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STEPHEN STICH
TOM DONALDSON
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRF.SS
Conte.nts vu
8. Descartes's Legacy 89
9. Conclusion 91
G lossary 91
Comprehension Questions 92
Discussion Questions 93
What to Look at Next 94
Notes 95
CH APT ER 6 Can We Trust Our Sensese 97

1. Rationalism and Empiricism 97
2. I ndirect Realism 98
3. Primary and Secondary Qualities 101
4. Do Material Objects Really Exist, 105
5. Berkeley's Idealism 106
6. Direct Realism 112
7. Conclusion 113
G lossary 114
Notes 119
CH APTER 7 W ill the Sun Rise T on1orrowe 121

1. I ntroduction 121
2 . Making Predictions 122
3. H ume's Problem 124
4. Karl Popper 127
5. Peter Strawson 130
6. Epistemically Basic Beliefs 132
7. Beyond Enumerative Induction 134
G lossary 136
Notes 139
CH APT ER 8 What Is Knowledgee 14 1

2 . Three K inds of Knowledge 141
3. Analyzing Propositional Knowledge: The Easy
Part- Belief and T ruth 142
Vlll CONTENTS
4. Analyzing Propositional Knowledge: The Hard

Part- Justification 143
5. Foundationalism 145
6. Coherentism 148
7. l nternalism and Exrernalism 150
8. Fallibilism and Skepticism 152
9. Gettier Cases-A Challenge to the Justified True Belief
Account of Knowledge 154
Glossary 155
Notes 159
CHAPT ER 9 Do We Have Free Will? 161

1. W hat Is Determinism? 161
2 . Hard Determinism 163
3. Soft Determinism 166
4. Libertarianism 170
Glossary 174
Notes 177
CHAPT ER 10 How Is Your Mind Related to Your Body? 179

1. I nt roduction 179
2 . Cartesian D ualism 182
3. Philosophical Behaviorism 187
4. The Mind-Brain Identity Theory 193
5. Fu nctionalism 197
6. Back to D ualism? 203
Glossary 204
Notes 211
CHAPT ER 1 1 Will You B e the Same Person in Ten Years? Could

You Survive D eath? 213
1. The Philosophical Issue and Its Practical Importance 213
2 . The Soul Theory 217
Conrenrs lX
3. Problems for Soul Theory 219

4. Memory Theories 221
5. Personal Identity and the Brain 233
G lossary 235
Notes 242
CH APTER 1 2 Are There O bjective Truths about Right and

W rong? 243
2 . Objective Truth 244
3. The Divine Command Theory 246
4. C ultural Relativism 249
5. S ubjectivism a nd Expressivism 253
6. The Qualified Attitude Theory 256
7. Conclusion 258
G lossary 259
Notes 266
CH APTER 13 What Really Matters? 267

2 . Hedonism 268
3. Sartre 271
4. S usan Wolf on Meaningfulness 276
5. Conclus ion 280
G lossary 281
Notes 285
CH APTER 14 What Should We Do? (Part I) 287

1. Act Consequentialism and Act Utilitarian ism 287
2 . Objections to Act Utilitarianism 292
3. Ru le Consequentialism a nd Rule
Utilitarianism 295
4. Kant's Universalization Test 298
x CONTENTS
5. Ka nt's H umanity Formula 301

6. Comparing Ka ntianism a nd Consequentialis m 303
Glossary 304
D iscussion Questions 306
Notes 308
CHAPT ER 15 What Should We Do?(Part II) 309

2 . Is It M orally Wrong to Go to t he Opera W hile People
Are Starving, 310
3. Vegetarianism 315
4. Is Abortion Morally W rong/ 319
Glossary 327
Notes 332
Appendix A: Reading and Writing Tips 334

Seven Tips on Reading Philosophy 334
Eighteen Tips for Writing Philosophy Papers 336
Appendix B: The Truth about Philosophy Majors 342
Careers 342
Salaries 346
Mean ing 348
Notes 348
Resources 349
Glossary 350
Credits 367
Index 369
PREFACE
Who is th is book for?

If you kno,v little or nothing about philosophy, and you ,vant to learn,
this is the book for you. We v.rill introduce some of the biggest questions
in the subject; ,ve keep it simple, and ,ve start at the beginning.
Which philosophical topics do you cover?

You should check out our table of contents for a detailed ans,ver, but
briefly:
• In the first chapter, we talk about what philosophy is.
• In the second chapter, ,ve give you some tips on how to analyze
arguments.
• The third and fourth chapters are about God.
• Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8 are about epistemology: a branch of
philosophy traditionally defined as the theory of knowledge.
• Chapters 9, 10, and 11 are about ,vhat kind of a thing you are.
Are you a purely physical thing, or do you have a nonphysical
component- a mind or soul? Do you have free ,vill? Could you
survive death?
• Chapters 12, 13, 14 are about ethics.
XI
xii PREFACE
That's a lot to cover in a small b ook.

Well, yes, but w·e have to admit that there are many philosophical topics
not covered in this book. There's not much about the history of philoso-
phy. There's no political philosophy either.
And the book is incomplete in another ,vay. Both of us were trained
in the Western philosophical tradition. This is a tradition that originated
in Europe and ,vhich has been strongly influenced by the Abrahamic
religions- Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. This book is really about
Western philosophy. If you ,vant to learn about other philosophical tra-
ditions, you should consider picking up one or more of these books:
• Bryan W Van Norden: Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy
• Mark Siderits: Buddhism as Philosophy: An Introduction
• J. N. Mohanty: Classical Indian Philosophy
• Lee M. Bro,vn: African Philosophy: New and Traditional
Perspectives
• K,vasi Wiredu: A Companion to African Philosophy
• Susana Nuccetelli, Ofelia Schutte, and Otavio Bueno: A
Companion to Latin American Philosophy
• Eliot Deutsch and Ron Bontekoe: A Companion to World
Philosophies
Can I skip the chapters that don't interest me?

