on social media and Web 2.0.
There are chapters on the most popular media to date, such as PowerPoint
presentations and applications for interactive whiteboards.
Our book does not intend to repeat nor to question those findings, but it
draws readers’ attention to the two aspects of new technologies that
influence history education but are not mentioned by Haydn and his
colleagues: electronic textbooks that have been developed in more and
more countries in the last couple of years, and computer games related to
history that sell millions of copies and are played by both old and young.
The e-textbook market is growing rapidly, in some countries (including
Poland) thanks to the subsidies of governments. The term e-textbook is not
very precise, however, and it may vary from a pdf of a traditional book,
sometimes with a few animations or pictures to enlarge, to a kind of
interactive set of resources and tasks that resemble an educational game
rather than a book. So far, there is no empirical research on the ways of
use and/or effectiveness of any model of an e-textbook, or their
comparison with traditional books. What we present here is a set of
(sometimes critical) remarks by authors or co-authors of various models of
e-textbooks from different countries on the content of their work, the
problems they encountered in development of the teaching materials and
the potential benefits for learners.
Computer games are a controversial medium among teachers, students,
parents, educational authorities and researchers due to the influence they
may or may not exert on young learners. One cannot ignore, however, the
fact that young people do play such games, notwithstanding the
controversies, and that the school, and the teachers in particular, should
take this into consideration one way or another. The authors discuss the
educational potential of both individual titles and history-related computer
games in general, not only in relation to developing historical knowledge
but also imagination, attitudes or, more generally, historical consciousness.
2 Introduction

Sometimes they refer not only to computer games but more generally
to historical edutainment which the games are a part of. Most (but not all)
of the articles originate from the papers presented in September 2014
during the conference of the International Society for History Didactic in
Wrocáaw (Poland). Some other aspects of history and edutainment, that do
not necessarily involve digital technologies, are discussed in the 2015
volume of The International Journal of Research on History Didactics,
History Education, and Historical Culture published by the Society in
Wochenschau Verlag.
 DIGITAL OR CULTURAL CHALLENGES?
A POLISH HISTORY E-TEXTBOOK WRITTEN
BY THE OLDER GENERATION
FOR THE YOUNGER ONE

PRZEMYSàAW WISZEWSKI

The objective of this chapter is to present and discuss the conditions

determining the shape of a multimedia online history textbook for primary,
lower secondary and upper secondary schools written at the behest of the
Polish Ministry of National Education (MNE) in the period 2013–2015.1
The issue I would like to explore in this essay can be reduced to the
following question: can differences of a cultural nature between children
and the adults responsible for realizing the project’s goal of shaping the
textbook be identified? If so, can the effects of these differences impact on
the shape and future perception of the e-textbook? I would like to keep the
theoretical divagations to a minimum, focusing rather on describing and
analysing the creation of the e-textbook as a case study. In this context, the
narration is of a highly subjective nature. As the person responsible for
initiating the project and directing the team of researchers preparing the
textbook under analysis, I am incapable of presenting the events without
any reference at all to my personal engagement in the composition of the
work2. In order to confirm the veracity of the information presented, the

1
An outline of the comprehensive programme for the digitization of Polish schools
currently being implemented by MNE, including the creation of digital educational
resources which are to include e-textbooks for the humanities, life sciences and
hard sciences, was presented in 2012 Cf. http://men.gov.pl/jakosc-edukacji/
edukacja-informatyczna/cyfrowa-szkola-aktualnosci/e-podrecznik-nowa-jakosc-w-
polskiej-szkole.html.
2
The team was divided into two sub-teams composed of scholars at the University
of Wrocáaw Institute of History, responsible for preparing a series of textbooks for
primary school and for secondary schools. The first series, divided into textbooks
covering particular chronological periods, was authored by Maágorzata Pawlak
(antiquity), Wojciech Mrozowicz (Middle Ages), Robert Koáodziej (modernity
4 Digital or Cultural Challenges?

events described are placed in a timeline with reference to documentation

developed in the course of the project. The ultimate objective of this
publication is to shed light on phenomena transforming the classic
educational environment in which children and youths learn within the
context of changes in the way information is communicated in a society
characterized by commonplace, global communication.

Chronology – Of No Little Importance

I received a proposal to submit an offer for authoring a history e-
textbook addressed to pupils in Polish schools from the 4th form to the 1st
year of upper-secondary schooling in June 2012. This was the result of the
Council of Ministers’ adoption in April 2012 of legislation to establish the
“Digital School” project. This project was composed of four actions,
including the preparation of digital education resources for schools of
stages II-IV of the educational process (primary, lower secondary, upper
secondary).3 At the time the project did not possess a detailed framework,
but the fundamental objective was defined. That objective was to prepare
textbooks of the highest quality for the MNE, which would be made
available in digital form at no charge to pupils around Poland. A proposal
to author textbooks in humanities-related subjects – including history –
submitted by the University of Wrocáaw was victorious in the bid process
operated by the MNE. This gave the team of university scholars –
potential authors – a unique opportunity to inject the most recent
achievements in historical research directly into the school system. What
is more, the information supplied by the client gave reason to suppose that
the textbook was to provide access for pupils across the country to
multimedia resources presenting the riches of Polish and world culture.
The assumption was adopted that the authors would have wide-ranging
discretion in selecting both historical objects and modern works of art to
be used as multimedia elements in exercises and presentations.
Reproductions of works of art were to be accessible for all pupils to use
freely. All this created the conditions for real efforts to reduce social
inequalities in respect of education and provision of access for all children
to the richest and most up-to-date knowledge about the culture

through 1789), Joanna Wojdon (19th century and contemporary era). The second
series was composed by Andrzej Wypustek (antiquity), Przemysáaw Wiszewski
(Middle Ages), Leszek Ziątkowski (modernity through 1789), Monika Piotrowska-
Marchewa (19th century) and Barbara TechmaĔska (contemporary era).
3
http://legislacja.rcl.gov.pl/docs//3/23941/23943/23944/dokument22402.pdf (accessed
29.07.2015).
 Przemysáaw Wiszewski 5

surrounding them. As it would later turn out, history textbooks were in this
respect to be supported by textbooks for teaching Polish. During the
course of preparing the materials, the team of authors also focused on
presenting pupils with the meanings of cultural texts and methods of
interpretation.4 The impact of the project on society was to be enhanced by
the fact that simultaneously with the publication of the textbooks, the
MNE was to support universal access to broadband Internet in schools and
the homes of pupils (distribution of tablets as end devices).
In March 2013, the MNE supplied the final guidelines for the e-
textbook, which we used as the basis for beginning our work. During that
time, the Ministry left us with broad freedom of action in preparing the
textbook. The team of authors did not receive guidelines from the
contractor concerning the form of the work. Conditions as to the content
were also quite general. The textbook was to facilitate implementation of
the core curriculum as published by the MNE at the primary level.5 In May
2013, we received a schedule to follow in our preparation of the textbook.
The deadline for submitting a working version of the material suitable for
editing was set as February 2014. Work on the version to be published,
following editorial review, proofreading and multimedia tests was to be
completed by July 2014.6 Alongside the preparation of methodological
assumptions, the rules for the presentation of content including a draft
design of the layout, primary text, exercises and comments to multimedia
content, our responsibilities also included authoring multimedia exercises
and games. The authors were obliged to select all of the multimedia
content that was to be published from familiar sources. After a time it was
then specified that only items previously published on open licences and
fulfilling certain quality standards would be acceptable. In August 2013,
the authors were to supply a detailed description of all maps and pictures
of monuments which they planned to use in their portion of the textbook.

4
Cf. http://www.epodreczniki.pl/begin/aktualnosci/uczniowskie-spotkania-ze-
sztuka/ (accessed 29.07.2015).
5
The core curriculum for history in the Polish educational system contains a
keyword-based listing of the primary educational content that should be
communicated to pupils at various levels of education. There are 29 themes for
primary school, 39 for lower secondary, and 12 for upper secondary. The content
of the core curriculum for general education in Polish schools was published in
2009 in a Regulation of the Minister of National Education of 23 December 2008
(OJ L 2009, no 4, item 17, attachment 2 (primary schools) and attachment 4 (lower
and upper secondary schools), Cf. http://www.bip.men.gov.pl/men_bip/
akty_prawne/rozporzadzenie_20081223.pdf (accessed 29.07.2015).
6
Determinations of the meeting held on 25 May 2014.
6 Digital or Cultural Challenges?

As time passed, the deadline for submission of the content to the

contractor was extended. This was the result of changing requirements
concerning the content of the textbook, and also information received as to
the technological capabilities that the authors were required to account for
in their work. The final text version, accompanied with a description of
multimedia content and appropriate metadata, were supplied to the
contractor at the end of December 2014. At that time the authors were still
in the dark as to the final shape of the layout, which had been revised
following the submission of the authors’ proposals, as well as the final
selection of multimedia materials for publishing and the manner of
distribution of the e-textbook. This portion of the project was the domain
of cooperation between the MNE and the entities responsible for the
technological aspects of the undertaking. The authors were to make
changes in their texts in accordance with the instructions given by those
implementing the technological side.
The schedule adopted by the contractor did not include research on the
needs of children and youths in respect of using e-textbooks. There was
also no attention given to consultation with teachers. Many of the changes
to the content and form of the textbook made in the course of its
preparation resulted from the ad hoc requirements of the contractor or
technological partners. Up to the completion of the authors’ portion of the
project there was little attempt made to test the product in interactions with
the user.
In the description given above of the administrative and organizational
conditions for the development of the textbook, I have purposefully
focused on aspects which may be assessed negatively. Such a judgement,
however, flows from the assumption that an e-textbook should constitute
an instructional aid that offers an entirely new approach to meeting the
challenges posed to classic textbooks. A negative evaluation of the
elements of the production process is not, however, the sole potential one.
Let us observe that the organizational aspects of the project as presented
were the result of it being shaped in a manner consistent with the
development of tried-and-true products following an established pattern,
intended for end users with well-formed and understood habits in respect
of the receipt and processing of information. To put it simply – in ordering
an e-textbook for children and youths, it was acknowledged that it could
be developed in the same manner as consumer products created for adults,
by adults. Hence it was assumed that content designed by adults for the
end users – children and youths – would adroitly line up with children’s
communicative needs.
 Przemysáaw Wiszewski 7

The Foundations of Meanings.

