Global Trends in Urbanization - 2020

The New
Urban Agenda
Copyright © United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) 2020
All rights reserved.
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat)
P.O. Box 30030 00100 Nairobi GPO Kenya

www.unhabitat.org
HS Number: HS/035/20E
ISBN Number:(Volume) 978-92-1-132869-1
DISCLAIMER
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this report do not imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries, or regarding its economic system or degree of development. The views expressed in
this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme or its
Executive Board.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Concept and coordination:
Claudio Acioly, Raphaelle Vignol, Asa Jonsson
Chapters 1 and 2, Lead author: Rana Amirtahmasebi

Chapter 3, Lead authors: Zuzana Vuova, Emily Olivia Fox
Content contributors:
Anne Amin, Gianluca Crispi, Pankti Dalal, Rafael Forero, Rebecca Hui, Christophe Lalande, Lynne Karago,
Wataru Kawasaki, Francesca Lionetti, Marcus Mayr, Angela Mwai, Samuel Njuguna, Stephanie Loose,
Laura Petrella, Saritha Ramakrishna, Thomaz Ramalho, Andrew Rudd, Remy Sietchiping, Fay Strongin,
Vidar Vasko, Raphaelle Vignol, Xin Quan Zhang.
Layout and infographic design:

Austin Ogola
Sera Tolgay
The New Urban Agenda Illustrated
Contents Foreword............................................................................................... viii

Introduction......................................................................................... x
Final words........................................................................................... 155
Glossary................................................................................................. 157
References............................................................................................ 163
© Eduardo Feuerhake
01
The core dimensions
of the New Urban
Agenda transformative
commitments
1.1 Social sustainability...............................2
1.1.1 Empowerment of marginalized groups................... 3

1.1.2 Gender equality................................................................... 5
1.1.3 Planning for migrants, ethnic minorities
and persons with disabilities......................................... 11
1.1.4 Age-responsive planning................................................. 14
1.2 Economic sustainability........................19
1.2.1 Job creation and livelihoods......................................... 20

1.2.2 Productivity and competitiveness.............................. 23
1.3 Environmental sustainability..............28
1.3.1 Biodiversity and ecosystem conservation.............. 29

1.3.2 Resilience and adaptation to climate change...... 33
1.3.3 Climate change mitigation............................................ 41
1.4 Spatial sustainability.............................45
1.4.1 Spatial sustainability and equity................................ 47

1.4.2 Spatial sustainability and urban density................ 48
iv | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

02 03
Means of Monitoring and
implementation reporting
2.1 Intervention mechanisms....................56 3.1 Global governance and

means of implementation...................134
2.1.1 National urban policies.................................................... 58
2.1.2 Land policies......................................................................... 61 3.1.1 Global governance............................................................. 134
2.1.3 Housing and slum upgrading policies...................... 67 3.1.2 Mobilization of financial resources............................ 135
2.1.4 Urban legislation and regulations.............................. 73 3.1.3 Capacity development, knowledge
2.1.5 Urban design........................................................................ 78 exchange and partnerships........................................... 137
2.1.6 Municipal finance................................................................ 81
2.1.7 Urban governance............................................................. 86
3.2 The New Urban Agenda and the
2.2 Hard measures for infrastructure urban dimensions of the SDGs.........140
and services...............................................92
2.2.1 Transport and mobility..................................................... 92 3.3 Monitoring and reporting....................144

2.2.2 Energy...................................................................................... 98
2.2.3 Solid waste............................................................................. 101
2.2.4 Water and sanitation........................................................ 106 3.3.1 Guidelines for reporting.................................................. 145
3.3.2 Monitoring framework...................................................... 146
3.3.3 Urban Agenda online Platform.................................... 149
2.3 Soft measures............................................111
3.4 UN-Habitat’s role in driving
2.3.1 Culture...................................................................................... 111
2.3.2 Education................................................................................ 116
the New Urban Agenda........................150
2.3.3 Health........................................................................................ 117
2.3.4 Urban safety.......................................................................... 121 3.4.1 UN-Habitat Assembly and
governance structure........................................................ 150
2.4 Technology and innovation................124 3.4.2 The World Urban Forum................................................. 153
2.4.1 Technology............................................................................. 126

2.4.2 Transportation...................................................................... 126
2.4.3 Construction and building technology..................... 127
2.4.4 Mapping and spatial data............................................... 128
The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | v

