Arellano University

Jose Abad Santos Campus

GCAS 06 PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

LESSON 1

TOPIC: 1. Communication Processes

Lesson Learning Outcomes: At the end of the learning engagement you should
be able to:

1. identify and explain the forms and models of communication along with
the causes of communication failure.
2. compare and contrast verbal and nonverbal communication.
3. participate in activities to enhance communicative competence
4. appreciate the value of understanding the process of communication

What is Communication?

Communication can be defined as a process by which information, meanings and

feelings are shared by persons through a common system of verbal and nonverbal
symbols, signs or behavior.

As a process, communication is characterized as:

1. dynamic- it is constantly changing because it relies on human perception that

can change overtime; therefore, it is irreversible and unrepeatable.
2. continuous- it is an ongoing exchange of meaning, sharing behaviors
between/among individuals who operate within a frame of experience; it does not
have a beginning, an end, a fixed sequence of events.
3. adaptive- it adjusts to the changes that occur in its physical and psychological
environment.
4. systemic- it involves components that are interrelated and interacting in cyclic
order; and
5. transactional- every communication is a unique combination of people,
messages and events; it consist of unending sharing (transmission and
reception) of messages between/among people on some occasion.

Forms of Communication

1. Intrapersonal Communication is talking to oneself (self-talk) through internal

vocalization or reflective due to some internal or external stimulus. In other
words, this type of communication takes place within the person.
2. Interpersonal Communication- it is a form of communication wherein
individuals are engaged actively in the overt and covert transmission and
reception of messages.

a. Dyadic Communication- is a two-person communication such

as telephone conversation, job interview and doctor-patient
conversation.
b. Small Group Communication- ideally consists of three to six
persons such as committee meeting, buzz session and
brainstorming activity.

3. Public Communication- is conveying information to a large audience. It is more

sender-focused than intrapersonal and interpersonal forms of communication.

a. Speaker-Audience Communication – is talking to a large

number of people who gathered for some occasion. The
speaker centers the communication event on the audience. He
analyzes the audience to determine the content, language use
and listeners expectations. Effective communication occurs
because the speaker can tailor message to the needs of the
listeners.
b. Mass Communication – is the “process whereby media
organizations produce and transmit messages to large publics
and the process by which those messages are sought, used,
understood and influenced by audience” (Littlejohn and Foss,
2011)
Models of Communication

1. Transmission Model considers communication as a one-directional exchange in

which the message is purposely conveyed by a speaker to a listener (Ellis &
McClintock 1990). This model centers on the sender and information present in a
communication environment. Despite the inclusion of the receiver in this
communication model, this function is regarded merely as target or destination
and not a part of a continuous exchange of meanings. Therefore, communication
is considered simply as source and destination of messages.

Sender Message
Channel Receiver

2. Interaction Model describes communication as a process in which

communicators change roles as sender and receiver and produce meaning by
exchanging messages within their own environment and experiences (Schramm,
1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, unidirectional method,
the interaction model incorporates feedback that makes communication
significantly collaborative, two-way method. Feedback is conveyed as a response
to received messages. From this standpoint, communication can be described as
producing exchanges of meanings within physical and behavioral setting.
The interaction model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical
context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size,
layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the
different physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect
your communication. I have had job interviews on a sofa in a comfortable office, sitting
around a large conference table, and even once in an auditorium where I was
positioned on the stage facing about twenty potential colleagues seated in the audience.
I’ve also been walked around campus to interview with various people in temperatures
below zero degrees. Although I was a little chilly when I got to each separate interview,
it wasn’t too difficult to warm up and go on with the interview. During a job interview in
Puerto Rico, however, walking around outside wearing a suit in near 90 degree
temperatures created a sweating situation that wasn’t pleasant to try to communicate
through. Whether it’s the size of the room, the temperature, or other environmental
factors, it’s important to consider the role that physical context plays in our
communication.

Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication

encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological
influences that can affect our communication. I recently found out some troubling news
a few hours before a big public presentation. It was challenging to try to communicate
because the psychological noise triggered by the stressful news kept intruding into my
other thoughts. Seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing the emotion
of love, can also affect communication. During the initial stages of a romantic
relationship individuals may be so “love struck” that they don’t see incompatible
personality traits or don’t negatively evaluate behaviors they might otherwise find off-
putting. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful illustration
of the communication process, but the transaction model views communication as a
powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual communication encounters.

3. Transaction Model of Communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of

the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a
process that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send
messages like computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender
and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop
communicating, because communication is more than sending and receiving messages.
The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models in significant
ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver,
and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).
To review, each model incorporates a different understanding of what communication is
and what communication does. The transmission model views communication as a
thing, like an information packet, that is sent from one place to another. From this view,
communication is defined as sending and receiving messages. The interaction model
views communication as an interaction in which a message is sent and then followed by
a reaction (feedback), which is then followed by another reaction, and so on. From this
view, communication is defined as producing conversations and interactions within
physical and psychological contexts. The transaction model views communication as
integrated into our social realities in such a way that it helps us not only understand
them but also create and change them.

The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in

which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural
contexts. In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we
communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-
concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities. In short, we don’t
communicate about our realities; communication helps to construct our realities.

