11 DHARMIC RELIGION: HINDUISM

IV. LESSON PROPER

Let’s Begin

Hinduism is the world’s third largest religion with around 15% of the entire population practicing the Hindu faith. Hindu
followers in India comprise the major bulk with almost 80% of the country’s population adhering to the religion. Other
Asian countries with considerable Hindu faithful’s include Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million), and Indonesia (3.9
million in Bali). There are also substantial number of Hindus in Mauritius, Guyana, Fiji, Bhutan, Trinidad and Tobago,
Suriname, and Sri Lanka. Hinduism was never a missionary religion unlike Christianity or Islam (Brown 1975). With the
changing times, however, there have been proselytizing activities by Hindu missionaries in some Western cities. Three
other religions that sprung in India have their origins in Hinduism. Around sixth century B.C.E., Jainism and Buddhism
appeared to challenge traditional Indian beliefs and practices. In the fifteenth century C.E., Sikhism arose that featured
Hindu and Islamic influences.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Hinduism is oftentimes considered as the oldest and most complex of all world religions. While the most active
religions of the modern times may have started around the sixth century B.C.E. onward, elements and themes of Hindu
belief may have begun around the third millennium B.C.E. In addition, unlike other major

religions, Hinduism had no one identifiable founder (Hopfe 1983). The term Hindu originated from the Persian word
hindu (in Sanskrit sindhu) which means “river.” It also refers to the people of the Indus Valley— the Indians (Bowker
1997). The name Hinduism was given in the nineteenth century to describe the wide array of belief systems in India.
Hinduism was originally known as “Arya Dharma” or the “Aryan Way.” As early as 3000 B.C.E., there were already thriving
civilizations in India, such as those discovered in the ancient Punjab city of Harappa and in Mohenjo-Daro along the
Indus. However, we know very little about the belief system of these early people (Brown 1975). Historically, the
foundations of Hinduism may have originated from the customs of the early peoples of the Indus valley around 2500
B.C.E. to 1500 B.C.E., in the more advanced culture of the Dravidians, and from the Aryans who invaded northwest India
around 1500 B.C.E. (Bowker 1997). In the 1920s, archaeological excavations in the two pre-Aryan cities of Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro revealed that the natives already had a flourishing civilization with their agricultural cities characterized
by well-planned streets with drainage systems. Unfortunately, despite having a written language, it has not yet been
deciphered. As a result, vital information concerningthe pre-Aryan life and religious beliefs has been elusive. Our
knowledge of pre-Aryan belief can be seen from the numerous statues and amulets recovered by archaeologists. Images
of fertility gods and goddesses are noticeable from these artefacts while some figures appear in the lotus position which
was later absorbed by yoga Hinduism and other sects. Later elements of Hinduism may have taken shape from the
practices of pre-Aryan people who were already civilized city dwellers (Hopfe 1983). Between 1750 B.C.E. and 1200
B.C.E., Aryan conquerors moved to the Indus Valley and brought with them their own set of beliefs that eventually
mingled with the religion of the natives. Classical Hinduism resulted in the amalgamation of their faiths. Around sixth
century B.C.E., they began to settle into cities while local leaders started organizing small kingdoms for themselves
(Hopfe 1983). Aryans brought with them their set of beliefs based on oral texts known as Vedas. This Vedic literature,
however, was chiefly composed at the time the Aryans had already settled in India and blended with the natives.
Admittedly, there is much difficulty in identifying elements in the Vedas that are genuinely pre-Aryan or Aryan
influenced. However, certain fundamental assumptions about the Aryan religion can be stated here. Firstly, the Aryans
brought with them a polytheistic religion similar to that of other Indo-European peoples. The sun, the moon and storms,
are personified in reference to the pantheon of gods and goddesses worshipped by the Aryans. Secondly, sacrifice was
the principal form of worship to the Aryan gods. Offerings to gods include animals and dairy products performed on
altars in open spaces. Since Aryans were nomadic, they had no temples (Hopfe 1983). In general, Hinduism has pre-
Aryan and Aryan elements that date back to ancient times.

SACRED SCRIPTURES

The sacred texts of Hinduism have been principally passed down throughout generations by way of music, recitation,
dance, and drama. Sanskrit has been the language of the earliest writings (Coogan 2005). The sacred writings of the
Hindus are categorized into two classes, the shruti and smriti.

SHRUTI

Shruti literally means “that which is heard.” They are regarded as eternal truths that were passed orally until the
beginning of the present age wherein there came the need to write them down (Bowker 1997). The four collections of
texts of the Vedas form the shruti and are considered primary sources and the most authoritative texts of the Hindu
faith. Other writings that form part of shruti include the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, and a few Sutras.

Vedas

The four basic Vedic books, which are sacrificial hymns compiled from an earlier oral tradition, are composed of Rig-veda,
Sama-veda, Yajur-veda, and Atharva-veda. The word Veda means “knowledge” or “sacred lore.” The Vedas are the
earliest known Sanskrit literature from the Brahmanic period and oldest scriptures of Hinduism. Scholars disagree as to
when the Vedas were first written. The earliest hymns may have been written around 2000 B.C.E. or before the arrival of
the Aryans in the Indus Valley area. They may also have been written down between 1500 B.C.E. to 400 B.C.E.
Ascertaining the exact period is difficult because these books may have been composed and passed orally for so many
generations before they were first written down and eventually completed. In the great epic Mahabharata, Brahma was
said to have created the Vedas. Among the four Vedas, the Rig-Veda is the most important and oldest book that dates
back to around 1500 B.C.E. to 1200 B.C.E. Apart from being the oldest work of literature in an Indo-European language, it
is also the oldest living religious literature of the world (Parrinder 1971). The book is a collection of over a thousand
hymns and more than thousand verses dedicated to the Aryan pantheon of gods. Below are lists of some names of these
deities.

Yajur-Veda or the “knowledge of rites” is the second book. Composed between 1200 B.C.E. to 1000 B.C.E., this book is a
compilation of materials recited during rituals and sacrifices to deities. The third book is Sama-Veda or the “knowledge of
chants.” Dating back almost the same time as the Yajur-Veda, this book is a collection of verses from the basic hymns
recited by priests during sacrifices.Lastly, the fourth book is Atharva-Veda or “knowledge given by the sage Atharva” that
date back around 1500 B.C.E. to 1000 B.C.E. This book contains rituals used in homes and popular prayers to gods.
Seldom used in solemn ceremonies unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharva-Veda contains numerous spells and
incantations for medicinal purposes and magical aids to victory in battle among others (Parrinder 1971). Each Vedas
consists of four main parts, the Mantras, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Mantras are hymns and chants for
praising god. Brahmanas are explanations of the Mantras with detailed descriptions of the sacrificial ceremonies related
to them. Aranyakas are meditations that explicate their meaning. Upanishads or secret teachings transcend rituals to
elucidate the nature of the universe and human’s connectedness to it. The many teachings embedded in the Upanishads
are called Vedanta, and these are teeming with spiritual truths (Brown 1987).
Upanishads

Forming the fourth part of the Vedas, the term Upanishad literally translates as “sitting down near” or “sitting close to”
as it implies listening intently to the mystic teachings of a spiritual teacher who has fully understood the universal truths.
It could also mean “brahma-knowledge” whereby ignorance is totally eliminated. Within theseamazing collections of
writings that were transmitted orally through generations, one can find early philosophical statements that form the
basis for all later Hindu philosophy. The great Indian nationalist and philosopher Sri Aurobindo described the Upanishads
as the “supreme work of the Indian mind.” Varying in length from one page to over fifty pages, all fundamental teachings
and concepts about Hinduism are found in these profound treatises—such as karma (action), samsara (reincarnation),
moksha (nirvana), atman (soul), and Brahman (Absolute Almighty). Of the two hundred Upanishads, fourteen of these
are considered principal writings. The earliest of the Upanishads may have originated in the ninth century B.C.E. while
the most recent around the sixth century B.C.E. (Hopfe 1983).

SHMRITI

Smriti literally means “that which has been remembered.” These writings serve to reinforce shruti and are interpreted by
sages and scholars alike. Most of these texts are sectarian in nature and considered of lesser importance compared to
shruti, such as stories and legends, codes of conduct for the society, and guidebooks for worship. The great epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata, which contains the philosophical poem Bhagavad Gita, are part of shmriti. These are
national epics of India and considered to be the sacred texts of the masses where they draw their values and ideals
(Brown 1975).

Ramayana

The Ramayana, translated as the “Story of Rama” or “Rama’s Journey,” is a Sanskrit epic poem written by the poet
Valmiki consisting of 24,000 verses in

seven books and 500 cantos. This great epic was written between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E. Central to the story is Rama, a
prince and later portrayed as avatar or incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu, who was born in Ayodhya. Rama was exiled
by his father on the eve of his coronation. Meanwhile, in the forest, Rama’s consort, Sita, was abducted by Ravana, the
demon-king of Lanka. Rama struggles mightily to win Sita back. After a battle, Rama kills Ravana and reunites again with
Sita. Returning to Ayodhya, they are crowned with Rama portrayed as the ideal king. Rama and Sita are the epitome of
perfect man and woman. Meanwhile, Ravana symbolizes ambition and greed resulting in cosmic disorder and
degradation of women and family (Bowker 1997). Presently, this story is danced out and acted in Southeast Asia where
Hindu influence is observable. Most characters are popular in Indonesia, Thailand, and Cambodia (Coogan 2005).

Mahabharata

Another major Sanskrit literature of old India is Mahabharata which is composed of around one hundred
thousand verses making it the world’s longest poem. Written around 500 B.C.E., this magnificent work is attributed to
the author Vyasa who is also considered to be the scribe of the Vedas. The Mahabharata tells of a great struggle among
the descendants of a king called Bharata, a name used by many Indians to mean “India” (Coogan 2005). Two families are
at war, the Pandavas who represent good and the Kauravas who embody evil (Brown 1975). The hundred Kaurava
brothers try to cheat their five cousins, the Pandavas, out of their share of the kingdom. As intense battle ensued, every
kingdom had to take sides. With the help of Krishna, another incarnation of Vishnu, the Pandavas emerged triumphant
but lost all their sons and closest kin in battle (Coogan 2005). With about 100,000 couplets and 1.8 million words in total,
this poem is about four times longer than the Ramayana, eight times longer than the Iliad and the Odyssey put together,
and fifteen times longer than the Bible. Along with the Bible and the Quran, the Mahabharata ranks in importance
among the sacred writings of various world religions. It is an epic vision of the human condition, such as intrigue,
romance, duplicity, moral collapse, dishonour, and lamentations (Kolanad 1994).
Bhagavad Gita

A celebrated episode within the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad Gita (or simply Gita) which is translated as “the
Lord’s Song.” It is believed to have been written between the second century B.C.E. and third century C.E. Considered as
one of the holiest books by the Hindus, the Gita is a 700-verse narrative of a dialogue between the Pandava prince
Arjuna and his guide-cousin Krishna. Just as the war is about to commence at Kurukshetra, Arjuna is troubled at the
thought of having to fight his relatives and contemplates his fate and struggles set before him. He then seeks the opinion
of his charioteer Krishna who asserts the righteousness of the act while expounding the moral and philosophical
consequences of human actions. Their conversations in the battlefield, found between chapters 25 and 42, comprise
about eighteen chapters and constitute the Bhagavad Gita. The Gita instructs any person that one may reach god
through devotion, knowledge, or selfless action (Coogan 2005). Humans must do their duty or dharma whatever it may
be and whatever results it could produce. The Gita is considered the layman’s Upanishads because the difficult teachings
of the Upanishads are presented here in a manner that commoners can understand (Brown 1975).

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

The Hindu faith offers its followers many paths to salvation. They may find liberation from the cycle of life through
devotion to one or more gods. Gods and goddesses can be worshipped at their temples. In temples, devotees can pray
and offer sacrifices so that they can gain favor from deities and assist them in their struggle for salvation. Bhakti stands
for the soul’s longing for and clinging to god (Brown 1975).

Devotion to the Trimurti

Central to Hinduism is the Brahman who is the ultimate reality, one and undivided (Hopfe 1983). The Brahman is
often seen in three forms or functions. Called the Trimurti, these are creation, preservation, and destruction. These
functions are expressed in god forms, namely, Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, the destroyer.
Though widely respected and recognized as the creator of the universe, Brahma receives the least attention among the
trimurti. In fact, only two temples are dedicated to him in India and he has no cult of devotees (Hopfe 1983). He is not
worshiped in the same way as other gods because he has done his task and will not come into his own until the next
creation of the universe (Bowker 1997). When depicted, Brahma has four heads and eight hands. His chief consort is
Saraswati, the goddess of science and wisdom. Brahma’s vehicle is a swan or goose which symbolizes knowledge. Known
as a god of love, benevolence, and forgiveness, Vishnu’s primary concern is humanity itself. As the preserver, the creation
is withdrawn to a seed whenever he sleeps but rises again as he wakes up. He is worshiped in various forms of his
incarnations or avatars. Based on mythology, Vishnu has appeared on earth in nine different forms and will come a tenth
time to end the present era or kalpa, to bring the world to an end, and then recreate it. These manifestations of Vishnu
are intended to help humanity with his preserving, restoring, and protecting powers. Below is the list of Vishnu’s 10
avatars.
Equally popular as Shiva are his many consorts that express the differing elements of his character. Perhaps the most
terrifying of his consorts is Kali depicted as wearing a garland of human skulls, tearing the flesh of sacrificed victims, and
drinking blood. Although wild and violent, Kali is frequently the subject of intense devotion. Kali is also the ferocious
form of consorts Durga and Parvati. Durga is a powerful goddess created from the combined forces of the anger of
several gods. Meanwhile, Parvati, the daughter of the sacred mountain Himalaya and the goddess of love, fertility, and
devotion, is the most modest, conservative, and benign of Shiva’s consorts (Bowker 1997). Her sons with Shiva include
Ganesha, the elephant-headed deity revered as the remover of obstacles, and Kartikeya, the Hindu god of war.