Contents
Tables
Table 1. Cost of incorporating a new residential unit in the city centre versus periphery..................................................................50
Table 2. Summary of land value capture tools.................................................................................................................................................66
Table 3. Nexus between SDG 11, other SDGs and the New Urban Agenda................................................................................................142
Boxes
Box 1. How are cities expanding in different parts of the world?............................................................................................................xiv
Box 2. The structure of the New Urban Agenda............................................................................................................................................xvi
Box 3. Metro Toronto’s changing communities: Innovative responses ..................................................................................................14
Box 4. Hong Kong’s age-friendly urban policies ..........................................................................................................................................18
Box 5. The Aichi Targets .......................................................................................................................................................................................31
Box 6. Participatory Resilience Planning–Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique and Comoros (2010-ongoing)............................40
Box 7. Cape Coast metropolis in Ghana is sprawling ..................................................................................................................................49
Box 8. Building the city from the inside out: repopulation of Santiago, Chile......................................................................................50
Box 9. Spatial capital and prosperity of Wuhan...........................................................................................................................................54
Box 10. The use of betterment levies in Colombia .........................................................................................................................................61
Box 11. The community mortgage programme in the Philippines ............................................................................................................69
Box 12. Flexible land tenure law in Namibia......................................................................................................................................................76
Box 13. Singapore’s master plan 2003 – the blueprint for development ...............................................................................................81
Box 14. Global examples of intergovernmental transfers ..........................................................................................................................83
Box 15. Inspiring practices on metropolitan governance from around the world................................................................................89
Box 16. Participatory budgeting in India (city of Pune).................................................................................................................................90
Box 17. Salvagers in the waste management process: Odi Mortele region, South Africa .................................................................104
Box 18. European Union project WASSER – Water and Sanitation for Settlements in Eastern Sri Lanka ....................................108
Box 19. Shijiazhuang ecological wetland for safe drinking water, China ...............................................................................................110
Box 20. Cities without hunger – community gardens in São Paulo, Brazil ..............................................................................................120
Box 21. Housing information and mapping system in São Paulo, Brazil .................................................................................................129
Box 22. Interlinked global agendas ....................................................................................................................................................................135
Box 23. Main features of the Urban Agenda Platform .................................................................................................................................149
Diagrams
Diagram 1. Contents of the New Urban Agenda....................................................................................................................................................xviii
Diagram 2. Empowerment of marginalized groups...............................................................................................................................................4
Diagram 3. Gender equality..........................................................................................................................................................................................6
Diagram 4. Planning for migrants, ethnic minorities, and persons with disabilities ...................................................................................12
Diagram 5. Age-responsive planning ........................................................................................................................................................................16
Diagram 6. Job creation and livelihoods .................................................................................................................................................................21
Diagram 7. Productivity and competitiveness .......................................................................................................................................................25
Diagram 8. Biodiversity and ecosystem conservation.........................................................................................................................................30
Diagram 9. Resilience and adaptation to climate change ..................................................................................................................................35
Diagram 10. Climate change mitigation......................................................................................................................................................................42
Diagram 11. Spatial sustainability................................................................................................................................................................................46
Diagram 12. Intervention mechanisms........................................................................................................................................................................57
Diagram 13. National urban policies............................................................................................................................................................................59
Diagram 14. Land policies................................................................................................................................................................................................62
Diagram 15. Housing and slum upgrading policies..................................................................................................................................................68
Diagram 16. Urban legislation and regulation..........................................................................................................................................................74
Diagram 17. Urban design...............................................................................................................................................................................................79
Diagram 18. Municipal finance.......................................................................................................................................................................................82
Diagram 19. Urban governance.....................................................................................................................................................................................87
Diagram 20. Transport and mobility............................................................................................................................................................................93
Diagram 21. Energy...........................................................................................................................................................................................................99
Diagram 22. Solid waste...................................................................................................................................................................................................102
Diagram 23. Water and sanitation................................................................................................................................................................................107
Diagram 24. Culture...........................................................................................................................................................................................................112
Diagram 25. Education......................................................................................................................................................................................................116
Diagram 26. Health............................................................................................................................................................................................................118
Diagram 27. Urban safety...............................................................................................................................................................................................122
Diagram 28. Technology and innovation.....................................................................................................................................................................125
vi | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

Figures
Figure 1. Stakeholders involved in the development of the New Urban Agenda.....................................................................................xi
Figure 2. A global snapshot of urbanization.......................................................................................................................................................xiii
Figure 3. False color image showing the presence of water in the irrigated landscape of the Jordan Valley...............................xv
Figure 4. New Urban Agenda word cloud.............................................................................................................................................................xvi
Figure 5. Aerial shot of a Syrian refugee camp in Kilis, Turkey, 2018...........................................................................................................2
Figure 6. A group of female students going to school in Goa, India............................................................................................................9
Figure 7. Public transport should be accessible for people with disabilities..............................................................................................13
Figure 8. Cities must be designed to accommodate older persons.............................................................................................................15
Figure 9. Women selling fruits in downtown Port-au-Prince, Haiti...............................................................................................................19
Figure 10. A woman making batik in Bali, Indonesia...........................................................................................................................................22
Figure 11. In Seoul, the re-creation of Cheonggyecheon stream....................................................................................................................29
Figure 12. Coastal erosion management, Criccieth, North Wales, UK...........................................................................................................33
Figure 13. In Ahmedabad, India, a wall along the river Sabarmati prevents floods and protects
the environment from degradation.....................................................................................................................................................34
Figure 14. Hurricane Katrina flooded New Orleans, USA (before and after)..............................................................................................37
Figure 15. Baltimore, USA. The Inner Harbor Water Wheel combines old and new technology............................................................43
Figure 16. High water supply pipeline density in higher class residential and industrial areas in Cape Coast, Ghana..................48
Figure 17. Settlement growth in Cape Coast, Ghana, 2010 (left) and 2018 (right). ...................................................................................49
Figure 18. A tale of two cities: Atlanta, USA and Barcelona, Spain................................................................................................................51
Figure 19. Images of Wuhan, China..........................................................................................................................................................................54
Figure 20. Slums in Medellin, Colombia...................................................................................................................................................................70
Figure 21. Villa 31 is an informal settlement located in the city of Buenos Aires,
Argentina, in the Recoleta and Retiro neighbourhoods.................................................................................................................71
Figure 22. In Singapore, different uses and typologies intertwine in a well-established master plan................................................78
Figure 23. Kop van Zuid in Rotterdam, Netherlands, was developed on a large
former port that had lost its function and was left abandoned.................................................................................................84
Figure 24: Residents of Mukuru informal settlement in Nairobi, Kenya, take part in
data verification during settlement profiling....................................................................................................................................88
Figure 25. People on board the Blue Ferry in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. .....................................................................................................92
Figure 26. Air pollution in Cairo, Egypt....................................................................................................................................................................94
Figure 27. Bus Rapit Transit (BRT) system in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania........................................................................................................95
Figure 28. A solid waste dumping site (left), waste segregation by waste pickers (right) in Cape Coast, Ghana............................103
Figure 29. Residents of Harar, Ethiopia, line up for water.................................................................................................................................105
Figure 30. Imam Square, Isfahan, Iran, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.......................................................................................................114
Figure 31. Venice, Italy, is surrounded by water. Innovative policies are needed to save
this historic city from the impacts of climate change. ..................................................................................................................132
Figure 32. Pillars of the effective implementation of the New Urban Agenda...........................................................................................134
Figure 33. Key global agendas post-2015...............................................................................................................................................................136
Figure 34. Mobilisation of financial resources.......................................................................................................................................................137
Figure 35. Capacity building ......................................................................................................................................................................................138
Figure 36. Visual representation of the key interlinkages between SDG 11 and other SDGs .................................................................140
Figure 37. SDGs featuring urban targets (excluding SDG 11) ...........................................................................................................................141
Figure 38. Timeline and objectives of the Quadrennial Reports (2018-2026) .............................................................................................144
Figure 39. Four elements supporting the reporting process ...........................................................................................................................145
Figure 40. Overview of consultative channels informing the Quadrennial Report to the Secretary General ..................................146
Figure 41. Overview of the New Urban Agenda implementation reporting procedure ..........................................................................147
Figure 42. UN-Habitat’s governance structure ....................................................................................................................................................151
Figure 43. Responsibilities of the UN-Habitat Assembly ...................................................................................................................................152
Figure 44. The objectives of the World Urban Forum ........................................................................................................................................153
Figure 45. Cities which have hosted the World Urban Forum ..........................................................................................................................154
The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | vii