The “e-textbook” as Understood by the Team of Authors
Neither in October 2012, when I put together the team of authors, nor
in March 2013, when we began work on the textbook, did we possess any
convincing, widely used contemporary examples of such a product. And
this was true not only of Poland. Research into textbooks available in 2012
(when we began conceptual work on the project) demonstrated that an e-
textbook was most commonly treated as a means of transferring solutions
applied in traditional textbooks to the digital environment.7 This did have
its positive aspects, as the form of the message – like a traditional textbook,
and thus very familiar to educators - allowed teachers to focus on content.
However, from our perspective this truth masked a very serious trap – the
authoritarian method of communicating content and creating a vision of
the past, so very characteristic of classic textbooks, was to be hammered
into the frame of a medium which promotes freedom of choice and
diversity of cognitive strategies while providing access to overflowing
treasure troves of supplementary information (the Internet). Digital
instructional aids – mostly exercises, tests, short video and audio programs
- demonstrate a far more diverse and open character. They do not, however,
comprise comprehensive wholes providing access to historical phenomena,
processes and eras. This is why, as in the case of the Polish ‘Digital
School’ programme, they were then and remain today a complement to the
skeleton of knowledge offered by traditional textbooks.8 It should also be
noted with regret that during this period we were unable to establish
contact with the team implementing the mBook-Gechichte project, a
history e-textbook published in 2014 and developed at Katholische-
Universität Eichstätt-Ingolstadt.9 However, it can be said with satisfaction
that the assumptions and solutions adopted by that team are in very many
aspects consistent with those of our own.
Nevertheless, in 2012–2013 the most important question for us was
whether children and youths from a fully digital generation experience
reality by applying the same metanarrative patterns as those of our own.

7
Cf. a brief review of the use of e-textbooks in Europe in 2009-2011
http://eurydice.org.pl/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Men_podreczniki.pdf (accessed
29.07.2015).
8
For example, Catalonian http://www.edu365.cat/ or a repository focused on
audio-visual materials http://www.edu3.cat/ (accessed 29.07.2015).
9
Cf. methodological assumptions of the textbook http://xn--institut-fr-digitales-
lernen-b7c.de/fileadmin/templates/Theoretiosche_und_didaktische_
Hintergruende_des_mBook.pdf (accessed 29.07.2015). See also chapter IV.
8 Digital or Cultural Challenges?

Do they seek to gain a sense of events around them in the same manner as
we do, reaching far back into the past and comprehending the chain of
causal links? Do they develop their own vision of the world as we do, by
draping a fabric of facts over the skeleton constructed by a model of the
truths governing reality, bringing clarity to the emerging image by joining
it to successive chains of events and facts? This linear narration, so
familiar to us and based on the continual reference of the products
generated by analysis of particular cases to a synthetic vision of the world,
which was continually subjected to evolution, was vital for us in a time of
information paucity. It was then necessary to capture information and
build a model out of a few disjointed scraps. This model, in turn, would
then serve to justify decisions in respect of the manner in which the
contours of the past were presented, as well as the proper way to proceed
in the present. However, in a world of excess information, easily available,
is such a model of seeking and using information necessary? Is it not being
replaced by a model of ad hoc use of information which should function as
separate wholes, answering the specific question of the user? In this
model, acquisition of information is not a process, but rather an act;
information is not something we receive for our effort, but rather an
instantly accessible product ...
At present, we have at our disposal broadly accepted knowledge about
the psychological development of children and associated potential for
concrete and abstract perceptions of both simple and complex content.
However, and paradoxically, there is little agreement as to the effects
wrought within the scope of children’s construction of models for
describing the world and the shape of those models by changes transpiring
in communication compared to the classic, pre-digital generation. It is no
less difficult to evaluate these changes from the perspective of society’s
future viewed through the prism of the traditional values of our
contemporary culture.
In this situation, the methodological and content assumptions proposed
by the team for the e-textbook were based on analysis of available
traditional and digital educational aids, as well as empirical experiences
from 1) teaching in primary and secondary schools; 2) reviews of previous
traditional textbooks authored by members of the team; and 3) last, but not
least, consultations with our own children aged 7–16 years. The effect of
this avant-garde procedure was the June 2013 preparation of the
fundamental assumptions for the e-textbook. In accordance with the
current educational model in Poland, children complete the full history
course over two cycles. The first is taught in forms 4–6 of primary school
(primary education lasts a total of 6 years). The second is taught in lower
 Przemysáaw Wiszewski 9

secondary school (3 forms) and the first year of upper secondary school.
As a result, we adopted the assumption that the publication of the e-
textbook would comprise two series – one for primary schools, and the
second for lower secondary and the first year of upper secondary schools.
Because of the obvious differences in children’s developmental stages, the
majority of assumptions of the two series were also formulated differently.
They were linked, however, by one leading idea: we are striving to
transmit accurate knowledge about historical events and social processes
in a manner that will interest pupils while placing emphasis on developing
skills.
This triad of meta-objectives for our project was to be reflected in the
structure and construction of the e-textbook. Accurate knowledge was to
be ensured thanks to the professional experience of the historians
preparing the textbook. The fact that nearly every member of the team had
prepared traditional commercial textbooks for primary and secondary
schools was grounds for faith in the authors’ capacity to stimulate
children’s interest. They had been invited to write the textbooks based on
their ability to ensure sales of those products on the open market.10
Furthermore, every member of the team possessed years of experience in
authoring popular scientific publications. Additionally, Maágorzata Pawlak
and Joanna Wojdon had been involved for years in the methodology of
teaching history in schools. Joanna Wojdon in particular has conducted
research on the potential for the use of information and communication
technology for history instruction in schools (cf. Wojdon, Analyzing,
2011: 159-180; Wojdon, Obudowa, 2011, 394-415).
The team adopted two goals with regard to sparking the interest of
pupils. Firstly, and rather obviously, increased emotional activity of the
pupils channelled by the structure of the textbook and particular messages
contained within it was to facilitate their openness to perception of the
communicated elements of knowledge and skills. Secondly, it was
considered of equal importance to use positive emotions to construct clear
signposts within the memories of students that direct them to specific
events, phenomena and processes. These were intended to refer primarily

10
Interesting children in the content of textbooks on the Polish publishing market
was not easy. Several to several dozen versions of the same textbook were sold
around the country by an equal number of publishers. At the same time, textbooks
authored by the members of the team are no longer among those permitted by
MNE for use in schools, which eliminates conflicts of interest between the older
publishers and the present authors of the e-textbook. Cf. current list of textbooks
for history at educational levels,
http://men.gov.pl/podreczniki/wykaz_dopuszczone_lista3.php (accessed 30.07.2015).
10 Digital or Cultural Challenges?

to the rich Polish and European symbolic heritage, but would span even
broader periods and territories if possible. The primary task of this
undertaking was to transmit to children a dictionary for the symbolic
language of culture that surrounds them. In this manner, we sought to
reinforce their self-awareness in the world of their native, i.e. Polish and
European, culture. We also wanted to help them in precisely and quickly
communicating with members of that cultural community, in which they
would most likely spend the majority of their lives. Thirdly, and lastly,
positive emotions – interest – were to be the factor encouraging pupils to
engage in their own travels through history beyond the confines of the
textbook. In this respect we wanted to emphasize both intra-group
interaction and independent activity by the pupil.
This was linked with the conviction that it was possible to educate
pupils through the teaching of history in not only the particular skills
associated with that area of knowledge (chronological thinking,
constructing a historical narrative). We also desired to facilitate pupils’
development of universal skills, both cognitive and social. Our conviction
was based on the acknowledgement of history as a science specialized in
the goal-based critical analysis of diverse information produced by people.
We felt that type of instruction would facilitate introducing textbook users
to the world of critical analysis of the wealth of information surrounding
them, not only through developing the inclination to seek genetic links
among pieces of information, but primarily through defining the contexts
in which messages arise, are distributed and exert their influence. Most
importantly, we wanted to emphasize the necessity of relating the content
of the information obtained to the objective which led to its creation, and
the cognitive capacities of that creator. In this manner, elements of
criticism of a historical source were to support the development of open
minds, yet which remained critical towards the flood of information that
characterizes the modern world.
The synthetic application of the three pillars in the structure of the
textbook’s content described above was intended to facilitate enhancing
children’s sensitivity and awareness of issues of values. This was to be
achieved not through the introduction of their concrete forms, but rather by
indicating those which are characteristic of a given culture or even
individual as factors determining decisions which are taken and shaping
relationships with the environment. A significant role to this end was to be
played by exercises encouraging reflection on one’s own set of values,
justifying them in discussions with classmates and the teacher,
determining the impact of their cultivation for life in the contemporary
 Przemysáaw Wiszewski 11

world.11 We desired to make pupils aware not only of the multiplicity of

attitudes in life, but also of the patterns of values which function alongside
one another and are of benefit to the entire community. At the same time,
we wished to raise awareness of the dangers resulting from aggressive
promotion of particular forms of values at the expense of other participants
in social life.

Structures
In order to implement these assumptions, we proposed a multi-layered
structure for the e-textbooks. It was to possess a unified character within
each particular level of education (primary, lower secondary, upper
secondary). The structures of the particular levels were to differ from one
another. However, we treated each of the closed unique narratives
encompassing particular epochs of history as a work composed in
accordance with the plan developed by the author, which best addressed
the epoch presented by that author and its issues. This led to the
fundamental division of content being expressed in the separate series of
textbooks for primary schools and for secondary schools. Within each of
them, particular eras retained their distinctness, and the textbooks
addressing them were prepared by different authors (antiquity, Middle
Ages, modernity (through 1789), the long 19th century (1789–1918) and
contemporary history). This rather conservative chronological approach
resulted in part from the needs of the contractor. However, it was also
derived in part from the convictions of the authors that it was necessary to
give teachers a message constructed in accordance with patterns familiar
to them.
The same assumptions determined the selection of the fundamental
building blocks of the textbooks. With the differences in developmental
levels among children attending different types of schools in mind, it was
decided to reduce the structuration of textbooks for primary school in
relation to secondary schools.

11
For example, in a lesson for pupils in stage III of education, focusing on the
functioning of European societies in the early Middle Ages, there was an exercise
in which pupils were to learn about the duties placed on emissaries (missi
dominici) in 802 by Charlemagne. Next, they were to formulate instructions that
the Emperor would give to his/her ministers. Their objective was to understand the
values acknowledged by Charlemagne. Next, they were to compare the proposals
for the Emperor’s hypothetical instructions in class, and then determine what
values – according to their classmates – his/her ministers adhered to, lesson by
Przemysáaw Wiszewski, SpoáecznoĞci plemienne i tradycje rzymskie.
12 Digital or Cultural Challenges?

Figure 1: Structure of the division of content of e-textbooks for history prepared by

the team from the University of Wrocáaw at the behest of the MNE, 2013–2015

Primary school Secondary school Example of content

Textbook – epoch Textbook – epoch Middle Ages
Section Section Early Middle Ages
Chapter (lesson) Chapter (lesson) Charlemagne
Module Module Carolingian
Renaissance
Screen Letter and book
exercises/multimedia exercises/multimedia Expansion of
exercises exercises Carolingians’ territorial
power
Source: Joanna Wojdon, in cooperation with Wojciech Mrozowicz, Maágorzata
Pawlak, Robert Koáodziej, Methodological assumptions for a history e-textbook,
stage II, Wrocáaw 2013; Przemysáaw Wiszewski, in cooperation with Monika
Piotrowska-Marchewa, Barbara TechmaĔska, Andrzej Wypustek, Leszek
Ziątkowski, Methodological assumptions for a history e-textbook, stage III and IV,
Wrocáaw 2013.

