Cultural Communication

 ACT Theory of Communication

 Communication Accommodation Theory
 Cross Cultural Communication
 Cultural Identity Theory
 Face-Negotiation Theory
 Knowledge Gap Theory
 MEDIUM THEORY
 Modernisation Theory
 Muted Group Theory
 Postmodernism
 Sociocultural Theory
 The Spiral of Silence Theory
 Victorianism
Interpersonal Communication
 Argumentation Theory
 Attachment Theory
 Attribution Theory
 CLASSICAL RHETORICAL THEORY
 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
 CONTAGION THEORY
 Conversation Theory
 Language Expectancy Theory
 Relational Dialectics Theory

Mass Communication
 Media Malaise Theory
 Media Richness Theory
 MEDIUM THEORY

Organisational Communication
 Hawthorne Effect
 Management by objectives (Drucker)
 System Theory
 Theory X and Theory Y
 Theory Z

ACT Theory of Communication

ntroduction
John R Anderson is an American psychologist was born in the year 1947 in Vancouver, British Columbia.
He is currently working as a professor of Psychology and Computer science at Carnegie Mellon University.
Anderson is widely known as a cognitive architect because of his researches and experiments in the field
of cognitive psychology. Professor has been also recognized for his works in intelligent tutoring system
such as cognitive tutor and served as the president of the Cognitive Science Society during the period of
1988 – 1989. Anderson has presented several papers in the subjects relating to cognitive psychology and
honored with many scientific awards including Distinguished Scientific Career Award of American
Psychological Association, Benjamin Franklin Medal etc…
Theory
CONCEPTACT*(Adaptive Concept of Thought – Rational) is a cognitive architecture. Cognition is
the process of understanding or acquiring knowledge and information through thought, experiences and
other senses. The architecture made with the framework or model which shows the process and
understanding of acquiring knowledge and information. This theory tells us each and every tasks
performed by the human beings are considered of several steps and processes. It provides a model or
framework of these processes that happens in our mind, the framework or model may look like a
programming language. The theory works on psychological assumptions of human nature which derived
from numerous scientific experiences and experiments.
The main components of ACT* are

1. Modules
2. Buffers
3. Pattern Matcher
1. Modules
There are two types of modules

 Perceptual Motor Module

 Memory Module
Perceptual-Motor modules which take care of the inferences or interactions with real or outer world. This
part acts as a gate to bringing in the necessary information and data for reaching at the models.

Memory modules, which contain three kinds of modules

a) Procedural memory consists of the knowledge that we uses to do simple things such as removing pen
cap or opening car door.
b) Declarative memory consists of information and facts like there are 24 hours in a day or 7 days makes
a weak.
c) Working memory is part of the long-term memory which more highly activated.
The picture shows how procedural and declarative memory works for performing each and every task.

The theory finds out differences between procedural and declarative memory.

2. Buffers
In each module the information where brings in and taking out from one module to another module.
These particular buffers systems provide the accessibility to cognitive adaptation thoughts through
buffers.

3. Pattern Matcher
The pattern matcher seeks for a production that matches the current state of the buffers. Only one of these
productions can be performed at a specific period of time. That production, when it is performed, can
alter the buffers and thus changes are brought into the system. Thus, in ACT* cognition explains as a
series of production and a model is made.

Each and every human task can be made into a model by this theory. The models of every person will be
different from one another. Comparing derived model from a person with the standards we can reach the
findings. Other important feature of this theory is that it helps to obtain finding in quantitative measures.
Most of the times this theory used to find

Perception and attention,

Problem solving and decision making,
Language and communication
Individual differences between persons
Learning and memory
The theories in cognitive sciences are divided into two the “symbolic” or the “connectionist”. The ACT*
theory is considered as a symbolic one and it is classified as such in the books and collections because
symbolic approaches describes mind as a product of brain, so as the ACT* theory.

Example
This theory can be used to evaluate the mental capability of the students in quantitative measures.

The ability to solve mathematical problems to each student may vary. If we have the quantitative
measurement that obtained from ACT* model of each students, we could categories them according to
their abilities. If the pupils are classified according to their abilities, the teachers can give their attention
accordingly.

For finding the answer for the same question the pupil in the higher measurement classes can be given
much less time than other pupils. And thus pupil with low measurement can be provided with more time
than the time given to other pupil.

Communication Accommodation
Theory
Introduction
Communication accommodation is a communication theory which emphasis the adjustments that people
does while communicating. Howard Giles, the professor of communication at the University of California,
developed the theory which is and according to him is when people try to emphasis or minimize the social
difference between the others whom they interact with. The factors that lead to the accommodation
activity are adjustments which can be through verbal communication or through gestures. The theory was
evolved from speech adjustment theory, which demonstrates the value of psychological concepts to
understand the dynamics of speech. But the theory encompasses more fields such as non-verbal and
gestures.

*Interactant – The word refers the close relations between each other with their communication.
Theory
Communication accommodation theory elaborates the human tendency to adjust their behaviour while
interacting. The reason behind this behaviour is explained as to control the social differences between the
interactants. People accommodate their communication activities to get approval and to set a positive
image in front of the interactant. The environment in which they are interacting also affects the
communication behaviour.

There are two types of accommodation process explained in this theory

 Convergence– convergence is a process where people tend to adapt the other person‟s
communication characteristics to reduce the social differences
 Divergence-the process contradicts the method of adaptation and in this context the individual
emphasise is on the social difference and nonverbal differences between the interactants.
The two processes usually are dependent on the characteristics of the interactant. People accommodated
their communication while interacting with a person who has higher standards and other characteristics
which they believe is better than them. And the divergent exhibits an opposite characteristic as it
emphasises the difference among the close relations with each other. Communication accommodation
theory is influenced by social psychology and is guided by four major assumptions
 While communicating there will be similarity and difference in the speech and behaviour. The
characteristics that people exhibit are based on our experiences and the cultural backgrounds that we
grew up in
 A conversation is evaluated by understanding the perception of the speech and behaviour of the other.
Through evaluation people decides to accommodate and fit in
 The social status and belonging is determined by language and behaviours. While people
communicate they tend to accommodate the behaviours of those who are in the higher social status
than them
 Norms guide the accommodation process which varies in the degree of appropriateness. Norms define
the behaviours of people and they are expected to act accordingly
Application
The communication accommodation theory is applicable in various communication processes. In an
organisation the communication accommodation can be used to communicate effectively among the
employees as well as they adapt while communicating to a senior employee.

Example
Mike was a new employee in a certain organisation. While understanding about the environment, he came
to know about his senior officer who apparently had an interest in painting from his co-workers. When
mike got an opportunity to interact with him, he glorified the beauty of a painting the officer has been
displayed in his office which pleased the officer. In this situation mike accommodated his behaviour
according to the situation and thus could create an impression on his senior officer.

Cross Cultural Communication

Introduction
Culture is a way of thinking and living whereby one picks up a set of attitudes, values, norms and beliefs
that are taught and reinforced by other members in the group. This set of basic assumptions and solutions
to the problems of the world is a shared system that is passed on from generation to generation to ensure
survival. A culture consists of unwritten and written principles and laws that guide how an individual
interacts with the outside world. Members of a culture can be identified by the fact that they share some
similarity. They may be united by religion, by geography, by race or ethnicity.

Our cultural understanding of the world and everything in it ultimately affects our style of communication
as we start picking up ways of one‟s culture at around the same time we start learning to communicate.
Culture influences the words we speak and our behavior.
Rawpixel/ dollar photo club

Cross Cultural Communication

Cross cultural communication thus refers to the communication between people who have differences in
any one of the following: styles of working, age, nationality, ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, etc.
Cross cultural communication can also refer to the attempts that are made to exchange, negotiate and
mediate cultural differences by means of language, gestures and body language. It is how people
belonging to different cultures communicate with each other.

Each individual can practice culture at varying levels. There is the culture of the community he grows up
in, there is work culture at his work place and other cultures to which one becomes an active participant
or slowly withdraws from. An individual is constantly confronted with the clash between his original
culture and the majority culture that he is exposed to daily. Cultural clashes occur as a result of
individuals believing their culture is better than others.

Cross cultural communication has been influenced by a variety of academic disciplines. It is necessary in
order to avoid misunderstandings that can lead to conflicts between individuals or groups. Cross cultural
communication creates a feeling of trust and enables cooperation.The focus is on providing the right
response rather than providing the right message.

When two people of different cultures encounter each other, they not only have different cultural
backgrounds but their systems of turn – talking are also different. Cross cultural communication will be
more effective and easier if both the speakers have knowledge of the turn taking system being used in the
conversation (For example: One person should not monopolize the conversation or only one person
should talk at a time).
LarayBarna’s Sources of Miscommunication in Cross Cultural Exchanges
1) Assumption of similarities : This refers to our tendency to think how we behave and act is the
universally accepted rule of behavior. When someone differs, we have a negative view of them
2) Language Differences : Problems occur when there is an inability to understand what the other is
saying because different languages are being spoken. Talking the same language itself can sometimes lead
to discrepancies as some words have different meanings in various contexts, countries or cultures
3) Nonverbal Misinterpretation : The way we dress, the way we express ourselves through our body
language, eye contact and gestures also communicates something. A simple gesture like nodding the head
is considered to be YES in certain cultures and NO in others
4) Preconceptions and Stereotypes : Stereotypes involves putting people into pre-defined slots based
on our image of how we think they are or should be. It may consist of a set of characteristics that we
assume that all members of a group share. This may be true or may be false. But stereotypes may lead to
wrongful expectations and notions. A preconceived opinion of another can lead to bias and discrimination
5) Tendency to evaluate : Humans tend to make sense of the behavior and communication of others by
analyzing them from one‟s own cultural point of view without taking into consideration why the other
person is behaving or communicating a certain way
6) High anxiety : Sometimes being confronted with a different cultural perspective will create an
anxious state in an individual who does not know how to act or behave and what is considered to be
appropriate (For example: A Japanese man and an American having a business meeting where both are
unsure of the other‟s cultural norms)
To reduce the above barriers to cross cultural communication, one can take the effort to develop one‟s
listening skills. This will ensure that we start hearing the real meaning of what is being said instead of
understanding at face value. Becoming aware of our perceptions towards others will ensure that we take
steps to not prejudge a person or stereotype them. By accepting people and their differences and
acknowledging that we don‟t know everything will make us open up to people and their differences
resulting in us using contextual information for better understanding. Seeking feedback and taking risks
to open up channels of communication and being responsible for our feelings and actions will go a long
way in ensuring that miscommunication is mitigated.

Cultural Identity Theory

Culture and Identity
Culture is the values, beliefs, thinking patterns and behavior that are learned and shared and that is
characteristic of a group of people. It serves to give an identity to a group, ensures survival and enhances
the feeling of belonging. Identity is the definition of ones- self. It is a person‟s frame of reference by which
he perceives himself. Identities are constructed by an integral connection of language, social structures,
gender orientation and cultural patterns. There is a complex relationship between culture and identity.
Rawpixel/Dollar Photo Club

Cultural Identity
Cultural identity is self-identification, a sense of belonging to a group that reaffirms itself. It is the extent
to which one is a representative of a given culture behaviorally, communicatively, psychologically and
sociologically. It consists of values, meanings, customs and beliefs used to relate to the world. It reflects
the common historical experiences and shared cultural codes which give us as one entity a stable,
unchanging, continuing frame of reference and meaning. People‟s judgments about whether they or
others belong to a cultural group can be influenced by physical appearance, ancestral origin or personal
behavior (dressing, speech, holidays, and celebrations). A historical event, political conditions, who is
present, situation/site of interaction and public discourse, also affects cultural identity.