Foreword
H.E. Maimunah Mohd Sharif

Executive Director
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, UN-Habitat
The New Urban Agenda gives clear guidance on The ‘New Urban Agenda Illustrated’ handbook
how well-planned and well-managed urbanization offers clear definitions and practical applications
can be a transformative force to accelerate towards to make the global framework more accessible
the Sustainable Development Goals. and user-friendly for policymakers and urban
practitioners, both within government, across the
It has inspired new solutions that make cities broad range of urban stakeholders and within the
key players in addressing the climate emergency, UN. We need a more hands-on approach to scale
managing migration flows, fighting pandemics and and accelerate our actions.
other global challenges. We are however not on
track to achieving the Sustainable Development The illustrated handbook complements the existing
Goals, including Goal 11 on “Making cities and text of the New Urban Agenda. It explains the
human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and core dimensions, messages and “transformative
sustainable”. commitments “and unpacks the text of the New
viii | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

“ The ‘New Urban Agenda Illustrated’ handbook
offers clear definitions and practical applications to
make the global framework more accessible and user-
friendly for policymakers and urban practitioners, both
within government, across the broad range of urban
stakeholders and within the UN. We need a more hands-
on approach to scale and accelerate our actions.
Urban Agenda, with examples, case studies, Secretary-General’s Quadrennial Reports on the
infographics and illustrative actions (strategies, progress on implementation of the New Urban
policies, and initiatives). Agenda.
It can be used to inform policymaking and action, UN-Habitat stands ready to support national,
and to transfer the knowledge as wide as possible, sub-national and local governments and other
strengthening capacities at all levels and across all stakeholders to put the Handbook to use. UN-
urban stakeholders, reaching out across territories. Habitat’s Catalogue of Services provides an
overview of how we can help.
The Handbook will complement the newly
created online ‘Urban Agenda Platform’, a global I sincerely hope that the Handbook will facilitate
knowledge portal for sharing and inspiring positive and inspire action across the globe. The Secretary-
change, through voluntary national reports, best General has made it clear, launching the Decade of
practices, actions, data, training, and resources Action, we need to mobilize everyone everywhere. I
on the implementation of the New Urban Agenda look forward to hearing from you on how you take
and urban-related SDGs. This will inform the UN this work forward.
The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | ix

Introduction
What is the
New Urban Agenda?
The New Urban Agenda was adopted at Habitat III local and regional governments, as well as other The New Urban
in Quito, Ecuador, on 20 October 2016. It follows relevant NGOs and governmental and private Agenda is
the previous Habitat Agenda, which was adopted organizations (Figure 1). Input from these expert intended as a
at the United Nations Conference on Housing groups and stakeholders formed the foundation of resource for
and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat II) the New Urban Agenda draft document, which was different actors
in 1996 and defined “lines of action on various further refined through feedback and discussion in different levels
levels regarding the range of housing and human with Member States during hearings with local of government,
settlements issues”. The New Urban Agenda was governments and stakeholders, before being ranging from
endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly finalized and adopted at the Habitat III conference. central to
at its sixty-eighth plenary meeting of the seventy- local, and for
first session on 23 December 2016 and therefore The New Urban Agenda presents a paradigm civil society
represents a shared vision for a better and more shift based on the science of cities and lays organizations,
sustainable future. out standards and principles for the planning, the private
construction, development, management and sector and all
The New Urban Agenda is intended as a improvement of urban areas along its five main who reside in
resource for different actors in different levels of pillars of implementation: national urban policies, urban spaces of
government, ranging from central to local, and for urban legislation and regulations, urban planning the world.
civil society organizations, the private sector and and design, local economy and municipal finance,
all who reside in urban spaces of the world. The and local implementation.
New Urban Agenda highlights linkages between
sustainable urbanization and job creation, livelihood The New Urban Agenda works as an accelerator
opportunities and improved quality of life, and it of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
insists on incorporation of all these sectors in every particularly SDG 11– Make cities and human
urban development or renewal policy and strategy. settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable – to provide a comprehensive
The New Urban Agenda was developed with the framework to guide and track urbanization around
involvement of participating Member States; the globe. Cognizant of the fact that 95 per cent of
intergovernmental organizations; UN-Habitat the urban growth will be in the developing world,
and other United Nations agencies, funds and Sustainable Development Goal 11 sets targets and
programmes; policy unit experts; subnational defines indicators to measure progress and growth.
and local governments and all major networks of
x | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