In the case of secondary schools, we desired to give the user the

potential to develop alternatives to the new chronological-thematic
construction and cognitive paths weaving throughout all of the textbooks.
We decided upon 1) labelling multimedia screens and exercises with a few
basic thematic keywords (e.g. war, family, society, religion, etc.); 2)
giving users the ability to define their own keywords they could use to
label their own version of the textbooks and create their “own path”
through history. This would allow the user at any given moment to select
and aggregate her/his mini-book of the thematic areas of interest to
him/her for a portion or the whole of human history described in the
textbooks.
Thematic navigation of the textbook was also to be supported by a
subject index designed to facilitate acquisition of skills used in searching
for, analyzing and filtering information. Support for the user was to be
provided through two dictionaries available at the text level – subject and
personal. An integral part of the system of reference was to be the capacity
to cross over to the other e-textbooks being prepared under the MNE
project. Our primary focus was placed on giving pupils using the history
textbook the capacity to access resources from textbooks for geography
and Polish. This last textbook, developed under the direction of Tomasz
Piekot, was conceived (primarily) as a textbook on the history of European
 Przemysáaw Wiszewski 13

culture.12 Alongside the proposed capacity to search Internet resources at

the e-textbook level, the user would also receive a tool facilitating the
concentration in one place of a significant volume of information either
prepared and vetted by experts (e-textbooks) or subjected to fewer formal
requirements. This was to serve as the starting point for the previously
mentioned practice of selecting and analyzing information. The next step
was the synthesis and publication of statements within the framework of
the e-textbook referencing resources which are generally accessible, and
therefore verifiable by the class.
Individual chapters (lessons) in the textbook were to have a
standardized structure within the borders of their educational level.

Figure 2: Structure of the division of content in chapters of history e-textbooks

authored by the team from the University of Wrocáaw at the behest of the MNE,
2013–2015

Primary school Forms of Secondary Forms of

communication school communication
Introduction Narration, Introduction Mini-lecture,
multimedia lecture, other
(fable, story multimedia form;
read aloud, exercise with
filmed, historical source
recreated) referring to
previous modules
Modules Integrated Modules Interwoven
multimedia fragments of text
exercises and multimedia
exercises
Summary of
each module
Summary What have I Summary Multimedia
learned? exercises referring
(conclusions to the most
which the work important items
done in presented in the
particular module;
modules should This encounter
lead to) with history has

12
Cf. http://www.epodreczniki.pl/begin/aktualnosci/uczniowskie-spotkania-ze-
sztuka/ (accessed 30.07.2015).
14 Digital or Cultural Challenges?

What can I do? given me

(skills) knowledge...
What should I skills...
think about? understanding...
(values)

Want to learn Additional Additional

more? literature, literature, media,
media, etc. etc.
Source: Joanna Wojdon, in cooperation with Wojciech Mrozowicz, Maágorzata
Pawlak, Robert Koáodziej, Methodological assumptions for a history e-textbook,
stage II, Wrocáaw 2013; Przemysáaw Wiszewski, in cooperation with Monika
Piotrowska-Marchewa, Beata TechmaĔska, Andrzej Wypustek, Leszek
Ziątkowski, Methodological assumptions for a history e-textbook, stage III and IV,
Wrocáaw 2013.

This rather conservative structure was supposed to aid in ordering the

content and make it easier for teachers to use it. From the user’s
perspective, this was only a proposal. The users themselves were to define
the contours of the textbooks through selection of the aforementioned
thematic cognitive paths. In addition, in both series of textbooks the
modules, multimedia exercises and also the screens included in the
textbook for secondary schools were to retain their potential for
autonomous use. It was assumed that they could be used independently in
the pursuit of a specific educational objective. This autonomous structure
of a portion of the textbook would allow teachers and students to pair
modules, exercises or screens with other structural elements of one or
several textbooks. As a result, the textbook in the form described in Table
2 was to serve as a starting point for the free-form activity of pupils,
shaped purely by the inspiration of teachers and the children’s own
creativity. This duality of structure received the full support of the
contractor (MNE).
That contractor placed strong emphasis on constructing multimedia
forms that were appropriate not only for exercises, but also for simple
transmission of information. The team of authors fully supported efforts
aimed at boosting the use of activating forms in communicating
educational content.13 This was expressed in the minimization, and in
some places the abandonment, of text supplying information in the

13
Emphasis on the significance of activation methods in the process of
transmission of educational content resulted from the direct experiences of the
authors in teaching (cf. Wojdon, 2012: 177-186).
 Przemysáaw Wiszewski 15

textbook. It was replaced by exercises whose design and outcome were to

guarantee the communication of historical content while at the same time
forming a creative attitude on the part of the addressee. Completion of
tasks was intended to lead to solving the problem contained in the content
of the module.14
In the case of secondary schools, we placed greater emphasis on the
skills of decoding, analyzing and using a text delivering information. At
this stage, multimedia exercises should not dominate the imagination of
the learner, while at the same time they should facilitate the achievement
of objectives contained in the assumptions which appeal to emotions
(reinforcing traces of memory, motivating to independent exploration,
etc.). While the concentrations and forms were different, in both series of
textbooks we placed strong emphasis on confronting students with cultural
texts as historical sources.15 Within the modules, there were also supposed
to be separate fragments for those interested, as well as direct references to
the reality around us through pointing out its links with the past (so-called
‘time capsules’, for example, showing how the shape of a contemporary
city’s market square was formed in the Middle Ages).
We assumed that pupils should not be left alone in their efforts to
explore the past. On the one hand, they were to be accompanied by the
most outstanding Polish historians through interviews and mini-lectures
peppering the textbooks. However, a similar role was to be played by
fragments of archival film, radio and musical recordings. They were
supposed to introduce pupils to the world of the era being studied (for
example, recording of early music or declamation of poems in their
original language, such as Beowulf). Our primary desire, however, was to
increase the share among exercises of tasks which would force more
discussion in classes (e.g. brainstorms), or would involve directed social

14
One example is the exercise from the lesson “The elephant and the Polish issue”,
presenting the efforts of Poles to resurrect their own state in the 1920s. Joanna
Wojdon scrapped a lecture on approaches by Polish politicians who contributed at
the start of the 20th century to the battle for independence - Roman Dmowski and
Józef Piásudski. This was replaced with two source texts – short biographies of the
politicians – and a table which the students completed on the basis of source
material on the views of the two figures. They were also to add their own views,
and compare them with the positions of the two politicians.
15
This concerns not only written sources, but also iconographic presentations. In a
lesson on ancient Greek democracy (stage III), Andrzej Wypustek placed the
oldest existing inscriptions from Athens alongside a presentation of scribes and
readers on a vase from the 4th century BC to demonstrate the link between the
dissemination of the ability to write with the birth and development of democracy
in Athens.
16 Digital or Cultural Challenges?

interactions in the course of gathering materials outside of class

(recollections, albums with copies of pictures, genealogical trees for
younger children, etc.).
Finally, we assumed the introduction of elements of gamification in the
course of using the textbook. Each user was to receive an avatar at the
beginning of work with the textbook. The appearance of the avatar would
evolve concurrently with progress through the work, adapting to the epoch
the user was in. After solving tasks, exploring additional content and
publishing unique compositions in a shared virtual space, the user would
receive new accessories for the avatar, which would “get promoted” and
act as an individualized presentation of the user in a virtual world of
learning.
Ultimately, in attempting to fulfil what we believed to be children’s
expectations towards the textbook, we decided that knowledge and skills
should be transmitted to pupils through:

- diversity, elasticity and openness to creative connections of elements

in the structure of information;
- emphasis on analysis of messages with close reference to
modernity, while stressing the historical context;
- emphasis on gamification as an aspect awakening interest and a
bond between the user and operations performed within the
textbook’s framework;
- opening the textbook to transformation and elaboration of knowledge
by the user in the course of work with additional information,
including external, and primarily – interdisciplinary;
- independently of the elements listed above – retaining control by
the authors of the content of particular information chunks in order
to ensure the authoritative character of the message.

Problems and Summary

From among the assumptions presented above, only a portion of them
– so far – have been implemented. A large majority of the original ideas
submitted during the publication process turned out to be impossible to
realize for the project’s leading technological partner. Limitations in
access to media materials, including multimedia, caused serious problems
(nearly all of the planned multimedia maps were scrapped). The majority
of problems in this respect was caused by financial limitations, excessive
licensing conditions (CC-BY), legal issues related to acquisition of
multimedia content and project management organizational issues. Time
 Przemysáaw Wiszewski 17

limitations and fluctuating requirements and expectations on the part of the

contractor during preparation of the project also made it difficult to
execute the project according to the initial assumptions for smooth
completion of the work. Political considerations also impacted on the
conditions set out by the contractor. With a view to the parliamentary
elections planned for October 2015, the leadership of the MNE placed
heavy emphasis on the visual attractiveness of the portion of the textbook
scheduled for publication in September of that year.16
Lastly, from the perspective of the objectives adopted by the authors in
2013, the most troubling problems were the restriction in access to key
monuments of culture, the rigidity of the textbook’s final structure
(absence of alternative thematic paths), the abandonment of its openness to
the external world of information, and finally removal of gamification
aspects. In these circumstances, the team of authors looks with trepidation
on the upcoming reaction of children to the proposal for the transmission
of educational content they will soon encounter. At present, decisions
taken at the project management level motivated by factors other than the
substantive goals of the project are leading to a dangerous decoupling of
the project with the vision and desires of its authors.
The technological maladaptation of the project to its objectives may
also impact its future. The clock is ticking, and technological solutions
considered cutting edge in 2010 are already far from sufficient to catch
children’s attention. Development of the technological assumptions
applied in an e-textbook cannot be a closed process. Quite the opposite –
an e-textbook should function as an open, adaptable system that adjusts to
the educational needs formulated by the authors of the educational concept
and its users. The reverse dependency, in which the model and technology
used in the transmission of knowledge and skills are adjusted to meet
precisely formulated, closed technological requirements of the moment, is
not only logically erroneous (since the overriding objective is historical
education, and not only history of technology). Most importantly, it simply
renders the e-textbook inaccessible to young users. For them, a closed and
autocratic project can in no way serve as a symbol of modernity capable of