The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ
significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and
receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators.
Unlike the interaction model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as
sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously
senders and receivers. For example, on a first date, as you send verbal messages
about your interests and background, your date reacts nonverbally. You don’t wait until
you are done sending your verbal message to start receiving and decoding the
nonverbal messages of your date. Instead, you are simultaneously sending your verbal
message and receiving your date’s nonverbal messages. This is an important addition
to the model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our
communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on
the communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.
Figure 1.3 The Transaction Model of Communication

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The
interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that
enhance or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on
message transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication
views communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific
interactions occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single
interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social, relational, and
cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.

Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication.
As we are socialized into our various communities, we learn rules and implicitly pick up
on norms for communicating. Some common rules that influence social contexts include
don’t lie to people, don’t interrupt people, don’t pass people in line, greet people when
they greet you, thank people when they pay you a compliment, and so on. Parents and
teachers often explicitly convey these rules to their children or students. Rules may be
stated over and over, and there may be punishment for not following them.

Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial
and error. We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people
looking at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. For example, as a new
employee you may over- or under dress for the company’s holiday party because you
don’t know the norm for formality. Although there probably isn’t a stated rule about how
to dress at the holiday party, you will notice your error without someone having to point
it out, and you will likely not deviate from the norm again in order to save yourself any
potential embarrassment. Even though breaking social norms doesn’t result in the
formal punishment that might be a consequence of breaking a social rule, the social
awkwardness we feel when we violate social norms is usually enough to teach us that
these norms are powerful even though they aren’t made explicit like rules. Norms even
have the power to override social rules in some situations. To go back to the examples
of common social rules mentioned before, we may break the rule about not lying if the
lie is meant to save someone from feeling hurt. We often interrupt close friends when
we’re having an exciting conversation, but we wouldn’t be as likely to interrupt a
professor while they are lecturing. Since norms and rules vary among people and
cultures, relational and cultural contexts are also included in the transaction model in
order to help us understand the multiple contexts that influence our communication.

Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship
we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus
someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more
highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an
established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules
more easily. For example, you would likely follow social norms of politeness and
attentiveness and might spend the whole day cleaning the house for the first time you
invite your new neighbors to visit. Once the neighbors are in your house, you may also
make them the center of your attention during their visit. If you end up becoming friends
with your neighbors and establishing a relational context, you might not think as much
about having everything cleaned and prepared or even giving them your whole attention
during later visits. Since communication norms and rules also vary based on the type of
relationship people have, relationship type is also included in relational context. For
example, there are certain communication rules and norms that apply to a supervisor-
supervisee relationship that don’t apply to a brother-sister relationship and vice versa.
Just as social norms and relational history influence how we communicate, so does
culture.

Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. It is important for us to understand that
whether we are aware of it or not, we all have multiple cultural identities that influence
our communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been
historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities influence
their communication and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely,
people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about
the role their cultural identities play in their communication.

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Verbal communication can be defined as the exchange of ideas that occurs

through words. This can be both written and oral.

 Verbal communication allows individuals to exchange ideas, opinions, values and

suggestions, and creates an atmosphere where an individual can connect with
another.
 Verbal communication may take place face-to-face or through some media such
as the telephone.
 When a person engages in a conversation with a friend, this is verbal
communication because it allows them to use words to communicate with each
other. Through letters, various documents, memos, text messages, and bills,
people communicate with others. Both situations exemplify verbal communication
in oral and written form, respectively.
 Since words are man’s primary symbols, verbal communication creates a
condition where transferring information becomes very clear.

Nonverbal communication is wordless exchange of information, thoughts, feelings,

etc. between or among individuals.

 People communicate a lot nonverbally through intonation and stress, gross bodily
movements such as gestures and facial expressions, material things such as hair
style and jewelry, and touching, kissing and hugging.
 These nonverbal elements give deeper meaning and intention to words.
 Nonverbal signals can give clues and additional information and meaning over
and above verbal communication.
 Nonverbal signals are more vulnerable to misunderstanding.
 It includes the following types:
 (1) Paralanguage (Vocalics) refers to vocal qualities that go along with verbal
message, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers
(Andersen, 1999).
(2) Action Language (Kinesics) refers to gross bodily movements such as
walking and eating. It consists of (a) gesture, (b) facial expression, (c) eye
contact and (d) posture.
(3) Sign Language consists of body movements that are used as substitute for
letters, words, numbers, phrases and even sentences.
(4) Object Language (Objectics) refers to the intentional and unintentional
display of material things such as the clothes you wear, hair style, the
decoration of a room, jewelry, implements, machines, the human body, etc.
(5) Tactile Language (Haptics) is communication by touch such as a kiss, a tap
on the back. It is the most elementary mode of communication and the first an
infant experiences.
(6) Space/Distance (Proxemics) expresses certain types of messages. In
America, there are four primary distance zone: (a) intimate (b) personal (c)
social and (d) public distance.
(7) Time (Chronemics) refers to man’s use of time in sending certain types of
messages. Time as a form of nonverbal communication can be best
explained by the concept of punctuality, willingness to wait and interactions.
(8) Silence is lack of audible sound, or presence of sounds of very low intensity.
It can be best explained by the statement “What is not said is as important or
even more important than what is said.” Sometimes silence can communicate
better than any words.

Causes of Misunderstandings in Communication

1. Problem in developing the message

a. Indecision about the message content

b. Lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver
c. Emotional conflicts
d. Difficulty in expressing ideas

2. Problems in transmitting the message

3. Problems in receiving the message
a. Physical distraction
b. Lack of concentration

4. Problems in understanding the message

a. Different cultural background
b. Different interpretation of words
c. Different emotional reaction