Figure 1: Stakeholders involved in the development of the New Urban Agenda.
Intergovernment
organizations
16
197
Participating
Partner constituent
groups of the
general assembly
states
1000+
Subnational and
200
Policy unit
experts
local government
representatives
40+
United Nations
agencies
1,100+ 58,000
Networks
NGO, Private &
Government
organizations
The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | xi

Introduction
Global trends
in urbanization
Urbanization has been one of the most significant 55 in Nigeria, 61 in Brazil, 144 in the USA and 67 The New Urban
trends shaping the built environment in the in Russia. Agenda presents
twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The shift a long-term
towards an increasingly urbanized world is a It is projected that almost 1 billion people vision and sets
transformative force that can and should be will become metropolitan inhabitants in the out priorities
harnessed to ensure sustainable development of next fifteen years and there will be 429 new and actions.
people and places in all countries. Cities are the metropolises by 2035.
arena for addressing many of the global challenges
of today, ranging from extreme poverty and The New Urban Agenda therefore comes at a very
unemployment to environmental degradation and critical and opportune juncture in global history.
climate change. In cities, addressing development While the challenges that cities, towns and villages
challenges with effective interventions can have face in different countries are varied, the New Urban
wide-ranging cumulative impacts. Agenda is designed to be universally applicable. It
presents a long-term vision and sets out priorities
Urbanization provides a tremendous opportunity and actions, in addition to providing tools that can
and is one of the most important tools to guide the be applied at the regional, national, subnational
sustainable development agenda forward; however, and local levels, allowing governments and other
if unplanned and poorly managed, urbanization relevant stakeholders to meet context specific
also has the potential to exacerbate many of the urban needs and challenges. While the whole world
problems that it claims to solve. Poorly planned or is urbanizing, the nature and characteristics of
unplanned urbanization has resulted in economic urbanization in each region is different.
disorder, civil unrest, congestion and environmental
degradation, as well as increases in slums and In East Asia, urban expansion spanned more than
sprawl (UN-Habitat 2016). 28,000 square kilometers and grew by 200 million
people from 2000 to 2010, with a large part of
New data (UN-Habitat 2020) reveals there are this growth occurring in China (World Bank Group
nearly 2,000 metropolitan areas globally where 2015). Though East Asian urbanization is asso-
a third of the world’s population now live. UN- ciated with images of Beijing, Hong Kong, Seoul,
Habitat predicts that by 2035, the majority of the Manila and other megacities, the large part of urban
world’s population will live in metropolitan areas growth occurred in smaller and medium-sized
– which are generally understood as being urban cities (World Bank Group 2015). Growth in these
agglomerations made up of a main city linked areas is fragmented over metropolitan borders and
to other nearby cities or surrounding urban or often overtakes administrative boundaries, requir-
suburban areas such as the Tokyo–Yokohama ing strong multi-jurisdictional and regional plan-
Metropolitan Area, Greater London, Metropolitan ning. As urbanization follows rural to urban land
Area of Bucaramanga in Colombia or Nelson conversions, governments will also need to address
Mandela Bay in South Africa. environmental consequences from rapid urbaniza-
tion, in addition to better integrating and providing
UN-Habitat data shows there are currently 1,934 public services to rural populations in urbanizing
metropolitan areas, also known as metropolises, areas. South Asia’s urban population is poised to
with more than 300,000 inhabitants. These are grow significantly as well; it is expected to reach
home to around 60 percent of the world’s urban 250 million people by 2030, having already grown
population and a third of the global population. significantly in the past decade. Around 130 million
The majority (1,038) are in the Asia Pacific region of South Asia’s urbanized population live in slums.
with 444 in China and 191 in India compared to
xii | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

Figure 2: A global snapshot of urbanization
363,844,490 652,012,001 742,648,010 1,287,920,518 4,545,133,094 41,261,212

Total Population Total Population Total Population Total Population Total Population Total Population
North Latin America Europe Africa Asia Oceania