Cultural identity is dynamic and constantly evolving. It covers the entire life span of a human being and
changes every moment based on social context. Cultural identity is the constantly shifting understanding
of one‟s identity in relation to others.

Forming of Cultural Identity

Cultural identity is negotiated, co-created and reinforced in communication with others when we socially
interact. They are manifestations of social reality – reflect on our unique personal life history and
experience. Forming a cultural identity involves making choices about the cultures one identifies with
and deciding to join the cultural community to which one belongs. Beliefs and practices of one or more
communities can also be adapted. It is possible for members of dominant or majority culture adopting
elements of minority culture like dressing or music. Every individual belongs to numerous overlapping
and non-overlapping cultural and sub-cultural groups. Therefore he has different identities at different
levels that make up his cultural identity.

Cultural Identity Theory

The theory suggests a relationship between inter-cultural competence and cultural identity. The theory
deals with the study into how individuals use communicative processes to construct and negotiate their
cultural group identities and relationships in particular contexts. According to the theory, culture is one of
the many identities expressed in communication encounters. Cultural identity becomes evident through
social comparison. Speakers compare the status position of their own groups to those of other groups. An
individual‟s message during interaction will contain multiple cultural identities such as nationalist, racist,
ethnic, class related, sex, gender based, political and religious. Because individuals enact multiple
identities all voices within a group do not speak in the same way or have the same recognition by others.

Early versions of the theory focused on an interpretative theoretical perspective (cultural identity
processes were described not critiqued), social construction and individual discursive accounts of
experience. Recent years have seen the shift to increased critical perspective–attention to contextual
structure, ideologies and status hierarchy.

Properties of Cultural Identity

Jane Collier and Milt Thomas combined the ethnography of communication and social construction in
order to frame the properties of cultural identity. These properties refer to the manner in which members
of a group communicates their identity.

1. Avowal and Ascription : These two concepts deal with what constructs or produces the cultural
identity and the ways in which these identities are communicated. Avowal is how one articulates or
expresses his/her views about group identity. It is how one presents oneself to another. Ascription is how
others perceive an individual. It is how one refers to others. This may include stereotypes. Eg.How Asians
are viewed by Europeans.
Our identity is constructed as a result of how others view us and how we view ourselves. Therefore both
avowal and ascription are important. Eg.Insiders describe their culture different from how it is perceived
by others. Avowed qualities versus ascribe qualities leads to conflict but resolutions depends on the status
position of group members.

2. Modes of Expression : The use of core symbols (expressions of a group‟s cultural beliefs and
theories about the world around them), names, labels and norms (expected standard of behavior) that a
cultural community share and follow in order to show that they belong to a particular group,
demonstrates shared identity. Collier found out that there were some similarities in cultural norms for
members of each ethnic group and there are within group differences with regard to gender and nature of
relationship.
3. Individual, Relational and Communal Identity : There are three components to cultural
identity. Individual refers to how an individual interprets his cultural identity based on his experiences.
Relational refers to how individuals interact with one and another (what is the appropriate behavior) and
communal identity is the use of communication in the creation, affirmation and negotiation of shared
identity. The actions and interactions of the group, their communal practices reflect the identity of the
group. Researchers can identify or study cultural identity in a group by observing everyday situations,
communal activities, rituals, holiday celebrations.
4. Enduring and Changing Aspects of Identity : The cultural identity changes due to several factors
which are social, political, economic and contextual.
5. Affective, Cognitive and Behavioral Aspects of Identity : This refers to emotions fully attached
to cultural identity in particular situations.
6. Content and Relationship Levels : This refers to the interaction between two or more individuals.
The message exchange carries information/content. The participants of the conversation interpret the
choice and meanings of the words based on their experiences. The interactions also show the relational
level based on how a person delivers the message. This level of a message implies a cultural interpretation
of who is in control, their levels of closeness, what they feel about each other, level of trust, etc.
7. Salience or Prominence : This is the degree to which an identity is demonstrated in a situation and
refers to how much a person‟s cultural identity stands out and attracts attention. This is influenced by the
extent of similarity or difference between two individuals. The intensity differs depending on context,
situation topic and relationship. Prominence shows a strong investment/involvement in an identity.

Face-Negotiation Theory
Introduction
Relationships base the life of every individual as humans are social beings. But conflicts are inevitable
being in a relationship. The face negotiation theory explains how cultural difference in people influence in
managing conflicts. The theory was formulated by Stella Ting-Toomey, professor of human
communication at California State University. Toomey described that difference in handling the conflicts
can be a part of maintaing a „face‟ in the society.

Face-Negotiation Theory
The cultural differences in the society shape the responses to conflicts in different societies. The theory
holds up the idea of maintaining a face according to their cultures. The face is nothing but an identity, the
persona we keep up in the society-a public image. As face represents oneself in the society, the people
display an attitude which is desirable to them.

There are certain factors in negotiating face. They are

 Concern over self-face and others faces. It is important to understand the significance of face for an
individual and how important is it to maintain a face which in turn will reflect on to the others
 People from a collectivistic culture usually avoid or integrates the conflict while more individualistic
people dominates the conflict as to maintain an independent face in the society
 Another factor in negotiating face is status in the society which generates power. In Collectivistic
society people are born into certain status quo and their individuality is less concerned. In a more
individualistic society, people earn their power to live in the society
An Important factor influencing a person‟s behaviour is the culture he belongs to. From his childhood, the
person lives in this perspective created by the culture. The conflict styles differ with the culture and
through socialising; the individual tends to reflect the particular culture while negotiating a conflict.
Generally there are two aspects in which the conflict styles are classified. People belonging to
individualistic culture tries to maintain a face so as to preserve one‟s own face while in a collectivistic
society, people maintains a face for the sake of the society. Based on these dimensions, there are five types
of conflict styles

1. Domination– An individualistic approach to make decisions by dominating or controlling

2. Avoiding– A collectivistic approach of staying away from the conflict
3. Obliging– A collectivistic approach of giving up
4. Compromising– An individualistic approach to negotiate to come to a solution
5. Integrating– an individualistic approach to work together to reach a solution
Critics of Face Negotiation Theory
The western countries have an individualistic culture (promote individual autonomous, responsibility and
achievement) which is greatly observed and followed. Whereas in Eastern countries have a collective or
group culture and they honor community. But there are societies in these countries which follows another
culture like individualistic culture or collective culture vice-versa. So the generalisation applied to the
cultural classification is not practical in this context.

Application
Face negotiation can be applied in the study of all types of interpersonal relationships and how it is
applicable across cultures.

Example
According to the Stella Ting-Toomey “People face a conflict situation will differ from individualist culture
and collectivist culture. When an ordinary person in USA, followed the response to a conflict will be self-
preserving and dominating. At the same time for a person who has migrated from a collective culture like
china, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan, the response reflects his/her culture (collective culture) to avoid
the conflict or oblige to the situation”.

Knowledge Gap Theory

Introduction
This theory was first proposed in 1970 by Philip J Tichenor, then Associate Professor of Journalism and
mass Communication, George A. Donohue, Professor of Sociology and Clarice. N Olien, Instructor in
Sociology, all three researchers in the University of Minnesota. They defined the Knowledge Gap theory,
“as the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases higher socioeconomic status
segments tend to acquire this information faster than lower socioeconomic status population segments so
that gap in knowledge between the two tends to increase rather than decrease.” In simple words it means,
as the access to mass media increases those particular segments of population inevitable gain information
faster and hence the wide gap increases with the lower economic status of the population. The world is yet
to see the complete effect of the new technologies but as the globe turns out more technological and the
expense rises, it more goes out of the league of the poor. As a result the knowledge gap also widens and
the people of the higher economic class gain the benefits more. If the Information services are not made
equal for the entire society, this gap of information will increase over the years.

Theory
In this theory knowledge is treated as any other commodity which is not distributed equally throughout
the society and the people at the top of the ladder has more easy access to it. This theory was used in the
presidential election and it is was seen that when a new idea invades in the society, the people of the
higher strata understand it better and hence the gap expands. But, events such as debates, free talks may
help to reduce this gap.

Few reasons have been stated of why this pattern of gap exist
1. Communication Skills– As a person receives more education, his communication skill increases
and hence gathering information becomes easier for him. Along with this reading, understanding mad
memory skills also become better and thus he understands the issues of various spheres better.
2. Stored information– Via classrooms, textbooks, discussions, educated person is exposed to much
more topics than a less educated person and hence his awareness is more.
3. Relevant Social Contact– A person with more education has more social integration. This helps
him to counter various perspectives, diverse stories etc which makes his understanding of public issues
better.
4. Selective Exposure– An educated person knows well of how to use optimum use of a medium while
on the other hand a person with no knowledge is unlikely to know it. Hence he will be less aware of the
issues around the world and less interested and may not also know of how it may affect him.
5. Media Target Markets– For every product, news or any commodity a certain segment is targeted
and it is usually the higher strata of the society who is targeted and hence the lower strata remains
unaware.
Ways of Reducing the Gap
George A. Donohue and his other colleagues by the end of 1975 came up with three variables after a survey
on local and national issues, which will help to reduce the gap and that failed this theory upto a certain
extent.
 Impact of local issues– It was seen that local issues that directly impacted the people had aroused
more of social concern than national issues that did not have such a great impact and hence in these
issues widened gap could be reduced.
 Level of social conflict surrounding the issue– Until a communication breakdown, issues with
more perceived conflict tends to grab more attention and weakening the knowledge gap hypothesis.
 Homogeneity of the community– If it is a homogeneous community, the gap tends to be lesser
than a wider heterogeneous community.

MEDIUM THEORY
History
Marshal McLuhan is considered to be the greatest philosophers in communication theories in the 20th
century. His contribution to the field of communication is contemplated to be the milestone in
communication media and has been inspired in many of them. Marshal McLuhan is known for his
statement “the medium is the message” as he believes that how the media modifies or disrupts the
message when it is conveyed. He stressed about modifying and developing of the views and senses due to
altering channels of communication. He was deeply influenced by the works of Harold Innis who provided
an insight on how media influenced the social lives. He stated that the media played a major part in the
development of human society and is depended on how the information is been transferred among the
people. Other scholars who worked on this topic were Joshua Meyrowitz and Neil Postman.

Introduction
Throughout the history, the communication is a phenomenon which is highly imperative for the
development of a society. In fact the researchers believe that the content as well as the medium that it is
been interpreted also plays a vital part in dissemination of information. During ancient eons where hard
stone carvings replaced books the communication dissemination was very slow and tough. Only the few of
the people in a society knew how to read and the others were mere listeners. There were many social and
psychological impacts due to these events and the researches consider this as the evolution of the basic
social structure of the society. As time passed and communication mediums developed people started to
envisage and take their own decisions rather than being a meagre listener. It is found that this helped the
society to develop faster and today due to internet and other facilities, the information could be conveyed
promptly. As we encounter the world through these Medias and so the researches find it significant to
scrutinise not only the message disseminated but also across which media it is been transmitted.

Medium Theory
Medium theory is a set of approaches used to convey the difference in meanings of the message conveyed
with regarding to the different channels used to communicate it. The core assumption is that the media as
we consider is not just a channel were the communication takes place but they are diverse set of setting or
environment that enable the communication to happen and it may vary the meaning and sense of the
information that it is been transferred. Here the features of each media are being taken into consideration
and how they differ discretely. By understanding features of these Medias (which can be classified into
audio, video and print) the researchers will be able to examine the efficiency of communication through
these mediums and also to compare it while communicating interpersonally.