The chapters of this book are largely independent. You can read them in
any order, and you can omit chapters that don't interest you.
This stuff is interesting. What I else should look at?

We make recommendations for further reading at the end of each chap-
ter. We recommend some movies too. And you might like to go to this
book's ,vebsite, \\",\1\\1.oup.com/us/stich for links to podcasts, videos, and
so on.
H ow d id you come to write this book?

Some books take a Jong time to create. This one has taken a very Jong
time. The story of how this book came to be begins ,vhen the older of
the two authors, Stephen Stich, was assigned to teach the Introduction
to Philosophy lecture course shortly after he began his teaching career
Preface ,au
at the University of Michigan, fifty years ago. It ,vas a daunting assign-

ment since Stich had never taken an Introduction to Philosophy course
as an undergraduate. Nor had he ever taken a big lecture course in phi-
losophy. The Michigan Intro course was very big- almost 400 students
taught in a huge lecture hall ,vith both a main floor and a balcony. After
checking out the lecture hall, Stich was terrified. He spent an entire
summer doing nothing but preparing notes for Intro to Philosophy lec-
tures. His goal ,vas to present students ,vith the best case to be made for
both sides on a range of hotly debated issues that are central to Western
philosophy.
When Stich stepped out onto the stage on the first day of class, mi-
crophone in hand, he ,vas petrified. But about ten minutes into the lec-
ture, he paused to take a sip of ,vater and thought to himself, "Hey, this
is fun!" He's been teaching an Introduction to Philosophy course almost
every year since 1968, and it is still fun. Every year, the course evolves
a bit, expanding material that ,vent ,veil in the previous fe,v years and
dropping material that didn't. What doesn't change is the goal of focus-
ing on central issues in Western philosophy, presenting the best case for
both sides of every issue considered, and challenging students to make
up their o,vn minds.
In 2010, Tom Donaldson, then a PhD student at Rutgers University,
,vas a teaching assistant in Stich's course. At one of the ,veel<ly meet-
ings with the cotuse TAs, Stich noted that the course notes, ,vhich had
migrated to PowerPoint slides over the years, might be the basis for a
course textbook, but he doubted he ,vouJd ever have enough time to
,vrite the textbook on his o,vn. Donaldson said he ,votild be interested
in ,vorking on that project. And that's when the work on this book
began in earnest.
We met with Robert Miller, our terrific editor at Oxford University
Press, and planned to have the volume completed in about two years.
But lots of stuff slo,ved us do,vn. Donaldson spent two years as a Junior
Fello,v at Harvard, and then launched his teaching career at Stanford.
Stich was organizing large international research teams to study ho,v
philosophical concepts varied across ctiltures. Chapters were ,vritten,
critiqued, and rewritten. T,vo years stretched to eight. Throughout
this long process, our goal has remained the same: to ,vrite a book that
,vould offer students a lively and sophisticated introduction to some of
the most important issues in Western philosophy, presenting both sides
XIV PREFACE
and encouraging students to make up their own minds about which side
has the stronger case.
Is there anyone that you want to thank?

Lots of people have helped. Robert Miller and the staff at Oxford
University Press have been a constant source of good advice, encour-
agement, and patience. Robert also arranged for earlier drafts to be
critiqued by more than a dozen colleagues ,vho teach the Introduc-
tion to Philosophy course at a ,vide range of colleges and universities.
Since their reports were anonymous, ,ve can't thank these colleagues by
name, but their invaluable feedback has Jed to many improvements in
the book.
Our greatest debt is to the thousands of undergraduate students
,vho have taken Stich's Introduction to Philosophy course over the last
fifty years and to the dozens of graduate students ,vho ,vere teaching
assistants in the course. They offered, and continue to offer, the best
feedback on ho,v to make the problems of philosophy clear, engaging,
and fun. The four most recent teaching assistants, Christopher Hauser,
Olivia Odoffin, David Rose, and Michael Schapira, deserve special
thanks since they used an earlier version of the material in this book
and gave us a steady stream of useful suggestions on ho,v to make the
book better.
We ,vottld also like to thank Tae Shin Lee for his advice on Chapter l,
Jorah Dannenberg for his help ,vith Chapter 14, Tessa Donaldson for her
advice on Chapter 3, and Meena Krishnamurthy for helping us find the
right quotation from Martin Luther King Jr. Jennifer Wang and Thomas
Icard gave us helpful comments on many parts of the book.
Stephen Stich
Tom Donaldson
Student and Ins tructor R esources

The Oxford University Press Ancillary Resource Center (ARC) (\\1\VW
.oup-arc.com) houses a ,vealth of Instructor Resources, including an
Instructor's Manual v.rith chapter summaries, essay/ discussion ques-
tions, suggested Web links, and a glossary of key terms from the text; a
Computerized Test Bank ,vith multiple-choice and true/false questions
Preface xv
per chapter (also available as a traditional "pencil-and-paper" Test Bank

in the Instructor's Manual); and Po,verPoint lecture outlines.
The Oxford University Press Ancillary Resource Center (ARC)
(\\1\\1\V.oup-arc.com) also contains study materials for students, includ-
ing practice quizzes with multiple-choice and true/false questions taken
from the Test Bank, essay/discussion questions, chapter summaries, a
glossary of key terms from the text, and suggested Web links.
All instructor and student resources are also available as car-
tridges for Learning Management Systems. For more information,
please contact your Oxford University Press Sales Representative at
l -800-280-0280.
THE TIME LINE OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
Philosophers Discussed Some Important Historical

In This Volume Figures & Events
THE ANCIENT PERIOD
Socrates (c. 470-399 ec,) Athenians defeat Persians at Marathon
Democrit us (c. 460-370 BCE) (490 BCE)
Plato (C. 428-348 BCE) Alexander the Great (356- 323 BCE)
Aristotle (384-322 BCE) Julius Caesar (100- 44 BCE)
Ep icurus (341-270 BCE) Jesus Christ (c. 4 BCE- 30/ 33 a )
Rom ans destroy the temple in Jerusalem
(70 CE)
THE MIDDLE AGES