Routes to Moksha

From the Upanishads one may find the three principal and inter-related doctrines within the Indian religion.
Firstly, every soul dies and is reborn anew in new form (this cycle is called samsara). Second, one’s deeds have an effect
in this or a future life. Lastly, one may escape the weary round of death and birth (Parrinder 1971). Within every human
is an eternal soul or atman that is being reborn many times and in various forms in accordance to the moral law or karma
(Bowker 1997). A soul may escape the cycle of rebirth and attain moksha. This particular liberation can be achieved
through the four yogas that involve a system of practices aimed at producing spiritual enlightenment. The word yoga is
derived from the root word yuj which translates as “to yoke” or “to join.” The philosophy of yoga was developed by the
sage Patanjali who lived in the second century B.C.E. He is considered as the “father of modern yoga” as he codified the
teachings of yoga in his Yoga Sutra (Hopfe 1983). Below is lists of the four yogas with their corresponding practices.
SUBDIVISIONS

Followers of Hinduism vary in their set of beliefs and practices, including reverence to a particular god. Presently,
there are four principal denominations within the Hindu faith. These are Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishavism, and Smartism.
It is important to note, however, that while these gods have different names, Hindus all worship one supreme being.
Each sect has its own religious leaders, sacred texts, schools, and temples. While there is indeed variety and key
differences among sects, adherents of these denominations share the pervading beliefs concerning karma, dharma,
reincarnation, and other key Hindu concepts and philosophy.

Shaivism

Lord Shiva, the Compassionate One, is God for the Saivites. Followers of Shaivism value self-discipline and
philosophy. They worship in temples and practice yoga.

Shaktism

The Goddess Shakti is supreme for Shaktas. She is the divine mother and assumes many forms, be it a gentle one
or a fierce deity. Believers use chants, magic, and yoga to summon cosmic forces.

Vaishnavism

Lord Vishnu is God for the Vaishnavites, especially in his incarnations Krishna and Rama. Adherents have
multitudes of saints, temples, and sacred texts.

Smartism

For the Smartas, devotees are left to choose their own deity in one of six manifestations, namely, Ganesha, Siva,
Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and Skanda. Smartas are known as liberals as they embrace all major Hindu gods.

12 DHARMIC RELIGION: THERAVADA BUDDHISM

IV. LESSON PROPER

Let’s Begin
THERAVADA BUDDHISM

Buddhist followers are mostly found in the Asian continent, with China having the largest population at around
244 million or 18% of its total population. Asian countries that have the highest Buddhist majority in terms of population
include Cambodia (97%), Thailand (93%), Myanmar (80%), Bhutan (75%), Sri Lanka (69%), and Laos (66%). Buddhism has
two main divisions and many sects. A major branch of the religion, Theravada Buddhism (“school of elder monks” or
“school of the ancients”) or the “Southern School of Buddhism” draws on the collected teachings of the oldest recorded
texts of Buddhist texts to become its central precept, the Pali Canon. This school claims to have preserved the original
teachings of Siddhartha with pristine purity (Clasper 1992). Theravada Buddhism has gained considerable following in
the West in modern times.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Buddhism has been in existence for over 2,500 years and has never experienced any drastic or radical schisms in
its evolution (Toula-Breysse 2001). As the disciples of Siddhartha Gautama spread his word and preached throughout
various communities, there came a need for them to adapt to local culture, politics, and economic context. Emerging
branches of Buddhism had become adjusted to the milieu of the place. They may differ on the doctrines of Buddhism but
their relationships with other subgroups are generally good (Toula-Breysse 2001). The basic tenets of both major schools
of thought originate from Siddhartha Gautama whose life has become a constant source of inspiration to others (Brown
1975).

Life of the Buddha

 The sage Siddhartha Gautama may have been born between 563 B.C.E. to 480 B.C.E. into the Sakya tribe in
Lumbini (in present-day Nepal) near the town of Kapilavastu (the capital city of the Sakya state) in the foothills of the
Nepalese Himalayas (Kulananda 2001). Born into the Kshatriya caste, his father was Suddhodana, an aristocratic Hindu
chieftain, and his mother was Mahamaya, a Koliyan princess. The Buddha’s family name was Gautama or Gotama.
According to tradition, at the time when Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Mahamaya dreamt of a brilliant white light
shining down on her from the sky. In the rays of the light was a magnificent white elephant with six large tusks. The
elephant moved closer to the queen and melted into her body. Ten months later, Siddhartha was born. He emerged from
the side of the queen, took seven steps, and said, “I have been born to achieve awakening(bodhi) for the good of the
world: this is my last birth (Coogan 2005).” Mahamaya died shortly after giving birth to Siddhartha, also known as
Sakyamuni or the “sage of the Sakya clan.” The name ‘Siddhartha’ means “he who achieves his aim.” He was reared by
Mahamaya’s younger sister Mahapajapati who became his father’s second wife and the first woman to request
ordination from the Buddha. The word “Buddha” means “the awakened one” or the “enlightened one.” At the time of his
birth, the seer Asita predicted that the child was destined for either political or spiritual ascendancy (Skilton 1994;
Kulananda 2001). Since Suddhodana wanted Siddhartha to choose the life of a great king, he made sure that the young
boy experienced the comfort of wealth and power. In effect, Suddhodana kept his child shielded from the harsh realities
of human suffering outside the luxurious palace. He was given noble education and instruction in science, horsemanship,
and archery (Toula-Breysse 2001). At the age of sixteen, Suddhodana arranged Siddhartha’s marriage to a beautiful and
refined young woman, Yasodhara (also Siddhartha’s cousin), who later gave birth to their son Rahula. Siddhartha spent
29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu and he began to develop a keen sense of discontent. As he felt constant emptiness
despite living a life of luxury and ease, he sought answers to his questions by leaving his comfortable abode without the
knowledge or approval of his family. He left his wife, child, and social status as he began to search for truth and liberation
(Kulananda 2001). Siddhartha’s venture outside the comfort of the palace led him to encounter four suffering people
that eventually transformed his outlook on life (Brown 1975). The four encounters or the “Four Signs” that occurred
made him realize the inevitability of misery in people’s lives. First, meeting an old man made him accept that old age was
an unavoidable circumstance no matter how unwelcome it is to a person. Second, a crippled man reflected upon him
that illness is inescapable despite a person’s relentless effort to avoid any disease. Third, a decaying corpse made him
understand that death was the inevitable end of all. Last, an ascetic monk or shramana impressed upon him the person’s
tranquility and the possibility of renouncing worldly pleasures in exchange for utter quietude. All these distressing
manifestations convinced him that worldly and material possessions could not satisfy one’s need. Taking his finest horse,
he rode off into the night. He cut his hair and beard, and sent them back with the horse through his charioteer (Hopfe
1983). Ultimately, he renounced the members of his caste despite his father’s resistance and he resolved to become a
mendicant, a beggar of alms. Also known as the “Great Renunciation,” he lived as an ascetic with homeless existence
(Bowker 1997). He went to the forest and clothed himself in the yellow robes of a hermit (Brown 1975). Siddhartha
practiced asceticism in search of a way to escape suffering. Far withdrawn from his accustomed environment, he lived at
the outskirts of society and associated himself with religious masters, such as Alara Kalama and UddakaRamaputta
(Skilton 1994). As he became dissatisfied with their teachings, however, he went on his own way to subject himself to
inexorableasceticism through self-mortification and fasting that reached a point of living on a single grain of rice per day
(Toula-Breysse 2001; Hopfe 1983). For the next six years, he practiced religious strictness, wore no clothes, and did not
wash (Kulananda 2001). Food and sleep became scarce. Naturally, he became emaciated and feeble as a result of long
periods of starvation, to the point that he almost died. Five ascetics came to join him as his companions. All these actions
made him realize the absurdity of excessive asceticism and that the life of deprivation was no better than a life of
pleasure. As he began to take normal foods once more, his ascetic companions felt scandalized by his backsliding and
deserted him. In the end, Siddhartha advocated the avoidance of two extremes, namely, self-indulgence and self-denial,
and taught the way toward the “Middle Path” that was a life of self-discipline and introspection but not self-flagellation
(Losch 2001). Seated beneath a pipal tree, now known as the bo or bodhi tree, near the Indian village of Bodh Gaya in
Bihar, Siddhartha finally obtained his enlightenment after years of searching as he passed the four stages of meditative
trance or dhyana/jhana. Buddhist legend recounts his triumph over the devil Mara who personified evil forces that
torment the minds of humankind, including greed, hatred, ignorance, jealousy, and doubt. Despite the many attempts of
Mara to disturb Siddhartha’s firm meditation, appearing as storms and rains, the devil was vanquished and faded like a
bad dream. Mara failed to tempt Siddhartha with wealth and flesh; he could not break the calm determination of the
seeker of the truth. After 49 days of meditation, Siddhartha emerged victorious and attained the state of absolute
awakening. He became a “Buddha” or the “awakened one” whose every action from thereon would be motivated only
by generosity, compassion, and wisdom (Toula-Breysse 2001). He had visions of the endless cycle of birth and death that
was the fate of humankind (Hopfe 1983). Siddhartha was 35 years old when he attained enlightenment. Walking more
than a hundred miles to Sarnath near the ancient city of Varanasi, he met his former disciples whom he was able to
convince about the truth of his teachings. A new spiritual community or sangha sprang forth and soon there were sixty
enlightened beings in the world (Kulananda 2001). Siddhartha preached throughout the regions of India, such as
Magadha and Kosala. For 45 years, he travelled northern India to the cities and towns of the central Ganges basin, and
preached a message of hope and happiness while winning many new converts to his fold (Brown 1975; Skilton 1994).
Siddhartha lived and preached during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha Empire from 542 B.C.E. to 492
B.C.E. The king, a great friend and protector of Siddhartha, established the city of Rajgir that became wellknown because
of Buddhist writings. With only about two hours of sleep at night, he scarcely had any rest in his mission to propagate his
teachings to the people. At age 80 and on a full moon, Siddhartha died in Kushinagar between 483 B.C.E. to 400 B.C.E.
during the early years of Ajasatru (Bimbisara’s successor) who ruled around 492 B.C.E. to 460 B.C.E. Tradition has it that
his final words were, “Subject to decay are all component things. Strive earnestly to work out your own salvation (Hopfe
1983).” The cause of death was a meal received from a metalworker that led to dysentery. His remains were cremated
seven days after and the ashes were divided among eight clangroups as they built a sacred cairn over their portion of the
relic (Parrinder 1971). The memorial mound or stupa became an object of devotion for Buddhists that developed later
on as pagoda in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. In 486 B.C.E. five hundred leading and all enlightened disciples of
Siddhartha convened in Rajgir to compile the teachings under the guidance of Mahakasyapa, one of his principal
disciples (Mizuno1987). Known as the “First Buddhist Council,” the assembly restated and accumulated Siddhartha’s
teachings and monastic decrees to be followed by Buddhist communities. The council laid out the groundwork of
Buddhist tenets (Coogan 2005).

SACRED SCRIPTURES

The early schools of Buddhism developed their own unique body of sacred texts. Of these, however, only the Pali
Canon or the Tipitaka/Tripitaka (“three baskets”) of Theravada Buddhism survives (Coogan 2005). Preserved in the Pali
language, this standard collection of scriptures of Theravada Buddhists is the first known, the most conservative, and the
most complete extant early canon of Buddhist writings. Immediately after Siddhartha’s death or parinirvana, the “First
Buddhist Council” was called to order to recite the content of his teachings or dhamma/ dharma. These teachings were
initially passed down orally until they were recorded in palm trees after five centuries during the “Fourth Buddhist
Council” held in 29 B.C.E. The monks saw the need to commit into writing the Pali Canon so that in the event that the
monks die, important Buddhist teachings would still remain. The council was convened in Tambapanni as a result of poor
harvests in Sri Lanka that starved many monks. With the support of the Sri Lankan king, Vattagamani or Valagamba of
Anuradhapura, the council lasted for three years. Five hundred monks recited Siddhartha’s teachings as they recorded
them in palm trees. In Pali language, the word pitaka translates as “basket” referring to the receptacles where the palm
leaf manuscripts were stored by the monks. The three baskets (tipitaka/tripitaka) and their contents are summarized in
the table below.

The first basket, the Sutta Pitaka, contains the conventional teaching delivered by Siddhartha on different
occasions. Discourses of Siddharta’s disciples, such as Sariputta, Moggallana, and Ananda, are also part of the Sutta
Pitaka. It is divided into five collections, namely, DighaNikaya (Collection of Long Discourses), MajjhimaNikaya (Collection
of Middle-length Discourses), SamyuttaNikaya (Collection of Kindred Sayings), AnguttaraNikaya (Collection of Discourses
arranged in accordance with number), and KhuddakaNikaya (Smaller Collection). The second basket, the Vinaya Pitaka,
contains the disciplinary code required of Buddhist monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis). Various rules and
regulations must be followed by the monastic community. It consists of five books, namely, Parajika Pali (Major
Offences), Pacittiya Pali (Minor Offences), Mahavagga Pali (Greater Section), Cullavagga Pali (Smaller Section), and
Parivara Pali (Epitome of the Vinaya). The third basket, the AbhidhammaPitaka, is a work on moral psychology. The
reflective philosophies of Siddhartha’s teachings are contained in the AbhidhammaPitaka that is strictly a Theravada
collection. It is composed of seven works, namely, Dhamma-Sangani (Enumeration of Phenomena), Vibhanga (The Book
of the Treatises), Katha Vatthu (Point of Controversy), PuggalaPannatti (Description of Individuals), Dhatu Katha
(Discussion with reference to Elements), Yamaka (The Book of Pairs), and Patthana (The Book of Relations).