We can observe the influence of media on our society in many ways since the beginning of using media in
disseminating information. Initially the usage of media was very limited due to lack of knowledge and
information but now, common man can read and access to any kind of information which he desires from
the wide array of media. It has helped in the development as well as the democratisation among people.
New media enables people to access and to share information around the world and has reduced the gap
in communication.

Scope
The theory explains how a media is influenced in propagating information physically and psychologically.
So it can be useful in comprehending about various Medias and how each media can be beneficial in
distributing information. Like the saying” a picture can convey 1000 words” not every message has to be
expressed through words or pictures, through proper analysis and application of this theory relevant
media can be designated and can be used appropriately.

Example
Students of Oakland high school were divided into two groups and each of these groups was exposed to a
set of activities related to their syllabus. Batch A was given books on the topic and were asked to prepare
for the test. And batch B were exposed to video on the same topic. When the test results came out batch B
displayed better marks than batch A. This proved that the student found the moving images more
effective in recollecting than words. The difference in Medias thus creates lot of differences both
physically and psychologically.

Modernisation Theory
Introduction
Modernisation theory elaborates the development process within the societies. Theory states that the
marginalised and underdeveloped societies develop in the same phase with that of other developed
countries by providing proper support. This theory developed as the economic, social, and political system
of developed in the west European and North American countries which have spread to South America,
Asia and Africa, the underdeveloped countries. The modernisation theory is been evolved from idea of
progress which propagated the idea of self-development which leads to the development of the society. It
developed the concept of the technological and economic development can change the people‟s
perceptions. The ideas of French sociologist Emile Durkheim provided strong foundation for the
development of modernisation theory. He compared the development of the society with that of the
evolution of an organism. As the organism evolves the more complex it becomes. Likewise when the
society develops, the complexity increases.

Modernisation Theory
Modernisation theory is used to explain the advancement of societies and its progress. The studies
regarding the theory is based on the assumption that modernisation was exemplified by the western
countries as they were able to progress from the primary stages of underdevelopment. And the
underdeveloped countries tend to follow the western developed culture. Rostow has explained this idea
through his stages of growth. According to him these five step model outlines the stages through which
each country pass through to be developed.

1. Traditional society– The conservative society distinguished by basic professions like agriculture.
They will lack the knowledge about technology as the changes are seen pessimistically
2. Pre-conditions for take-off– As the needs increases within the society the production increases
and so does manufacturing
3. Take-off– In this stage of development industrialisation happens at a fast pace. In this stage the
perspective of people changes due to the establishment of scientific technologies
4. Drive to maturity– This stage over a long period of time during which the standard of living of the
people increase with the use of technologies and other innovations
5. Age of mass consumption– In this final stage of development, the people will enjoy all the
conveniences the technology has to offer and urban culture replaces the traditional culture completely
making it a developed country
Rostow‟s approach is purely anti–communist and based on the capitalist developed nations. It is one of
the most influential models in modernisation in the 19th century. Through this model a larger perspective
towards the situations of the underdeveloped and developing countries can be scrutinized.

Criticisms of Rostow’s Developmental Model

The model of development coined by Rostow tends to progress in a linear fashion which is not necessarily
followed by all countries. Capitalist system is followed in this model without considering the advantages
the capitalist developed nations receives out of the developing and underdeveloped nations.

Scope
The modernisation theory is a very broad concept. The theory can be applied to empathize the advantages
and disadvantages of development and also to understand how the development affects the
underdeveloped countries.

Muted Group Theory

Introduction
Muted group theory is a critical theory concerning the certain groups of people who remain powerless
compared to the others. Edwin Ardener, a British anthropologist, introduced the concept. His noted
contributions in anthropology are the studies on gender and found that the studies made by many
ethnographers in the society was generalised to the male population and accumulated the finding
accepting only one side. The voices of the women and other unheard have been ignored and muted. The
narrow perspective to the society ignoring almost half of the population affected the studies and the
muted group theory brought a light into the powers of the marginalised in the society.

Muted Group Theory

The muted group theory explains the cause of muteness by a certain group of population especially of that
of women in the society. The theory upholds a gender perspective where the male is the dominant class.
The women live with the attitude where her opinions remain muted when spoken and mostly choose to
adapt with the situation. The attitudes of the male who are the bread winners are considered dominant
than the women who rely on them. The age old tradition made a whole new power division in the society.

The muted group theory was further studied by Cheris kramarae, a professor in women studies upheld the
idea that, communication was started by men and due to that reason they take advantage of women.
While speaking, women are considered less powerful than men and the reason behind this is simple
psychology. Women‟s needs are emotionally driven unlike men. And thus the perspective of women
differs from men in all aspects.

John Berger says “the language is the potential holding for whole human experience”.
The quotes give space to think. When a woman comes to social space they are facing the most abusive
language because women are considering as a less power than a men. But men are taking more advantage
by using the existing male dominant power in the social space and protect themselves from these abusive
languages. In our society most of the abusive languages denotes feminine and very few for men.

Application
The muted group theory can be applied to understand the problems of the marginalised groups. As
women now become powerful and equally contribute to her family and through awareness, the perception
dominance can be changed. The anthropological studies which focused only on the dominant voices can
be altered by reflecting the society as a whole.

Example
Women being stereotyped can be seen in the mass media and which is converted into a popular culture.
The women are portrayed as a sex symbol in most of the advertisements for the male products. The
perspective of male towards women has been narrowed down to either sexual or emotional symbol.
Postmodernism
POST-MODERNISM
Postmodernism in the literal sense means that it evolved after modernism. It is actually a broader term
that is used in various fields such as philosophy, art, music and critical theory. Postmodernism serves as a
striking contradiction to classical foundations of philosophy in critical theory and philosophy. Many see
postmodernism as a continuation or rather an extension of modernism. It stresses on the role of language,
power relations and motivations and openly attacks the views of stringent classifications such as men
versus women, white versus black and the imperial versus colonial.
POSTMODERNISM-ASPECTS
Postmodernism holds the techniques and ideas same as modernism, but emphasises on parody,
playfulness and irony. Postmodernists focus on the role of exploring the universal system by creating what
is known as the truth itself. For most of the postmodernists it is the rhetoric that gives rise to any sort of a
perceived reality that is universal. Postmodernist thoughts are basically deliberate departures from those
of the modernist approaches that have been previously dominant. Postmodernists trust that the
westerners‟ claims of freedom and affluence continue to be nothing but empty promises and they have not
met the needs of humanity. They affirm that truth is relative. It means truth is something that it is up to
the individual to determine for themselves.

It‟s been more than four centuries that the postmodernists have advocated and fostered a “new age way”
of creating and rationalizing the human life and progress. Typical postmodernists are atheists but then
some of them prefer to follow the eastern religious thoughts and customs. In fact many are naturalists
including humanitarians, environmentalists and philosophers. These postmodernists confront the core
religious and capitalistic values of the western world; they seek change for a new age of liberty within a
cosmic commonality.

Criticism
There are four broad classifications of post modern criticisms:

 Criticism from the perspective of people who decline the concept of modernism and its sprouts
 Criticism from the people who uphold modernism, who also believe that post modernism is deficient
of the crucial characteristics of the so called modern project.
 Criticism within the post modern community who seek improvement or change based on their
understanding of post modernism
 And finally from those who trust that post modernism is just a passing one and not a growing phase in
social organization
One common criticism of post modernism is that it is brilliantly diverse. But then much of post modernity
centered on the opinion that it tries to deconstruct modernity. It encourages obscurantism [which is the
practice of deliberately preventing facts from being known] in ways that were similar to reactionary
movements of the past.

The term post modernism when used in a negative sense, describes those tendencies that are perceived as
relativist, counter-enlightenment or anti-modern. And specifically in relation to the critiques of
rationalism, universalism and science.

The tendency to the “abandonment of objective truth” is specifically attacked by most criticisms. Because
critics see it as the most crucial unacceptable feature of the post modernity. American literary critic and
Marxist Political theorist, Frederic Jameson criticises post modernism. He claims the cultural logic of the
late capitalism, for its refusal to seriously engage with meta-narratives [the complex idea that is thought
to be a brief explanation of historical experience or knowledge] of capitalization and globalization.

MODERNISM AND POST MODERNISM-VARIATIONS

Modernism is a label for a wide variety of cultural movements, whereas Post modernism is used in a wider
sense to refer to the activities from 20th century that exhibit awareness and re-interpret the modern. It is
based on socio-political theory.

Using rational and logical means to gain knowledge was the base for modernism but then post modernism
rejected the application of logical thinking. The post modern era thinking was based on unscientific and
irrational thought process [as a reaction to modernity]. Modernism had an objective, theoretical and
analytical approach whereas the post modern approach was subjective. Post modernism lacked the
analytical nature and its thoughts were flamboyant and completely based on belief. The basic difference
between modernism and post modernism is, modernist thinking is all about searching for an abstract
truth of life but post modernist thinking trust that there is no universal truth or abstract.

Sociocultural Theory
The sociocultural theory is a psychological theory which explores the relationships between external and
internal processes. The theory focuses on the creation and usage of mediating tools that play a role in how
humans think. It helps create a framework that facilitates in systematically investigating cognition,
keeping in mind the social context. Human development is viewed as a socially mediated process that
varies from culture to culture.

Oksana Kuzmina/dollar photo club

Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian literary critic, educator and psychologist is known as the father of sociocultural
theory. According to him, social interaction is the source of learning and development which is not found
solely in the mind of an individual. Humans can be studied or understood only as a part of society, culture
or history and not in isolation. The sociocultural theory is a theory of the mind and is a reflection of
Vygotsky‟s focus on the relationship between the physiological aspects of an individual and the contexts
and artifacts that are socially or culturally produced. These relationships transform the mental or
cognitive functions of an individual.

Vygotsky played an important role in qualitative descriptions, which became a vital component of
experimental findings. This was due to his belief that psychology should be studied as internal processes
that are mediated socially and then culturally communicated. He conducted „on-site‟ experiments in
schools and playgrounds and proved that field testing had more pros than cons and could be used in place
of laboratory testing or as a follow-up method.

Socioculturalism
According to sociocultural thought, human activity like learning and behaviour are impacted by
individual, social and contextual issues. Humans are considered to be social and reflexive in nature and
this causes human thought and behaviour to be altered by the complexities of that social world. Therefore,
when studying any phenomenon, it is important to keep in mind the context in which it took place. The
focus on the role of social dynamics ensures that a holistic view of the phenomenon is obtained. At times,
the interplay of social dynamics affects the outcome of a phenomenon.

Sociocultural Theory
According to the sociocultural theory, knowledge does not exist inside the head of a human being.
Meanings are negotiated where individuals, culture and activity intersect. It tries to explain how social
mediation plays a role in the construction, reconstruction and transformation of culturally and historically
situated meanings.

According to Vygotsky, when it comes to development, children use collaborative dialogues with the more
knowledgeable members of the society to learn various aspects of their culture. This includes values,
beliefs, norms and ways to solve different problems. These knowledgeable members may be parents,
teachers or more competent peers. The various social interactions of a child influence his/her personal
characteristics and social skills. Therefore, the sociocultural environment in which development takes
place also influences its form.

Culture and Intellectual Development

Culture plays a role in transforming the elementary functions like perception, sensation, attention and
memory that a child is born with into sophisticated mental processes called „higher mental functions.‟
Cultures provide their children with distinctive „tools of intellectual adoption.‟ These tools help enhance
their mental processes that are normally limited by biological constraints. For example, every culture
teaches its children different strategies for remembering things. While a western society may impress
upon its children the need for taking notes, another society may teach the use of a pictorial memory or
another culture may suggest the use of tying strings around one‟s finger to remind of various tasks. This
shows that cultures play a very important role in teaching children how to think and, with their focus on
specific beliefs and values, also teach children what to think about.