16
Cf. press material http://www.rp.pl/artykul/1163913.html ('Rzeczpospolita',
11.12.2014); http://www.tvp.info/18113718/zwolnienia-w-men-za-epodrecznik-
sztandarowy-projekt-rzadu-kiepskiej-jakosci (Telewizja Polska, 18.12.2014);
http://edukacja.dziennik.pl/aktualnosci/artykuly/478472,men-kluzik-rostkowska-
zwalnia-za-e-podrecznik.html ('Dziennik', 21.12.2014); http://wyborcza.pl/
1,75478,17289072,Zostali_zwolnieni_bo_e_podrecznik_nie_ma_fajerwerkow_.ht
ml ('Gazeta Wyborcza', 21.01.2015).
18 Digital or Cultural Challenges?

grabbing their attention. Even if it takes this form for only a short time, it
will rapidly become obsolete.
Technology alone is insufficient to create a textbook that children will
accept as sufficient to meet all of their expectations. We are not – or at
least we have not been so far – capable of keeping pace in our educational
offerings with the revolutions in young people’s technological tastes.
Paradoxically, in respect of maximization and optimization of exploiting
an available medium for educational purposes, traditional printed
textbooks and their electronic versions with multimedia enhancements
remain the best forms. They do not need to direct the teacher’s or pupil’s
attention to the technology. The author’s contribution, i.e. the content of
the message, remains the essence of the material. However, such a classic
book with a linear, closed structure suggesting a totality of knowledge
does not encourage creativity in the user. Furthermore, by avoiding
interaction in real time with the surrounding world of information, it runs
contrary to one of the fundamental experiences and social problems faced
by young people in Europe – the excess, shallowness and fluidity of
accessible information. A book is not capable of meeting those
requirements. Its objective has always been to record and transmit
information, not to react and participate in discussion over it.
In this context, a multimedia, digital, internet-based history textbook,
that may be used on-line, downloaded or printed would seem a good
solution to the problems of shaping the skill of analyzing and selecting
information, of fostering informational interactions in a community, and
also of ensuring affordable access to the highest possible quality of
knowledge and cultural heritage. It seems that all of this is within our
grasp. However, what is needed is not only acceptance of the
distinctiveness of such a textbook compared to the classic book form. It is
worth defining fundamental educational objectives with the assistance of a
digital networked medium. Perhaps we should ask the question of who
really needs a textbook that simply summarizes knowledge from a
particular discipline in an age of global, diffuse and non-authoritative
information? Maybe adults more so than children? Maybe it would be a
better solution to offer continually updated, authoritative, diffuse
educational materials, which would be prepared in an appropriate and
narrow scope by specialists? It would be easier to adjust small wholes to
newly emerging informational challenges. As a result, rather than
undertaking large publishing projects every several years, a continual
process of review and modernization of educational modules could be
maintained. This is also the tone of remarks from the contractor, indicating
that e-textbooks should be treated as a collection of autonomous wholes at
 Przemysáaw Wiszewski 19

the level of modules. The teachers can then freely shape them owing to the
broad scope of permissible use under the CC-BY licence.
To a large degree this was consistent with the assumptions of the
authors. We did not wish to prepare yet another textbook based on a rigid
division of content transmitted in a fixed chronology. Autonomy of
educational chunks in the humanities does, however, have its limits.
Textbooks for understanding history and culture must be based on a story,
a narration describing processes. In painting a picture of a community’s
past – a phenomenon whose nature is continuity – it is not possible to offer
a result consisting of a collection of separate, fully autonomous, small
fragments to be used freely. The user should have the capacity to use
exercises, multimedia content or even entire modules as he/she sees fit.
The fact remains, however, that their content interacts. During a lecture on
estate societies in the Middle Ages, a pupil may participate in a simple
role-playing game which requires a decision between submitting to the
authority of an aristocrat and becoming his subject, or rather attempting to
retain his freedom. However, in order to take the right decisions – and to
acquire knowledge about the foundations of European civilization – he
must have learned about the functioning of Roman society in the 2nd–3rd
centuries and the Germanic tribes of the 3rd–4th centuries.17 Of course,
this knowledge does not have to come from our textbook, it can be drawn
from other sources. However, if an educational objective is to be achieved
in the course of the game, the user must possess particular knowledge. The
author’s metanarrative gives order to the manner in which pieces of the
past are discovered; if the user chooses to abandon it, this should be done
consciously and with reference to another, previously accepted cognitive
scheme.
We wanted our offer to satisfy new expectations related to the flow of
information. At the same time, we also worked to retain what is most
valuable in the European tradition – the capacity to conduct a discussion
leading to the development of a shared, collective, holistic description of
reality. One which will unite, but will also be elastic and adapt to the needs
of its user – while remaining open to change, discussion and enrichment.
This constitutes merely a test run, and certainly an imperfect one at that.
However, I believe that contemporary, traditional textbooks in the
humanities are an attribute of industrial education just as classes with rows
of desks, summer vacation during harvest time, and assessment of progress
using evaluative symbols are. They once served as a means of forming

17
Lesson by Przemysáaw Wiszewski, “The ideal and the reality of the three
estates” (textbook for stage III education), exercise “Take the challenge...”.
20 Digital or Cultural Challenges?

subjects and the citizens of nation-states. Perhaps – we may hope –

schools will soon be relieved of this function. They will be less concerned
with conserving social structures, and more focused on the development of
society’s creativity. It may be the case in this context that our e-textbook is
the final stage in the collapse of the classic model of educational aids.
Written by adults for children; I have no doubt that it will soon fall by the
wayside – and I only hope: may it be replaced with more suitable tools.

References
Wojdon, Joanna. “Analizyng and evaluating Information Technology (IT)
resources for the history textbooks.” Yearbook. International Society
History Didactics 32 (2011): 159-180.
—. “Metody aktywizujące w dydaktyce historii – z praktyki akademickiej”.
In Wokóá problemów edukacji... KsiĊga pamiątkowa dedykowana Pani
profesor GraĪynie PaĔko z okazji 40-lecia Zakáadu Dydaktyki Historii
i Wiedzy o SpoáeczeĔstwie w Instytucie Historycznym Uniwersytetu
Wrocáawskiego, edited by Joanna Wojdon and Barbara TechmaĔska.
Wrocáaw: Chronicon. 2012.
—. “Obudowa multimedialna wspóáczesnych polskich podrĊczników do
historii.” In Edukacja 2010, edited by GraĪyna PaĔko, Maágorzata
Skotnicka, Barbara TechmaĔska. Opole-Wrocáaw-Lubin 2011.
 SHARED HISTORIES FOR A EUROPE WITHOUT
DIVIDING LINES:
ORIGINS AND OUTCOMES OF A COUNCIL
OF EUROPE HISTORY EDUCATION PROJECT

PIOTR PODEMSKI

Unity in Diversity. The Council of Europe

and History Education
From the very beginning of its existence the Council of Europe,
founded in 1949 by the governments of Belgium, Denmark, France,
Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Great
Britain, made history education one of its priorities. Article 1 of its Statute
declared that “the aim of the Council of Europe is to achieve a greater
unity between its members for the purpose of safeguarding and realising
the ideals and principles which are their common heritage and facilitating
their economic and social progress.”1 It soon became clear that in order for
such a vision to come true, it was necessary to undertake a serious re-
evaluation of the politics of history (also referred to as the politics of the
past) in Europe (Swoboda, 2009) as well as “the symbolic uses of history
for the purpose of national identity formation” (Beattie, 2008: 9). The new
ideas have been reflected in the subsequently adopted Council of Europe
official documents, which, however, one must bear in mind, contrary to
European Union regulations do not constitute mutually binding normative
acts, but are rather an expression of a common will to undertake specific
steps by all member states.
As early as its Resolution no. 17 in 1952, the Committee of Ministers
recommended that “Member Governments should give special
consideration to the question of revision of textbooks on history and
geography” as well as that “such assistance as may be feasible should be

1
Treaty of London (Statute of the Council of Europe), 5 May 1949 –
www.conventions.coe.int (accessed 23.072015).
22 Origins and Outcomes of a Council of Europe History Education Project

given to both official and private bodies engaged on the revision of

textbooks on history and geography and that facilities should be granted to
organisations and persons working on this problem.”2 Furthermore, Article
2 of the European Cultural Convention of 1954 stated that, since the
achievement of the main aim of the Council of Europe’s existence “would
be furthered by a greater understanding of one another among the peoples
of Europe”, each Member Government would “encourage the study by its
own nationals of the languages, history and civilisation of the other
Contracting Parties” and would “endeavour to promote the study of its
language or languages, history and civilisation in the territory of the other
Contracting Parties.”3 Already at that time it was assumed that
nationalistic and xenophobic attitudes widespread in Europe in the past
had largely stemmed from a sense of alienation and lack of knowledge of
neighbours’ languages, cultures and identities; thus the causes of such
attitudes could be eliminated through modification of the member states’
systems of education and mutual promotion of divergent national cultures.
Yet another fundamental step towards launching European history
politics aiming at forging a common European identity was the Resolution
of the Committee of Ministers no. 11 on “Civics and European Education”
adopted in 1964, containing a comprehensive list of European values. The
document proclaimed:
Considering that the aim of civics is to provide a training in democratic
citizenship and that its current objectives must therefore take account of
the fact that today the individual is no longer a citizen of his own country
only but also of Europe and the world;

Considering that, at a time when Europe is becoming a reality, it is the

imperative duty of secondary education to inculcate into its pupils an
awareness of European facts and problems;

Considering that the effective teaching of civics in the European countries

is at present hampered by the lack of appeal of existing school courses and
by the lack of preparation of the teachers;

Considering that the textbooks and basic material at present in use need to
be adapted to the times;

2
Resolution (52) 17 (19 March 1952) of the Committee of Ministers –
www.coe.int (accessed 23.07.2015).
3
European Cultural Convention (19 December 1954) – www.conventions.coe.int
(accessed 23.07.2015).
 Piotr Podemski 23

Considering, finally, that education in democratic citizenship is a

continuous process, which should not be confined to a single subject of the
curriculum but should permeate the whole course of education both inside
and outside the school.4

In full consideration of all the above-mentioned ideas and

circumstances, the Council of Europe urged all Member Governments to
“do everything within their power to ensure that all disciplines concerned
– for instance history, geography, literature, modern languages –
contribute to the creation of a European consciousness”, while the
European dimension of national curricula was expected
to go beyond a purely static description of European institutions, by
explaining their function in the light of the vital interdependence of the
European peoples and of Europe's place in the world, and by attempting to
bring out the dynamic aspects of the European integration process and the
concessions, indeed sacrifices, that it entails, and the political and cultural
difficulties, even tensions, it may create.5

Although this particular topic had also been present in the Council of
Europe documents before, it was only in 1984 – and in a somewhat new
historical context of mass-scale migrations – that the question of teacher
training was thoroughly addressed. Recommendation no. 18 of the
Committee of Ministers called upon Member Governments to “make the
intercultural dimension and the understanding between different
communities a feature of initial and in-service teacher-training”. In
particular, teachers were expected to

- become aware of the various forms of cultural expression present in their

own national cultures, and in migrant communities;
- recognise that ethnocentric attitudes and stereotyping can damage
individuals and, therefore, attempt to counteract their influence;
- realise that they too should become agents of a process of cultural
exchange and develop and use strategies for approaching, understanding
and giving due consideration to other cultures as well as educating their
pupils to give due consideration to them […];
- become conscious of the economic, social, political and historical causes
6
and effects of migration.