America and the Caribbean
Source: United Nations population division “World Urbanization Prospects 2018”
Informal settlements are frequently characterized While Latin America is already relatively urbanized,
by unplanned public services, and populations the region’s cities will face similar challenges
go uncounted by official censuses. Issues of related to congestion, informality and equal access
environmental pollution and congestion persist, to services (Ezquiaga Arquitectura 2015). Latin
while a lack of formal tenure impedes development. American cities are particularly dense, owing to
Finally, 80 per cent of major South Asian cities face their relatively small land areas, and also exhibit
flood risk, and the population that will be exposed extreme income inequality, where the gap between
to hazards grows 3.5 per cent annually (Ellis and the richest and poorest is very high in many
Roberts 2016). On the other side of the planet, urban areas, producing striking contrasts. Within
Africa’s urbanization has also been rapid, at a pace peri-urban areas, mobility and transportation
that will continue. The urban population is set to issues persist, while weak governance allows for
double in the next 20 years, with 450 million new unchecked expansion and the persistence of health,
urban residents added in the next three decades. environmental and public safety issues in informal
Both existing and new cities will be necessary to settlements (Ezquiaga Arquitectura 2015). Box 1
host this growing population. As with South Asia, gives a snapshot of different urbanization patterns
informality is a defining characteristic of African around the globe with examples.
urbanization, where 70 per cent of the urban
population lives in informal areas. Figure 2 depicts
urbanization in the world.
The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | xiii

Box 1: How are cities expanding in different parts of the world?
Ghana
China
Africa East Asia

Ghana | Cape Coast & Accra China | Nanjing
Ghana’s cities are rapidly expanding; its urban population nearly tripled in the China’s cities have seen rapid urbanization and migration from agricultural
last three decades to a total of 14 million individuals. Smaller cities are seeing areas, where 260 million agricultural workers have transitioned to urban life in
large population increases as the country urbanizes. the past three decades.
Cities are expanding via inefficient sprawl due to A large part of urban development has relied on
inadequate land-use planning and management (World Bank 2015). land financing, leading to sprawl and inefficient development as
For example, in the municipality of Cape Coast, the Central Business rural land is converted for urban use. Social unrest and tension have
District is rapidly commercializing at the expense of residential also followed in this process. The city of Nanjing is an example.
development, leaving little room for mixed development and housing Nanjing serves as a “spoke” on the hub of Shanghai, and it is a
stock. Residential areas and settlements are being pushed farther manufacturing city that has grown significantly in the last few
away from resources and public services. The city’s footprint rapidly decades, to a population of 8.5 million individuals. The city recently
expanded, tripling in the past two decades, while housing remains underwent a master planning process, shifting its layout from one
inadequate and unaffordable; rents for even the lowest quality that is centred around a single employment centre (monocentric)
dwellings increased 100 per cent in the last five years. Arterials and to one with multiple nodes (polycentric) (Chen and others 2016).
right of ways are being encroached on by unchecked development, Its rapid expansion also degraded natural features, resulting in new
posing problems for the development of public services (Eparque integrated environmental planning processes, which seek to better
Urban Strategies 2019). manage urbanization and its effects on the natural environment of
the rivers bordering the city (Vollmer 2009). The city’s urban poor
In Accra, the peripheral area of the city is currently 5.5 times the are concentrated on the edges of development; as a result, there is a
size of the original city in 1990 (Angel 2018). Large sections of need to better plan for rural-urban transformation and maintain the
the population in outlying areas lack access to basic services. affordability and housing stock available within the city’s core (Chen,
For example, rates of access to water and sanitation services are Gu and Wu 2004).
actually declining as the city grows. Spatially, access to basic
services declines from the inner core of cities to outlying areas. Land In Nanjing, the control of sprawl is also key to
prices have soared there as well, making it difficult for rural migrants ensuring that the city and its opportunities are accessible. Currently,
to formally acquire individual plots and parcels. Via survey sampling, due to sprawling development, Nanjing’s commute time is higher
the World Bank finds that land prices soared between 560 per cent than in other major cities (World Bank 2014b). Country-wide, the
and 1,300 per cent between 1995 and 2005 (World Bank 2015). central Government aspires to connect secondary cities to more
prosperous coastal cities, while developing the manufacturing
sector in the former category, and the service sector in the latter
category. Better and clearer enforcement of land rights and clearer
ownership models would make expansion more sustainable in all
cities and allow for a focus on proper land management, as well as
agricultural modernization in addition to urbanization. The central
Government also has plans to subsidize the provision of public
services to rural entrants into cities to facilitate their entry into urban
life. Local governments also need to become more financially and
administratively self-sufficient. While a large part of development
has relied on standardized master planning, more dynamic
approaches may also facilitate the development of urban areas that
were once rural or peri-urban.
xiv | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