Social Contribution to Personal Growth

According to Vygotsky, when a child is faced with a range of tasks that seem too complex for him to
learn/accomplish alone, he is in a „zone of proximal development.‟ In such a scenario, collaborative
(guided) learning works best. Here, a more skillful tutor helps the child learn or acquire new skills
through cooperative or collaborative dialogues. The child will first try to understand the instructions, then
internalizes the information and finally regulates his performance. In some situations, the tutor on
observing the development of the child, may customise his instructions and support to meet the needs of
the child. This helps the child improve his abilities to grasp and understand the problem better. This
willingness to tailor instructions based on need is called „scaffolding.‟
Therefore, guided learning is a socialization process where a child acquires culturally relevant skills and
activities by participating hands-on in various tasks. These tasks can range from farming, learning to play
tennis, hunting prey, cooking, etc.

The Spiral of Silence Theory

Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann (1916 – 2010)

Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, the German political scientist contributes the famous model called “Spiral of
Silence”. In 1947 Neumann and her husband found “Public Opinion Organization” in German and also
she was a President of “World Association for Public Opinion Research” in 1978 to 1980. Through this
Spiral of Silence theory Neumann indirectly explains the Jews status during World War II under Nazi‟s
control. Here, Adolf Hitler dominated the whole society and the minority Jews became silent due to the
fear of isolation or separation.

Theory:
The one view dominated the public scene and others disappeared from the public awareness as it
adherents became silent. In other words, the people fear of separation or isolation those around them,
they tend to keep their attitudes to themselves when they think they are in the minority. This process is
called “Spiral of Silence”.
Example:
In a company, the managing director decides to increase their working hour from 8 to 10 and send e-mail
to all employees. Majority of them accept this time changes and few employees are not satisfied with his
decision. But they cannot or ready to express their thought publicly.

Because
1. They may feel unsupported by the other employees.

2. “Fear of isolation” like transfer

3. “Fear of Rejection” By rejecting their personal opinion from the public will help to avoid fight.

4. They may try to save their job by suppressing or avoid personal statement in public.

They frame work based on few assumptions:

1. Spiral of silence theory describe as a dynamic process, the predication about public opinion in mass
media which gives more coverage for the majorities in the society and gives very less coverage for
minorities.

2. In this social environment, People have fear of rejection to express their opinion or views and they
known well what behaviors will make a better likelihood. It‟s called “fear of Isolation”.

3. Being the part of Minority. People loss their confidence and silent or mute to express their views
because of the fear of isolation or they feel alone or unsupported.

4. Sometimes the minorities withdraw their expressed opinion from public debates to secure themselves
from the majority.

5. Maximum numbers get more vocal space in the society and lesser number become less vocal space or
become silent.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

1. Spiral of Silence theory has both micro level and macro level explanatory process.

2. It works well during the public campaign, Senate and Parliament.

3. Spiral of silence theory – which helps to raise question about considering the role and responsibility
of media in the society.

4. The theory which is not considering the other explanation of silencing. In some cases the person may
feel the majority‟s ideas or opinion is much better than his own view.

5. It portrait overly negative view of media influence the average people.

Victorianism
The term „Victorianism‟ arose to describe the latter two-thirds of the 19th century. It was the time where
the focus on restraint and dignity remained as an outward appearance to counterbalance simultaneously
the reactionary social phenomenon called „hedonism‟. Hedonism means hunt for the self-indulgent
pleasure that occurred when the Victorian morality, social order and puritanism were being firmly
established.

dbrnjhrj/dollar photo club

Rise of Victorianism
Victorianism refers to the art, attitudes and culture of the British and other English speaking people that
evolved during the time of Queen Victoria‟s reign (1837 – 1901). It started during the time when the
industrialized society was at its peak giving birth to urban middle class. It was the golden era when the
railways and telegraph were connected the corners of the world, resulting in flourishing trade and
commerce. The changes made in the society stratified the socio-political order that was firmly established
in order to deal with the effects of this new urbanized and industrialized age.
Victorian Morality
During the time of Queen Victoria one of the popular ideas started evolving that was called „Victorian
Morality‟. It was believed that the distillation of moral views held under her reign prescribes a strict social
code of conduct, encouraged sexual restraint and low tolerance of crime. Prohibition on expressing the
desire of emotions and sexual feelings in any form of communication – verbal or written that lead to
express the desire of using flowers or explicit erotica writings.

Religious Morality
The opposition was in the cities against Church where people began looking for new morals and values.
This movement that happened during the Victorian Era people combined their religious beliefs with their
duty to their fellow man, the poor, the ill and their social class. The Church that lost its power in urban
places they continued their strong hold in rural areas.
The Victorian Society
The Victorian Era saw the elites in total control of politics and society. They believed that they had the
divine right to rule over others. History, heritage and lineage were given importance and they focused on
ensuring the continuity of the family line. The new values like individualism brought about the idea of the
self-made man along with other changes. The middle class were divided based on their earnings, while the
upper middle class were self-made men who bought their way into the elite category and the overt
materialism characterized the new middle class.

The Victorian family faced many challenges in the form of poverty, alcoholism, drunkenness and crime.
With the volatile economic conditions lead the women and children seek employment where made to take
up prostitution for living.

Spread of Victorianism
With the spread of British Empire around the world, the Victorian values soon reached the nooks and
corners of the extended empire. As a leader of world culture the British Empire left its imprint on all its
colonies with that the Victorianism spread its influence in the architecture, science, education, governance
and even the civic building programs and street design of nations under its reign. Countries like Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand, India, parts of Africa, and the Far East display some of the Victorian
influences till date.

Anti-Victorianism
In response to the newfound stifling conventions, the more adventurous and plural sexualities emerged.
Pornography and peepshows flourished and entertained the spectrum of male society and formed a kind
of Anti-Victorianism. People challenged the sexual repressiveness and started rejecting capitalism this
lead to the struggles of the Boer War (1899–1902) led to imperial riots where all classes of people like –
workers, women, socialists and ant colonialists started challenging Victorianism.

Interpersonal Communication
Argumentation Theory
Introduction
Argumentation is a vital factor for communication and it endured in our society for centuries. This theory
had its origin in foundationalism, a theory of justification or reasoning in the field of philosophy. But
during those days the argumentation was based on oration and logic. Soon afterwards, these theories
which were put forward by Aristotle were rejected and were questioned by the scholars. They found a
broader premise for argument than the formal philosophical systems. During 1960-1970 several scientists
such as Mr. Perelman tried to develop the techniques used by the people to get support of others for their
views and opinions. Likewise many scientists and authors have developed argumentation in different
ways.

Argumentation Theory
Communication is very important for human beings. In fact, through communication the human beings
begin to express their thoughts and thus played a good role in our evolution. While communicating the
speaker will share the information and the listener will listen to it. Here the listener must be able to
differentiate the trustworthy reliable information with the lies and treachery. According to Dan Sperber
the listener must be able to filter the messages and he must have the mechanism of epistemic vigilance.
It‟s nothing but the vigilant attitude towards the information that we get. For example, we believe the
news coming in the internet because we trust the source. Here instead of just trusting, we work out
different ways to be vigilant in filtering the trustworthy news with treachery. Argument is a method to
increase the reliability in communication. Here speaker give a validation to receive the conclusion. But the
listener can check this validation to accept the given conclusion. Argumentation is also an activity of
reason. When people argue, they place their thinking in the domain of reason. They have used reasoning
to assess and accept the conclusion. Communication is perfected with proper reasoning and also a true
conclusion is supported by fair arguments. So the speaker could convince the listeners and the listeners
could gain a reliable piece of information. Thus the communication is successful.

Stephen Toulmin’s structure of Argumentation

Stephen Toulmin an English philosopher and logician have come up with the elements of arguments
which generate categories through which it can be evaluated.

 Claim
 Ground
 Warrant
 Backing
 Qualifier
 Rebuttal
Claim is nothing but a statement. It is put forward by a speaker or listener in order to accept the
information as true. If someone asks you to do something you will not agree to do anything what they
want. You need to ask and also you need to know why you have to do it. You will ask them to prove their
claim and that is when ground comes in.
Ground is the reasoning behind the claim. It can be made up information used to persuade the listener.
It is the base where an argument is made up and it may also have the proof for reasoning. Here
information can be a very powerful element of persuasion. Each person has their unique way of thinking
as thus has a unique way of accepting information. For men who think more logically will accept factual
information than women who accept things more emotionally. Some will accept without questioning
others will ignore it and some will research the facts even more for better explanation. Here warrant, the
next step become important.
Warrant justifies the claim by making the ground to be appropriate. A warrant can be a small statement
or a pursuing argument. It may be accurate, implicit or unspoken.
Backing – When the backing is given for an argument, it gives additional support to the warrant.
Qualifier – It restricts the comprehensiveness of the claim. They usually use words such as `most‟,
`usually‟, `always‟ and `sometimes‟. Another alternative of qualifier is reservation. It is a term which
might state that the claim is incorrect.
Rebuttal – Even in a perfectly stated argument there still can use counter arguments. The rebuttal can
be given during the early stages of presentation or through a prolong discourse.
Example
1. Women make excellent administrators- (claim)– argument
2. Women are multitasking and are good organizers-(grounds)
3. Women mostly are good listeners and are more sensitive in approaching problems. This helps in the
smooth functioning of the organization-(warrant)
4. women today are well educated-(backing)
5. women are home makers so most of them will have the ability to manage any organization or country,
in a better way-(qualifier)
6. women can be good administrators unless they are given good education and exposure-
(reservation)
7. if equal exposure is given women can achieve greater heights-(rebuttal)

Attachment Theory
Attachment theory is a comprehensive theory of development (social and emotional), motivations,
personality and psychopathology. The theory deals with the intimacy in relationships and the role of
attachment across one‟s lifespan.
Attachment refers to the lasting bond an individual has with another who satisfies his need for comfort
and safety from dangers. According to John Bowlby, humans are born with a set of behaviors
(attachment) that help ensure closeness to a comforting, protecting figure (attachment figure). These
attachment processes affect human beings throughout the course of their life.

The theory of relationships and personality differences has two components – normative (explains the
stages of development through which all human beings pass and the typical patterns of behavior) and an
individual difference component (explains the stable, systematic deviations from the model behavioral
patterns and strategies).

.shock / dollar photo club

Levels of Attachment
1. Infant Attachment (Infant-Parent)
Attachment is an evolutionary response to an infant‟s distress when faced with an uncertain world filled
with dangers. Seeking comfort, the infant tries to gain the attention of the attachment figure by crying,
pleading and crawling to the attachment figure. This responsive caregiver eventually becomes the object
of the infant‟s primary attachment bond, the one the child turns to in times of uncertainty. The caregivers
can be any member of the family, close family friends, neighbors, a nanny, etc. This forms the earliest
interpersonal experience of a human being. The strength of the attachment bond is determined by how
the caregiver interacts with the child. A strong bond represents a sensitive warm, responsive, consistent
caregiver. A weak, unhealthy bond signifies a distant cold, unavailable or inconsistent caregiver.
Caregivers are the earliest form of social interaction and help socialize individuals about how to manage
their social and interpersonal relationships.
2. Adolescent and Adult Attachment (Adult-Adult)
In this phase bonds are no longer formed with caregivers as their presence slowly reduces. Adolescents
and adults start turning to a specific individual when they need affirmation related to security, intimacy or
when stressed. Methods to establish contact involve talking to someone on the telephone, sending an
email or a text message or mentally remembering soothing representations of attachment figures.
Attachments occur with close friends, siblings, etc. As they grow older it may also be teachers or even God.
The strongest bond though is the romantic pairing of two individuals which is cemented through dating
and finally committing to each other. This phase is characterized by an enduring relationship or state of
belonging with an attachment figure through good and bad episodes in the relationship. The bond is so
enduring that if the relationship is broken grief and loss occurs.