4
Resolution (64) 11 of the Committee of Ministers – www.coe.int (accessed
23.07.2015).
5
Ibidem.
6
Recommendation (84) 18 of the Committee of Ministers–www.wcd.coe.int
(accessed 23.07.2015).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
[40] V. Hist. de Port. l. v.
 III
AS GERAÇÕES NOVAS
1.—A INICIAÇÃO PELO FOMENTO

Mas, emquanto todo o alto-pessoal dos partidos pouco a pouco se

ia fundindo desde 51, até depois de 68 se constituir sob o nome
antigo de regeneração n’um partido conservador, é mistér
estudarmos o desenvolvimento obscuro, desordenado mas grave,
das idéas que vieram substituindo a da Liberdade no espirito das
gerações novas e nos projectos dos homens destacados dos
partidos antigos, como José-Estevão sempre moço até á morte.
O primeiro em data dos homens novos, orgãos dos pensamentos
modernos, é sem duvida alguma Fontes, cuja physionomia
procurámos já esboçar. Imperialista por temperamento, engenheiro
por educação, alitteratado por um resto de romantismo, e por indole
portugueza; de resto sem malicia, prosaicamente crente na limitada
capacidade ideal das sociedades, por não ter genio e por obedecer
ás correntes da epocha; convictamente sectario da opinião dos
economistas ex-sansimonianos, como Chevalier, que viam na
producção da riqueza o segredo da fortuna dos Estados e nas
associações capitalistas, n’isso a que chamou com razão feodalismo
novo, o instrumento adequando do progresso: Fontes tinha na
palavra juvenil um calor quasi poetico, um enthusiasmo tão ardente
que seduzia o temperamento de José-Estevão, em phrases de que,
ao tempo, só os velhos se riam, e que hoje não é possivel deixarem
de acirrar a ironia dos moços.
Eu já era fanatico pelas vias de communicação, sr.
presidente; e, se fosse possivel passar uma lei para que a
nação portugueza viajasse por tres mezes, estavamos
salvos. (Disc. de 2 de abril de 56)
Isto seria ridiculo, se não fosse sentido. Sendo-o, prova apenas a
natureza do genero novo da politica e a capacidade do cerebro do
estadista. O caminho de ferro é para elle verdadeiramente, não um
symbolo, mas a realidade do progresso. Correr a vapor, ganhar,
trocar, gozar, que outra cousa é a vida?
Ceci tuera cela, dizia: porque Hugo substituira Cicero, da mesma
fórma que os jacobinos tinham substituido os Prophetas pelos
Romanos.
Se a imprensa pôde matar a architectura, como meio de
traduzir o pensamento de um indivíduo ou de uma epocha,—
porque não hade o caminho de ferro matar a estrada, como
elemento da vida das nações e como ultimo fórma da
civilisação moderna? (Vozes: muito bem! Disc. de 18 de abril
de 56)
Este novo Antony da viação a vapor, perfumado, bem vestido,
leão da moda, tinha expresso no rosto o retrato do novissimo
romantismo. A poesia baixara de inspiração, de motivo, de estylo:
era banal e vulgar como um empreiteiro endomingado nas salas
aristocraticas invalidas. Parece que D. Pedro v lhe poz por alcunha
o Dom Magnifico! A palavra do moço orador, passe-par-tout facil,
verbosa, fluente, sem cunho de personalidade, já antes da
importancia conservadora lhe impôr a reserva calculada, afinava-se
por todos os tons, possuia todos os dotes, sem se elevar em
nenhum d’elles:
Tem um pouco do phantastico do sr. José-Estevão; do
positivo e escholastico do sr. Avila; do sarcastico do sr.
Cunha; e até do nebuloso do sr. Carlos Bento. Sabe retorquir
ao sr. Avila com algarismos; ao sr. Antonio da Cunha com
ditos picantes; ao sr. Carlos Bento com algumas phrases
tumidas e bombasticas sobre a theoria transcendental do
credito, ou sobre a philosophia hyper-critica dos carris de
ferro. (Apont. s. os oradores parlam. 53)
Assim o avaliavam, não sem maliciosa ironia, os contemporaneos.
E nós que ainda o somos, tambem lhe temos ouvido essa
linguagem diffusa, sonora, longa, redonda, e banal, por custoso que
seja dizel-o de um vivo. Nem uma imaginação colorida (como a
José-Estevão), nem um talento verdadeiro (como a Cazal-Ribeiro),
nem uma veia sarcastica (como a Souto-Maior), nem finalmente o
saber especial e sufficiente ácerca do que se trata (como a Serpa ou
Corvo), apenas a habilidade verbosa o distinguia. Subiu levantado
n’um castello de palavras. Mantem-se n’um trapezio de embustes.
E á medida que a edade crescia, como lhe faltara sempre a
paciencia e o tempo para estudar, o seu estylo baixava sem diminuir
a sua facundia. Addicto sempre a esse velho culto, tradição e até
certo ponto gloria da sua vida, a rhetorica levava-o a proferir
phrases que, sem commentarios, soariam ao futuro como
excentricidades de um burocrata maniaco:
E não ando todos os dias em caminho de ferro porque não
posso; porque as minhas occupações públicas m’o impedem:
aliás era touriste dos nossos caminhos de ferro. Isto
comprehende-se da minha parte porque propugnei por estas
idéas; padeci muito por ellas! muito ... e nem eu quero dizer!
(Disc. de 18 de jan. de 65)
Melhor era com effeito calar tão crueis agonias, depois de obtido o
effeito rhetorico; e, se podesse ter supprimido a antiphona, não teria
sido muito melhor ainda?
Acima do cavallo da diligencia está o tramway, acima
d’este a locomotiva, e acima de tudo o progresso! (Ibid.)
Parece inventado, e não é.

É que se chocavam singularmente os moldes da rhetorica antiga

com os motivos da vida moderna. Hymnos, antiphonas,
acclamações, apostrophes, madeixas desgrenhadas, olhos em alvo,
palmadas sobre o coração, diziam com a antiga ideologia liberal ou
democrata: diziam melhor ou peior, mas não chocavam; avaliava-se
o talento, a logica natural, avaliava-se tambem a sinceridade. Mas
cantar o caminho de ferro em discursos rhetoricos pareceu sempre
tão ridiculo como pôr em verso as machinas febrís. Fontes
introduziu na politica este genero de litteratura, romantismo bastardo
parallello ao do socialista Castilho que vinha resuscitar Dellile,
Gessner ou Saint-Pierre para presidirem ás lettras nacionaes. A
regeneração era moralmente, intellectualmente, um rifacimento. Era-
se ainda romantico, por se não poder ser outra cousa; mas de um
romantismo litterato apenas, exterior, janota: romantismo de sala,
que não entrava na intelligencia, conquistada já pelo utilitarismo.
Todos os litteratos d’este tempo acabaram mais ou menos na
Alfandega, ou no ministerio da Fazenda. Assim foi Serpa, o author
de madrigaes: assim Sant’Anna; assim muitos, assim todos. A
liberdade não era uma deusa, era uma menina que se namora:

Poeta da liberdade
Fiz d’esta nova deidade
A dama do meu pensar
Prostrei-me aos pés da donzella
Heide com ella e por ella
A minha terra cantar!

(Palmeirim, Poesías).
O chefe d’este neo-romantismo, entre burocratico e piegas,
artificial, sem raizes no coração de uma gente prosaica ou devassa;
o chefe d’esse romantismo, cujos derradeiros foram Chagas e
Thomaz Ribeiro, «christão, portuguez e bacharel formado», (Prol. do
D. Jayme, 2.ª ed.); o chefe de uma eschola arrebicada e pedante, foi
Castilho, um velho Fontes da poesia!
Ao seu temperamento feminino ou infantil agradavam as ternuras
doces dos Byrons do Terreiro-do-Paço; e, se lá no fundo tinha uma
ironia aguda para os crivar de epigrammas antigos, vingando-se,
não podia deixar de os lisongear, de os acolher, de os encher de
louvores e mimos, chamando Isto a um, Aquillo a outro: um
congresso de genios! A hypocrisia natural em sociedades que,
tombando na chateza do utilitarismo, não querem confessar, por um
resto de pudor esthetico, o americanismo dos seus sentimentos e
motivos; esse estado de desaccordo da intelligencia moral, da
esthetica e da pratica, reclamava o governo politico de um homem
como Fontes, e o governo litterario de outro homem tambem vasio
de idéas, repleto de sábia poetica, um arcade como Castilho.
E se o primeiro cantava em discurso a «locomotiva, e sobre a
locomotiva o progresso!» se o primeiro obedecia á corrente do
Capitalismo moderno: o segundo, cantando a Felicidade pela
agricultura, o Hymno do trabalho, obedecia á corrente do
fourierismo; e ambos recebiam e davam a iniciação propria da
edade do Fomento, nas suas duas faces.
Capitalismo, Socialismo, eis ahi, com effeito, o que se achava no
fundo da Regeneração; sem que os nossos regeneradores tivessem
uma consciencia nitida do que faziam e do que eram. Succede quasi
sempre assim aos homens, e muito mais succedia então, quando
tudo apparecia ainda confuso, indeterminado, n’um crepusculo de
Liberdade ainda confessada, n’uma combinação ainda vaga dos
elementos futuros das questões sociaes. Fourier, Saint-Simon,
Owen, Cabet: capitalistas ou socialistas? As duas cousas a um
tempo. Era o socialismo pelo capital: tambem na politica era a
liberdade pela riqueza. E por cima da vasta confusão de idéas e
preconceitos, de phrases ingenuas e astucias calculadas, havia
apenas na sociedade portugueza um desejo ardente de paz, riqueza
e goso. Os jovens politicos aprendiam corajosamente o can-can
com as francezas do Jardim mythologico.
Esta consequencia immediata da iniciação do Fomento, apoz a
longa historia das duras campanhas liberaes, levava a mocidade
regeneradora a não presentir as inconsequencias das suas
opiniões, nem o caracter ás vezes infantil das suas distracções.
Emigrados da miseria, no dia da abastança não se fartavam de
gosar; e no seio da paz, assim como as lettras eram uma distracção
amena de homens graves, assim o era a politica. Lisboa teve o quer
que é de rococó burocratico e litterato, n’esses tempos doirados da
mocidade regeneradora, em que,—como creanças perante um
brinquedo, a locomotiva,—se via no Salamanca e na cohorte dos
hommes d’affaires que desciam da Europa a faire-le-Portugal, uma
aurora do futuro, sarjada de rails, com aureolas de clarões de
fornalhas entre nuvens de um forte cheiro a sebo queimado.
 Se Castilho tinha os seus saraus, onde os poetas de fartas
melenas iam recitar peças lyricas ou hymnos trabalhadores, os
politicos pisavam tapetes em salões celebres que recebiam de
portas abertas uma pleiade de estadistas novos—os filhos da
Liberdade! Os nomes conhecemol-os todos; mas talvez já não
lembrem algumas das diversões interessantes das noites de
comadres. Cada cavalheiro tirava á sorte a comadre, na quinta-feira
propria; e cada comadre, uma dama, tinha uma divisa: Liberdade,
Democracia, Joanna-d’Arc, Corday, a Padeira? Não: imagens de
agora, vivas. Uma era a Prosperidade-publica, e saiu a Fontes;
outra a Camara-dos-deputados, e saiu a José-Estevão; outra a
Fazenda-nacional, e saiu a Cazal-Ribeiro; outra a Imprensa-
periodica, e saiu a Sampaio; etc. (Rev. penins. Chron. fev. de 56)
Não tivemos razão de chamar á Regeneração um cezarismo de
secretaria?
Quasi vinte annos levou a dissipar-se (51-68) esse neo-
romantismo da geração em que primeiro se enxertaram as idéas
sociaes modernas, pelos modos e fórmas que esboçámos
rapidamente. Outros modos, fórmas diversas: um neo-setembrismo,
um socialismo platonico, a Iberia, a Republica, vieram entretanto
invadindo os cerebros de outras camadas, e forçando as anteriores
a congregarem-se definitivamente em partido conservador. Foi o
que já vimos, faltando-nos ainda estudar as novas influencias do
periodo da Regeneração.
Depois de 68 nada ha que regenerar, ou todos regeneram de um
modo egual. Depois d’esta epocha, e consummada uma tal ou qual
restauração da riqueza nacional, todos apparecem convertidos ao
opportunismo pratico. Não ha mais distincções de partidos, ha
apenas grupos diversos. Não ha mais programmas, porque ha a
liberdade pratica bastante e toda a ideologia liberal morreu. Os
bandos politicos já não têem rotulos, basta-lhes o nome dos chefes:
é o d’este, o d’aquell’outro. E uns succedem-se aos outros, até que
... Ponto. Não precipitemos o discurso.