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

Siddhartha never intended to start a new religion especially, and so his teachings are focused primarily on ethics
and self-understanding as people work for their salvation on their own without needing the assistance of any supreme
being (Hopfe 1983). Here lies the main difference of Buddhism with other religions—it has no place for God or savior, as
salvation entirely lies within anyone’s control (Brown 1975). Siddhartha did not claim to be a savior but a guide and
teacher as he pointed the way for others to follow and gain spiritual bliss in doing so. Another unique feature of
Buddhism is the belief that soul or the Hindu atman does not exist as people live in a state of nonsoulness or anatman/
anatta. Buddhism does not preach that humans have an eternal and indestructible soul (Brown 1975). Nothing is
permanent in this world, hence, all things change and are impermanent. The mark of impermanence or anitya/anicca
states that all conditioned things are transitory and passing; they all have beginning and end to their existence (Skilton
1994). Human existence, or what we actually call soul, is a composite of five mental or physical aggregates or khandas.
These aggregates include the (1) physical form or corporeality, (2) feelings or sensations, (3) understanding or
perception, (4) will or mental formation, and (5) consciousness (Hopfe 1983; Toula-Breysse 2001). Hence, humans do not
have a permanent, unchanging, real soul that dwells within them (Parrinder 1971). In effect, no soul is being reborn
because there is no permanence in anything (Bowker 1997).

Four Noble Truths

The teachings of Siddhartha include discourses on the basic tenets of Buddhism, such as the “Four Noble Truths”
and the “Noble Eightfold Path.” Siddhartha’s pursuit for enlightenment was due to the dissatisfaction he continually
experienced despite living an opulent life in the palace. The Pali term for satisfactoriness or suffering is dukkha
(Kulananda 2001). Dukkha may be manifested in misery, distress, agony, emptiness, or conflict. Outside the real world,
Siddhartha began to witness the various manifestations of inescapable suffering—from old age, illness, and eventual
death. Siddhartha analyzed the problem of dukkha that led him to arrive to the basic law of causation or the “Four Noble
Truths.” Perhaps the most well-known among Siddhartha’s teachings, this profound doctrine is the heart of Buddhism,
summarized below.

(1) The First Noble Truth.

This identifies the origin of the problem— the dukkha. Suffering can be experienced throughout the different
stages of a person’s life—from birth, sickness, old age, to ultimate death. When one clings to one of the previously stated
aggregates, this leads to suffering. When one unites with the unpleasant, it causes suffering. When one dissociates from
the pleasant, it also results in suffering.

(2) The Second Noble Truth.

This explains the cause of suffering or the samodaya – in craving or desire (or tanha), in the perpetual thirst of
humans to consume things, experiences, or ideas (Parrinder 1971). People are never satisfied as they always want more
or something else, want something new, or just want to discontinue something. People crave for existence or non-
existence and seek sensual pleasures. People search for self-satisfaction from things they believe they can experience.
However, since the nature of all these things is impermanent, people become attached to these things due to ignorance
that leads to desire and eventual suffering (Brown 1975).

(3) The Third Noble Truth.

This asserts that there is a cessation or nirodha to suffering and bondage by eliminating craving and desire. By
dropping the bonds of craving, one gets to be released from the fundamental nature of reality.

(4) The Fourth Noble Truth.

 This directs an individual to the path or magga leading to the termination of craving and desire, and to eventual
cessation of pain. Likewise, one must avoid self-indulgence and self-torture since both are pointless. This is the path
toward moderation or the “Middle Way” aimed at ending suffering. Known as the “Noble Eightfold Path” which is an
entirely practical path—and each described as “right” or samma — it is divided into three aspects, namely, wisdom,
morality, and meditation. For path of wisdom, this includes Right View and Right Intention. For path of morality, this
includes Right Speech, Right Action, and Right Livelihood. For path of meditation, it consists of Right Effort, Right
Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

Table below summarizes the essence of the “Noble Eightfold Path.”

SUBDIVISIONS

Theravada is the more conservative subdivision of Buddhism than Mahayana. Thus, it is closer to the fundamental
teachings of Siddhartha. Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand are predominantly Theravada Buddhists. During the third
century B.C.E., the Indian emperor Ashoka Maurya, who ruled between 269 B.C.E. to 232 B.C.E., propagated Buddhism in
Sri Lanka that has remained relatively unchanged through time as a result of its rather peaceful history (Mizuno 1987;
Hopfe 1983). Ashoka’s son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra established Buddhism in then Ceylon. The subdivisions of
Theravada that existed during the early history of Sri Lanka can be traced from the three monasteries of Mahavihara,
Abhayagiri vihara, and Jetavana. The Mahavihara or “Great Monastery” of Anuradhapura was founded by the king
DevanampiyaTissa who ruled between 307 B.C.E. to 267 B.C.E. Another major monastery in Sri Lanka was the Abhayagiri
vihara where an ancient stupa still stands today, the Abhayagiri Dagaba. The Abhayagiri Dagaba was established by the
king Valagamba between 89 B.C.E. and 77 B.C.E. Lastly, Jetavana is another popular monastery founded by the king
Mahasena who ruled between 277 B.C.E. and 304 C.E. The layout of the Jetavana monastery is similar to the Abhayagiri
vihara though smaller in dimensions.

13 DHARMIC RELIGION: MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

IV. LESSON PROPER
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

During the third century B.C.E., a number of subtle variations began to take place in Buddhism at a time when the
Mauryan king Ashoka was propagating Buddhist gospels through missionary efforts (Hopfe 1983). The Mahasamghika
(“of the Great Sangha”), one of the early Buddhist schools, may have been the source for the initial growth of Mahayana
Buddhism, especially during the “Second Buddhist Council” that occurred a hundred years after Buddha’s parinirvana.
Considered a historical event, a religious schism between the Mahasamghika and Sthaviranikaya (“Sect of the Elders”),
another major Buddhist school, transpired during the said council. These new ideas eventually concretized resulting in a
new form of Buddhism quite different from the original teachings taught by Siddhartha Gautama and to those accepted
by Theravada Buddhists. In short, Mahayana Buddhism practically became a new religion. These new developments
within the newfound Buddhist sect comprise a set of differing notions pertaining to the original founder and great
teacher Siddhartha Gautama himself. Firstly, Mahayana Buddhists believed that Siddhartha secretly taught key principles
to chosen people, to his most dedicated disciples, or to the most faithful who could completely interpret these teachings
in time (Hopfe 1983; Losch 2001). Simply put, any new teaching can now be added to the emerging Buddhist faith.
Secondly, Mahayana Buddhists forwarded the concept that Siddhartha Gautama was actually a benevolent celestial
being, not just a mere human being. Because of his love for humankind and zeal to help the people, he came to our
world in human form. Thirdly, Mahayana Buddhists advanced the radical idea that Siddhartha Gautama was not the only
Buddha. There were other divine beings that came to our world even before Siddhartha, some of them came after him,
and still others will come in the future. Principally, these beings came to earth to help lessen people’s sufferings and lead
them to salvation. This unique concept impressed many followers because they can now revere these beings, study their
lives, construct temples, and develop an innovative belief system replete with rituals and hymns, among others (Hopfe
1983). In time, missionaries of Mahayana Buddhism were able to penetrate new places without fear of reprisal from
native religions since deities or local gods can be treated as manifestations or incarnations of Buddha. Other religions
could be absorbed by Mahayana Buddhism by way of this key principle in their proselytizing activities. While Theravada
was the first to enter China during the first century C.E., Buddhism did not gain much ground here not until the arrival of
Mahayana in the third century C.E. In time, Mahayana Buddhism took a major foothold of China while local beliefs were
relegated to lesser stature (Hopfe 1983). Korea was the next territory to be influenced by Mahayana school around the
fourth century C.E. and followed by Japan in the sixth century C.E. Mahayana Buddhism existed alongside Japan’s native
religion Shintoism. Mongolia and Tibet likewise embraced Mahayana Buddhism. All these places developed their own
versions of Mahayana Buddhism that exist up until the present day. Ironically, while Buddhism was being propagated and
gaining support in other countries even to the remotest places, it was steadily dying in India where it all started. A series
of invasions destroyed numerous Buddhist centers and temples. The rising tide of Islam in India resulted in the forcible
conversion of Buddhists to the Muslim faith. Meanwhile, Hinduism was able to gradually absorb challenging religions,
such as Buddhism and Jainism, due to its tolerance and openness to other belief systems. The Hindu belief that
Siddhartha Gautama was a manifestation of Vishnu contributed to the fading influence of Buddhism in India. Mahayana
Buddhism disappeared in India during the eleventh century. Quite expectedly, only a handful of Indians became truly
Buddhists leading to contemporary times. Nonetheless, Mahayana Buddhism is still the most popular branch of
Buddhism in the world today.

SACRED SCRIPTURES

While the Mahayana branch accepts the canonical texts of the Theravada school, such as the Tripitaka (Sanskrit
word for “Three Baskets”) which is the collection of Buddha’s teachings, it also has a wide array of philosophical and
devotional texts, especially since Mahayana Buddhism initially became more receptive to change and to subsequent
innovations even from indigenous culture. Mahayana Buddhism includes many sacred writings which are nearly identical
in content with the Pali Canon of the Theravada sect. The canon of Mahayana Buddhism also consists of the Tripitaka,
namely, Sutra Pitaka (Discourse), Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline), and AbhidharmaPitaka (Ultimate Doctrine). Meanwhile,
Mahayana Buddhists have teachings or sutras not present in the Theravada school and the followers believed they have
recovered the original teachings of the Buddha. In fact, principal scriptures of the Mahayana sect have no parallels in the
Pali Canon (Jurji 1946). From the many Asian countries and territories that embraced the Buddhist faith, there arose
distinct and large canon of sutras and religious expressions that Theravada school does not have or does not even
recognize as legitimate. As the original language of transmission, Mahayana Buddhism adopted the Sanskrit rather than
the Pali form of common terms strictly used in Theravada Buddhism, such as sutra (or sutta in Pali) and dharma (or
dhamma in Pali). Buddhist texts were also translated in the local vernacular. The Mahayana school possesses
innumerable figures often lacking in the Theravada literature, including the bodhisattvas, demons, divinities, and other
spirits. One of the most popular and prominent Mahayana Buddhist texts (or sutra) is the Lotus Sutra, or the
Saddharmapundarika-sutra that literally means "correct dharma white lotus sutra" or “Sutra of the Lotus of the
Wonderful Law” in Sanskrit. A sutra pertains to one of the discourses of the historical Buddha that comprise the basic
text of Buddhist sacred writing. The teachings of Siddhartha Gautama are generally recorded in a wide corpus of sutras
and often taking the form of dialogues instead of analytically explicating a certain viewpoint. Siddhartha sought to
provide answers even to the most basic questions concerning human existence. The Lotus Sutra is presented as a
discourse conveyed by Siddhartha Gautama before his eventual death. Mahayana tradition maintains that while the
sutras were recorded during Siddhartha Gautama’s lifetime, these sutras were kept for 500 years and reintroduced only
during the “Fourth Buddhist Council” in Kashmir in 78 C.E.
While these sutras were assembled years after the death of Siddhartha Gautama, the Lotus Sutra may have been
authored by more than one writer and compiled between the first and second century C.E. In fact, the oldest portion of
the Lotus Sutra may have been written between 100 B.C.E. and 100 C.E. A Chinese version was translated from the
original Sanskrit in 255 C.E. making it the earliest record of such existence in history. The Lotus Sutra contains the most
definitive teachings of the Buddha. Pervading most schools of Buddhism in China, Korea, and Japan by way of the
northern transmission, reciting the texts of the Lotus Sutra is considered propitious. A key idea within the influential
sutra is that all people equally and inherently possess the so-called “Buddha nature” or “Buddhahood” which is the
condition of complete happiness and freedom from fear and illusions. In short, the attainment of enlightenment is open
to all people regardless of gender, race, social status, and education.

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

The Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama, born in the fifth or sixth century C.E. in present-day Nepal, is considered the historical
Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism. After he attained enlightenment at the age of 35, he came to be known as Gautama
Buddha and spent the rest of his life preaching across India. He died at the age of 80. For Theravada Buddhism, only the
historical Buddha and past Buddhas are accepted. For Mahayana Buddhism, there are other contemporary and popular
Buddhas apart from the historical Buddha. The concept of trikaya (“three bodies”) pertains to the teaching of Mahayana
Buddhism about the nature of the Buddha and reality. While Theravada Buddhism puts very limited emphasis on trikaya,
this doctrine is very well-mentioned in Mahayana Buddhism which states that each Buddha has three bodies, namely,
dharmakaya, sambhogakaya, and nirmanakaya. The table below summarizes the nature of the three bodies of Buddha.