According to Bowlby, interactions with the attachment figure influence a person greatly in all close
relationships during adulthood, in parenting and in peer and romantic relationships.

Attachment Patterns
Early relationship experiences have significant impact on one‟s manner of navigating one‟s social world.
Individuals develop their own style of interacting with their significant one. Experiences result in the
development of ideas of trust, affections, closeness, and intimacy related behaviors. Expressions of these
individual differences are grouped into four attachment styles or patterns which influence process and
outcomes regarding how one acts or is intimate within many close or romantic relationships.

A pattern is characterized by an evaluation by self and others. Patterns may change subtly throughout the
course of one‟s life. The pattern of an individual‟s relational partner may also influence how he/she
expresses his attachment pattern. This eventually impacts whether they are chosen as a relational partner
or not. Patterns also impact personal communications within a relationship.

Attachment research focuses on the similarities and differences between the affective, cognitive,
behavioral and social attributes of individuals displaying the below patterns.

Attribution Theory
Introduction
We attach and assume meanings to others behavior in our day to day life, and the theory developed by
Fritz Heider based on this attribution is called Attribution Theory. Fritz Heider was born (1896 – 1988) in
Vienna, Austria and known well as a psychologist. Heider received Ph.D from the University of Graz at the
age 24 for his innovates study and his work called “Thing and Medium”. Later he moved to Berlin and
worked in a Psychology institution under the great psychologists Wolfgang Koehler, Max Wertheimer and
Kurt Lewin. In 1958, the book “The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations”was published by Heider
which was the starting point of the Attribution theory and expanded version of the Balance theory.

Definition
Attribution – Assigning some quality or character of a person or thing

Theory
Attribution theory explains how and why ordinary people explain the things as they do. Everybody tries to
make sense in this social world. People try to find the cause and effects even if they‟re in none. Attribution
theory is the study which comes under the social Psychology, through this theory Heider explains the
causes of Individual behaviors and events. The Attribution theory was introduced by Heider but later it
was developed by various psychologists and based on this theory various models were attempted to
explain the behavioral processes of attribution.
According to Heider, How a person understands the event and how the event is related to the person‟s
thinking process and their behavior. Attribution theory tends to explain certain basic question of
individuals “How others do and what they do”. A person interprets with himselves “why others do
something which may cause attribute of one‟s behavior. Most of our attributions are driven by our
emotional and motivational impulses. Fritz Heider classified the attribution theory into two types as
1. Internal Attribution and 2. External or Explanatory Attribution
1. Internal Attribution
When a person is motivating for a certain action and questioned about it, the person needs to explain the
reason for the question or action. In Internal attribution, a person always wants to show him as much as
positive. Internal attributions are driven by motives and emotional attitudes of an individual.

Example
Jim scored the highest mark in class. He believes that he got marks because he worked hard and because
he has the ability to score good marks. He attributes the causes in the factors which are internal. And thus
his confidence level increases and he tends to score higher next time also.
2. External Attribution
A person wants to understand the world through events which happens around him and a person seeks
reason for that particular event by using external events.

Example
Hendry Scored the lowest mark and he believes that it because the pen. He even believes that the person
who checked his answer sheet was not in a good mood. He attributes the causes of this failure in external
factors.

Conclusion
Fritz Heider thinking influenced generations of psychologists. He is one of the most cited social scientists
of all time. There are several theories and models are developed based on the attribution theory. This
theory employs various methods for the measurement and categorization of attributions. Even if it was
developed by Heider the main framework of the theory was modelled by Bernard Weiner and Harold
Kelley.

CLASSICAL RHETORICAL THEORY

INTRODUCTION
The origin of classical rhetoric theory can be traced back to the times of ancient scholars such as Plato,
Aristotle and Socrates. This Theory developed when people began to identify that there is some kind of
influence is made to the listeners. Therefore, the ability for public speaking reaped its magnitude in
ancient world.
THEORY
All kind of usage of language comprises a certain amount of element of persuasion in them.
The classic rhetoric theory was to know how this element of persuasion works and how it
can be effectively utilized. In simple words classical rhetorical theory developed from the
thought how the language works for people. The classical rhetorical theory doesn‟t have its
universality like other theories, the major reason for that is people just identified this
theory. It existed since when men began to speak.

Aristotle identified that three elements are needed for an effective

communication which are,
1. The Speaker
2. The Speech
3. The Listener
And he spotted that some kind of change can be brought to the listener by the speaker
through the speech. This is how the first theory of communication took its initiation.

Rhetoric is often considered as an art, which studies how the things that we said or wrote
made changes in the person who reads or hears it. Thus it studies the effectiveness of
language. The rhetoric was an important aspect in ancient western education, especially for
the effective oratorical persuasion in fields of politics law etc.

The rhetorical education mainly focused on five canons they are

1. Inventio (Invention)
2. Dispositio (Arrangement)
3. Elocutio (Style)
4. Memoria (Memory)
5. Actio (Delivery)
In Ancient Greek it was very important to have a good ability for persuasion through speech.
They followed a system of democracy and in a democracy it is important that you are
possessed with worthy communication ability because you need to talk and impress people
for getting our rights. Whoever talks and impress more people will have the support of more
people and whoever have the support of more people will be the leader and he can rule over
others. Later all the great leaders in of the world are bestowed with ability of rhetoric and
they made the people to persuade upon their ideology by knowing how the rhetoric theory
works among people.

During the Middle Ages rhetoric was taught in universities as one of the liberal arts. By the
16th century people began to identify rhetoric as a field of social or human science. Thus
classical rhetorical theory has its story as old as the story of any language that present today
in the world. The history of rhetoric itself is the history of classical rhetorical theory.
Rhetoric cannot be meaningful without understanding the classical rhetorical theory and to
know about classical rhetorical theory we need to know about rhetoric. The reason is that
both are more or less the same.

EXAMPLE
Example for classical rhetorical theory can be seen everywhere around us. When the kids
ask “Mom can you buy me an ice cream?” he think of the possibility of getting ice cream by
persuading his mother. And the kids think what will be the reaction of his mom, or how will
she react against his question, all these things which gone through the mind of the kid are as
per the classical rhetorical theory.

Jesus, Buddha all these religious icons were made the people pursue and influence through
their teaching in the framework of classical rhetorical theory. All the great leaders in history
who influenced the masses of people used and uses the classical rhetorical theory.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Theorist Biography
Leon Festinger, (1919 – 1989), was born to Russian-Jewish immigrants Alex Festinger and Sara Solomon
Festinger in Brooklyn, New York. Leon Festinger went to Boys‟ High School and acquired a bachelor‟s
degree in science at City College, New York in 1939. He did his PhD in psychology from the University of
Iowa in 1942, the same year, he married pianist Mary Oliver Ballou with whom he had three children
(Catherine, Richard and Kurt).

He is well known for his theories of “Cognitive Dissonance and Social Comparison”. He is also responsible
for the discovery of relevance of propinquity (Close relationship) on the formation of social ties and
bonds. We could find many of this social psychologist‟s theories and contributions in the study of social
sciences.

Theory
The mental clash or tension resulting from the processes of acquiring knowledge or understanding
through the senses is called cognitive dissonance. In simple the clash of mind when we have to choose
from the choices is can be called cognitive dissonance. This is the feeling of discomfort from two
conflicting thoughts, it may increase or decrease according to the following factors

1. The relevance of subject to us

2. How solid the choices or thoughts are
3. The capability of our mind to choose, rationalize or explain the thoughts.
The theory suggests that our mind have a tendency to avoid such clashes and tensions through various
methods and attain harmony. The dissonance will be on it highest on the matters regarding the self-
image. The theory states that we are possessed with a powerful drive to maintain cognitive steadiness and
reliability which may sometimes become irrational. The mind will attain its harmony by the following
steps

1. Altering cognitions: Changing the attitude or behavior

2. Changing cognitions: Rationalize our behavior by changing the differing cognitions
3. Adding cognitions: Rationalize our behavior by adding new cognition.
This is the reason why we human beings have the tendency to justify ourselves. The theory says that the
tendency of changing beliefs when we couldn‟t complete something is because of this. This theory is
subjective in nature because we cannot physically observe cognitive dissonance so that we cannot obtain
any objective measurements. It has a sort of vagueness in its nature because it is not sure whether people
will act or think according to the theory. Every people will have their individual differences always.

Example
In a class all the students are good at photography except X. No matter how much he tried but he kept
failing in all his attempts. After passing through mental dissonance he came in the conclusion that
photography cannot do any good to him for his life. He tends to believe that photography is boring and
time wasting. And he came at the conclusion that rather not to waste anymore of his time for
photography. Here X couldn‟t perform something or he couldn‟t attain what he wished for so his mind
went through cognitive dissonance and finds a solution as the theory explain.

Another example for this theory can be found in the stories of Aesop, which is a story of fox who wanted
the grapes. The fox failed to reach the grapes when he jumps; he tried again and failed miserably. At last
he reached at the conclusion that the grapes are not sweet, they taste sour. That reduced the anxiety of the
fox and it went away.

In the story of fox we could find how someone can come up with some cognition that helps him to attain
mental harmony. Making excuses is a kind of rationalization that we does to reduce our mental
dissonance. Making excuses is the best example for this theory and we are very well known for our ability
to make excuses.

CONTAGION THEORY
History
Contagion theory is a theory of collective behavior which explains that the crowd can cause a hypnotic
impact on individuals. The theory is first developed by Gustave Le Bon in his book called “the crowd: a
study of popular mind in France” in 1885. As a historian and philosopher his works reflected more of
political and social opinions. His theories were improved by sociologist Robert Park and later by Herbert
Blumer and explained how the crowd influenced the individuals dynamically within a group in a socio-
psychological aspect. These entire theories share a basic idea of how individual can act briefly
unreasonable or inconsistent within a group and become normal when they are not in it.
Introduction
Contagion is a very old term which refers to anything that spreads from person to person like a disease
such as chicken pox or flu. The theory adapted this idea in a sociological basis and stated as the
transmission of ideas or even irrational behavior collectively displayed by an individual when engaged in a
group. It is stated that large number of people are influenced by the contagious behavior of the group and
avoids their individual responsibility.

Contagion theory
The theory is further developed by the 3 socialist in different periods:

1. Gustave Le Bon :
“The crowd- a study of the popular mind” written by Gustave Le Bon paved the way to the development of
collective behavior. He focused on the normal individual‟s behavior turning irrational or violent
accordingly to the nature of the crowd. He observed that the individual behavior would be demoted to the
level of the most noisiest or sadistic person in the crowd. This mass behavior is uncontrollable by an
individual. The patterns of behavior are greatly influenced by the anonymity of the person in the group
and thus are not anxious about the aftereffects. The next factor is the willingness to sacrifice through
collective thinking as a group rather than thinking personally. Last factor is when people become unaware
of their behavior and they may engage in behavior that they find daring to attempt.