2.—O IBERISMO
 O leitor sabe que nos ultimos reinados da dynastia de Aviz a
politica de fusão dos dois estados, já ao tempo unicos na Peninsula,
inspirou por mais de uma vez a côrte portugueza.[41] Sabe tambem
a deploravel historia da annexação de Portugal, e a da occupação
castelhana, mais deploravel ainda. Em 1640 uma conspiração
palaciana, com a protecção dos jesuitas e da França, restaura a
independencia portugueza, levantando a dynastia de Bragança. No
meiado do xvii seculo acontecia o que succedera no seculo xii e no
fim do xiv: as tres dynastias portuguezas foram, nos seus primeiros
periodos, o symbolo da independencia nacional.
Á maneira, porém, que com o tempo se obliterava a lembrança
das crises successivas, renascia, com as complicações dynasticas,
o pensamento natural da união. Assim aconteceu no tempo de D.
Fernando; assim desde D. Affonso v até 1580. E quando foi a crise
peninsular, determinada pela invasão franceza, D. João vi, do Rio,
onde se achava, viu despontar a perspectiva da união, e a côrte
voltou a ser iberica. O duque de Palmella estava então enviado junto
á Regencia de Cadix (1809-10) e dizia-se do Brazil que se o throno
viesse a pertencer a Carlota Joaquina, uma esquadra iria leval-a a
Hespanha, e essa solução teria «as vantagens de preparar e facilitar
a reunião das duas monarchias». (Off. no Conimbricense, n. 3664)
—Depois, na crise dynastica, determinada em Portugal pela morte
de D. João vi, voltavam os planos ibericos.
A ambos os pretendentes se attribue o pensamento de resolver,
por meio do iberismo, o problema em que se viam afflictos. (Port.,
seus gov. e dyn. op.)
Logo que a volta de D. Miguel em 28 levou Saldanha a emigrar, o
Cid portuguez escrevia de Londres para o Rio a D. Pedro excitando-
o, acenando-lhe com planos ibericos, conforme já vimos. (Liv. prim.
I, 3) Em 31, regressado D. Pedro á Europa, e emquanto não havia
ainda decisão assente sobre a marcha a seguir, Saldanha d’accordo
com o general Mina foi a Londres convidar o principe para a
empreza, a que Palmerston se teria opposto. (Carnota, Mem.)
Pensaria D. Pedro n’um imperio mais ou menos
napoleonicamente liberal, herdando Fernando vii e expulsando D.
Miguel? D’este, diz se, como já vimos, que no mais desesperado
momento da guerra teria pensado em correr sobre Madrid, ao tempo
quasi desguarnecida, tomal-a, e fazer causa commum com D.
Carlos, então a ponto de vencer.
Qualquer que seja o grau de verdade d’estas allegações, é facto
que, resolvida a questão dynastica em Portugal, vencedor o
liberalismo, a sua historia deploravel arraigou em muitos a opinião
unionista. Palmella toda a sua vida dizem ter affirmado que
«Portugal, depois da separação do Brazil, não tinha mais remedio
do que unir-se á Hespanha». Do lado opposto, vimos Passos
confessar na tribuna que o futuro nacional estava na união. A
opinião do duque de Palmella firmava-se naturalmente na historia do
paiz que vivera por quatro seculos da exploração de territorios
ultramarinos, e que desde 20 se achava reduzido ao canapé
europeu de D. João VI, porque o resto das suas colonias, armazem
de escravos apenas, de nada valia desde que o tráfico dos negros
era prohibido. As finanças nacionaes, exprimindo a ruina economica
portugueza, eram o commentario eloquente da doutrina e a causa
immediata mais grave das agitações da politica.
Chegaram as idéas de união a inspirar os actos das côrtes de
Lisboa e de Madrid? Querem alguns que sim: o futuro o dirá,
quando se poderem vêr os tombos das embaixadas e ministerios.
Como se sabe, Portugal, alliado á Hespanha pelo tratado de 34 que
expulsara D. Miguel, tinha mandado uma divisão com o conde das
Antas auxiliar Isabel II a expulsar D. Carlos. No theatro da guerra,
diz-se, o conde e o general Cordoba teriam projectado
combinações, que dos seus gabinetes faziam tambem Mendizabal e
o primeiro marido de D. Maria II. Esse principe morreu breve, mas a
nossa rainha casou-se logo, e em 38 já tinha os seus dois primeiros
filhos. Por casar ainda em 44 a rainha de Hespanha, accrescenta-se
que adquirira grande acceitação a idéa de um duplo enlace de
Isabel II com o herdeiro de Portugal, e de D. Luiz com a infanta
hespanhola. (Borrego, Hist. de una idea, ap. Rios, Mi mision, etc.) O
doutrinarismo vingou porém em Hespanha; Guizot casou a rainha
em 46, de modo a tornar provavel a successão de Montpensier ao
throno; esteve a ponto de haver uma guerra; e, dissipada a
esperança de enlaces dynasticos, veiu a intervenção hespanhola de
47 em Portugal terminar completamente este episodio da historia
moderna do iberismo. (Rios, Mision)
Os emigrados que, ás centenas, o doutrinarismo hespanhol
expulsava para Paris eram ibericos; e emquanto no exilio os
progressistas do reino visinho punham a união no seu programma,
em um canto afastado do mundo, em Macau, estava, consul pela
Hespanha na China, D. Sinibaldo de Más que converteu ao iberismo
o bispo portuguez. (Ibid.) Fôra isto em 50; e no anno seguinte deu-
se a Regeneração, cuja physionomia moderna o leitor conhece.
O escasso ou nenhum valor que o utilitarismo dá ás idéas, a
importancia exclusiva ligada ao fomento material estavam dizendo
que a união encontraria adeptos entre os moços. Não seria a visão
de um imperio poderoso, como o que D. João II planeara, como o
que enchia democraticamente os sonhos de Passos. Era a
demonstração rigorosa e exacta de quanto havia a ganhar,
apagando as linhas raianas, unificando a economia, subordinando a
rede da viação a vapor á geographia commercial da Peninsula, em
vez de a torturar por motivos politicos. «Fraternidade, Egualdade,
União, entre portuguezes e hespanhoes», trazia como epigraphe o
livro de D. Sinibaldo, traduzido em portuguez e prefaciado pelo
joven Latino Coelho. (A Iberia, por D. Sin. de Mas: tr. Lisboa 1853)
Os embaraços, com que então se luctava entre nós para levar a
cabo o caminho de ferro de Leste, eram o motivo immediato para
declarar urgente a união que agora procedia de razões economicas,
como se vê, sem se ligar a chimeras politicas, no genio de homens
que tinham o espirito afinado pelo tempo. D. Sinibaldo dizia que se
nós queriamos o caminho de ferro, adherissemos á união. Como?
De um modo pratico e simples: casando o rei portuguez com a
herdeira hespanhola, D. Pedro V com a princeza das Asturias,
«construir-se-ha o caminho de ferro a Badajoz». (Iberia) Fontes
passava por partidario d’esta combinação (Rios, Mision); e um dos
publicistas mais graves e entendidos escrevia assim: «O paiz menor
tem um varão reinante, o paiz maior tem uma princeza por
successor ao throno». (Cl. Ad. da Costa, Mem. sobre Portugal e a
Hespanha) Emquanto D. Sinibaldo se fixava mais sobre as
condições de politica internacional, sobre as opiniões da geração
nova, sobre as considerações de geographia commercial e politica,
determinando já a capital—Santarem—ao mesmo tempo que
desenhava a futura bandeira iberica quadricolor: Costa, o estatistico,
alinhavava os algarismos, multiplicava os calculos para demonstrar
as riquezas que nos viriam da união. Era um iberismo positivo,
pratico, regenerador.
Mas com este novo espirito portuguez tinha-se tambem insinuado
em Portugal um corpo de sentimentos modernos, ainda mal definido
em idéas, mixto de socialismo humanitario e republicanismo
cosmopolita, federalista: a atmosphera necessaria de idealismo que
alimentava o espirito dos moços, formando a vanguarda dos
partidos revolucionarios portuguezes de 51 a 68, forçando os
regeneradores a tornarem o Fomento solidario da Conservação.
Concebe-se facilmente como a semente do iberismo devia germinar
em um solo bem preparado pelas idéas cosmopolitas e
humanitarias, pois que estas idéas, em vez de penderem para o
lado dos antigos liberalismos, se alliavam á doutrina do fomento
economico eivada de socialismo, democratico e não cesarista. Além
d’isto o phenomeno singular do pessimismo portuguez, oriundo do
caracter apathico do povo, justificado pela historia, corroborado com
eloquencia pelas miserias presentes, conduziam a vanguarda da
geração nova a vêr na solução iberica a conclusão natural da
historia patria.
Latino, publicista imaginoso, artista nas idéas, no temperamento,
no estylo, apresentava no seu prologo á Iberia as opiniões vagas e
nebulosas da gente que, ligada partidariamente á Regeneração,
como José-Estevão se achava ainda, se não satisfazia já com o
mutismo politico regenerador. Latino via auroras para além do
zollverein peninsular. Não via Fontes «sobre a locomotiva o
progresso?» Mas o progresso do ministro era a riqueza apenas; e
as auroras do publicista eram a Humanidade, uma Republica
europêa, a Paz universal! «Se a federação europêa não é tão cedo
possivel, não será mesquinho o nosso desejo, se aspirarmos á
diminuição progressiva do numero dos Estados independentes.—A
peninsula iberica que já formou uma só nação pela conquista,
poderá, deverá ser um só paiz pela fusão espontanea». (Prol. da
Iberia, anon.) Era tambem a opinião de Cazal Ribeiro que
acclamava a Iberia, sob a fórma de uma republica federativa. (Rev.
lusit. maio 53) Era tambem a opinião do moço, mallogrado Nogueira,
(Fed. iberica, 54; ap Th. Braga Sol. pos. da pol. port.) que chorava
sentidamente a nossa dolorosa situação: «Minha pobre patria!
escuta a voz do ultimo e mais obscuro de teus filhos. Sacode essa
nuvem de harpias que especulam com a tua passada grandeza,
para se nutrirem em teu corpo extenuado! Quando volverem dias
mais auspiciosos lança-te resolutamente na vanguarda do
movimento peninsular, onde tu e os teus briosos companheiros tens
tudo a ganhar e nada a perder». (ap. Iberia, tr. port.) Tambem o
prologo da Iberia dizia: «Portugal, só, como está, desajudado,
moribundo, que poderá jámais tentar? Exhauriu-se de forças na
lucta: precisa que lhe injectem sangue novo. É, depois da Turquia, o
povo mais atrazado».