The dharmakaya is identical with perfect enlightenment that is absolute and beyond existence or non-existence.
Everyone is capable of attaining this special place which is beyond perceptual forms. As a body of bliss, the state of
sambhogakaya is already enlightened but remains distinctive. Believed to be a remuneration of one’s aggregated positive
deeds, it serves as a crossing point between the two other trikayas of Buddha. Lastly, nirmanakaya is the physical body
that undergoes birth, inhabits the world, and dies in the end. The great teacher Siddhartha Gautama is an example of a
Buddha in a state of nirmanakaya. For Mahayana Buddhists, Buddhas are not individuals who actually lived in this world.
In some ways, they are simply expressions of the one Buddha reality, such as that of Siddhartha Gautama (Brown 1975).
These great Buddhas are to be found in various heavens enshrined together with other gods and saints. In China,
Amitabha is a very popular Buddha. In Japan, Vairocana is the great Buddha.

Bodhisattvas

One distinct feature of Mahayana Buddhism concerns its teaching about an enlightened being or bodhisattva
(“enlightened existence”) which is the ultimate way for any Buddhist to live in this world. A bodhisattva has generated
bodhicitta or the spontaneous desire to achieve the state of being enlightened. The concept of bodhicitta greatly differs
between the two main schools of Buddhism. The teachings of Theravada place a great emphasis on selfliberation where
there is a total reliance on one’s self to eradicate sufferings. On the other hand, apart from self-liberation, it is also
essential for Mahayana adherents to assist other sentient beings in their quest for liberation. The attainment of nirvana
is not confined to one’s self as an arhat (“perfected one”) but must be shared to all striving beings (Bowker 1997). A
bodhisattva, who is already eligible to enter final enlightenment by perfecting himself through countless incarnations,
opts to forego the right to enter nirvana and decides to be born again into this evil world to assist others in attaining the
same state, even descending to the depths of lowest hells to rescue ill-fated victims imprisoned there (Jurji 1946;
Murphy 1949). Through skillful ways, a bodhisattva has the capacity to determine the state of mind and emotion of each
person thereby facilitating assistance based on the actual needs. The concept of bodhisattva helped in explaining the life
of Siddhartha Gautama before he died, as depicted in the jataka tales or birth stories of the historical Buddha. The path
of the bodhisattva can also be taken by any ordinary person, which is a way of selflessness so that one can also be
liberated from all forms of suffering in the cycle of rebirth. Frequently depicted as celestial beings who answer the
prayers of those who need help, bodhisattvas are embodiment of great compassion. Numerous devotions and
meditational texts have been developed that revered these benevolent beings. As a result, Mahayana Buddhism as a
polytheistic belief continued to grow in time along with its pantheon of bodhisattvas. Nevertheless, bodhisattvas from
those countries that embraced Mahayana Buddhism differ significantly from one another, such as those that were
adopted in China and Japan. While Maitreya (“Buddha of the Future”) is the only accepted bodhisattva in Theravada
Buddhism, oriental Mahayana Buddhism has four other principal bodhisattvas, namely, Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri,
Ksitigarbha, and Samanthabhadra. Avalokiteshvara is the most revered and most popular Buddhist deity among all
bodhisattvas, being the personification of perfect compassion, probably representing in Buddhism the sun-god Vishnu of
the older Hinduism (Murphy 1949). Manjushri is the embodiment of wisdom, intelligence, and willpower. Ksitigarbha is
the one who helps and liberates all sentient beings residing in hell. Samanthabhadra is the representation of love, virtue,
and diligence. Mayahana Buddhism encourages everyone to pursue the path of a bodhisattva, assume their vows, and
work for the absolute enlightenment of all living beings.

Bhumis and Paramitas

Based on the Mahayana tradition, a bodhisattva must pass 10 bhumis (“grounds” of “land”) before attaining the
so-called “Buddha-hood.” These are extensions of the “Eightfold Path” as discussed in the previous lesson on Theravada
Buddhism. The bhumis are frequently associated with the paramitas (“perfections”). Translated as “to cross over the
other shore,” paramitas imply crossing from the “sea of suffering” to the “shore of happiness.” One is lifted from the
cycle of rebirth to finally achieve liberation. While the first five paramitas are principally concerned with the
accumulation of merits, the sixth paramita involves the attainment of wisdom. Several Mahayana texts identify 10
bhumis, but many schools list their own path to development. A boddhisattva vow is stated as “May I attain Buddhahood
for the benefit of all sentient beings.” The 10 bhumis as lifted from Avatamsaka Sutra or “Flower Garland Sutra,” one of
the most influential sutra of Mahayana Buddhism in East Asia, are listed below:
WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

Buddhism integrates an assortment of religious practices and devotional rituals with the objective of aiding
worshippers in their journey toward enlightenment and in bringing blessings to each and every one. In Buddhist temples,
they pray and chant to pay their respect to the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, and
Amitabha. They also offer vegetarian food and light incense to pay homage to these important divine beings. Mahayana
temples are sacred spaces. While only a simple temple layout can be seen in Theravada Buddhism with an image of
Siddhartha Gautama as the focal point of worship, Mahayana rituals can be quite elaborate with the addition of other
disciples of Siddhartha Gautama and important bodhisattvas. Worshippers also recite chants and undertake pilgrimages
to sites of Buddhist importance. Meditational activities are fundamental in almost all popular forms of Buddhism. For
Theravada Buddhism and Zen Buddhism, the practice of meditation is the only means to attain liberation. With the
introduction of Mahayana Buddhism in other places, local culture influenced the development of Mahayana Buddhist
practices. The lotus that symbolizes purity, the eight-spoke wheels that represent the dharma, and the different hand
gestures (mudras) are important symbols for Mahayana Buddhism.

SUBDIVISIONS

The Pure Land Sect

Pure Land Buddhism began in India around the second century B.C.E., spread to China by the second century C.E.,
and reached Japan around sixth century C.E. When believers die, it is their objective to live in the “Pure Land of the
West” or Sukhavati. By simply reciting the name of the Amitabha with utmost attentiveness many times during the day,
they may be reborn in this paradise where they can work to achieve enlightenment much easier. Amitabha, the god who
supervises over a western paradise, is the focus of this sect. Once in Sukhavati, people can experience the delight in
hearing Amitabha teach the dharma in preparation for their entry to nirvana. Aside from meditations, this Buddhist sect
utilizes chants and recitations to focus on helpful thoughts (Losch 2001).

The Intuitive Sects

The establishment of intuitive sects of Buddhism can be traced around sixth century C.E. to the work of an Indian
monk named Bodhidharma whose life stories are shrouded with mysteries and numerous legends (Murphy 1949). This
concept entered China from India, and then carried onward to Korea and Japan. In China, it came to be known as Ch’an.
Ch’an Buddhism has close affinity with Taoist philosophy because both are kinds of mysticism (Jurji 1946). In Japan, it
reached its peak with the development of Zen which is a blend of Indian Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism. Followers of
this school are called meditative Buddhists. Focusing on meditation as the path to liberation, Zen Buddhism is basically a
monastic discipline (Losch 2001). The word for “meditation” in India is dhyana, ch’an in China, and zen in Japan.

The Rationalist Sect

A rationalist Buddhist school of thought called T’ien-t’ai emerged around the sixth century C.E. with its name
originating from a mountain in southeastern China where its founder Chih-I or Zhiyi lived. Apart from meditational
practices, this sect taught that one must utilize reason and study the scriptures and doctrines to discover Buddhist truths
(Hopfe 1983). Chih-I emphasized that acts of studying and contemplation were both vital for spiritual enlightenment.
Apart from instructions on the scriptures and silent meditation, other means to reach this goal include mystical
communion with the eternal, ascetic discipline, meritorious deeds, and simple faith in the mercy of the Buddha (Jurji
1946).

The Socio-political Sect

A Japanese Buddhist monk by the name of NichirenDaishonin who lived during the thirteenth century during the
Kamakura period began to teach that the path towards attaining enlightenment rested solely on the devotion to the
Lotus Sutra. Nichiren (“sun lotus”) Buddhism, which is purely a Japanese phenomenon, perceives itself as the only
rightful version of Buddhism.

Tibetan Buddhism
 Buddhism was officially introduced into Tibet around the seventh century C.E. during the reign of
SongtsanGampo, considered the founder of the Tibetan Empire. He was influenced by his Chinese and Indian wives who
were both Buddhist followers. Buddhism became a dominant force in the region toward the end of the eight centuries
C.E. when the king TrisongDetsen decreed it as the official state religion.

14 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF DHARMIC RELIGION

IV. LESSON PROPER

ORIGIN

Both Hinduism and Buddhism, two of the world’s great religions, trace their origin in India. Believed to be the
oldest living religion in the world, the early beginnings of Hinduism with its forms and themes may have begun around
the third millennium B.C.E. (Hopfe 1983). As the precise time of its founding is very much difficult to determine,
Hinduism evolved and developed during the ancient Indus Valley civilization. It is widely regarded that both pre-Aryan
and Aryan elements are found in Hinduism (Brown 1975). A timeless religion as it is and a way of life for its adherents,
Hinduism has no precise moment of origin and no one specific founder or prophet unlike most other world religions.
Throughout its long history, Hinduism became the source of three other religions, namely, Buddhism, Jainism, and
Sikhism. Buddhism also traces its origins in northern India around the sixth century B.C.E. as another interpretation of
the Hindu belief. This religion is closely linked to its founder Siddhartha Gautama who is also referred to as the Buddha or
the “Enlightened One.” A son of a Kshatriya chief, the once affluent Siddhartha abandoned the comfort of his palace and
family as he set to discover the remedy to universal suffering he observed in this world. After long periods of abstinence
and meditation, he finally reached enlightenment (nirvana) and became known as the “Buddha” or the “enlightened
one.” He preached mainly in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent such as in Magadha and Kosala. About 500 years
after Buddha’s enlightenment, a schism within the Buddhist religion resulted in the emergence of two major branches
around the first century C.E, namely, the Theravada and Mahayana schools of tradition. Both schools owe their
fundamental teachings to the Buddha whose life has become an inspiration to millions of followers all over the world.
Around the third century B.C.E., Buddhism reached neighboring Asian countries as a result of the missionary zeal of
Indian rulers. A different outlook to salvation attracted many Asian people to embrace the tenets of Buddhism as it
reached China, India, Korea, and Indochina Peninsula. However, while Buddhism was successfully converting people in
faraway places, Buddhist fervor gradually waned in native India as a result of resurging Hinduism. The resurgence in
Hinduism is due to how Hinduism absorbed the rising challenge of other new religions as it incorporated their elements
into the Hindu belief.

MORALITY

Hinduism is said to be the most tolerant of all religions as there are numerous ways to manifest one’s set of Hindu
beliefs (Hopfe 1983). In short, the Hindus themselves differ in the manner of practicing their religion. However, while
Hinduism may seemingly lack a cohesive system of beliefs and practices, most of its adherents hold several key moral
values such as karma and dharma. The concept of karma involves the accumulation of one’s past deeds that have a direct
effect on one’s present condition. Karma is closely linked to the Hindu belief of reincarnation (samsara) or the cycle of
life, death, and rebirth. Bad deeds, including actions and thoughts, may result in one being born into an unpleasant
circumstance in the next life. On the other hand, good deeds generate an enjoyable disposition in one’s next life. In
short, karma is the universal law of causality. The notion of balance and order in this universe is integral to the Hindu
belief. People are born in this world with specific duties to perform in accordance to their status in society, such as those
elements related to gender and caste. This is the concept of dharma wherein people must accomplish their tasks so that
society can prosper as a whole. Evidently, dharma is a complex term that could mean law, duty, order, justice, or norm
within Hinduism. To disregard one’s dharma is tantamount to reaping bad karma that could have an adverse effect in the
next life. By performing one’s dharma correctly, one gains good karma. Essentially, dharma brings morality and ethics in
the Hindu belief system. While the Buddha embraced the general framework of Indian ideas, he radically altered many of
them (Bowker 1997). Similarly, the cycle of rebirth persists in Buddhism and succeeding lives may be affected by the
moral laws of cause and effect or karma. Until one has achieved enlightenment, one’s deed in the present lifetime will
affect the course of future rebirths. Buddhist moral thoughts and actions are principally guided by the “Four Noble
Truths” formulated by the Buddha, along with the basic guide called the “Eightfold Paths” that are divided into three
categories, namely, right view, right conduct, and right practice. Unhappiness of life (dukkha) is principally caused by
people’s unending desires. People are advised to scrutinize their motivations and ponder upon the outcome of their
actions keeping in mind Buddha’s teachings. Anything harmful to others, in deed and in thought, must always be
avoided. The two major schools of Buddhism, the Theravada and Mahayana sects, follow the “Four Noble Truths” and
the “Noble Eightfold Path.” PURPOSE In Hinduism, there are four desirable goals of life (purushartha). All Hindus aim to
achieve the four-fold purpose of life that includes dharma, artha, kama, and moksha. Dharma means to behave
appropriately and act righteously. In essence, dharma is a path toward a pleasant rebirth through fulfillment of one’s
destiny that is often defined by class, family, social status, age, and gender. It also involves paying debts to gods, fellow
humans, and other living beings during their lifetime. Artha pertains to the pursuit of legitimate worldly prosperity or
material well-being. Wealth must be gained by way of lawful measures. As one pursues success, dharma must always be
kept in mind. Kama refers to the pursuit of legitimate pleasure as one obtains enjoyment in life, such as those related to
arts, music, and dance. This could also include satisfaction of one’s desire or sexuality. Moksha is the final meaning of life
that involves enlightenment, self-realization, or union with god. For the Hindus, this is the most difficult goal of life to
accomplish. While some can accomplish moksha in just one lifetime, others may take several reincarnations in another
physical form just to be liberated from the cycle of rebirth. While ignorance and illusion hinder the enlightenment of
sentient beings, they can still escape these bondages. In essence, the main purpose of their life is to obtain release from
the cycle of reincarnation or at least a better rebirth. In addition to the four goals of life, traditional Hindus often pass the
four stages of life (ashramas). The first stage of Hindu life is that of being a student (brahmacarya). As a bachelor, he lives
in the house of a guru and studies sacred scriptures under his guidance. The second stage is that of being a householder
(grihastha) wherein he takes in a wife, raises children, and contributes to the well-being of society (Brown 1975). During
the third stage (vanaprastha), he withdraws to the forest with his wife as he undergoes meditation to understand the
meaning of life. Finally, the fourth stage (samnyasin) involves renouncing the world and all its attachments as he now
becomes a holy sage. The first three stages are obligatory in nature while the fourth is only optional and not all men
attain it. In Buddhism, the principal purpose of one’s life is to terminate all forms of suffering caused by attachment to
impermanent entities, such as material things, friends, and health. All these do not offer enduring happiness but sorrow.
When one recognizes the impermanence of all these things, an individual begins to free one’s self from attachment
thereby reducing suffering and ending the cycle of rebirth. Buddha’s teachings on the “Four Noble Truths” and the
“Noble Eightfold Path” form the basic tenets of all Buddhist sects. In Theravada Buddhism, the monastic way of life
ensures the path toward enlightenment. For the Buddhist laity, they must first be reborn as monks for them to be eligible
for enlightenment. As members of the laity perform good deeds, positive karma may bring forth a pleasant condition in
the next life. In contrast, Mahayana Buddhism offers enlightenment to anyone, not only for the members of the monastic
order, but also for those with families and secular careers. Moreover, the Mahayana branch of Buddhism attracts
followers because it offers a faster route to enlightenment than the Theravada sect.