Augusti ne of Hippo (St. Augustine) Fall of the Roman Emp ire (476)
(354- 430) Muhammad (57 1-632)
Anselm (c. 1033-11 09) Norman conquest of England (1066)
Thom as Aquinas (1 225 - 1274) The Black Death (1346- 1353)
FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT

Ren~ Descartes (1596-1 650) Leonardo da Vinci (1452- 1519)
Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia (1618-1680) Nicolaus Copern icus (1473- 1543)
Blai se Pascal (1623- 1662) Christopher Co lumbus "discovers•
John Locke (1 632-1 704) Am erica (1492)
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-17 16) William Shakespeare (1564- 1616)
George Berkeley (1685- 1753) Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Voltaire (1694-1778) Rembrandt van Rij n (1606-1669)
Thom as Reid (1710- 1796) Isaac Newton (1 642-1 727)
David Hume (1711-1776) Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
Imm anuel Kant (1724- 1804) Ludwig van Beethoven (1770- 1827)
William Paley (1 743- 1805) Am erican Revolution (1 775-1 783)
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1 832) French Revolution (1789- 1791)
John Stuart Mill (1806- 1873) Charles Darw i n (1809- 1882)
Will iam James (1842- 1910) Karl Marx (1818-1 883)
Bertrand Russell (1872-1 970) Queen Victoria (1819-1901)
G. E. Moore (1873- 1958) Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
Mar tin Heidegger (1 889-1 976) Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939)
Gilbert Ryle (1900- 1976) Am erican Civil War (1861 -1 865)
Karl Popper (1902-1994) Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882- 1945)
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905- 1980) Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951)
A. J. Ayer (1 910-1989) Mao Zedong (1893- 1976)
Elizabeth Anscombe (1919- 2001) World War I (1914- 1918)
Peter Strawson (1919-2006) Martin Luther King Jr. (1929 -1 968)
Alvi n Planti nga (1932- ) World War II (1 939-1 945)
Derek Parfit (1942-2017) Atomic bomb d ropped on Hi roshima
Peter Singer (1946-) (1945)
Susan Wolf (1952- J Apollo 11 comm ander Neil Armstrong
Kwame Anthony Appiah (1954- ) walks o n the moon (1969)
Terrorist attack destroys World Trade
Center (2001)
Philosophy
Asking Q uestions- Seeking Answers

The Death of Socrates, painted by Jacques-Louis David in 1787. Socrates, though he is
aboutto die, Is still teaching. Plato sits atthe foot of the bed.
CHAPTER I
What Is Philosophy?
1. Philosophy Is EverY'vhere
Many people think that philosophy is an esoteric subject. Admittedly,
professional philosophers in universities do sometimes devote them-
selves to abstruse questions. We have colleagues w·hdve devoted many
years to figuring out exactly ho\v "a' and "the" differ in meaning, and
\Ve have friends who stay up late at night discussing whether God could
change the la\vs of logic.
But, in fact, philosophical questions often come up in everyday life.
Think about the familiar question of \Vhether it is okay to buy and eat
meat. This is a philosophical question, and it quickly leads to others. As
\Ve'II see in chapter 15, some vegetarians argue that you should not buy
meat because it is ,vrong to inflict pain on animals. Meat eaters might reply
that it is okay to buy meat from humane farms or that it is okay to buy the
meat of animals incapable of experiencing pain- oysters, for example.
Let's think about that last claim for a moment. How can \Ve tell
\Vhether oysters experience pain? You might think that we can figure
out ,vhether oysters experience pain by investigating their nervous sys-
tems. But to do this, we'd have to understand the relation bet\veen con-
scious mental states (such as pain) and the nervous system- and this is
a notoriously difficult philosophical problem. We'll discuss the topic in
chapter 10.
1
2 Ptt1LOSOPHY: ASKING QueSTJONS-SEEKING ANSWERS
Some Christians argue that it is okay to eat meat on the basis of

certain passages from the book of Genesis, including this one:
God blessed Noah and his sons, and said to them, "Be fruitful and
nutltiply, and fill the Earth. The fear and dread of you shall rest on
every animal of the Earth, and on every bird of the air, on everything
that creeps on the ground, and on all the fish of the sea; into your
hand they are delivered. Every n1oving thing that lives shall be food
for you; and just as I gave you the green plants, I give you everything."'
Of course, this argument won't convince vegetarians who aren't Je,vish

or Christian, and even some Je,vs and Christians question this approach
to scripture.
In a fe,v minutes of conversation, weve already come across some
deep and important philosophical questions:
• Is it okay to eat meat?
• How is consciousness related to the nervous system?
• Does God exist?
• Is the Bible a good source of information about God's ,vishes?
These are not esoteric questions. You may not think about such ques-
tions every day, but everyone has to confront philosophical questions
from time to time.
2. W hat Is a Ph ilosophical Question?