2. Robert Park :
Gustave‟s theory were reformed by Robert Park and made them more pragmatic and rational. He came up
with a sociological explanation for how people mimic and support each other‟s activities. The people are
more interacted when experiencing stress and so they are attached to each other. The thoughts and
actions are thus affected by the members of the group and the individuals will tend to reflect the behavior
collectively. The members can be influenced by an individual in the group which tends to follow that
person instinctively. Any person can act as the leader of the group by acting authoritatively and this
position can be varied according to the situation.

3. Herbert Blumer :
He is an American sociologist have conceptualized the collective behavior in a more specific way. He
introduced the term “milling” and according to him during milling, people become extremely conscious
and respond to each other spontaneously avoiding the external provocations. A person‟s independent
actions are eliminated through milling which results in displaying of curious and unreasonable behavioral
patterns. Thus in a crowd the individual behavior of members are converged and they do things which
they deemed impossible. He concluded his findings with the possibility of emergence of a new social
institution or a social change as the result of this extreme collective behavior.
The studies on the collective behavior among the scientists are still going on to provide a more specific
reasoning for the cause of this mass conduct.

Example
1. If rock concert is being enjoyed by majority of people in the crowd, there is a tendency to pay their
attention in the concert by the minority who were not really enjoying the concert
2. If a large number of people say that a movie is good, it is common that most of the people will not
have a separate opinion. It can be observed that people tend to follow a major idea or opinion rather
than making one of their own

Conversation Theory
Introduction
The conversation theory is a transdisciplinary learning theory. Developed by Gordon Pask in 1975, it is
influenced by a range of cybernetics, linguistics, computer science concepts, cognitive psychology and
neurophysiology.

Cybernetics
Is the study of controlled dynamic systems. Pask used a cybernetic approach to networks of concepts and
interactions with a computer in order to create a framework where opposing points of views are resented
and discussed before arriving at a conclusion (dialectic). This framework explains the process by which
knowledge is constructed. Cybernetic systems first influence their environments and then feel the effects
of their changes. For example, an air conditioner is set to cool a room to a specified temperature. It then
reads the existing temperature in the room and starts cooling till the desired temperature is reached. Then
the cooling is stopped and resumed only when the temperature in the room changes and the room
becomes hotter. Thus the process is repeated till the system is switched off.

This theory which was initially used to show how systems gain knowledge by continuously interacting
with users or other machines was then later applied by Pask to explain the role of conversation in
learning.
Antonioguillem/Dollar Photo Club

Conversation Theory
It tries to understand how complex topics are understood in conditions that are controlled. A number of
complex interactions are necessary for learners to construct meaning and make knowledge explicit within
real life sociocultural environments. Language plays a major role in social systems where interpretation of
another‟s behavior influences responses and where a conversation enables the creation of meaning. These
conversations are interactions that help overcome differences. It is a mechanism for conflict resolution
where through information transfer, the dissension levels between participants is reduced and an
agreement is reached to understand something in a particular way. This sense making process involves a
negotiation of shared perspectives about various themes and leads to coordination.

A conversation normally takes place in a contractual or normative framework. An individual agrees to

participate in the conversation in order to learn about something. The two participants in a conversation
represent the cognitive structures of knowledge and each has a different perspective and a role to play.
The participants can be human beings, states, countries, cultures and even artificial intelligence machines
which are a special form of human-machine interaction. A student may talk with himself (critical thinking
or metacognition) or refer to books or the internet in an attempt to understand a topic.

Participants do not profit from the variety they bring as an individual but from the variety that evolves
from these interactions. All participants may profit from these exchanges. Although specific outcomes of
such interactive dialogues are unpredictable in time they may lead to new inventions and discoveries.
Becoming a participant is an active process of developing goals that shape further participation. It
involves developing characteristics that identify one‟s contributions to the conversation and it leads to the
development of procedures to ascertain that one is still a participant.

Learning occurs as a result of continuing conversations on a focused subject matter that these participants
engage in over time. A conversation includes and depends on mutual comprehension, agreements and
agreements to disagree.

There are two types of learners

1. Global learners (learners that achieve understanding in large wholesome leaps)
2. Sequential learners (learners that acquire understanding in small related portions)
Knowledge is agreed upon through the exchange of information. When understanding is tested, responses
based on rote memory are not accepted rather understanding has to be demonstrated by applying this
knowledge to an unfamiliar situation in a concrete non-verbal way. The theory emphasizes teachback, a
process in which one entity teachers another entity what they have learned.

The theory is based on linguistic exchanges and itself therefore is a generator of the languages involved.
The conversational language must have the power to express commands, questions, obedience, answers
and requests. The language need not be verbal; it can be graphics, music or facial expression. The theory
aims to deregulate and not to control. During a conversation, personal concepts are exchanged and shared
concepts (common meaning agreements) also known as public concepts evolve. Only when there is a
difference in concepts is there a need for a conversation. Post a conversation, the personal concepts of two
individuals may be enriched but need not be identical.

Example
The first participant starts the conversation with the word mouse. This word will have different meanings
for the other participant. In order to clarify and agree upon the meaning, a conversation is necessary. The
first participant then clarifies on what a mouse is, how it looks, what its purpose is, etc. The other
participant then listens to these views, considers the perspective and come as close as they can to the first
participant‟s meaning. Then he shares his understanding. If there is a conflict in the views, they are
discussed. Once there is a consensus among the participants on views about the mouse, there is an
agreement over an understanding.

Language Expectancy Theory

Introduction
In 1975 Burgoon, Jones and Stewart was proposed Language Expectancy Theory, inspired from the book
called “Brooks”. The language expectancy theory is a model about communication strategies, attitude and
behavioral change. How the expectancies about the language affect in the process of persuasion. The book
which they published regarding the language expectancy theory is titled “An empirical test of a model of
resistance to persuasion”. Later in 1995 Burgoon reworked “Language Expectancy Theory” and presented
the full version.

Theory
Language expectancy theory assumes that language has a certain pattern of rules which developed from
the specific context and other factors. Theory views that the anticipated communication behavior is
grounded in the psychological and cultural norms of the society. And these anticipated communication
behavior acts as a pattern in language expectancies, where language has a rule governed system.

The expectations are the various kinds of cultural norms and preferences which arise from the context and
other personal and environmental factors. People react at some specific language expectation based on
the pattern when they receive messages, which are employed in a persuasive manner. In a way it can be
said that we all have our expectation when we talk with other people, about the do says and do not says,
these do says and do not says are based on an enduring pattern as explained earlier. And when people use
the languages which are not expected in the common pattern there will be positive or negative responses
of persuasion.

The expectations of communication are said to be derived from the following three factors:
1. The Communicator
2. The Relationship
3. Context of the Situation
The Communicator – his personal factors such as credibility, social status, appearances and gender.
Even if what he said is based on the basis of norms these factors plays significant role in the process of
persuasion.
The Relationship between the sender and receiver or listener and communicator
Context of the Situation – The communication might have taking place in office, home, train. The
emotional status of the listener and other environments are included in the context.
As per the Language expectancy theory, the responses may be of in positive or negative in nature. And
also the deviation can be accidental or intentional. If the behavior is preferred than the expected language,
then the persuasion level will increase but it is believed that that the expectations developed from socio-
cultural norms are much better and ideal for a perfect communication. And if the language we used were
not acceptable to other people, their responses will be in negative manner.

EXAMPLE
The example for language expectancy theory is all around us. And it is so common, when someone talks
something without understanding the context of the situation happens always.

Robert is a manager of a leading company and he is known for his ability to complete the task before the
deadline. He has rescued the company from many times from difficulties. And he is often appreciated for
his talents. On a fine day the general meeting was on process, and as usual Robert was on his chair
listening to the presentations. Suddenly Robert moves towards the lady sitting next to him and says “I am
bored lets go out and have some fun”. She was shocked to see such behavior from him.

Here on the meeting everybody is expected to follow formal language if there are expected things to be
discussed. When Roberts said something it which was not expected to be said, the language expectancy
theory is debased. It depends upon the lady that to give a positive or negative response to Roberts based
on various factors such as credibility, context, and appearance and so on.

Relational Dialectics Theory

ntroduction
Relational dialectics is a concept within communication theories which is introduced by professors Leslie
Baxter and Barbera M.Matgomery in 1988, the concept focuses on the contradictions in relationships. The
relational dialectics has its roots from the concept of the extreme will sustain the sources of the contrary.
This philosophical concept reflects the tensions that exist being in a relationship. The concept as
mentioned comes from the contradictions that arises when two people of varying differences maintain a
relationship.

Relational Dialectics Theory

A relationship is a union where two individuals from different background compromise in many ways.
People experience internal tensions inconsistently while being in a relationship. Over time the pressures
will be recurring in nature and from this extreme tendencies, the relationship sustains. For instance
consider the point between harmony and separation. Communication patterns causing constant state of
instability acts as a contrary in sustaining a relationship.
Concepts
 Contradictions– in relational dialectics, the concept is that the extreme contrary has the
characteristics of its opposite
 Totality– in relational dialectics, the totality comes when the opposites unite. Thus the relationship
is balanced with contradictions and only then it reaches totality
 Process– relational dialectics can be comprehended through various social processes. These
processes simultaneously continue within a relationship in a recurring manner
 Praxis– the relationship progresses with experience and both people interact and communicate
effectively to realise their needs. Praxis is a concept of practicability in making decisions being in a
relationship despite of opposing wants and needs
The most common dialectics in a relationship are
1. Openness and closeness
In a relationship, both partners expect openness in their communication as to be dependable and also to
maintain an healthy relationship. But on the contrary, the individual desires privacy.

2. Certainty and uncertainty

Certainty is one factor that bonds the relationship. It is the promise that one keeps and makes both the
parties comfortable. But on the contrary, being so predictable makes the relationship dreary thus an
element of surprise or ambiguity spur up the relationship.

3. Connectedness and separateness

A relationship to continue, people has to be bonded physically and mentally. But on the contrary too
much of connectedness can blur the individuality of the person.

Managing Relational Dialectics

 Alternation- prioritising the problems alternatively
 Denial- being one sided while confronting a problem while ignoring the other
 Segmentation- dealing with the problem one-sidedly. Unlike denial, the problem is being faced in a
different circumstance
 Disorientation- avoiding the problem by terminating the relationship
 Balance- keeping a balance between the situation while solving a problem
 Reaffirmation- accepting the problem to maintain the relationship
 Integration- both the parties are made satisfied by developing methods to solve problems
Applications
The relational dialectics can be applied in studying interpersonal relationships. The behavioral changes in
the partners can be comprehended by applying the contradictions that balances the relationship. To
maintain a relationship it is important to understand the core concepts of relational dialects.

Example
Sam and Susan started dating for almost a year and once perfect relationship are confronted with
problems from both sides. As every couple they started a relationship being open to each other which was
comfortable in the beginning and as time progressed they both started longing for privacy.

Susan began to get bored of sitting inside the house rather than going out and longed for a romantic date
with Sam like before. Their life became monotonous. Sam started to miss his friends when every time he
reminded of Susan waiting in the house for him.

The tension between these couples can be managed by understanding that the relationships are
inconsistent by communicating effectively and accepting the contrary behaviors of the partners in a
relationship.
Mass Communication
Media Malaise Theory
Introduction
This theory was postulated in the year 1976 by Robinson though later many more aspects were added by
the other theorists. Most of the research in this theory was conducted in the United States and at the end
the theorists had a difference in thought. One who completely blamed the television for the malaise while
the other believing more in the generalization than blaming one media. The first group includes Becker,
Whitney, Patterson while the latter includes Bennet, Rhine and Newton.