India Colombia
South Asia Latin America

India | New Delhi Colombia | Bogotá
In 2019, approximately a third of the total population in India lived in cities. In Colombia, 75 per cent of individuals live in cities, with 30 per cent of the
The trend shows an increase of urbanization by almost 4 percent in the last nation’s entire population within the four largest cities. These cities are
decade, meaning people have moved away from rural areas to find work and particularly dense and rank among some of the densest cities in the world. The
make a living in the cities. capital city of Bogotá has a population of 7.2 million individuals.
India faces several challenges in its urbanization. Despite the density of cities in Colombia, a large
Regulations that do not allow for denser development push urban share of land goes underutilized or unused, where bureaucratic
dwellers into the peripheries of urban cores and neighbouring processes slow necessary development. Housing deficits persist in
suburbs. Those who are priced out but require access to the core for the peripheries of these cities and disproportionately burden poor
employment opportunities are forced to live beyond the municipal households. Congestion is an issue in Bogotá, where inadequate
boundary, in informal settlements. Costs of infrastructure provision investment in roads has increased commuting times and mass
to these places are high, and infrastructure is provided at a lower transit has not been fully incentivized. For example, an assessment
rate in these peripheries than in the urban core. The district of Delhi conducted in 2007 found that 40 per cent of roads were in bad
grew 1.9 per cent annually between 2001 and 2011. Population condition; however, only 6 per cent of funds required were allocated
growth in Gautam Budh Nagar, a peripheral area, was 4.1 per cent for upgrades in the five years following. Poor areas have been
a year (Angel 2018). The city has also encroached considerably on socially excluded and alienated from resources and services; only
previously rural or natural areas within its borders, resulting in the 9 per cent of the estimated cost of service provision had been
loss of nearly half of the city’s water body land area. It has also allocated. Peripheries grew a staggering amount in the city, where
expanded by approximately 66 square miles between 2003 and 2011, the current peripheral area of the city covers 88 per cent of the land
and densities are inconsistent and haphazard within the urban fabric area of the city’s footprint as captured in 1990 (Angel 2018).
(Grover and Singh 2015).
The city has made some progress in public service
As urbanization moves forward, these cities will provision via development of special zoning areas, allowing for the
require more robust institutions to manage land use and related formalization of slum dwellings (Lozano-Gracia and others 2012).
density regulations to provide public services to existing settlements
that lack them.
Figure 3: False color image showing the Cities and regions around the world are in different stages of urban-
presence of water in the irrigated landscape ization and exhibit different patterns. For example, Figure 3 illustrates
of the Jordan Valley the presence of water in the irrigated landscape of Jordan Valley. The
populations of North America, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbe-
an are between 72 and 82 per cent urbanized, while sub-Saharan Af-
rica, East Asia and South Asia are respectively 40, 34 and 59 per cent
urbanized (UN Population Division 2018). There are key differences
between the developed and developing world; while urbanization is
occurring in both, the rate is an order of magnitude larger in the latter.
According to Angel (2012), urban population in the developed world
is set to grow by 170 million in the next four decades, while the pop-
ulation in the developing world is set to grow by 2.6 billion people; as
such, lessons from the developed world may not be wholly applicable
for the scale at which urbanization will occur elsewhere (Angel 2012).
The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | xv

Introduction
Objectives of
this handbook
This handbook is intended:
Box 2: The structure of the New Urban Agenda
To be a resource that exemplifies the breadth
of topics and recommendations contained
in the New Urban Agenda for the New Urban Quito Declaration on Sustainable Cities
Agenda’s target audiences. and Human Settlements for All
 Our shared vision
To illustrate the propositions and commitments  Our principles and commitments
contained in the New Urban Agenda with  Call for action
action-oriented policies.
Quito implementation plan for the New Urban Agenda
To accomplish these objectives, this handbook:  Transformative commitments for sustainable urban development
 Sustainable urban development for social inclusion and ending
Presents the contents of the New Urban poverty
Agenda in more detail and with illustrations and  Sustainable and inclusive urban prosperity and opportunities for all
diagrams for the many different themes and  Environmentally sustainable and resilient urban development
sectors addressed in the New Urban Agenda
in parallel, highlighting connections and Effective implementation
correlations.  Building the urban governance structure: establishing a supportive
framework
Is accompanied by case studies that  Planning and managing urban spatial development
incorporate systematic empirical evidence and  Means of implementation
documentation of experiences.
A note about structure Figure 4: New Urban Agenda word cloud

The New Urban Agenda covers a broad range of
topics and sectors because urban development is
an interdisciplinary topic and requires coordinating
various sectors to achieve sustainability and
success.
To cover this breadth of topics, the New Urban

Agenda is structured as described in Box 2 above.
Follow-up and review

To assist in the development of this illustrated
handbook, a word cloud of the entire New Urban
Agenda was developed to identify and visually
illustrate the issues and priorities highlighted in the
42-page New Urban Agenda (Figure 4). We have
used this word cloud as a tool to identify “trending”
words and categories, where the size of the word
corresponds to the number of times it is mentioned
Source: Eparque Urban Strategies
xvi | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