DESTINY

Simply put, the destiny of all Hindus involves reincarnation until such time they gain ultimate enlightenment.
Hinduism believes that within the human is an eternal soul (atman) that is being reborn millions of times and in many
forms subject to the moral law of karma (Bowker 1997). While the soul is immortal and naturally blissful, it could plunge
into darkness because of ignorance and delusion concerning reality. Moral law enables souls to create their own destiny
leading to a pleasurable or repulsive state of existence. Hindu practices to achieve enlightenment involves yoga,
meditation, proper worship, rituals, devotion to gods and goddesses, pilgrimage to sacred shrines, and performing one’s
duties. For the Hindus, the idea of an eternal heaven or hell is unfounded as it does not uphold genuine moral behavior.
In fact, the concept of heaven and hell can be exploited by religious groups just wanting to lure or scare people.
Meanwhile, Buddhism holds that no soul is being reborn because there is no permanence in anything (Bowker 1997).
The Buddha preached to his followers to achieve their own salvation conscientiously because external forces have no
control over their life and circumstances. They control their own fate as they are bound to the law of causality. Buddhist
destiny, therefore, is the direct result of natural law or dharma and one’s accumulated deeds or karma. Here lies the
glaring difference of Buddhism as a dharmic religion when compared to other world religions that teach the concept of
fate or predestiny. For Buddhist followers, life and events are not controlled by an all-powerful creator or universal force.
In contrast to Hinduism and other religions, the Buddhist goal is neither absorption into Brahman nor union with God.
Instead, Buddhists aspire to reach nirvana or the extinguishing of fires of longing and suffering (Bowker 1997). When one
has achieved nirvana, one has attained the state of perfect peace wherein attachment, aversion, and ignorance have
ceased once and for all. In the Theravada school of Buddhism, the trainings on the development of ethical conduct,
meditation, and insight assist in eradicating all forms of evil in order to acquire goodness and purify the mind. All worldly
things are momentary and impermanent. By following the “Middle Path” and practicing the basic doctrines of Buddhism,
there is a realization that desire can be terminated and suffering reduced. In the end, a perfected state of insight can be
accomplished. A person who has attained this position is called an arhat or a “worthy person” who must be emulated by
Theravada Buddhists. Adherents can reach an enlightened status through their own ways without any assistance from
any divine beings, such as gods or goddesses. With the help of Buddha’s teachings, the journey toward nirvana becomes
possible. Meanwhile, the Mahayana sect devotes much attention to the bodhisattvas or “enlightened beings” who delay
their own enlightenment for them to benevolently aid other beings to reach their ultimate end. All beings can follow the
path of the bodhisattvas which is the ideal way for all Buddhists to live. Well-known in the Mahayana sect are
Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, Ksitigarbha, and Samantabhadra. The Theravada sect only accepts Maitreya as boddhisatva.

VIEWS ON WOMEN

The status of women in ancient India leaves much to be desired as they are always seen as inferior to men in all
aspects of life. Restrictions abound with regard to their daily activities; tending household chores would be their primary
role. Women are to be cared for by their parents in their childhood days, by their husbands when they marry, and by
their sons when they reach old age. Religious and educational liberties for women are severely lacking. Honoring women
in Hindu society as a fundamental teaching has been laid down in one of the supplementary arms of the Vedas, the
Manusmriti or the “Laws of Manu.” Based on this standard book in the Hindu canon, women must attend ritualistic
practices despite the fact that they had no roles to play in these activities. According to this basic text, the three-stage
pattern for a woman include that a woman child be protected by her father, a wife must be protected by her husband,
and an old woman be protected by her sons. As a married woman, she must become a good wife and treat her husband
as a god. She must serve and follow him, and pray for him. She often eats when her husband has finished eating. In
return, a husband must also revere his wife as a goddess. The sacred text adds that the happiness of the wife is crucial in
the stability of the family. Cases of having several wives also exist in Indian society that naturally breed hatred and
jealousies among the wives. More so, women are not allowed to remarry after the death of their husbands. Shaving their
head is a requirement to make them unappealing to other interested men. The most difficult chores are given to widows
and they are forbidden to eat alongside family members. Widows are personification of all the negative characteristics of
a woman, ill-fated and wretched. Widows are brought to the Indian city of Vrindavan by their families who eventually
abandon them there. A widow can opt to commit sati or the act of killing herself by jumping into the funeral pyre of her
husband. It is believed that immolating one’s self assures immense rewards for the family and gives a chance to the wife
to be with her husband in the next life. The practice of sati has now been banned in India especially with the passage of
Sati (Prevention) Act of 1988 that criminalized any type of involvement in sati. On the other hand, women have enjoyed
considerable freedom in their religious life in Buddhism as compared to Hinduism. The Buddha himself allowed the full
participation of women in all major Buddhist rites and practices. For so long a time when women’s duties were confined
to household and kitchen duties, Buddha radically changed this when he allowed women to join the monastic order and
attain enlightenment in equal footing with men. In the past, learned women members of sangha include Dhammadinna,
Khema, and Uppalavanna. Fully-ordained Buddhist female monastic members are bhikkunis. For the Buddha, men are
not always wise and women can also be wise. In Buddhism, women should not be treated as inferior to men because
both are equally valuable in society. Women as wives and mothers have roles to fulfill in the family and society.
Husbands and wives must equally share responsibilities in the family with the same zeal. Wives must also familiarize
themselves in trade and business dealings so that they can also handle these affairs. Men and women have equal status
in Buddhist societies.
 16 DAOIC RELIGION: CONFUCIANISM
IV. LESSON PROPER

Confucianism

There has always been a debate whether Confucianism should be regarded as a religion or a philosophy. Those who
argue that Confucianism is a philosophy assert that when Kung Fuzi founded Confucianism, he never meant to establish a
new religion; he merely wanted to interpret and revive the ancient religion of Zhou dynasty. Since Confucianism
emphasizes the ethical dimension of the world, it gives primary attention to human relationship, thus advocating social
values and ideals which should serve as the foundation of Chinese society. Advocates of Confucianism as a philosophy
further argue that Kung Fuzi seldom touched on religious matters, thus branding him as a humanist advancing practical
and ethical wisdom. On the other hand, Confucianism is considered a religion because its ideals were inspirational, not in
the supernatural sense but in the sense of aiming for excellence in one’s relationships with others. For Confucius, what
happens in everyday life should not be trivialized but should be considered as the realm of moral and spiritual
fulfillment. Focus on relationships should be emphasized, for it is often taken for granted that these relationships which
we encounter everyday should be the easiest to perfect, but in reality, they are the hardest to attain. Moreover,
Confucius stressed the importance of rituals which would lead them back to the ideal society of their ancestors when
there was harmony between heaven and earth. Confucianism has often been categorized together with Buddhism,
Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Daoism as one of the world’s major religions, and has greatly influenced the
East Asian political and spiritual life. For these reasons, Confucianism may be viewed both as philosophy and as a
religion. It has become a practical way of life for so many Chinese for a long time and so has been intensely embedded in
the structure of Chinese societies and politics. As of 2010, the Encyclopedia Britannica estimates the number of followers
of Confucianism at more than six million. This figure is misleading, however, for it is said that people from East Asia may
profess themselves to be Buddhists, Taoists, Christians, Muslims, or Shintoists, but rarely do they stop being Confucians.
Because of this, the actual figure can rise up to more or less 300 million.
Symbols

Two symbols which are important to Confucianism are the symbols for scholar and water. The scholar, as represented by
the Chinese symbol above (the ru), is an important symbol in Confucianism. It contains the symbol of a person, as well as
the character for need or desire. The foremost need of people is nourishment, then education. When combined, it
means “the need of a human being.” Water is one of the five important elements in Chinese philosophy, alongside wood,
fire, earth, and metal. Water is considered as the source of life, valued for its significance in the natural world and for
sustaining life. The figure below is the Chinese symbol for water.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The proliferation of Chinese classical thought happened within the reign of the Zhou dynasty, the second historical
dynasty in China. It was the result of several factors such as technological and economic advancement, stronger political
units, political and social improvement, and even military development. Advances in the said realms led to the
emergence of competing dynasties who wanted to establish supremacy over other dynasties, hence the
period was marked by social upheaval and chaos. This led to the search for political and social stability through the birth
of philosophies and religions which attempted to restore social harmony in China. The Zhou period was divided into
Western Zhou (1122-770 B.C.E.) and Eastern Zhou (770-221 B.C.E.). The Eastern Zhou was further subdivided into the
Spring and Autumn period ((722-481 B.C.E.) and the Warring States period (403-221 B.C.E.). It was during the period of
Eastern Zhou, a period of great economic growth, social change, and political development that philosophies would
emerge and the Classics would be written. During the Zhou period, technological growth led to trading development,
which led to a remarkable increase in wealth. Iron became common in China in the fifth century B.C.E. and had replaced
bronze as material for weapons, as well as agricultural tools such as the ox-drawn plow, which in turn led to agricultural
revolution in China. This growth of production coincided with a rapid growth in trade, and, as a consequence, a new class
of wealthy merchants emerged. Accordingly, this became a threat to the nobility, which led them to propagate a theory
that society is composed of four (4) classes in this order: the warrior-administrator, the peasants, the artisans, and the
merchants. Alongside technological and economic growth was the development of stronger political units, which led to
the emergence of four vassal states that competed against each other for political supremacy. These vassal states were
Qin in the west, Jin in the north, Yan in the northeast, and Qi in the east. The struggle for supremacy among these vassal
states characterized the Warring States period in Chinese history. Their political stability was enhanced by military
development. The use of chariots, iron weapons, and the use of cavalry all contributed to the newfound power of the
vassal states who tried to overpower each other through the use of warfare. Amidst the development and chaos, China
was faced with a dilemma: the failure of old authority made it necessary for new guiding values to restore social order. It
was in this very crucial time that philosophers would try to find solutions to the social problems being faced by society.
Incidentally, interest was focused primarily on society and not on the individual. Because of this, these philosophers have
often been classified as practical politicians because they were products of the proliferation of literacy and part of the
new bureaucracy. They went to different states to offer their services whenever needed. One of them was Confucius.
Among the four rival states which competed for supremacy, the Qin dynasty would emerge as the victor and would
establish the first empire of China in the 3rd century B.C.E. The name China would come from the Ch’in, the first to
create an imperial Chinese identity.

THE LIFE OF CONFUCIUS

Confucius is the Latinized version of Kongzi and the honorific Kong Fuzi both meaning “Master Kong.” He was born on
September 28 on 551 B.C.E. Hence, it is considered a day of celebration in East Asia—an official holiday in Taiwan
(Teacher’s Day), and a day of cultural celebration in mainland China, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Confucius was born in a
small feudal state of Lu (now Shantung province) in Qufu. His personal name was Qiu and his family name was Kong. He
came from a noble family, but by the time of his birth, they had already lost much of their wealth. His first teacher was
his mother, and at the age of 15 he set his heart upon learning, thus love of learning became one of the highest virtues in
Confucian ethics. He married at the age of 19 and had a son at the age of 20. At this point in his life he had already
served in minor government posts and had already gained a reputation as an all-around scholar. When he was in his 30s
he had already started a brilliant teaching career because of his mastery of the arts of ritual, music, archery,
charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic. He was also familiar with classical tradition, particularly in poetry and history.
He is often considered as the first person to devote his whole life to learning and teaching for the purpose of social
transformation and improvement. He held several government positions including as arbiter, assistant minister of public
works, and minister of justice in the state of Lu. Frustrated that his ideals and policies were brushed off by his superiors,
he soon left Lu. For 13 years, he wandered from state to state, trying to put his theories to practice. At 67, he returned
home to teach (where he gained more disciples) and to preserve his classical traditions by writing and editing. He died in
479 B.C.E at the age of 73 and he left around 3,000 followers who preserved and put his other teachings to writing.