It might strike you that the list of philosophical questions ,ve present
have little in common. Why are all these classified as philosophical ques-
tions? What is a philosophical question?
According to a popular story, ,vhen G. E. Moore (a prominent
British philosopher of the early twentieth century) ,vas asked ,vhat phi-
losophy is, he simply pointed to his bookshelf and said that philosophy
is "what all these books are about:' We sympathize: it is far from easy to
say ,vhat all the different philosophical questions have in common. But
,ve ,viii try to give you a more informative answer than Moore.
Part of the ans,ver, we think, is that much of philosophy concerns
"normative" questions- that is, questions about right and ,vrong, good
and bad. This includes questions about how ,ve should live ("Is it okay
to eat meat?"), what constitutes good reasoning ("What are the limita-
tions of the scientific method?"), and how society should be structured
("Should it be compulsory to vote?").
\Vhar Is Philosophy? 3
A list of philosophical quest ions

• Is it possible to t ravel backward in time?
• Is it good to be patriotic? What are t he differences, if any,
between pat riotism and nationalism?
• Why does God permit so much suffering?
• What is t he difference between knowledge and opinion?
• What is t he scientific method? Can we use the scient ific
method in ethics?
• Could a digital computer have consciousness?
• God is sometimes said to be "all powerful:' But what does that
mean?
• How can we d ist inguish t rue experts from charlatans?
• Do you have a nonphysical soul, which w ill persist after your
death?
• Do you have free w ill?
• What is art?
• When, if ever, is it okay to lie?
• Can we know anyt hing for certain?
• In social science, to what extent should we assume that people
make choices rationally?
• What lim its are there, if any, to the right to free speech?
• Is it good to have faith? If so, what is faith?
• Who should be allowed to vote in elections?
• What are numbers?
Another part of the answ·er is that philosophers spend a lot of time

questioning our most basic assumptions. For example, it is a central princi-
ple of Christian thought that God exists and that the Bible is a good source
of information about him. Philosophers question these assumptions.
This last choice of example is perhaps misleading because it might
suggest that philosophy is an antireligious activity. In fact, it is not only
religious assumptions that are challenged by philosophers. Philosophers
also scn1tinize the basic assumptions of science, politics, art ... every-
thing. Which may explain why philosophy has sometimes been regarded
as a subversive activity. Indeed, the ancient Greek thinker Socrates
(c. 470- 399 BCE), ,vho is sometimes regarded as the founder of the West-
ern philosophical tradition, was condemned to death for "corrupting the
youth:' In a Socratic spirit, ,ve hope that this book will corrupt you.
3. The Philosophical Method

Philosophers attempt to state their vie,vs clearly and precisely, and they
give explicit arguments for their claims.
We should explain ,vhat we mean when ,ve say that philosophers
attempt to state their vie,vs clearly and precisely. In 1948, philosophers
Frederick Coppleston and Bertrand Russell debated the existence of
God. Their discussion began like this:
COPPLESTON: As ,ve are going to discuss the existence of God,

it might perhaps be as ,veil to come to some provisional
agreement as to ,vhat we understand by the term "God:' I
presume that we mean a supreme personal Being- distinct
from the ,vorld and Creator of the world. Would you agree-
provisionally at least- to accept this statement as the mean-
ing of the term "God"?
RUSSELL: Yes, I accept this definition.
COPPLESTON: Well, my position is the affirmative position that
such a Being actually exists, and that His existence can be
proved philosophically. Perhaps you ,vould tell me if your
position is that of agnosticism or of atheism. I mean, ,vould
you say that the non-existence of God can be proved?
RUSSELL: No, I should not say that: my position is agnostic. 2
Notice that the hvo philosophers aren't content just to say that Cop-
pleston believes God exists while Russell doesn't. They articulate their
disagreement more precisely than that. They agree on what they mean
by "God;' and they clarify that Coppleston believes God's existence "can
be proved philosophically;' while Russell's position is agnostic- that is,
Russell doesn't believe God exists, but he doesn't think that God's nonex-
istence can be proven. 3 What do ,ve mean ,vhen we say that philosophers
attempt to give explicit arguments for their claims? We ,viii talk about ar-
guments and how to evaluate them in the next chapter. For now, suffice it
to say that philosophers don't like to defend their vie,vs merely by appeal
to authority or tradition. As ,ve've said, one of the goals of philosophy
is to scrutinize received v.risdoms; it defeats the point of the exercise to
assume that the existing authorities have figured it all out already.
This is not to say that appeals to authority are al,vays fallacious. On
the contrary, it is often perfectly appropriate to gather information from
experts. Our point is that, in a philosophical context, our goal is to present
arguments for our views without simply leaning upon existing authorities.
\Vhar Is Philosophy? 5
For example, suppose that you're thinking about how· the state
should be structured. You might find it helpful to read through clas-
sics like The Federalist Papers; ho,vever, in philosophical ,vork you're
expected to present arguments for your claims, and "Hamilton said so"
or "Madison said so" ,von't cut it.
It is perhaps for this reason that philosophers don't usually get in-
volved in the interpretation of sacred texts. This is part of what separates
philosophy from theology and religious studies.
4. Philosophy and Science