in the document. While this is simply a preliminary these dimensions is spread through the entirety of Understanding
visual representation, it gives a broad overview of the New Urban Agenda. the linkages
priorities highlighted in the New Urban Agenda. between
Chapter 2 these different
At first glance, a notable observation is that the The means of implementation are divided into four means of
various scales of intervention (that is “local”, sections, illustrated in Diagram 1. The first section implementation
“national” and “subnational”) are prominent in the is Intervention Mechanisms. These mechanisms allows
word cloud and therefore a key consideration in are the tools, techniques and specific actions that governments
the New Urban Agenda. Surprisingly, these terms cities and city stakeholders can use at national, and relevant
are more dominant than the sectors of urban subnational and local scales to achieve these goals. civil society
development, such as housing, energy and water, The intervention mechanisms include methods stakeholders
signaling a general perception that improving the that cities can use to scope, plan, finance and to implement
governance of urbanization is more pressing than implement strategies to achieve the New Urban targeted actions
solely improving different urban sectors. Agenda Dimensions. to achieve
sustainable
This handbook aims to provide a snapshot of The next three sections present functional areas urbanization.
issues and challenges in the urban development of planning and operations highlighted in the New
sphere as they are laid out in the New Urban Agen- Urban Agenda that help guide targeted action to
da. It aims to address higher level policy decisions achieve priority outcomes in key urban sectors.
for the growth and development of cities around These include hard measures, soft measures, and
the world. Its structure and material aim to create a technology/innovation.
comprehensive and systematic approach to urban
development issues. Urban development topics Understanding the linkage between these different
are explained in summary, and each can be further means of implementation allows governments and
investigated and explored. In the bibliography sec- relevant civil society stakeholders to use target-
tion, a complete list of references is provided for the ed actions to achieve sustainable urbanization
reader to further research and study. outcomes. This effectively localizes the New Urban
Agenda, making it actionable in any country-wide,
In order to provide a better understanding of the regional and local context. Additionally, understand-
different concepts and ideas in the New Urban ing these linkages can help stakeholders implement
Agenda, this handbook subdivides and maps the and operationalize the New Urban Agenda and
New Urban Agenda into the following chapters: 1) measure progress and impact thereafter.
Core Dimensions, 2) Means of Implementation and
3) Governance, Follow-up and Review. Chapter 3
This Chapter describes the global governance
Chapter 1 mechanisms established for the follow-up and
The core dimensions are the overarching, review of the New Urban Agenda to achieve the
cross-sectoral goals described in the New Urban Sustainable Development Goals. It presents ongo-
Agenda, which are necessary to achieve sustaining work at the global level to build comprehensive
able urban development. This handbook includes monitoring and reporting frameworks, facilitated by
“spatial sustainability” as a fourth dimension that is UN-Habitat. This process will guide Member States
not explicitly proposed in the New Urban Agenda. and partners in the collection and analysis of urban
While a new concept to many, spatial sustainability data, and in the identification of actions and results
is an important underlying indicator for efficiently achieved at all levels of governments and stake-
managing urban development, especially in the rap- holders. The analysis of quantitative and qualitative
idly urbanizing developing countries. It is important data from all over the world, and systematization on
to elaborate on this concept independently as it the Urban Agenda online Platform, shall feed into
builds on the other three principles laid out in the the Quadrennial Report on the New Urban Agenda
New Urban Agenda: leave no one behind, ensure to the Secretary General of the United Nations, and
sustainable and inclusive urban economies and inform global action and recommendations for
ensure environmental sustainability. The content for urban sustainability.
The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | xvii

Diagram 1: The contents of the New Urban Agenda
Core dimensions of the

New Urban Agenda
Social Economic Environmental Spacial

sustainability sustainability sustainability sustainability
Empowerment of Job creation and Biodiversity and Spatial

marginalized groups livelihoods ecosystem sustainability and
conservation equity
Gender equality Productivity and
competitiveness Resilience and Spatial
Planning for migrants, adaptation to sustainability and
ethnic minorities and climate change urban density
persons with disabilities
Climate change
Age-responsive planning mitigation
Guide
Means of
implementation
Intervention Hard measures Soft measures Technology

mechanisms for infrastructure and innovation
and services
National urban policies Transport and mobility Culture Technology
Land policies Energy Education Transportation
Housing and slum Solid waste Health Construction and

upgrading policies building technology
Water and sanitation Urban safety
Urban legislation Mapping and
and regulations spatial data
Urban design
Municipal finance
Urban governance
xviii | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

Rooftops of Valparaiso. © Pawopa3336 / Envato Elements The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | xix
01
The core dimensions
of the New Urban
Agenda transformative
commitments
The New Urban Agenda

underscores four key dimensions
of sustainability across sectors
and scales involved in urban
development. These dimensions
collectively ensure the
sustainability of future urban
planning and development
across different sectors. They
form a sustainable lens through
which the whole agenda of
urban development and its
sectors will be viewed and
assessed. They are universal in
scope.
1 | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

Social Economic Environmental Spatial
1.1 Social sustainability

The New Urban Agenda emphasizes the equal c) engaging with age-responsive approaches at “Sustainable
rights of all people to the benefits that cities all stages of urban and territorial policy and urban
can offer. The Agenda envisages inclusive cities planning process (for example, road safety and development for
and human settlements that are “participatory, planning); social inclusion
promote civic engagement, engender a sense and ending
of belonging and ownership among their inhab- d) promoting capacity development initiatives poverty”
itants…, enhance social and intergenerational to empower women and girls and making
interaction, cultural expression and political information and communication technologies
participation, as appropriate, and foster social accessible to the public with special attention
cohesion … and pluralistic societies, where the to children and youth, older persons and
needs of all inhabitants are met, recognizing persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples
the specific needs of those in vulnerable situa- and local communities; and
tions” - NUA 13.b.
e) promoting well-designed networks of safe,
The New Urban Agenda pays specific attention accessible, green and quality streets and other
to battling discrimination faced by marginalized public spaces that are accessible to all and
groups including “women and girls, children free from crime and violence, including sexual
and youth, persons with disabilities, people harassment and gender-based violence. The
living with HIV/AIDS, older persons, indigenous New Urban Agenda commits to providing
peoples and local communities, slum and equal opportunities in accessing public spaces,
informal-settlement dwellers, homeless housing, basic education, services and health
people, workers, smallholder farmers and facilities for all marginalized people - NUA 36.
fishers, refugees, returnees, internally
displaced persons and migrants, regardless Figure 5: Aerial shot of a Syrian refugee
of their migration status” - NUA 20. Planning camp in Kilis, Turkey, 2018. The vast
to meet the needs and provide accessibility number of refugees requires new thinking
to marginalized groups is essential to on how to integrate them into host communities.
inclusive governance. To work towards social
sustainability and equity goals, national, state
and municipal governments should provide
services to meet the needs of these groups, in
addition to designing social programming and
offerings around these needs.
Different dimensions of social sustainability

and attention to marginalized groups are
mentioned in the New Urban Agenda, including:
a) providing basic services that are responsive

to the needs and rights of children, youth and
older persons;
b) providing youth with access to knowledge,

education, skills and opportunities to ensure
their meaningful participation;
© Sandra Cohen-Rose / Flickr
The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | 2