Podia este pessimismo agradar á Regeneração gloriosa,

magnifica? Podia agradar-lhe a Iberia, quando o pensamento da
união, democratisando-se, passava do segredo das secretarias para
a publicidade dos papeis? quando, em vez de combinação de
gabinetes e arranjo dynastico, se tornava a expressão de ambições
revolucionarias, mais vagas, mais nebulosas, mais graves do que
nunca? O fomento pugnava pró, mas não pugnaria contra a
conservação indispensavel ao progresso da riqueza? E, se tudo isto
era assim, não valia mais recuar, abandonando as esperanças dos
caminhos-de-ferro vastos e geometricos, da futura Lisboa—outra
Londres—para conservar a nossa pobreza e a nossa monarchia?
Em Hespanha pensava-se outro tanto, antepondo-se á união a
conservação, por medo das revoluções. E desde que, accordes
n’esta politica, (V. Rios, Mision) os conservadores dos dois paizes
abandonavam os planos de enlaces dynasticos, o melhor partido
que os regeneradores podiam tirar do iberismo era o de usar d’elle
como arma para condemnarem os revolucionarios novos, aos quaes
afinal o tinham ensinado.
D’ahi veiu para nós uma situação que mais de uma vez se tornou
grotesca e sempre ridicula. D’ahi veiu inventar-se o 1.º de
Dezembro, festa patriotica em que annualmente arremettemos
contra os visinhos com bombas, foguetes, philharmonicas, e peior
ainda! com discursos apopleticos de uma rhetorica plebêa. D’ahi
veiu o ter-se assistido á queda de successivos gabinetes por esse
labeu de iberismo explorado pelos partidos, lançado como uma pélla
de um a outro lado, fazendo crêr que no meio de um odio universal
á Iberia, todos em Portugal são ibericos! D’ahi veiu o accender-se
no coração do povo passivo, e em proveito da intriga politica, um
odio archaico, absurdo, talvez responsavel de futuro sangue
innocente derramado, se um dia os vae-vens do equilibrio europeu
fizerem com que a Hespanha nos conquiste. D’ahi veiu o ridiculo de
uma nação fraca, mui governada, sem marinha, com um exercito
indisciplinado, nem instruido, nem aguerrido, nem numeroso, com
as fronteiras abertas, as costas por defender: de uma nação que
não poderia resistir á mais pequena das invasões, dar ao mundo—
se o mundo olhasse para nós!—o espectaculo ridiculo da
fanfarronice mais disparatada. «Rrre ...benn ...too de fo.o.rça!» diz
n’uma comedia hespanhola um portuguez, inchando-se, com as
faces rubras; e os hespanhoes vingam-se não nos ouvindo, e
chamando-nos amavelmente portuguecitos.
Tal foi a situação creada pela iniciação iberica de 53, depois
aggravada quando a revolução de 68 fez da successão de
Hespanha um problema. Renasceram, é natural, as combinações
dynasticas; mas o iberismo, já ao tempo declaradamente federalista,
era a revolução: não se repetia, pois, a historia anterior? Não eram
forçados os conservadores a cohibir quaesquer ambições que
tivessem, para defender a monarchia, para se defenderem a si, para
esmagarem os contrarios, explorando o patriotismo em proveito
proprio, condemnando em nome d’elle a revolução que affirmava ser
urgente renegar a nacionalidade? (Quental, Port. per. a revol. de
Hesp.)
 Mas antes que este segundo momento apparecesse para crear
definitivamente a situação que desenhámos ha pouco e é a de hoje;
antes, entre as duas crises, que attitude era a da Hespanha?
Tambem na côrte de Madrid se sabia que a Iberia seria a revolução
e a quéda dos Bourbons: como poderia haver planos de
annexação? Os partidos conservadores, nos dois paizes
(regeneradores, unionistas), tinham chegado áquelle triste ponto de
nada, absolutamente nada, poderem fazer no sentido de melhorar a
sorte do povo, pela razão de que toda e qualquer idéa fecunda era,
e é,—a situação conserva-se a mesma—confiscada, apropriada a si
pela opinião revolucionaria, atmosphera hostil que rodeia e paralysa.
Se, portanto, em Hespanha existia um medo, não de uma invasão
portugueza, mas do iberismo como arma revolucionaria, em
Portugal havia-se já insinuado, generalisado no povo um odio a
Castella, que aos conservadores convinha que houvesse, para com
essa irritação, cuja falta de fundamento elles mais do que ninguem
deviam conhecer, obterem a protecção decidida do paço e uma
arma de parada para baterem as opposições.
Mas os conservadores portuguezes, excitando assim um
sentimento anarchico para se servirem a si e á monarchia, foram
réus de graves desvarios. Logo á morte de D. Pedro v o povo de
Lisboa, choroso e commovido, misturou o iberismo no corpo de
protestos com que exprimia a condemnação constante, ora tacita,
ora expressa, pela ordem das cousas. Ha, sem duvida, uma
pathologia collectiva sem o estudo da qual o historiador jámais
poderá iniciar-se no intimo dos sentimentos de um povo. As
doenças mysticas do catholicismo do xvii seculo constituem um
corpo de symptomas eminentes; e Portugal cujo organismo raros
momentos gozou de uma saude perfeita; Portugal cujo ultimo
ataque de febre monarchico-catholica nós estudámos em 26-33;
Portugal que desde a implantação do liberalismo, ou em collapso
não se movia, ou passava da inacção a alguma furia: Portugal
apresenta um symptoma curioso para diagnostico ao medico
politico. Todos os seus reis envenenados, todos os seus estadistas,
burlões, eis a genuina opinião do povo, que qualquer póde obter
interrogando-o. Envenenado D. João vi, D. Pedro sem duvida
alguma envenenado, D. Maria ii—quem o ignora? E depois de tudo
isto, morriam D. Pedro v e os infantes (D. Fernando, D. João)
envenenados tambem.
Envenenados morreram, com effeito, mas com os miasmas do
charco de Villa-Viçosa.—Qual charco! dizia o povo; um charco sim,
mas o dos politicos: o de Loulé que quer ser rei, acudiam uns; e
outros diziam que não, affirmando terem sido o Salamanca e os
socios para nos venderem á Hespanha. Assim, lavrando na
imaginação popular, a semente do iberismo lançada pela iniciação
do Fomento, tornava-se agora contra os que por interesse eram os
adversarios da união iberica.
Nos tumultos do inverno de 61, por occasião das mortes na côrte,
o protesto espontaneo do povo rebentou de um modo
symptomatico, declamando absurdos, exigindo crueldades:
querendo a cabeça de Loulé que para a guardar teve de fugir pelos
telhados das secretarias; propondo-se saquear a casa de
Salamanca, o que envenenara no almoço de Santarem a familia real
na volta de Villa-Viçosa! (Nota de Valencia, 11 de nov. ap. Rios,
Mision) Quem denunciava estes criminosos? Ninguem; todos. De
quem é a voz que nas tempestades fala em trovões reboando pelas
quebradas das serras? A turba, como as massas da electricidade,
tem uma fala cujas expressões a ninguem pertencem.
Mas assim como a trovoada não vem sem causa, assim os
clamores populares, embora absurdos nas palavras, teem um
motivo intimo e grave. Já na historia houvera delirios, e sempre, no
fundo da loucura, appareceram verdades. Tambem os allucinados
no seu tresvario vêem longe muitas vezes. Ninguem envenenara os
principes, ninguem projectava vender-nos a Hespanha. Loulé, em
vez de burlão, era um homem de bem. Mas que importa? Alguem ha
de ser o réu, alguem o objecto da nossa colera, do nosso mal-estar,
da vaga consciencia da nossa miseria, e quem, senão quem nos
governa?
Se o organismo portuguez tivesse ainda energia para se rebellar,
o fim de 61 teria provavelmente assistido a uma revolução: mas não
sabemos nós, acaso, que depois da Maria-da-Fonte a guerra de 46-
7 foi já um combate de espectros? E depois d’esse episodio
funebre, não viera a Regeneração medicar-nos com tisanas de
scepticismo e caldos substanciaes de melhoramentos? Se o
enfermo levantava cabeça, não podia ser ainda para pensar: era
apenas a convalescença em que o organismo pouco a pouco se
robustecia com a transfusão de sangue de libras inglezas, por
emprestimos successivos.
Quando chegou o dia do rei D. Luiz se casar, e a Hespanha que,
mais viva, estava proxima a ajustar contas com o liberalismo de
Isabel ii, viu que a noiva era a filha do piemontez já rei da Italia
unida, temeu-se em Madrid que a tradição da familia saboyana, o
exemplo da outra peninsula meridional fizessem de Portugal um
Piemonte hespanhol. Quanto injusto favor nos concediam! Que
temerarios planos attribuiam ao nosso modesto rei, aos nossos
estadistas timidos, mediocres! O embaixador que a Hespanha tinha
em Lisboa apressou-se a dissipar os sustos palacianos:
O rei D. Luis é um joven sem experiencia, de curto alcance
e pouco a proposito para dirigir um negocio de tanta
consequencia. (Desp. do m. de la Ribera) Se me perguntasse
qual eu creio que seja o caracter distinctivo d’esta sociedade,
diria que é o de uma profunda prostração. Não temo que, no
curso da politica, qualquer que ella seja, Portugal possa influir
nos destinos da Hespanha. Não ha aqui nenhum dos
elementos que se reuniram no Piemonte; não vejo partido
bastante energico e poderoso para ter uma politica externa
de verdadeira iniciativa; nem distingo em nenhum homem
publico um verdadeiro homem d’Estado. (Desp. de Coello y
Quesada, 5 de set. 64, ap. Rios, Mision)
Dissipadas as sombras de sustos, apertaram-se outra vez as
mãos entre Madrid e Lisboa, contentes, esperançados, os Bourbons
e os Braganças, os regeneradores e os unionistas, em que o
espectro revolucionario da Iberia ficasse para todo o sempre mudo.
De repente, porém, surge em Hespanha uma revolução (3 de
outubro de 1868) que n’um instante expulsa a rainha, acclama Prim,
e fica á espera de saber que destino ha de dar a nação. Republica?
Monarchia? Iberia? Centralisação? Federalismo?... Depois a guerra
assolou a França, abatendo o segundo imperio. As duas grandes
nações latinas acharam-se desprovidas de governo, entregues aos
vae-vens das opiniões partidarias, abertas a toda a especie de
experiencias, como navios desgarrados de uma esquadra açoitada
pelo tempo. Faltava a unidade de direcção almirante, e dentro de
cada nau o commando fluctuava á mercê do acaso ou da fatalidade.
A Hespanha tentou uma monarchia e varias fórmas de republica. A
França, gemendo, não se decidia á dar á luz fórma alguma
conhecida de governo. Mas em Hespanha e França o socialismo
appareceu sob a fórma de deploraveis revoltas communaes, eivado
de preoccupações federalistas e demagogicas, cruel, rudemente
esboçado em Paris e em Carthagena. Não eram, porém, mais nem
menos violentas, sanguinarias e ridiculas do que as da Edade-
media, raizes de um liberalismo burguez hoje acclamado por ser
vencedor. Em França e Hespanha portanto a revolução, denunciada
sob o seu novissimo aspecto, levou as classes médias a
congregarem-se para se defenderem. D’ahi nasceram, nos dois
paizes, governos analogos, egualmente opportunos, embora
diversos como fórma: a monarchia para áquem, a republicana para
além dos Pyreneus.