It is sometimes suggested that philosophy is not needed anymore, be-
cause science has taken over. Stephen Ha,vking and Leonard Mlodino,v
don't mince their ,vords:
How does the universe behave? What is the nature of reality? Where
did all this cmne from? Did the universe need a creator? .. . Tradi-
tionally these are questions for philosophy, but philosophy is dead.
Philosophy has not kept up with n1odern developn1ents in science,
particularly physics. Scientists have becmne the bearers of the torch
of discovery in our quest for kn owledge.•
Ha,vking and Mlodino,v are right about one thing: it is important
,vhen thinking about philosophical questions to keep up-to-date ,vith
relevant work in the sciences. It ,vould be a big mistake, for example, to
,vrite about ,vhich animals can experience pain without dra\\ring upon
the work of psychologists, zoologists, neuroscientists, and so on. But it
,von't surprise you to learn that we reject Ha,vking's claim that philoso-
phy is dead. O ur reason is simple: there are many philosophical ques-
tions currently unaddressed in the scientific literature. No matter ho,v
much time you spend reading zoology and neuroscience jotunals, you
,von't find an answer to the question of ,vhether it's morally okay to eat
fish. Psychology and computer science journals won't tell you ,vhether
it's possible for a digital computer to be conscious. Psychology journals
contain important discoveries about human decision-making, but the
question of ,vhether ,ve have free ,viii is left unanswered.
In saying this, ,ve don't mean to imply that philosophical questions
can't ultimately be answered using scientific methods. Many philoso-
phers have made it their goal to find ,vays of applying scientific methods
in new domains, and we applaud these efforts. All ,ve're saying is that
there are many philosophical questions which are currently outside the
scope of the sciences as they are usually delimited.
5. Why Bother?
Students in their first philosophy class (especially those for whom the
class is compulsory!) often ask why they should bother w·ith philosophy.
Our answer is that philosophy is inevitable. We all have to think about
ho,v to live, and so we are forced to think about normative questions at
one time or another. What's more, ,ve now live in pluralist societies; that
is, ,ve live ,vith people ,vhose worldviews differ greatly from our ov.rn.
When ,ve meet such people and try to understand our differences, ,ve
are forced to discuss our basic assumptions- and this is philosophy.
So even though philosophical questions don't come up every day,
,ve're all forced to confront them sometimes. We hope this book helps you
to think about philosophical questions and to reach your o,vn conclusions.
And even if you aren't able to reach your o,vn conclusions, ,ve think
you can benefit from the time spent thinking the issues through. In such
cases, philosophy sho,vs you something important about the limitations
of your kno,vledge. What's more, even if you can't find the right answer
to a philosophical question, you may still be able to achieve a deeper
understanding of other people's vie,vs about the topic. And the better
,ve understand each other's views, the better ,ve understand each other.
Discussion Question
l. Look at the list of philosophical questions v.rith a friend. Do the two
of you disagree about the ans,ver to a question? If you find a disagree-
ment, can you articulate it precisely? Then, how well can you give an
argument supporting your vie,v?
Notes
I. Gen. 9:1-3 (NRSV}.
2. You n1ay be able to find parts of this discussion online. For a full transcript,
look in Bertrand Russell, Why I Am Not a Christian (London: Routledge,
2004), 125-152.
3. Russell and Coppleston could perhaps have been still more precise about
their disagreen1ent. Their clain1 that God is "supreme" is, we think, slightly
obscure. We suspect that when Coppleston says that God is "supren1e," he
meant that God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly n1orally good-
but it's hard to be con1pletely sure.
4. Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinow, The Grand Design (New York:
Bantan1 Books, 2010), I.
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no related content on Scribd:
brincan el contrahecho y el panzudo;
salta el cojo y se estira el encorvado.
Un Juglar
Esa canalla, que danzando veo,

llena está de malicia y de ponzoña.
Fieras domaba con su lira Orfeo:
a estos los domestica la zampoña.
Un Dogmático[40]
Ni crítica mordaz, ni duda fiera

destruyen mi doctrina bien probada;
existe el diablo, pues si no existiera,
dejara de ser diablo y fuera nada.
[40] En esta estrofa y las siguientes se refiere el
autor a las tendencias de las diversas escuelas
filosóficas de su época. El Dogmático admite como
probado lo mismo que se ha de probar, y por este
flaco lo ridiculiza el poeta.
Un Idealista[41]
La fantasía dominó mi mente,

y siervo es mi sentir de su mandato:
pues que todo lo soy, es consiguiente
que soy también un pobre mentecato.
[41] Sátira del idealismo fichtiano. Fichte concebía el
no yo como producto del yo.
Un Materialista
El Ser es mi suplicio y mi tormento,

y comienza a cansarme y aburrirme.
Hoy por primera vez experimento
que no estoy en mis pies seguro y firme.
Un Supernaturalista
Me encuentro bien entre estos malhadados,
cuando en el aquelarre me introduzco;
al ver diablos aquí por todos lados,
que existen también ángeles deduzco.
Un Escéptico[42]
Les engaña el fulgor de un espejismo

cuando de la verdad van al encuentro;
Demonio y duda casi son lo mismo;
por eso estoy aquí como en mi centro.
[42] Hay en esta estrofa un juego de palabras
intraducible en castellano. El Escéptico dice que riman
diablo y duda, y así es en alemán (Diablo, Teufel;
duda, zweifel). Hemos procurado conservar en la
versión castellana la idea, aunque la forma haya
perdido la viveza y la gracia del original.
El Maestro de capilla
¡Callad, moscas, mosquitos y moscones!

¡Callad, por Dios, malditos diletantes!
¡Callad ranas y grillos de agrios sones!
¡Músicos todos sois horripilantes!
Los Aprovechados[43]
Somos gente feliz y positiva,

y vivimos sin pena y sin trabajo.
¿Pasó la moda de ir cabeza arriba?
Pues iremos también cabeza abajo.
[43] A las alusiones literarias y filosóficas siguen las
políticas. Este epigrama y los sucesivos se refieren a
las diferentes clases y partidos que figuraban en la
vida pública en tiempo de Goethe. Los Fuegos fatuos
son los hombres sacados de la nada y enaltecidos por
la Revolución. Las Estrellas caídas los aristócratas
que perdieron su prestigio y su influencia. Los
Amazacotados los hombres nuevos que van a su
negocio, atropellándolo todo.
Los Ahítos
Algún día llenamos bien la panza;

mas ya no atiende el cielo nuestros votos,
y de tanto bailar en esta danza,
vamos al fin con los zapatos rotos.
Fuegos Fatuos
Nacimos en los fétidos pantanos,

engendro de la negra podredumbre:
hoy, galanes espléndidos y ufanos,
resplandecemos todos en la cumbre.
Una Estrella caída
Caí, rodando de la eterna altura

donde brillaba, luminosa estrella.
Tendida estoy sobre la tierra dura:
¿quién podrá, cielos, levantarme de ella?
Los Amazacotados
¡Escuchad! Tiembla el suelo al choque rudo.

¡Plaza! ¡Ya viene el escuadrón obeso!
Si es que Espíritus son –que no lo dudo–
digo que son Espíritus de peso.
Puck
¡Escuadra de hipopótamos bravía!