SACRED SCRIPTURES: THE CONFUCIAN CLASSICS

The Five Classics are a group of books which was regarded as early Confucianism’s basic texts. This includes the Book of
Changes, the Book of History, the Book of Poetry, the Classic of Rites, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. The Analects is
also considered an important source of Confucian teachings since it contains a record of his conversations with his
disciples. Let us now take a look at what these classics are all about. Confucius has often been considered as the author
or editor of the Classics, but contemporary scholarship has shown that even though many of these texts can be traced
back to Confucius, they have undergone a long period of development. Moreover, these Classics were burned during the
reign of the Qin dynasty and was restored only during the Han dynasty. It was Confucius’ followers who exerted effort in
writing and collating his teachings and philosophies.

Book of Changes

Also known as the I-Ching, the Book of Changes is believed to have existed at the time of Confucius and is the oldest of
the Classics. It focuses on short predictions following a type of divination called cleromancy wherein six random numbers
are picked and arranged under sixty-four hexagrams. A hexagram is any of a set of sixty-four figures made up of six
parallel or broken lines. Later on, commentaries were added to the predictions, the longest of which was the Hsi-tz’u or
Appended Remarks, which discusses early cosmological and metaphysical assumptions in an obscure language.
Book of History

Also known as the Book of Documents or Shangshu, the Book of History is conventionally attributed to Confucius by early
scholars. It is composed of speeches (or prose) of royalty and ministers mainly from the Shang and Zhou dynasties. It also
consists of chronological accounts of imperial achievements and rules of government.

Book of Poetry

The Book of Poetry, also known as the Book of Songs/Odes/Shijing, is a collection of three hundred and five songs
compiled around 600 B.C.E. which includes four sections of various themes such as love, courtship, abandonment and
dances. It also includes feast songs or state chants. It was supposedly compiled by Confucius from an ancient repertory
of three thousand, and is considered as the oldest existing compilation of Chinese poetry.

Classic of Rites

Originally the Three Li/Three Rites/San Li, the Classic of Rites is a compilation of ceremonial rituals, administration, and
social forms of the Zhou Dynasty. It is considered as a complete body of work which includes the Ceremonials (I-li/Yili),
an early manual of protocol for the nobility, describing such occasions as marriages and funerals, sacrifices and even
archery competitions. It also includes the Book of Rites (Li-chi/Liji) which is composed of forty-nine sections of ritual and
government guidelines, as well as essays on education, the rites, music and philosophy. Also included is the Institutes of
Chou (Chou-li/Zhou Li) which is supposedly an ultimate depiction of government offices in early Zhou times. These texts
were supposedly compiled in the early first century B.C.E. based on earlier materials.

Analects

The Analects, or Lunyu (“conversations” or “sayings”), is also known as the Analects of Confucius. It is a collection of
sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to have
been written by Confucius' followers. It is believed to have been written during the Warring States period (475 B.C.E.-221
B.C.E.) and finalized during the middle of the Han dynasty. At first it was considered as merely a commentary on the Five
Classics, but later on acquired tremendous significance that it has been classified as one of the Four Books along with
Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, and Book of Mencius. Among other important Confucian works, it has become an
influential canonical resource in Chinese and East Asian philosophy.

17 DAOISM
IV. LESSON PROPER
SYMBOLS

The Yin and Yang is the most well-known Daoist religious symbol. It is an image composed of a circle divided into two
swirling parts: one black and the other white. Within each swirling or teardrop-shaped half is a smaller circle of the
opposite color. Overall, the Yin and Yang symbol signifies the perfect harmonic balance in the universe. For example, day
and night; birth and death. According to Daoist cosmology, the big circle signifies the Tao (Dao), the source of existence.
Meanwhile, the black and white teardrop-shaped halves signify the Yin-qi and Yang-qi, known as the primordial feminine
and masculine energies, respectively. Daoists believe that the interplay of the Yin-qi and Yang-qi created the manifest
world.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Laozi (Lao-tzu), meaning “Old Master,” is believed to have authored the Dao De Jing (Tao teching or The Book of the Way
and its Power), dating back to around third century B.C.E. According to myth, Laozi was conceived by a shooting star and
was born of a virgin mother, who kept him in her womb for 82 years; Laozi was said to be born with flowing hair, which
signified that he would become a wise man. He is considered as the first important Daoist who is believed to be a senior
contemporary of Kung Fuzi (some said he even became Kung Fuzi’s adviser) although there is much debate on his date
and identity. The Chinese historian Sima Qian wrote a biography of Laozi in the Historical Records (Shih Chi) in the late
2nd century B.C.E. According to Sima Qian, Laozi’s family name was Li, his given name was Erh, and he was also known as
Tan. According to his biography, he worked as a government archivist but became frustrated with government
corruption, and sensing his unavoidable disgrace he left Chu and was detained at Han-ku Pass by a gatekeeper named Yin
Hsi, who requested him to write a book for him before leaving. Laozi agreeably wrote two chapters about the Dao (Way)
and De (individual power), which came to be named Dao De Jing or Laozi.

Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu), is believed to have lived from 369 to around 286 B.C.E. Sima Qian also wrote a biography of
Zhuangzi in the Historical Records. According to Sima Qian, his last name was Chuang, his given name was Chou, and Tzu
means “master,” thus Chuang Tzu (Zhuangzi) means “Master Chuang.” He was born in the town of Meng in a small state
of Sung, near the border between present-day Hunan and Shandong Province. He served as an officer-in-charge of a
royal garden during the middle of the Warring States period and was said to be invited by King Wei of Chu to become his
chief minister, which he declined. Zhuangzi is considered a great philosopher and a great writer, and he wrote a book,
together with his followers, which became known as Zhuangzi, and was believed to be completed before the Han
dynasty (Fairbank and Reischauer 1989).

Dao De Jing

Daoism’s foundational text is the Tao te Ching or Dao De Jing, meaning “The Book of the Way and its
Power.” It is a mysterious collection of enigmatic remarks which many find hard to understand. Its opening line which is
often translated as “The name that can be named is not the eternal name,” implies the difficulty of putting the truth into
words, and can only be explained through riddles and paradox. The Dao De Jing has often been attributed to Laozi, but
some believe that it was a product of the collective efforts among various groups in China, since a closer analysis of the
scripture reveals that there is no integrated philosophy in the Dao De Jing; instead, it was a collection of sayings and
proverbs, lines from popular songs, and clever maxims coming from various contributors with various concerns. The Dao
De Jing, which literally means The Book of the Way and its Power, expounds on the meaning of Dao and its
accompanying concept of De—the power or virtue acquired by a person by means of living in harmony with Dao. It is
said to have a paradoxical element, meaning it contains assertions that were rather contradictory and illogical, yet
contain deeper meaning which can be understood through intuition than through rational thinking.

Book of Chuang Tzu/Zuangzi

Another important scripture is the Zhuangzi, dating to the third century B.C.E. and attributed to a man
named Zhuangzi, the second founder of Daoism. It consists of delightful parables, metaphors, and poetic passages, and is
praised for its high literary value which represents the most significant formulation of early Daoist thought. Zhuangzi is
divided into three sections: the Inner Chapters, Outer Chapters, and Miscellaneous Chapters. According to some experts,
certain chapters of the text were written by scholars during the early part of Han dynasty. But some question this
allegation, saying that some of its chapters are quoted by Han Feizi and Lushi Chunqiu, which had been completed before
the Ch’in (Sharma 1993). All in all, the book, which is an anthology of essays that make use of parables and allegories,
discusses spiritual freedom which makes one surpass the limitations of one’s own mind, and not merely the freedom
from social norms and restrictions. Zhuangzi believes that such freedom can only be attained by living according to the
Dao itself. Part of living according to the Dao is to defer to its laws, which includes the law of dying. According to the
book, the sage—through his exceptional wisdom—is liberated from life’s ups and downs and the world and has
overcome his sensibility. This gives equal importance to life and death, and does not advocate longevity as opposed to
Confucianism. There are other passages in the text, however, which suggests otherwise. For instance, there is a passage
which describes the sage as immortals who no longer depend on a diet of grains, have defeated death, and have the
ability to help others get well from sickness and overcome other evils (Ching 1993). Zhuangzi’s central theme, however, is
the relativity of things or nature or the balance of yinyang, which will be discussed later.
CONCEPTS/BELIEFS

Daoism can be best understood by discussing its concepts and beliefs. Some of its concepts include the Dao or the “way
of nature”; the De or “virtue/ proper” adherence to Dao; Wu Wei or “action through inaction” which gives importance to
humility and noncompetition, naturalness and naturalism, and non-aggression; yinyang or the balance of nature or
universe; and the Chi/Qi or the natural energy or life force that sustains living beings.

The Dao

According to Laozi, the Dao, which is the essential concept and creative principle in Daoism, existed before the world. It
is undetectable, indistinct, shapeless, and indefinable, it is the foundation of all being, and the way in which nature and
the universe exist. All things come from it, and are nourished by it, that is why sometimes the Dao is called “Mother.”
Dao is the origin of heaven and earth and it is also the way in which heaven and earth now live. Its meaning differs across
religions and philosophies: for Confucians, it refers to the basic principles of moral philosophy while for the Legalists, it is
the way of power (Brown 1987). The Dao is distinct from God. It is not a being for it is the origin of all beings, and its
great virtue is that it does everything but desires nothing. It is “emptiness”, which does not compete with other forces
but is content with itself. This contentment, when practiced by people, will enable them to lead good lives (Ching 1993).

Deity/God (Dao as the origin of all beings)

Unlike the Abrahamic religions, Daoism does not have a God, for Daoists believe that the universe originated from the
Dao, which created and controls the universe and distantly guides things on their way. However, the Dao itself is not God
and is not worshipped by the Daoists. Instead, they worship deities, who are gods of a particular role, and they
traditionally worship Laozi not only as the first god of Daoism but also as the representation of the Dao. Most of the
deities worshipped by the Daoists were borrowed from other cultures, but they are within the universe and are subject
to the Dao. The Daoist pantheon has often been described as a divine administration which reflects the secular
governments of Imperial China. However, some believe that it is the other way around—that the secular administrations
are just reflections of the divine administration (Fairbank and Reischauer 1989). For the Daoists, the Dao possesses
heavenly qualities, is mysterious, indescribable, lies under the surface of sense perception, and unifies obvious opposites
on a different level. Daoists also believe that the Dao can only be found in silence since it is heavenly and beyond change.
For the Daoists, God is found inside us, in the thoughtful emptiness from which all power and life originates in all
directions; it is the “Nothing” within all of us where all our energy comes from.

The De

The De, which means virtue or the proper adherence to Dao, is another basic concept in Daoism. It encourages inaction
in nature and advocates the quiet and passive nature of a person so that the Dao, or the creative principle in the
universe, may act through them without interference. People should simply follow the Dao and must do nothing on their
own. In this regard, Laozi professed a distaste for culture and civilization for they are products of human activity and
proof of humanity’s tampering with nature. In line with this, he preferred the use of inaction in ruling the people (Brown
1987). “Non-competition in Emptiness” is said to be the other side of the principle of “inaction in nature.” For Daoists,
inaction means a person’s outward actions, and emptiness is the corresponding inner state, which also means “absence
of desire.” Daoists believe that when a person becomes peaceful, that person acquires power to overcome all things
without having to compete with others. In line with this, humility and avoiding competition with others are two virtues
which Daoists value most. Lastly, “contentment with what is” is another expression of inaction in nature and of non-
competition in emptiness. By following the way of nature, a person can attain contentment. For Laozi, the way of
happiness is contentment. “There is no greater sin than the desire for possession, no greater curse than the lack of
contentment.” (Brown 1987)

Wu-Wei

Wu-wei means “no behavior” or “doing nothing.” It also means “to do without doing” (wei-wuwei) or “actionless
activity.” It is a concept used to negate or limit human action. It refers to the cancellation or restriction of human
behavior, especially human activities. Wu-wei may refer to certain stages such as nonbehavior or doing nothing; taking as
little action as possible; taking action spontaneously; taking a passive attitude toward society; waiting for the
spontaneous transformation of things; and taking action according to objective conditions and the nature of things, or
acting naturally.

Yin Yang

As stated earlier, the concept of yin yang was articulated by the Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi who stated that “yin in its
highest form is freezing while yang in its highest form is boiling. The chilliness comes from heaven while the warmness
comes from the earth. The interaction of these two establishes he (harmony), so it gives birth to things. Perhaps this is
‘the law of everything’ yet there is no form being seen.” (Zhuangzi Chapter 21) Yin yang is an important concept in
Daoism which explains Laozi’s methodology that everything contains opposite sides, and each side depends on the other,
which emphasizes the concept of dualism, of two halves forming a whole. Yin yang emphasizes complementarity,
interconnectedness, and interdependence of both sides seeking a new balance with each other.

Qi/Chi

The qi refers to the natural energy or life force that sustains living beings. Qi literally means “air’ or “vapor.” It is the
fundamental substance of nature and living beings, as well as life force. It refers to matter, which is continuous,
energetic, and dynamic. It is sometimes translated as “material force” or “vital force.” It is considered as the foundation
of body and life. Daoists believe that everything is made up of qi and will eventually return to qi. Because of this, people
should not be afraid of death, for life and death are but phases of the circulation of qi (Sharma 1993). Zhuangzi
articulated the concept of qi with the story of his wife’s death, which narrates that when Huizi went to Zhuangzi to
console him for the death of his wife, he found Zhuangzi drumming upon an inverted bowl on his knees and singing a
song. Zhuangzi explained that while it is true that he was saddened by his wife’s death, he was also aware that the qi is
still there, it just evolved into another form, which is death (Zhuangzi Chaptr 18).