Com a revolução hespanhola de 68 o iberismo acordou por varios

modos. Em outubro liam-se nas esquinas de Lisboa pasquins
dizendo:
Viva a união iberica! Viva o sr. D. Luiz I chefe dos dois
paizes unidos!—Ponhamos de parte estupidos preconceitos;
portuguezes e hespanhoes são irmãos pela religião, pelos
costumes, pelo idioma, e sobretudo pelo seu decidido amor á
liberdade. Não percamos, portuguezes, a occasião que a
Providencia nos offerece para nos engrandecermos,
constituindo uma nação que será invejada de todas as
nações do mundo, podendo dar leis a todas, sem de
nenhuma as receber.—Viva a união iberica!
Esta proclamação, supposta portugueza, era provavelmente
hespanhola: forjada pelos emissarios que Prim, ao tempo,
sabidamente tinha em Portugal. Se o general relesse os despachos
de Quesada, quatro annos atraz, se tivesse genio para auscultar
bem o temperamento do paço, do governo, e do povo, reconheceria
mais cedo como perdia o tempo. D. Luiz nunca foi Victor-Manuel,
nem Carlos-Alberto, nem Guilherme iv; Fontes não era
evidentemente um Cavour, nem um Bismarck: menos o era ainda o
duque d’Avila presidente da Janeirinha.
Por outro lado, Prim, nem tinha audacia nem força para fazer de
nós o que Bismarck fez dos ducados do Elba. Mas a Hespanha
necessitava um rei! Ainda a guerra alleman não destruira o imperio
em França: uma republica seria um escandalo. Um rei! pelo amor de
Deus, um rei! diziam afflictos de Madrid. E bem perto, em Lisboa,
havia um, em inactividade temporaria, nos casos de servir. Mas
casado! Dariam á Hespanha a condessa d’Edla como rainha? Por
ahi a negociação falhou. (V. Rios, Mision) E tambem porque, embora
allemão, embora já com filhos o rei portuguez, os conservadores
viam no affinidade das dynastias um longinquo receio de iberismo.
Appareciam graves folhetos sombrios (Corvo, Perigos; Duas
palavras, etc.) pintando com sinceridade, ou sem ella, as ameaças
imminentes. E acordar no povo o odio a Castella foi ainda, como
sempre fôra, um meio de fazer opposição. Os regeneradores tinham
agora a conquistar o poder ao reformismo da janeirinha, e para
tanto, o melhor meio era chamar-lhe iberico e encher de sustos a
cabeça do bom do rei.
E entretanto, nem o Bispo, nem Latino, nem ninguem era iberico;
embora o reformismo tivesse laivos de republicano, embora Latino
tivesse prefaciado o livro de D. Sinibaldo. Illusões tambem
passadas! A iniciação do fomento convertera as gerações novos, e
os ideologos de 54 eram opportunistas em 70. Tambem os
federalistas platonicos d’esses tempos passados eram
conservadores de agora, como Cazal. O federalismo iberico, mais
ou menos eivado de socialismo demagogico, era já em Portugal
apenas o credo de uma minoria minima, sem valor politico de
especie alguma. E passada a crise, restaurada a monarchia em
Hespanha, a situação voltou o ser, com os partidos novos, o que
fôra com os antigos. Conservadores de ambos os lados da raia:
conservadores regeneradores, conservadores canovistas,
conservadores progressistas, etc., etc.,—opportunistas todos.

3.—O SOCIALISMO

Esta doutrina saía mais directamente do que a idéa

precedentemente estudada, do progresso material defendido pela
regeneração. Os regeneradores não estavam de todo limpos da
mancha socialista, como vimos. Chevalier, o mestre economista do
partido, trouxera da egreja de Menilmontant para o mundo as
maximas da economia sansimonista.
Mais do que ao iberismo ainda, porém, acontecia ao socialismo o
que antes vimos succeder: abraçarem os revolucionarios a idéa,
fazerem-na sua, obrigando os regeneradores a renegal-a, recuando
cada vez mais, accentuando todos os dias o seu caracter
conservador. O individualismo das antigas escholas e partidos
finara-se, porém, como lettra morta; e quer cesarista, conservadora
ou imperialistamente, quer democratica e revolucionariamente, «o
melhoramento da sorte dos desvalidos da fortuna» era uma
preoccupação tão dominante dos espiritos, como n’outro tempo o
fôra «a garantia dos direitos soberanos do individuo». Os socialistas
francezes eram geralmente lidos. Os moços chegaram a ensaiar
phalansterios. A classe dos engenheiros, nova em Portugal, com a
sua educação mathematica, seguia os exemplos dos discipulos da
eschola polytechnica de Paris. Commungavam n’um sansimonismo,
mais ou menos accentuado, Carlos Ribeiro e Rolla, Garcia,
Bettamio, Delgado, e Brandão, author da Economia social (8.º 1857)
com epigraphe: Unicuique secundum opera ejus. Fourier apparecia
como um precursor, Proudhon como um apostolo. Para além do
presente entrevia-se um futuro doirado de fortunas.
Por acreditar na imperfeição e na perfectibilidade da raça
humana, ninguem pecca por fourierista ou proudhoniario. A
poesia romantica tem, não ha duvida, muito de socialista mas
annuncia um socialismo mais sabido que ainda está por vir. A
poesia é toda inspiração e vaticinio. A magia existiu antes dos
caminhos-de-ferro, do gaz e do magnetismo. Dante viu as
 estrellas do hemispherio austral antes que este se
descobrisse; Seneca vaticinou a descoberta da America;
Eschylo no Prometheu a redempção; e Virgilio adivinhou
alguma cousa da moral christan e até o progresso civilisador
da Europa, extendendo por todo o mundo os seus costumes,
o seu poder, a sua religião, a sua sciencia. (Rev. Peninsular,
55)
Isto era escripto commentando Espronceda, o author do Pirata e
do Mendigo, o poeta néo-romantico que puzera nos seus versos
todo o desespero, todas as ironias, todo o satanismo de uma alma
já sem obediencia a nenhuma especie de authoridade moral, mas
cheia de impetos e aspirações democraticas e socialistas.
Com effeito, a revolução das idéas approximara estas duas
opiniões; e se já não havia jacobinos, tambem ainda o socialismo
não ganhara a expressão exclusiva, odienta, de uma guerra de
classes, como partido de populani magros resuscitado da velha
historia das republicas italianas. Uma atmosphera nebulosa de
humanitarismo cheio de esperanças philantropicas envolvia as
doutrinas revolucionarias: choravam-se as desgraças dos italianos,
dos polacos escravisados; e a liberdade que para os passados fôra
um criterio racional e a base de um systema de idéas, era agora
invocada com um caracter mais de politica autonomica das nações,
do que de soberania constitucional dos individuos. A republica seria
a paz universal! Pouco importava, a ninguem offendia que as
ephemeras republicas de 48 fossem tyrannas com laivos de
communismo. Tudo isso era liberdade! Aos homens, educados pelo
espirito jurista e pela critica de Kant, succediam os discipulos de
Louis Blanc e de Lamartine.
Na camara portugueza—como as idéas correm, como as nações
mudam rapidamente, n’este seculo revolucionario!—na camara
portugueza, na sessão de 49, Souto-Maior, sem ser expulso nem
apupado, defende «a nobre, santa e justa causa em que se acha
empenhada a Italia inteira para constituir a sua liberdade, firmar a
sua independencia, e estabelecer a sua unidade». E no seu jornal,
Estandarte, o orador escrevia do papa: «Resumo de uma grande
historia morta, póde ainda ser o symbolo de um grande povo vivo».