¡Moderad y tened el rudo trote!
¡Dejadme a mí la gloria, en tan gran día,
de ser el más pesado y mazacote!
Ariel
Si la Naturaleza cariñosa,
o el Espíritu os dan ligeras galas,
a la cumbre seguidme do la rosa
feliz ostenta sus purpúreas alas.
La Orquesta, pianissimo
La neblina se aclara y desvanece;

deshácese la nube de igual modo:
sonora brisa la enramada mece,
y se disipa y se evapora todo.
DÍA NEBULOSO
Campo, FAUSTO, MEFISTÓFELES[44]
[44] Esta escena está escrita en prosa en el original,

y en prosa la hemos dejado. Nos ha parecido esto
más respetuoso para el gran poeta alemán, que
traducirla en verso, como ha hecho Andrés Maffei en
su versión italiana. En España no es una novedad
mezclar prosa y verso en las obras de forma
dramática: así lo han hecho autores ilustres, como el
duque de Rivas en su Don Álvaro.
Fausto
¡En la miseria! ¡En la desesperación! ¡Abandonada en

el mundo, largo tiempo errante, y al fin presa! ¡En la
cárcel, como una malhechora, reservada a tormentos
horribles, ella, la amable, la infeliz criatura!... ¡Hasta ese
extremo! ¡Hasta ese extremo!...
¡Traidor, indigno Espíritu! ¿Te has atrevido a
ocultármelo?
¡Basta ya! ¡Basta! Revuelve colérico en sus órbitas tus
ojos diabólicos. Provócame aún con tu insufrible
presencia. ¡Presa! ¡Sumida en irreparable infortunio!
¡Entregada a los Espíritus malos y a la despiadada justicia
de los hombres! Y entre tanto, arrullándome con insulsos
placeres, ocultábasme sus crecientes desdichas, y la
dejabas morir sin amparo.
Mefistófeles
No será la primera.
Fausto
¡Perro! ¡Execrable monstruo!

Vuélvele –¡Eterno Espíritu!–, vuélvele a ese bicho su
canina forma, la forma que tomaba a menudo para trotar,
negro fantasma, ante mis pasos, roncar a los pies del
pasajero inofensivo, y derribarle, colgándose a sus
hombros. Devuélvele su forma predilecta, para que
arrastre otra vez el vientre por el suelo, para que pueda yo
patearle, al réprobo.
¡Que no es la primera!...
¡Horror! ¡Horror incomprensible para toda alma
humana, que en el abismo de tal infortunio haya podido
caer más de una criatura, y que, a los ojos de la Eterna
Misericordia, la primera, con sus mortales congojas, no
haya pagado por todas! ¡La desdicha de esta sola penetra
hasta la médula de mis huesos, llega hasta el fondo de mi
vida; y tú te mofas satisfecho de millares de ellas!
Mefistófeles
Hétenos otra vez en la linde de vuestra comprensión,

donde a vosotros, los mortales, se os dispara el juicio.
¿Por qué te asociaste a mí, si no podías seguirme?
¡Quieres volar, y aún te marea el vértigo! ¿Fui a buscarte,
o viniste a buscarme?
Fausto
No rechines los dientes voraces. ¡Me das asco!
¡Grande y sublime Espíritu, que te dignaste acudir a mi
voz!; tú, que conoces mi corazón y mi alma, ¿por qué me
encadenas a un vil compañero, que se alimenta de males
y se goza en las ruinas?
Mefistófeles
¿Acabaste?
Fausto
Sálvala..., o ¡ay de ti! ¡Sobre tu frente irá por siglos de

siglos la maldición más espantosa!
Mefistófeles
No puedo romper las ligaduras de los vengadores, ni

descorrer sus cerrojos.
¡Sálvala!
¿Quién la perdió? ¿Tú o yo?
(Fausto lanza en torno miradas feroces.)
¿Asir quisieras un rayo? No están, por fortuna, a
vuestro alcance, míseros mortales. Aplastar al que,
inocente, contradice, tal es, caso de aprieto, el proceder
de los tiranos.
Fausto
Llévame a ella. ¡Hay que librarla!
Mefistófeles
¿Y el riesgo a que te expones? Piensa que aún no se

ha secado en la ciudad la sangre de la muerte que hiciste.
En aquel sitio se ciernen implacables Espíritus,
aguardando a su vez la muerte del matador.
Fausto
¿Eso más de ti?... ¡Destrucción y ruina de todo un
mundo sobre ese monstruo! Llévame allá, te digo, y
libértala.
Mefistófeles
Te llevaré; y escucha lo que puedo hacer. ¿Acaso soy

señor de cielos y tierra? Turbaré los sentidos del
carcelero. Cogerás la llave, y con tu mano de hombre
podrás sacar a la presa fuera de la prisión. Vigilaré yo en
tanto. Los caballos mágicos estarán a punto, y os llevaré.
Eso es lo que puedo hacer.
Fausto
Vamos, pues.
NOCHE
Campo raso. FAUSTO y MEFISTÓFELES galopando en caballos negros
Fausto
¿Por qué bullen aquellos alrededor de un cadalso?
Mefistófeles
No sé qué arreglan o guisan.
Fausto
Corren acá y allá, se ladean, se agachan.
Mefistófeles
Brujas en aquelarre.
Fausto
Parece que rocíen con el hisopo y que consagren.
Mefistófeles
¡Adelante! ¡Adelante!
CÁRCEL
FAUSTO, con un manojo de llaves y una luz, ante una puertecilla

de hierro
Fausto
Horror ha largo tiempo no sentido

siento otra vez. Me asaltan y me rinden
los males todos que lamenta y llora
la pobre Humanidad. Aquí ella vive;
tras ese húmedo muro está encerrada:
¡y una ilusión querida fue su crimen!
Voy a encontrarla, y azorado tiemblo;
voy a verla, y mi pie duda y resiste.
¡Valor! Puede matarla mi tardanza.
¡No más dudar! Su salvación lo exige.
(Toma la llave.)
(Cantan dentro del calabozo.)
Mi madre, ramera,
me dio muerte fiera;
mi padre, el perdido,
mi carne ha comido;
lo poquito que quedó
mi hermanita lo enterró.
Abriose la fosa;
salió un pajarito de pluma vistosa.
¡Tiende, pajarito,
tiende pronto el vuelo!
¡Vuela, pajarito, piérdete en el cielo!
Fausto, abriendo
¡Cuán ajena a pensar que oye su amante

el son siniestro de los hierros viles
estará la infeliz!
(Entra.)
Margarita, ocultándose en la cama
¡Vienen! ¡Ya vienen!