SUMMARY

• Daoists believe that everything comes from the Dao. Human nature should be aligned with the rest of nature to
achieve harmony and balance. Self-cultivation should be encouraged for people to return to the natural mode of
existence.
• For some Daoists, spontaneity is the mode of being experienced fully only by immortals; for most Daoists, living a long
and healthy life is their goal. They can achieve this through practicing methods of nourishing life by way of physical
exercises designed to improve one’s health and lengthen life, breathing exercises, drinking potions believed to lengthen
life, etc.

• Living in harmony with nature is the way of living with the Dao, which will lead to good health and long life (even
immortality for some) because there is a balance of yin and yang, therefore the qi flows freely.

• Life and death are mere phases of the qi according to Daoists. They are advised not to be afraid of death since life and
death are but phases of the circulation of the qi. Thus, Daoist concept of salvation focuses on this life than in the
afterlife.

• Daoists have no concept of heaven and hell as compared to other religions. In their scriptures there were mentions of
heaven as the abode of their deities and life on earth should be in harmony with the will of heaven. However, based on
their concept of qi, heaven is achieved when one achieves immortality and, if this is not possible, then long life is
enough. They have this concept that those who achieve immortality reside in utopian places on earth, such as forests
and mountains.

18 SHINTOISM
IV. LESSON PROPER

Symbol

The Torii Gate is the most common symbol for Shintoism. It is a sacred gateway supposed to represent a gate upon which
a cock crew on the occasion when Amaterasu emerged from the rock cave and relighted the world. It marks the entrance
to a sacred space which is the Shinto shrine. It represents the transition between the world of humans and the world of
the gods and goddesses. It is believed to help prepare the visitor for their interaction with the spirits by signifying the
sacredness of the location. It is traditionally made of wood or stone, but now most Tories are made of concrete and steel.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The development of Shintoism in Japan has a long history. During the prehistoric period in Japan, animism was evident in
the agricultural affairs of the people. Agricultural rites were celebrated seasonally and all communal religious activities
were focused on objects or places believed to be inhabited by kami or spirits. Later on, adherents formulated rituals and
stories for them to make sense of their universe, such as creation stories regarding Japan and its natural elements,
thereby creating their own sense of cultural and spiritual worlds. One such story is the “Story of Creation,” which
narrates that in the beginning there were two kami, Izanagi-no-Mikoto (male) and Izanamino-Mikoto (female). It was said
that after Izanagi’s creative work on earth, he went up to heaven while Izanami was left permanently on earth as the
queen of the lower world. According to the myth, Amaterasu-o-mi-kami, the goddess of the sun, came out of Izanagi’s
left eye while Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto came out of his right eye, and Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto came from his nostrils. The
Nihongi narrates the following account of the creation of the three-great kami of the upper air:

“When Izanagi-no-Mikoto had returned (from the Lower World), he was seized with regret, and said, ‘Having gone to
Nay! A hideous and filthy place, it is meet that I should cleanse my body from its pollutions.” He accordingly went to the
plain of Ahagi at Tachibana in Wodo in Hiuga of Tsukushi, and purified himself...Thereafter a Deity was produced by his
washing his left eye, which was called Amaterasu-no-Oho-Kami. Then he washed his right eye, producing thereby a Deity
who was called Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto. Then he washed his nose, producing thereby a God who was called Susa-no-Wo-
no-Mikoto. In all, there were three Deities. Then Izanagi-no-Mikoto gave charge to his three children, saying, “Do thou,
Amaterasu-no-Oho-Kami, rule the plain of High Heaven; do thou, Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto, rule the eight-hundred-fold tides
of the ocean plain; do thou, Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto, rule the world.” (Holtom 1965) Amaterasu-Omikami, who is
believed to have come from the left eye of the sky god Izanagi, is considered the sun goddess and the ancestor of the
Japanese imperial family, with Emperor Jimmu Tenno, Amaterasu’s great grandson, as the first emperor of Japan.
Amaterasu exhibited great virtue and ruled over Takama-ga-Hara while Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto performed evil deeds and
was later driven out and went down to Izumo, where he subdued the rebels and gained possession of the sword, which
he presented to Amaterasu, the Great Deity. He had a child named Okuni-Nushi-no-Mikoto, who succeeded him as the
ruler of Izumo and, with the help of SukunaHikona-no-Kami, ordered the cultivation of the land, suppressed the rebels
and taught the knowledge of medicine, making him popular in the land. The myth further narrates that just when
Amaterasu was about to make her grandson the ruler of Japan, she instructed Okuni to give up the land, to which he
obeyed and preferred to retire in the palace of Kidzuki, where he was later enshrined, thus beginning the Great Shrine of
Izumo. Afterwards, Amaterasu gave an imperial command to her grandson, Ninigino-Mikoto, saying that her descendants
should reign in the land of Japan, and that she has chosen Ninigino to rule over the land. She conferred on him the Yata
mirror, the Clustering-clouds sword, and the Yasaka curved jewels, which are called the “Three Sacred Treasures.” And so
Ninigino descended upon the land which is now called Japan, with his son Hiko-Hoho-Demi-no-Mikomoto, and his
grandson, Ugaya-Fuki-Ahezu-no-Mikoto, and for three generations made Hyuga their capital. The first emperor of Japan,
Jimmu Tenno, was the son of Ugaya (Holtom 1965).
After the prehistoric period, the kami living in some places were gradually associated with local ruling clans, also known
as uji, thus taking the name ujigami. A clan from the Yamato region claimed that they have descended from Amaterasu,
and that family was then recognized as the imperial household of Japan and cornerstone of Japanese nationhood. From
then on, indigenous festivals and ceremonies became inseparable from government affairs especially with the
emergence of the unified nation-state. These festivitiesbecame known as matsurigoto (affairs of religious festivals) but
retained its meaning to refer to “government” today. The term “Shinto” came from “Shentao/Shendao”, shen means
divine beings or kami and dao means “the way,” hence Shintoism means “the way of the kami.” The term first appeared
in the Nihongi and Kojiki (or probably much earlier). It was used in order to help distinguish kami-no-michi (the Japanese
Way of the Gods), from Butsudo (Buddha-Tao). This took place during the 6th century, with the introduction of
Buddhism. It was a period when there was a coexistence of the interests in foreign bodhisattva with the indigenous
family of kami. In fact, kami was seen as transformations of Buddha manifested in Japan to save all sentient beings (this
signifies the fusion of Buddhism and Shinto). Shinto persisted even when Buddhism and Confucianism were introduced,
spread, and became a major religion/philosophy in Japan. During the reign of Prince Shotoku (574-622), Buddhism was
promoted in Japan, but it never saw a total conversion of the Japanese people from Shintoism to Buddhism, instead
Buddhism was gradually absorbed and mixed with local folk religions, mainly Shintoism. The fusion can be seen, for
example, in certain Shinto gods being regarded as protectors of Buddha. Another manifestation was the formation of
temples next to shrines, called temple shrines or jingo-ji. During the Meiji Restoration, Shintoism was organized and
became completely separated with Buddhism, which was banned and reorganized. It was then when Shintoism became
the official state religion. It was during this period when the Japanese people were compelled to participate in Shinto
ceremonies as a manifestation of patriotism. It was only abolished as a state religion after the defeat of Japan in 1945,
but followers of this religion continued to increase, with the total number of its adherents amounting to 80 million
(Brown 1994).

SACRED SCRIPTURES

The Kojiki and Nihongi are considered as sacred scriptures on Shinto, although they are not exclusively about Shinto; they
also contain extensive information on Buddhism and Confucianism. These books, which are compilations of ancient
myths and traditional teachings, are considered to have a dual purpose: a political as well as a moral purpose. Its political
purpose is to establish the supremacy of Japan over all countries in the world by legitimizing the divine authority of the
ruling families and to establish the political supremacy of the Yamato. Its moral purpose is to explain the relationship
between the kami and human beings by establishing that the Japanese are a special people chosen by the kami, who
have many humanlike characteristics. It also emphasizes purification as both a creative and cleansing act. Death is
considered as the ultimate impurity.

Kojiki

As one of the most important texts on Shintoism, Kojiki is composed of three books: the first is the age of kami, which
narrates the mythology, while the second and third books discuss the imperial lineage, narrating the events concerning
the imperial family up to the death of the thirty-third ruler, Empress Suiko. The third book is concerned mainly with
revolts and love stories of successive rulers intertwined in a song-story format. After providing rich information about
what transpired up to the reign of Emperor Kenzo, genealogy of each imperial family was discussed. The establishment
of the three orders are reflected in the three books: the establishment of the order of the universe, the establishment of
the order of humanity, and the establishment of the order of history. Even though it was written at the onset of the
spread of Buddhism in Japan and despite the fact that Emperor Genmei, to whom the Kojiki was presented, was a
Buddhist, there was no mention of Buddhism in the Kojiki. It just goes to show that Kojiki is based on the eternal and
cyclical world of mythology.
Nihon shoki/Nihongi

Meanwhile, the Nihon shoki or Nihongi records the descent of the Yamato rulers of Japan from the gods. It represents a
combination of a political purpose with folklores and myths. It is believed to have been completed around 720 C.E. and
have become significant in the restructuring of Japan by the Yamato rulers, even in the naming of the country as Nippon.
It was presented to the court during the reign of Emperor Gensho and is considered as Japan’s first official history which
was completed after 39 years and compiled by Jimmu Tenno’s third son, Prince Toneri, along with numerous bureaucrats
and historians. It is composed of 30 books, the first two of which discuss the “age of the kami” while the remaining books
chronicle the events pertaining to the rulers up to the 41st emperor.

The stories in the Kojiki and Nihongi provide the Japanese people with a sense of pride, for these scriptures narrate how
their rulers were descended from the gods, and how their race was descended from the gods as well. Some would even
interpret that the whole of humanity descended from the two deities (Izanagi and Izanami), thereby creating a sense of
superiority among the Japanese people. We can also see in the creation story the concept of dualism in Shinto, as shown
by Izanagi as the sky god, and Izanami as the earth mother, as well as with Amaterasu as the benevolent child and her
brother Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto as performing evil acts. The political legitimacy this myth provides the ruling families of
Japan as well as the sense of pride it provides the Japanese people have made the Japanese people develop a strong
sense of nationalism.

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

Unlike other religions, Shintoism has no weekly service; instead, people visit shrines at their own convenience.

Shinto Rites of Passage

Below are the rites of passage observed by the Shintoists from birth to death:

1. Hatsumiyamairi(First Shrine Visit). Newborn children are taken to the shrine to seek protection from the kami;
traditionally, the newborn is taken by the grandmother because the mother is deemed impure from childbirth; the ritual
takes place on the second day after birth for a boy, and third day for a girl;

2. Shichi-go-san (Seven-Five-Three). Festival observed every 15th of November by boys of five years and girls of three
and seven years of age, who visit the shrine to give thanks for the protection provided by the kami and to ask for their
healthy growth;

3. Adult’s Day (Seijin Shiki). Observed every 15th of January by the Japanese who had their 20th birthday the previous
year by visiting the shrine to express gratitude to the kami (20 being the legal age of adulthood in Japan)

4. Wedding Rites. Patterned after the wedding of Crown Prince Yoshihito and Princess Sado in 1900;

5. Funeral rites. Since death is considered impure, most Japanese funerals are Buddhist in nature; Shintoism’s funeral
practices are called sosai.

TYPES OF WORSHIP

There are various ways by which Shintoists worship kami. They may worship at home, at Shinto shrines, and during
seasonal festivals. Let us take a look at each of these categories:
At Home (kamidana)Shintoists often place a small altar (“kami shelf”) inside their houses and this is where they perform
the the following rituals: purification; offertory; clapping their hands to the kami (who, they believe, could see and hear
what they are doing); and offering of prayers.

At Shinto Shrine Also called ceremonial worship, this includes a visit to a Shinto shrine which detaches a worshipper
from his or her ordinary environment. In this type of worship, trees in Shinto shrines, particularly the oldest and most
revered ones, have ropes tied to them to signify reverence to the presence of kami. Shrine visits usually take the
following steps: first, one is advised to behave respectfully and calmly (there are prohibitions for the sick, wounded, or in
mourning from visiting shrines because these people are considered impure). Take the ladle at the purification fountain,
rinse both hands then transfer some water to rinse one’s mouth, then spit the water beside the fountain (one should not
transfer the water directly from the ladle to the mouth or swallow the water). Then throw a coin at the offering box upon
entering the offering hall, bow deeply twice, then clap hands twice, bow deeply again, use the gong, and pray for a while.
It is believed that using the gong before praying attracts the attention of the kami.

Magical Charms and Amulets Aside from worshipping the kami at the shrines, one of the main attractions at the shrines
is the sale and distribution of charms or amulets. Shintoists believe that these amulets provide protection and can even
be a source of magic. They often carry personal amulets and their homes are guarded by magical charms in the form of
lintel placards or different talismanic symbols placed on the altars for their deities.

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

Summary

• For Shintoism, human beings need to ensure that they continue to become part of the natural world, which is
considered sacred; human nature is pure and in the natural state of existence, and people need to continuously purify
themselves through rituals so as to maintain this purity.