Media Malaise Theory

The way media cover news or puts it before the public has a negative impact on the society as a whole. It
mainly stresses on the political sphere, the declining of public trust, the political cynicism etc. In the world
of competition today the news channels only search for sensational news like scandal, conflict, drama to
attract the audience. They do not give a fair coverage to the existing stories as a fresh and bigger story is
searched. As world wide news is covered there is an instant process of the delivering news and a break
through and constant facts are given barely explaining the details which creates a state of confusion. This
has a definite negative effect on politics and politicians. To have more coverage the politicians attack their
opponents and do negative things rather than acting positively and hence the good work done by them are
gone untold. It creates a constant ambience of mistrust, and cynicism. A constant negative vibe is created
and the political sphere environment is disrupted. In the UK it was seen that many times before election
political news put more stress on people and they tend to avoid these news items and also stop buying
newspapers and television tends to make the politicians less accountable to the public. This has a malign
effect on the foundations of democracy and inevitably affects the stability of the Government affecting the
public life as well.

Video Malaise
Along with this theory a common word is often used, „Video malaise‟. This word was postulated as the
theory stands strong for television. A theorist Robinson said if an individual comes to know about news
from the television rather than the other media he is a victim of „video malaise‟. He suggested a negative
link between media and the coverage of politics and through his studies found that people more rely on
television for politics. The way the news stories are covered it creates a distorted image of the entire
scenario. The interpretation of the news then becomes all wrong. But the people whose secondary source
is the television is said to be better equipped to understand and interpret the event. One should always
have a good source of newspaper or some other form of media to inform him first, only then a fair way of
understanding is possible. Hence this theory mainly states that there is constant declining trust and a
negative vibe among politicians which affect the functioning of the democracy and also reduces the public
participation in politics. But, the theory is held for all types of media and hence the term media malaise is
used. It is used as in the modern era, the media creates alienation, diffusion, cynicism etc.

Example
To expose the politicians the scandals and scams are shown widely, instead of voting the right party the
people just like to stay away from elections.

But even this theory has been challenged by mobilization theory and virtuous circle theory which tends to
argue that the media has a positive effect on the people. The media informs the people, the right and
wrongs happening in the society and as a whole has a positive effect.
Media Richness Theory
The media richness theory states that media has the ability to transmit needed information. This ability to
transmit, depends on whether the information will be used in times of uncertainty or equivocality. This
theory, proposed by Daft and Lengel is also known as the „Information Richness Theory‟.

bst2012/dollar photo club

According to the theory, different media or forms of communication have different levels of richness in
the information that they provide. Media properties can be ranked based on their ability to handle
equivocality or uncertainty.

The richness of a media is judged using the following criteria:

a) Capacity to include personal focus

Every media has different levels of personal focus, especially when a media incorporates more personal
feelings and emotions, the message gets conveyed fully in better terms. For example, communicating face-
to-face as compared to communication via email.

b) Immediacy of feedback
A communication is considered complete when the necessary feedback is given, the receipt of feedback is
also taken as a way of telling the message is received correctly. Feedback ensures that any mistake in the
transmission can be corrected immediately
Immediacy of feedback in a medium refers to the ability of the medium to allow users to quickly respond
to the communication that is being received. The medium should be able to support two-way
communication.

c) Conveyance of multiple cues

There are variety of ways in which the medium of communication information is reached and these cues
can either be visual or auditory.

For example, an advertisement on the evils of smoking can be communicated by using a combination of
cues. The background score can be sombre and dull, the visuals could show someone suffering in a
hospital bed and the voice over can be in a serious tone.

d) Variety of language carried

This refers to the range of meaning that can be conveyed by the use of language symbols like numbers or
by the use of natural language. Numbers indicate precision while natural language helps convey various
concepts and ideas.

A medium is said to possess more richness if it has a larger plethora of criteria. Based on this, the media
can be ranked in the following descending order in terms of their richness: face-to-face, video systems,
audio systems and text systems. Media is, therefore, viewed to be very rich, somewhat rich, lean or very
lean.

For example, if a news channel is conducting an investigation on a possible bribery scandal, they would
get in touch with possible informants for more inside information. If the correspondence is done entirely
through email, then the informant may hesitate to put down any facts on paper that may incriminate
himself or may use carefully constructed sentences and wording to hide facts or information.

If a journalist calls him up, there is a possibility of instantly clarifying doubts and picking up any
hesitation in the voice. Furthermore, if the interview happens face-to-face, there is an added advantage of
observing facial expressions, body language and understanding when the information is being withheld or
when the person is lying.

Uncertainty and Equivocality

The need of a communication task is sometimes necessary to reduce uncertainty (involves finding the
right answer for a question) or to reduce the equivocality (finding the right question to answer). According
to the media richness theory, lean media (emails) was best used to reduce uncertainty and rich media
(face-to-face) was best suited for reducing equivocality.

Therefore it can be stated that the theory based on whether there is uncertainty or equivocality in a
situation, different communication methods of media should be used based on their levels of richness.

Criticism
This theory drew two main criticism:

1. The level of richness for a medium remained the same irrespective of it being used by
different people
2. The tasks could have varying degrees of uncertainty and equivocality and, therefore, it
did not make sense to decide if either rich or lean media should be used
MEDIUM THEORY
History
Marshal McLuhan is considered to be the greatest philosophers in communication theories in the 20th
century. His contribution to the field of communication is contemplated to be the milestone in
communication media and has been inspired in many of them. Marshal McLuhan is known for his
statement “the medium is the message” as he believes that how the media modifies or disrupts the
message when it is conveyed. He stressed about modifying and developing of the views and senses due to
altering channels of communication. He was deeply influenced by the works of Harold Innis who provided
an insight on how media influenced the social lives. He stated that the media played a major part in the
development of human society and is depended on how the information is been transferred among the
people. Other scholars who worked on this topic were Joshua Meyrowitz and Neil Postman.

Introduction
Throughout the history, the communication is a phenomenon which is highly imperative for the
development of a society. In fact the researchers believe that the content as well as the medium that it is
been interpreted also plays a vital part in dissemination of information. During ancient eons where hard
stone carvings replaced books the communication dissemination was very slow and tough. Only the few of
the people in a society knew how to read and the others were mere listeners. There were many social and
psychological impacts due to these events and the researches consider this as the evolution of the basic
social structure of the society. As time passed and communication mediums developed people started to
envisage and take their own decisions rather than being a meagre listener. It is found that this helped the
society to develop faster and today due to internet and other facilities, the information could be conveyed
promptly. As we encounter the world through these Medias and so the researches find it significant to
scrutinise not only the message disseminated but also across which media it is been transmitted.

Medium Theory
Medium theory is a set of approaches used to convey the difference in meanings of the message conveyed
with regarding to the different channels used to communicate it. The core assumption is that the media as
we consider is not just a channel were the communication takes place but they are diverse set of setting or
environment that enable the communication to happen and it may vary the meaning and sense of the
information that it is been transferred. Here the features of each media are being taken into consideration
and how they differ discretely. By understanding features of these Medias (which can be classified into
audio, video and print) the researchers will be able to examine the efficiency of communication through
these mediums and also to compare it while communicating interpersonally.

We can observe the influence of media on our society in many ways since the beginning of using media in
disseminating information. Initially the usage of media was very limited due to lack of knowledge and
information but now, common man can read and access to any kind of information which he desires from
the wide array of media. It has helped in the development as well as the democratisation among people.
New media enables people to access and to share information around the world and has reduced the gap
in communication.

Scope
The theory explains how a media is influenced in propagating information physically and psychologically.
So it can be useful in comprehending about various Medias and how each media can be beneficial in
distributing information. Like the saying” a picture can convey 1000 words” not every message has to be
expressed through words or pictures, through proper analysis and application of this theory relevant
media can be designated and can be used appropriately.

Example
Students of Oakland high school were divided into two groups and each of these groups was exposed to a
set of activities related to their syllabus. Batch A was given books on the topic and were asked to prepare
for the test. And batch B were exposed to video on the same topic. When the test results came out batch B
displayed better marks than batch A. This proved that the student found the moving images more
effective in recollecting than words. The difference in Medias thus creates lot of differences both
physically and psychologically.

Organisational Communication
Hawthorne Effect
The Hawthorne effect was discovered as an outcome of analyzing older experiments that was conducted at
the Hawthorne Works, a factory outside Chicago between 1924 and 1932. In 1955, the term „Hawthorne
Effect‟was first suggested by Henry A. Landsberger. According to him, the Hawthorne effect is a reactivity
type of theory, it simply refers to any short term increase in productivity that may occur in an
organization as a result of being watched or appreciated. In organizations, it is observed that even the
small changes like increasing lighting, clearing obstacles from the floor, maintaining clean work stations
or even increased attention to the workforce have short-term impact on productivity.

Alen-D/dollar photo club

The Hawthorne Experiments

The Hawthorne Experiments goes throught five research phases that are very distinct in each level. The
following are the five phases explained in detail:

1. Illumination Study
This study at the Hawthorne Factory has been credited with introducing the idea of the Hawthorne effect.
In this study, the lighting conditions at the factory were altered to check if it had any impact on the
productivity of the workers. It was noted that changes of any kind led to a short-term increase in
productivity, but soon went back to normal levels. This threw light on the idea that people tend to behave
differently whenever they are aware that they are being watched.

2. Relay Assembly Experiments

These experiments consisted of studying a group of six women while they assembled telephone relays over
a period of five years. Many variables were changed to check what impact they had on productivity. The
results of the study showed that any change in a variable resulted in an increase in productivity. There was
improvement in productivity even when the variable was changed back to its original state. This made the
researchers to conclude that the workers worked harder as they felt they were being watched. Researchers
noted that the six individuals in the team participated whole-heartedly in the experiment and enjoyed the
experience of feeling special. Unique conditions, like having a sympathetic supervisor and an opportunity
to choose team mates, were also considered important in the increased levels of productivity.

3. Interviewing Programme
The workers of the Hawthorne factory were interviewed about the state of employee morale in the factory
and what the workers felt about the supervision styles and practices. The workers pointed out that they
felt pleased when they were given an opportunity to be heard. A bottom-up structure of communication
helped create a positive work environment.

4. Bank Wiring Room Experiments

Mayo and W. Lloyd Wright conducted experiments on a group of 14 men between 1931 and 1932. During
this period, the men who worked with telephone switching equipment were promised payment incentives.
This was done to understand as to what extent incentives could influence productivity. The researchers
were surprised to note that such an exercise actually resulted ina decrease in productivity. This was a
result of workers fearing that they would have to continuously keep increasing how much they produced
and that others may lose their jobs. There was control exerted over the workers by their peer groups or the
informal cliques that existed within the main group. Workers gave the same responses when questioned
by the management showing that peer groups had more impact on workers than the management‟s
incentives.

5. Personnel Counselling
In this phase, the counsellors were employed by the factory to interact with the workers and to act as
impartial agents. These counsellors then took the feedback to supervisors and helped them modify their
behaviour. This exercise resulted in better intra-organisational communication.

Definitions for the Hawthorne Effect

Hawthorne effect, in research, refers to the scenario where a non-manipulated variable causes an
unexpected impact on the variable that was originally meant to be manipulated. The Hawthorne effect
may also refer to experimental subjects complying increasingly well with what they perceive to be the
wishes of the experimenter.

In an experiment, a Hawthorne effect would refer to an effect that happens in a desired direction, but not
because of the expected reason. The positive effect happens not because of a variable being modified or
introduced, but rather the effect takes place because the participants are well aware that they are being
watched. Experiment conductors need to consider how the consequences of performance affect how a
subject behaves. The reactions of a participant in an experiment can itself cause some changes. The
conclusion, therefore, is that any novel change in environment or attention on subjects will be well
received by workers.