¡Funesta muerte!
Fausto, en voz baja.
Calla y serás libre.

Vengo a salvarte.
Margarita
Si eres ser humano,

duélete de mi suerte.
Fausto
No así grites;
que el dormido guardián despertar puede.
(Toma las cadenas para quitárselas.)
Margarita, de rodillas
¿Quién te dio este poder? ¿Por mí viniste,

verdugo, y ahora suena medianoche?
Vete; deja que viva y que respire
hasta el amanecer. ¿Piensas acaso
que mucho ha de tardar la hora terrible?
(Levantándose.)
¡Aún soy joven, muy joven, y ya muero!

¡Y bella fui también! Ese el origen
fue de mi mal. Entonces a mi lado
él estaba; ¡ahora lejos! De la virgen
rota está la guirnalda, y esparcidas
las flores todas. ¡Ay! ¿Por qué me oprime
tu diestra airada, y hacia ti me arrastras?
Suelta, suelta... ¡Perdón! Mal no te hice;
jamás te he visto. ¿Inútiles y vanos
mis clamores serán?
Fausto
¿A quién no aflige
tanto dolor?
Margarita
En tu poder me tienes:
deja, al menos, que el pecho al infelice
niño le dé. Toda la noche, toda
lo estreché en mi regazo. Para herirme,
para culparme –¡oh cielos!–, lo robaron
de mis amantes brazos, ¡y ahora dicen
que lo maté! ¡Mis dichas concluyeron!
Con malignas canciones me persiguen.
¡Infames! Así acaba vieja historia;
pero ¿es justo, gran Dios, que me la apliquen?
Fausto, echándose a sus pies
Tu amante está a tus plantas, y la puerta

de esta horrorosa cárcel viene a abrirte.
Margarita, arrodillándose también
¡De rodillas caigamos, de rodillas

para invocar a Dios! Allí, en el linde
de la puerta, las llamas infernales
arden, y en medio lúgubre sonríe
Satanás.
Fausto, gritando
¡Margarita! ¡Margarita!
Margarita, atenta
La voz era esa del amante: ¡ay triste!

(Yérguese y caen las cadenas.)
¿Dónde está? Me llamaba. ¿Habéis oído?

¡Libre estoy! ¡Libre estoy! Nadie me impide
volar ansiosa a sus amantes brazos
y en ellos reposar. Me llama: erguirse
veo su sombra entre las rojas llamas,
y en el fragor diabólico distingue
mi oído, entre infernales carcajadas,
de su querida voz el dulce timbre.
Fausto
Sí, yo soy.
Margarita
¿Eres tú? ¡Dios soberano!

¿Eres tú? (Asiéndolo.) No me engañes. Ven, repite
esa dulce palabra. ¿Qué se hicieron
los tormentos, la cárcel, la terrible
cadena?... ¡Es él! ¡Es él! A libertarme
viene, y ya libre estoy. ¡Libre, sí, libre!
Mira; aquesa es la calle en que nos vimos
por vez primera; aquellos los jardines
donde con Marta te aguardaba ansiosa...
Fausto, arrastrándola
¡Oh, ven, conmigo ven!
Margarita, acariciándolo
¡Son tan felices

las horas a tu lado!
Fausto
Es peligrosa
la menor detención.
Margarita
¿Y por qué, dime,

ya no me besas? En tan breve ausencia,
¿cómo tan dulces hábitos perdiste?
¿Y por qué tiemblo y gimo, al abrazarte,
yo que dichosa, en éxtasis sublime,
sentí, al calor de tu pupila ardiente,
el cielo todo a mi deleite abrirse,
cuando, sin miedo a sofocarme en ellos,
me estrechaban tus brazos varoniles?
Di: ¿por qué callas? Bésame, o te beso.
(Abrazándole y besándole.)
¡Ah! Tu labio está frío, está insensible...

¿Qué fue –¡oh Dios!– de tu amor? ¿Quién me lo roba?
(Apártase de él y vuelve la cabeza.)
Fausto
¡Oh, ven, ven por piedad! Constante y firme
es mi pasión. Sosiégate, bien mío,
oye mis ruegos, y mis pasos sigue.
Margarita, volviéndose a él
¿Y eres él? ¿Eres él? ¿Estás seguro?
Fausto
Sí, yo soy: ven conmigo.
Margarita
¿Y tú viniste
a libertarme, abriéndome los brazos?
¿Podrá ser que de mí no te horrorices?
¿No te han dicho, no sabes a quién salvas?
Fausto
Ya las nocturnas sombras, más sutiles,

se aclaran. ¡Pronto, ven!
Margarita
Maté a mi madre;
ahogué al hijo mío. ¿Lo entendiste?
¡Al hijo nuestro! ¡A entrambos nos fue dado!
¡A ti también! Mas, ¿eres tú? Imposible
paréceme. ¡Tu mano! ¡A ver tu mano!
¡Cielo! ¿Es su diestra, o la ilusión lo finge?
Es ella, sí; ¿por qué está humedecida?
¡Enjúgala, por Dios; sangre la tiñe!
¡Insensato! ¿Qué has hecho? Envaina el hierro.
¡Envaina el hierro, por piedad!
Fausto
Lo que hice
hecho está ya. ¿Por qué mentarlo? ¿Quieres
matarme?
Margarita
No, no mueras: ¡vive, vive!