• The goal of every human being is to become part of the natural realm through purification rites. • There is no clear-cut
distinction between good and evil in Shintoism, but there are things which are associated with impurity such as blood
and death; thus, it is necessary to perform the appropriate rituals to purify oneself from these things which are
considered impure.

• As long as people worship the kami, they are protected and provided for by the kami; not performing the necessary
rituals that will appease the kami will certainly not earn the favor of the spirits.

• Living a healthy and bountiful life is more important than the concept of what will happen in the afterlife; hence,
Shintoism prefers that people live a healthy and prosperous life here on earth than be concerned with the afterlife.

• There is no clear concept of heaven and hell; there is mention, however, of another world which is inhabited by the
kami; and there is another world connected to the burial of the dead.

• Shintoism is primarily concerned with humanity’s life on earth than on the afterlife.

19 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CONFUCIANISM, DAOISM & SHINTOISM

IV. LESSON PROPER

ORIGIN

Confucianism may have started during the time of Kung Fuzi, but his ideas became popular only after his death,
with the initiatives of Mengzi, and later of Xunzi, who were among those who contributed their own ideas to
Confucianism on concepts such as human nature, morality, politics and government. It initially started as a philosophy
that would provide a solution to China’s chaotic society during the Zhou dynasty, but later it became a religion as well,
although its main contribution to China lies in its ethical and moral dimensions. However, it was not until the reign of the
Han dynasty during the 3rd century B.C.E. that Confucianism secured a very significant place in Chinese society. With the
initiative of Dong Zhongshu, Confucianism was adopted by the Han dynasty as an instrument for its political legitimacy.
Confucian thought became mandatory for it served as the basis for civil service examinations, hence those who wanted
to serve in the government should be wellversed with Confucianism, and in effect Confucianism became the official
religion/philosophy of the state. “Without Kongzi, there would be no Confucianism; but without Dong, there would be
no Confucianism as it has been known for the past 2,000 years.” Thus, when Confucianism was adopted by the Han
dynasty, it served as the basis not only of China’s political and ethical system; but also, of China’s social system as well.
Just like Confucianism, Daoism also started in China at almost the same period when Confucianism developed. Like
Confucianism, it was also meant to offer solutions to China’s social upheavals during the time. Laozi, who is considered as
Daoism’s prominent philosopher, authored Daoism’s sacred scripture, the Dao De Jing (believed by some as a reaction to
Confucianism). While Confucianism accepted the importance of rituals and ancestor worship for the achievement of
harmony between heaven and earth, Daoism believed that nature should be allowed to take its natural course for the
attainment of social order. Confucianism and Daoism may have flourished at the same period and may have faced the
same obstacles in society, but their solutions for the achievement of harmony between heaven and earth differ, with
Confucianism emphasizing the need for a strict ethical control and with Daoism advocating the “go with the flow”
attitude. While Confucianism became extremely relevant in Chinese society when it was adopted by the Han dynasty,
Daoism’s importance began upon the collection of writings of unknown origin during the 3rd or 4th centuries B.C.E. This
collection of writings became known as the Dao De Jing, a compilation of several hundred years of writings about the
Dao (the way) and De (virtue). Later it was attributed to Laozi, who was among those, together with Kung Fuzi and other
scholars, who participated in the “hundred schools” debates during the Warring States period. Zhuangzi was another
major contributor to Daoism by writing a book which also tackled the Dao. Despite the existence of these sacred
scriptures in the said period, it took many centuries before Daoism would secure its rightful place in China’s religious and
philosophical life.

Shintoism, which originated from Japan, is considered an animistic folk religion and its origin is hard to trace, but
what is clear is that it started as an indigenous religion with utmost importance given to spirits (or kami) in nature. Later
it was used by the imperial family to legitimize their rule and it was even declared as a state religion for a long time. It
emphasized the core values of family, tradition, nature, ancestors, purity, and ritual practices. With the spread of
Buddhism in Japan, it became linked with the new religion; thus, it is very common for many Shintoists to identify
themselves as Buddhists as well. Shintoism is believed to have provided the people with their daily needs while
Buddhism takes care of the afterlife.

MORALITY

In Confucianism, the concept of morality is based on loyalty to one’s superiors and elders, parents, and respect for
others. Proper ritual observance, including rituals performed for the ancestors, is also considered moral action, as well as
self-cultivation through wisdom and trustworthiness. Doing the right thing at all times is also considered meritorious.
Loyalty is also translated as “regard for others” (zhong), specifically loyalty to one’s superior but also includes respect to
one’s equals and subordinates. The importance of self-reflection is also emphasized, with the Golden Rule as the guiding
principle, “Do not do unto others what you do not want others do unto you.” From this self-reflection comes the need to
express concern for others, and eventually the attainment of social order. From self-reflection comes self-cultivation, or
the need to cultivate oneself through wisdom. Maximizing ren (concern for others) by performing the necessary rituals
(li) would lead to de (virtue) and would produce the ideal person according to Confucianism. The cultivation of oneself
would eventually lead not only to personal cultivation but to social and even cosmic cultivation as well. While
Confucianism had very few moral guidelines, Daoism initially advocated the idea that society should not be regulated
with morality, but should be allowed to exist according to the natural laws. Doing so would lead to virtuous behavior.
Later on, Daoist masters advocated the idea that one should perform good deeds that would be known only to the gods.
Gradually, they started to regulate morality by confessing one’s sins and ask for forgiveness from the gods. Austerity and
self-discipline were also emphasized, until in the 4th century C.E., the text containing 180 moral guidelines appeared,
which listed moral guidelines attributed to Laozi and were clearly influenced by Buddhism. Included in the guidelines
were the prohibition on stealing, adultery, abortion, murder, intoxication, and overindulgence. More developed moral
guidelines appeared in the 5th century with the introduction of the Lingbao scriptures, which was heavily influenced by
Buddhism. Some of its important guidelines were the prohibitions against killing, lying, stealing, intoxication, immoral
deeds and actions, as well as maintaining good relationship with one’s family members (even with the dead ancestors),
committing good deeds, helping the less fortunate, and avoiding thoughts of revenge.

Unlike other religions, Shinto morality is not based on definite standards of right and wrong. Since Shintoism is
focused on following the will of the kami or spirits, anything that is not in accordance with the will of the kami is
considered bad. Shintoism has provided the Japanese with a way of life that revolves around the worship of the kami,
while Confucianism from China provided them with ethics. Hence, Shinto morality is based on having purity not only in
the physical sense but also in a spiritual and moral sense. Human nature is basically good according to Shintoism, hence
evil comes from external forces. And when people let evil guide their actions, they bring upon themselves impurities and
sin which need to be cleansed through rituals. Impurities also disrupt the flow of life and the blessings from the kami
that is why purification rituals are needed to be able to return to the natural state of cleanliness not only of the people
but of the universe as a whole. In general, things which are considered bad in Shintoism involve disrupting the social
order, the natural world, the harmony of the world.

PURPOSE

The three Daoic religions basically share the same view regarding the purpose of existence. Confucianism and
Daoism both espouse the importance of selfcultivation for the benefit of all while Shintoism emphasizes the need to
return to the original state of nature by observing purity in everyday life. Confucianism advocates the idea that the
ultimate goal of everyone should be to reach one’s highest potential as a person, and this can be achieved through self-
cultivation. To become virtuous, one should be mindful of all the senses (sight, hearing, speech, and action) and make
sure that every action, thought, and feeling should be in accordance with li (ritual). For Kung Fuzi, the ideal person is
called a junzi, a person who exemplifies the quality of ren or concern for fellow human beings and manifests the quality
of yi or righteousness. Mengzi shares the same belief: that human nature is basically good but still needs cultivation
through the proper observance of li (ritual) and meditative practices to ensure the smooth flow of the qi (vital energy).
He also believed that what makes us human is our feeling of sympathy for others’ suffering, but what makes us virtuous
is our cultivation of this inner potential. While Xunzi believed otherwise—that human nature is essentially bad—he also
believed that this can be reformed through self-cultivation and also through the proper observance of li or rituals, an
idea also espoused by Kung Fuzi and Mengzi. As for Daoism, the purpose of existence is to ensure that order and
harmony are maintained by being aligned with nature. Thus, like in Confucianism, selfcultivation is also needed because
it is the only way to return to the natural state of existence. The goal of every person is to make the body capable of
reacting in a natural and spontaneous way. Doing physical exercises may help the body achieve that goal. Since
spontaneity is meant only for the immortals, common people should instead aim for a long and healthy life. Activities
such as gymnastics, breathing exercises, dietary restrictions, drinking talisman water, and certain sexual practices can
help achieve longevity and body wellness. It is also important to make sure that there is proper alignment or balance
within the body, otherwise illness will occur. That is why acupuncture is very important among the Chinese, for it helps
adjust the flow of qi and tends to balance yin and yang. They also believe that the body is inhabited by the gods, and that
organs are governed by the gods, that is why it is necessary to perform the necessary rituals that are meant to welcome
the gods to enter the body. Daoists also believe that one way to become a mortal is by merging the yin and yang within,
leading to the creation of an embryo even among males (Daoists believe that Laozi was able to achieve this). Thus, in
Daoism, to ensure that the body functions well are very important since what happens to the body is reflected outside,
so that the purpose of existence is to cultivate the self in the physical, mental, spiritual, and emotional aspects so that
harmony and order will prevail. Shinto shares with Daoism the belief that the natural state of existence should be
maintained. While Daoism and Confucianism both emphasized the importance of self-cultivation to achieve this goal,
Shintoism emphasized the importance of purification rituals to maintain the natural state of existence. Hence, avoidance
of pollution or anything that they consider impure (death, blood, or disease) is seen as a way to maintain purity. Pollution
is inevitable but can be washed away by misogi or purification rituals. In Shintoism, maintaining the pure and natural
state of existence is the purpose of life, and one should start with oneself.

DESTINY

For Confucianism, reality has two spheres: the inner sphere and the outer sphere. Destiny (or ming) is considered
the outer reality which is outside the control and concern of people. Self-cultivation should be the goal of everyone, thus
the focus should be on the inner sphere—the cultivation of oneself— for what happens inside reflects what happens
outside. A descriptive interpretation of ming sees destiny as a distant force beyond human control. Meanwhile, a
normative interpretation of ming sees destiny as basically the same with the concept of yi (duty): everything is being
willed by heaven and people should follow the will of heaven not out of fate but as a way of performing the duties
assigned to them as individuals (Slingerland 1996). Among all Daoic religions, Daoism is often criticized for espousing a
fatalistic attitude in life, with emphasis on wuwei, often translated as “non-doing” or “non-action.” This is interpreted by
critics as a proof that Daoism encourages people to live by leaving everything to the universe and not taking action at all.
An analysis of the Daoist concept of destiny, however, would reveal that just like in Confucianism, “non-action” does not
mean not taking any action at all. Instead, self-cultivation is also needed so that one may develop oneself to the extent
that one’s actions are naturally in accordance with the flow of the universe. Thus, destiny or fate can only be achieved
when one has cultivated oneself to the highest potential that one’s actions go effortlessly with the way of the universe.

Shintoism advocates the idea that every person has a destiny to follow, a mission to fulfill which will make one’s
life worthwhile. However, not everyone is able to realize his or her destiny or mission, for it is impossible to discover
destiny when one has lost natural purity. Thus, misogi or purification is important to regain the natural purity one once
had. Only when one is truly purified can one discover his or her mission in life. Shintoism believes that humanity’s
natural greatness can only be achieved by returning oneself to the state of natural purity. Just like in Confucianism and
Daoism, what happens in heaven should reflect the affairs of human beings, hence in Shintoism, humans are affected by
the pattern of the universe, specifically under the guidance of the sun, moon, and stars. Thus, performing the necessary
rituals at the shrines will help people purify themselves and unfold the destiny they are meant to fulfill.
Summary

• All three Daoic religions originated in East Asia—with Confucianism and Daoism originating in China during the Warring
States period while Shinto started as an indigenous religion of Japan. Confucianism and Daoism started as attempts by
philosophers Kung Fuzi and Laozi to bring order to the chaos happening during the Warring States period in China, while
Shinto started as a religion focusing on the worship of kami or spirits that were seen as the source of prosperity,
especially in the sphere of agriculture.

• Unlike other religions, the three Daoic religions discussed in this chapter have no strict set of moral guidelines to
follow. In Confucianism, morality is based on loyalty, ritual observance, and self-cultivation; in Daoism, imposition of
ethics was initially discouraged for it would hinder humanity from being in harmony with nature, but later Buddhism had
influenced Daoism with its moral dimension. In Shinto, anything that goes against the observance of purity is considered
evil. • All three Daoic religions consider the harmony between heaven and earth as the ultimate goal, since they all
believe that what happens in heaven should be reflected on earth. Thus, self-cultivation, for Confucianism and Daoism, is
important for one can reach one’s highest potential only by cultivating oneself for the common good. Shintoism
emphasizes purity of oneself to maintain the natural state which can bring harmony and order in society.

• Destiny, according to Confucianism and Daoism, lies in one’s cultivation of the self in order to achieve a harmonious
society. In Shintoism, everyone has a destiny to fulfill, but only purity would make one capable of realizing his or her
mission in life.

• Among the three Daoic religions, Daoism is considered as having the most positive view of women, with the idea of
balancing the feminine and masculine qualities in everyone to balance the yin and yang and allow the smooth flow of qi.
Confucianism, with its emphasis on hierarchy, prioritizes men over women in all aspects. Shintoism initially had a high
regard for women, but historical developments led to the diminishing status of women in religion and society