Management by objectives (Drucker)

The father of modern corporate management Peter Drucker is often considered to be the world‟s most
influential corporate guru. His ideas and thoughts revolutionized corporate management in the later half
of the 20th century.

Drucker questioned why in both the classical and human relations schools of management, effectiveness
was automatically considered to be a natural and expected outcome. According to him effectiveness was
more important than efficiency and was the foundation of every organization.

He thereby developed Management by Objectives (MBO) through his 1954 book „The Practice of
Management‟. MBO deals with a certain type of interaction, specific to a manager and his employee. MBO
is based on the thinking that various hierarchies within companies need to be integrated. There was a
need for commitment, responsibility and maturity. There was a need for a common challenge. Here MBO
becomes a process by which the objectives of an organization are agreed to and decided between the
management and the employees, this way the employees understand what is expected of them and help
set their own individual goals. Therefore they attain both their personal goals and the organization‟s
targets.
Every level of management in the organization participates in the strategic planning process and creation
of performance systems. The managers of the firm are expected to participate in the strategic planning
process to ensure the effectiveness in the implementing of the plan. The managers are expected to apply a
range of performance systems, designed to help in the effective functioning of the organization.

An MBO system calls for each level of managers to identify their goals for ever area they are responsible
for. These goals are shared then with their individual units. Shared targets guide individuals in fulfilling
their role. The role of the management now is to monitor and evaluate performance. The focus is on
future rather than on past. They check progress frequently and over a set period of time. There is external
and internal control in this system with routine assessments. An evaluation is done to understand as to
which extent the goals have been met.

An important aspect of the MBO approach is this agreement between employees and managers regarding
performance which is open to evaluation. The principle is that when employees are involved with the goal
setting and choosing the course of action to be followed by them, they are more likely to fulfill their
responsibilities. There is a link between organizational goals and performance targets of the employees.

In MBO goals are expected to be SMART, i.e.

 Specific
 Measurable
 Achievable
 Realistic, and
 Time bound.
Advantages of MBO:
 Objectives are discussed befor being agreed upon
 There is partcipation in setting of goals, deciding the action course and in making decisions
 There is increased motivation and job satisfaction
 Relationships between the managers and those under them improve
 There is better communication within the organisation and increased coordination
 Managers can ensure that objectives of the subordinates are linked to the organization‟s objectives
 Objectives can be set at all levels and in various departments
 Objectives can be set indivually for each department especially in promotion, marketing, and financial
planning
 MBO can be applied in any organisation
 Traits of MBO can be found in industries like the electronic media where performance objectives are
carefully established and monitored, particularly in the areas of promotion, marketing, and financial
planning
 In an MBO system, employees are more self-directed than boss-directed
Disadvantages of MBO:
 It has to be systematically done
 There is more importance given to the setting of the goals than on the actual outcome or course of
action
 It may lead to polarization of efforts, whereby, people or departments are not motivated to look
beyond their own targets and help others
 It does not take into consideration, the environment I which the goals are set, like available resources,
stake holders, etc
 To avoid potential problems SMART and SMARTER objectives need to be agreed upon
 There is no stimulation of innovation
 Managers start believing in the concept of an “ideal employee” and evaluate their subordinates based
on what they expect they should be
 Targets can be misreported and objective setting may become counter –productive to the organization
 Quality of goals set may be poorer or too unrealistic
 It is time-consuming to implement and difficult to maintain
 Setting production targets may encourage resources to meet those targets through whatever means
necessary, which usually results in poor quality
 It is not easy to identify all the objectives

System Theory
Introduction
System theory was first proposed by Von Berthalanffy and was further studied by Ross Ashby in the
1950‟s. Berthalanffy proposed a system which included the interrelations and the peculiarities of an
element. His concept is focused on the completeness rather than concentrating on the single peculiarities
of the system in an attempt to bring consistency between various fields. They believed the wholeness can
bring more significance to the system than focusing on each and every aspect. Through this method the
scientists can raise their findings to a whole new perspective.

System Theory
Everything around us is being divided into various associations by which we categories into various
systems. The systems theory is associated with unification of happenings detached from their subsistence.
A system always will have an entity depending on the nature of the system. This entity within the system
will have some general qualities and will also hold a bond between them.

We can find some common elements within systems. They are

 Input– Any type of input in the form of information or even the manual effort, which are processed
by the system to get the desired output
 Throughput– The input will be processed to get an output. A simple logical explanation. This
process which the system employs to get a desired output can be termed throughput
 Output– It is the end product of the processing by the system
 Feedback– It is an evaluation of the production process of how effective was the process been and
how effectively the process could be modified with other suggestions
 Control– It is the process employed to measure the effectiveness of the processes from input to
output
 Environment– The situation in which the entire process takes place
 Goal– The goal is targeted initially to get the desired output. Working to achieve the goal can be the
collective aspect in all the systems
System follows these common elements while processing an output but each system differs in their
characteristics.

Some of the major types of system are

1. Static system– Much as the word conveys, the static system are not susceptible to change along with
the environment
2. Dynamic system– The dynamic system is ever-changing and adaptable to the environment
3. Closed system– Closely associated with the static system. Will have fixed elements and other
relationships with the environment
4. Open system– Open system will be interactive and will be flexible with the elements and thus the
output from the system
Example
Working of a simple microphone can be taken as an example. Microphone can be considered a system
which converts sound waves into electrical signals. In this system the input is the sound waves. The
throughout or the process which takes place within the system occurs with the help of a diaphragm which
vibrates due to the sound waves and is converted into electrical signals. At the end of the microphone, a
loudspeaker is mounted with the help of which the electrical signals are converted back into audio waves.
The output is the enhanced audio waves.

Theory X and Theory Y

Introduced by Douglas McGregor, Theory X and Theory Y talk about the diverging views that exist about
how organizations function. The two theories are sets of propositions and beliefs about human nature.
McGregor assigned certain traits to each theory. His work showed that thoughts and beliefs might
influence behavior. Theory X and Theory Y are descriptions of two extreme managerial styles.

Leadership styles are determined by the ways in which a leader perceives those under him and the
assumptions he holds about human behavior. There are two categories of leadership – the classical
organization theory (existed till 1950) and non classical organization theory (used at present, formed as a
result of criticism of classical organization theory).
Rob Hyrons/dollar photo club

Theory X
Traits
According to the classical organization theory, people don‟t find work appealing, they prefer to work as
little as possible. They dislike responsibility and therefore like to be directed. These self-centered workers
require to be controlled and coerced into achieving the organization‟s goals. They lack ambition and
physiological and safety factors motivate them. The worker is assumed to be immature and viewed as
being very gullible.This a negative view of the nature of workers.

Leadership Style
Based on these assumptions, organizational structures were changed in order to ensure that
organizational goals were effectively met. Intervention was considered to be important to deal with
passive, resistant workers. Decision making became centralized and control was established through a
chain of command where workers were told what to do and how to do it without being provided an
opportunity to contribute to the decision making process. There was no confidence in the worker and the
organization wielded absolute power and employees were not given a chance to think.

McGregor termed these assumptions as Theory X assumptions of human nature. He believed that the
workers were not to be blamed for how they were being perceived; rather the organization or past work
experience was the reason. He believed that workers who were continuously being treated as robots with
no thinking ability, at one point eventually start behaving like robots.

Theory Y
Traits
McGregor proposed Theory Y assumptions about human nature as an alternative to Theory X. According
to Theory Y, when conditions are favorable, the individual finds work appealing and is highly motivated at
need levels (Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs). Workers are committed and can work independently without
direction to achieve the goals of the organization by using creative ways to solve problems. When properly
motivated through rewards they are self- controlled and seek responsibility. The worker here is
considered to be mature. This a positive view of the nature of workers.
Leadership Style
Theory Y helped to change the focus onto helping workers grow within the organization by reorganizing
the leadership structure and finding ways to motivate them. These new non classical organizations
concentrated on satisfying the assumptions of Theory Y by responding to the needs of the workers who
focused on meeting the organizational goals. Workers require attention and relish the feeling of
achievement. Opportunities should be provided to realize one‟ potential and talents have to be nurtured.
Managers here provided more responsibilities and offered challenges as rewards. Theory Y showed that by
adapting leadership styles, the needs of various individuals could be met. An individual who was self-
motivated was best left alone in a laissez-faire style of leadership, while those who needed control could
have an autocratic leader to guide them and those who require support would benefit best from a
democratic leadership style. Theory Y put forward the idea that management by objectives and involving
workers in the decision-making process would lead to the creation of a satisfied and more productive
workforce.

Conclusion
In actual practice, most managers today practice a combination of Theory X and Theory Y styles of
management. Very few practice either being autocratic or democratic completely.

Theory Z
Theory Z is a management philosophy that deals with organizational culture, quality that shows how
employees view their management their set of beliefs, values and principles. It was proposed by a
management scholar, William Ouchi who put forwarded a theory filled with Japanese elements but which
also expounded American cultural practices. The American business practice is known for its nature of
individualism which is a strong contrast to the attitude of collectivism that the Japanese believe in.

The Japanese industry has a set of assumptions about human behavior that clashes in several ways with
how organizational behavior is traditionally perceived in the U.S. The American or the U.S management
style is known for its short-term employment, focus on specialization, individual decision making and
very explicit control by the managers. The Japanese business philosophy on the other hand is known for
its focus on long-term relationships, lack of risk taking and the focus on group think. In today‟s world
both styles of management have started struggling to survive in a global marketplace. Theory Z acts as a
step up from existing practices and encompasses both American and Japanese business practices.
Creativa Images/dollar photo club

Management Style
According to theory Z, the management is concerned with production as well as the welfare of its workers.
It put forward the idea that an organization should be understood in relation to the social, economic and
political conditions currently prevailing in the society. Motivation is understood to be impacted by social
as well as organizational factors.

The hybrid management approach focuses on providing long- term employment as layoffs are not a
threat. With the satisfaction that their jobs are secured, employees feel more motivated to work for a
company. There is careful training and evaluation and therefore career development is slow by design.
There is concern over all aspects of a worker‟s life over whom there is an informal control. There are
measures by which performance gets carefully evaluated.

The Theory Z encourages moderate specialization like the job descriptions of employees are flexible as the
management believes that given relevant training, an employee will be able to adapt to a new job role.
There is no imposition of orders from superiors but rather groups come together to tackle a problem and
arrive at a consensus. Group decision making is therefore promoted to ensure that good decisions are
taken which can be implemented easily. Teams are examples of such groups. The emphasis is on collective
responsibility and therefore ensures that everyone contributes to the successful accomplishment of
organizational goals. Employees have a say in the decision making process as it impacts them in the long-
term.
The organization has a shared set of beliefs, values and objectives which help it ensure greater
commitment and help achieve individual and organizational goals. A company that followed Theory Z
could be ensured of greater job satisfaction among its employees and increased financial success. For this
theory to work, the management should have a high level of confidence in its workers and the workers
need to be highly knowledgeable and competent in order to contribute effectively.

Theory Z Workers
Workers under theory Z are highly self-disciplined, yearn to learn from each other and focus on building
cooperative relationships with their peers. They feel the need for appreciation from the management.
They are continually trained and learn new concepts and skills over the years increasing their productivity
and making them more valuable for the company. Theory Z workers have a greater understanding of their
role in an organization and how they can help it reach its goals and are more participative. Theory Z
workers can be trusted to do their best at their jobs as long as they trust the management to support and
look after them.

Criticism

The theory assumes that individuals will be easily able to arrive at a consensus because there are very little
differences in opinion between them. This may not be true in every organization.