Yo te diré las tumbas que en la tierra
desde mañana tus cuidados piden.
Será el lugar mejor para mi madre;
la de mi hermano mísero ha de abrirse
al lado suyo, y apartada un tanto,
no muy lejos, la mía, ¡sola y triste!
¡No, no sola! ¡A mi pecho el tierno infante!
¡Él, él no más, mi sepultura humilde
quisiera compartir! Al lado tuyo
yacer por siempre, fue de mis abriles
lisonjera ilusión, que me han robado.
Si me dirijo a ti, fuerza invisible
mi pie detiene, y si a tus brazos llego,
me rechazan también y me despiden;
despídenme –¡gran Dios!– ¡cuando aún tus ojos,
las usadas ternezas me repiten!
Fausto
Si sabes que soy yo, sígueme.
Margarita
¿Adónde?
Fausto
A salvarte.
Margarita
La tumba –¿no la viste?– está

allí fuera, y en constante acecho
la Muerte. Vamos, sí; quiero seguirte
no más hasta ese lecho de reposo,
¡de eterna paz!... Tú marcharás, Enrique.
¡Oh, si pudiera acompañarte!
Fausto
Puedes;
la cárcel está abierta.
Margarita
¿Y de qué sirve
la fuga? ¡Nada espero! Tras nosotros
vendrán. ¿Quieres que mísera mendigue
de puerta en puerta el pan; que errante y sola
vaya, cuando me acosan y persiguen
mis propios pensamientos, y que al cabo
me alcancen mis verdugos inflexibles?
Fausto
Contigo quedo, pues.
Margarita
¡No! ¡Corre, salva

al hijo tuyo! ¡Pronto! Marcha, sigue
aquel arroyo, el puentecillo pasa,
entra en el bosque lóbrego, y dirige
el paso hacia la izquierda... Allí, en la balsa,
¡allí está!... Mira, mira: ya va a hundirse;
¡y aún se remueve el pobrecito! ¡Vuela!
Fausto
¡Vuelve en ti! Un solo paso, y estás libre.
Margarita
¡Si hubiéramos traspuesto la montaña!
Allí mi madre, que los años rinden,
está sentada en una piedra –¡Oh cielos!,
¡soplo glacial me acosa y me persigue!–
Sentada está mi madre en una piedra,
y mueve la cabeza, ya insensible.
Ni oye, ni ve. ¡Durmió, la pobre, tanto,
que no despierta ya! ¡Días felices
aquellos –¡ay!– en que su grave sueño
dulce fue a nuestro amor!
Fausto
Pues que resistes

mis instancias y ruegos, a la fuerza
tendrás que obedecerme y que seguirme.
Margarita
¡Aparta! ¡No me toques! No con esas

duras manos me agarres y lastimes.
¿No hice bastante por tu amor?
Fausto
¡Bien mío!
¡Dulce amada! ¿No ves que el cielo tiñe
el alba?
Margarita
El día nace: ¡el postrer día!

El que alumbrar debiera los festines
de nuestra unión. No digas nunca a nadie
que a Margarita amaste y conociste.
¡Ay, mi corona!... ¡Terminó ya todo!
Aún te veré: mas no en el baile. A miles
vienen las gentes; mas con tal silencio,
que nada se oye. Estrechos los confines
son de la plaza y las cercanas calles
para tal multitud. La hora terrible
da la campana, y el bastón se rompe.
Ya me agarrotan, y en sus brazos viles
el verdugo al patíbulo me arrastra.
Ya pende sobre todas las cervices
la cuchilla fatal, contra mí alzada;
y es el mundo una tumba muda y triste.
Fausto
¿Por qué, por qué nací?

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Neurosurgery Self-Assessment Questions and Answers 1st

CH APT ER 6 Can We Trust Our Sensese 97

CH APTER 7 W ill the Sun Rise T on1orrowe 121

CH APT ER 8 What Is Knowledgee 14 1

4. Analyzing Propositional Knowledge: The Hard

CHAPT ER 9 Do We Have Free Will? 161

CHAPT ER 10 How Is Your Mind Related to Your Body? 179

CHAPT ER 1 1 Will You B e the Same Person in Ten Years? Could

3. Problems for Soul Theory 219

CH APTER 1 2 Are There O bjective Truths about Right and

CH APTER 13 What Really Matters? 267

CH APTER 14 What Should We Do? (Part I) 287

5. Ka nt's H umanity Formula 301

CHAPT ER 15 What Should We Do?(Part II) 309

Appendix A: Reading and Writing Tips 334

Who is th is book for?

Which philosophical topics do you cover?

That's a lot to cover in a small b ook.

Can I skip the chapters that don't interest me?

This stuff is interesting. What I else should look at?

H ow d id you come to write this book?

at the University of Michigan, fifty years ago. It ,vas a daunting assign-

Is there anyone that you want to thank?

Student and Ins tructor R esources

per chapter (also available as a traditional "pencil-and-paper" Test Bank

Philosophers Discussed Some Important Historical

THE MIDDLE AGES

FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT

Asking Q uestions- Seeking Answers

Some Christians argue that it is okay to eat meat on the basis of

Of course, this argument won't convince vegetarians who aren't Je,vish

2. W hat Is a Ph ilosophical Question?

A list of philosophical quest ions

Another part of the answ·er is that philosophers spend a lot of time

3. The Philosophical Method

COPPLESTON: As ,ve are going to discuss the existence of God,

4. Philosophy and Science

Esa canalla, que danzando veo,

Ni crítica mordaz, ni duda fiera

La fantasía dominó mi mente,

El Ser es mi suplicio y mi tormento,

Les engaña el fulgor de un espejismo

¡Callad, moscas, mosquitos y moscones!

Somos gente feliz y positiva,

Algún día llenamos bien la panza;

Nacimos en los fétidos pantanos,

Una Estrella caída

Caí, rodando de la eterna altura

¡Escuchad! Tiembla el suelo al choque rudo.

¡Escuadra de hipopótamos bravía!

La neblina se aclara y desvanece;