Similarly, UN Sustainable Development Goal 11 Principles Planning

- SDG 11 demands access to safe, inclusive and to meet the
green public spaces for women, children and older Planning for marginalized groups can improve needs and
persons and highlights the importance of safe and quality of life for all urban residents, beyond provide
affordable transport for all with special attention the target group. “Planning from the margins” accessibility
to marginalized groups, women, children and older is a principle that allows all residents to benefit to marginalized
persons - SDG Targets 11.2, 11.7. SDG 11 also when the needs of marginalized populations groups is
expresses a commitment to “enhance inclusive are centred (Satterthwaite 2017). For example, essential to
and sustainable urbanization and capacity for children are vulnerable members of the population inclusive
participatory, integrated and sustainable human in part because they are more susceptible governance.
settlement planning and management” - SDG to diseases. Improving sanitation and water
Target 11.3. UN Sustainable Development Goal infrastructure and better delivering health care
4 - SDG 4 – Ensure inclusive and equitable services to a neighbourhood will improve the lives
quality education and promote lifelong learning of children, while also improving the lives of the
opportunities for all – also emphasizes the entire community. Older persons and persons
importance of education for marginalized persons. with disabilities may have difficulty navigating
improperly maintained road, sidewalk and
transit infrastructure. Improvements to transit
1.1.1 Empowerment of infrastructure benefit all people using them. The
marginalized groups fact that planning for marginalized groups benefits
all stakeholders means that this is “universal design”.
There are many groups that are recognized in the
New Urban Agenda as marginalized, including Planning for marginalized groups should be
children, older persons, women and girls, persons holistic and multisectoral; planning processes
with disabilities, homeless persons or occupants of should begin with a vision statement. Policies
informal dwellings, ethnic minorities, or migrants1, centred around gender, age, migration or disability
refugees and displaced persons. This section on equity should have a larger vision statement that
social sustainability first introduces principles fits into other policy goals and plans advanced by
and illustrative actions that support inclusion the municipality.
and access for a variety of marginalized groups,
generally, and then focuses on some marginalized Utilize well-known, public resources and
groups highlighted in the New Urban Agenda, community hubs to provide services. Disseminate
specifically: a) Gender Equality, b) Planning for information and services at existing community
Migrants, Ethnic Minorities and Persons with institutions that are already well used by the target
Disabilities and c) Age-Responsive Planning. Local, population(s). Be mindful of the digital divide, where
regional and national governments should make service delivery can leave out individuals who do
an effort to apply these general principles to the not have access to communication technologies.
unique social dynamics in their context. To illustrate
the scale, Figure 5 shows an aerial view of a Syrian
refugee camp in Turkey as just one example of
such communities around the world.
1 The term migrant is used in the most inclusive manner, including economic migrants, rural-urban migrants, circular or seasonal
migrants, refugees, IDPs, asylum seekers and all people moving to a city. This is without prejudice to the fact that some individuals or
groups, such as refugees, may have a particular legal or protected status that must be recognized.

Diagram 2: Empowerment of marginalized groups
SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
EMPOWERMENT
OF MARGINALIZED
GROUPS
PRINCIPLES
Quality of life Holistic planning Provide services

Planning for marginalized Planning for marginalized Utilize well-known, public
groups can improve quality of groups should be holistic and resources and community
life for all urban residents, multi-sectoral; planning hubs to provide services.
beyond the target group. processes should begin with a
vision statement.
ILLUSTRATIVE ACTIONS
Workplace protections Civic participation Advisory committees

Establish workplace Engage marginalized Develop advisory committes
protections for groups in civic participation to create accountability
marginalized groups. and local government. towards marginalized groups.
Cultural competency Disaggregated indicators

Develop cultural competency Collect and maintain
within city staff to support the up-to-date demographic data
sensitive and respectful and develop disaggregated
provision of services to indicators when possible.
marginalized groups.

Illustrative Actions recreational associations to integrate its partici-

pants to avoid social segregation (Gebhardt 2014).
Establish workplace protections for marginalized
groups. Marginalized persons can experience isola-
tion and be vulnerable to workplace discrimination, Collect and maintain up-to-date demographic
violence or exploitation in a variety of economic data and develop disaggregated indicators when
settings, including in the informal sector. Municipal- possible. Collecting data on urban populations is
ities should ensure that the labour rights and physi- an essential component of providing accessible
cal safety of marginalized persons are protected by infrastructure and services. Data are not often
the law, and that the laws are enforced. current or available disaggregated by gender, age,
disability, ethnicity and migration status, among
Engage marginalized groups in civic participation other sociodemographic indicators. Disaggregated
and local government. The New Urban Agenda indicators assist efforts to understand the specific
supports governments “in fulfilling their key role challenges faced by groups, measure progress
in strengthening the interface among all relevant and assess the success of policies and programs
stakeholders, offering opportunities for dialogue, focused on specific marginalized groups.
including through age- and gender-responsive ap-
proaches, and with particular attention to potential 1.1.2 Gender equality
contributions from all segments of society, includ-
ing men and women, children and youth, older The New Urban Agenda calls for preventing all
persons and persons with disabilities, indigenous forms of discrimination and violence by
peoples and local communities, refugees, inter-
nally displaced persons and migrants” - NUA 42. a) ensuring women’s and girls’ full and effective
Planning and policymaking processes should be participation and equal rights with special
transparent to the public and involve opportunities attention to tenure security for women as a key
for public input, participation, and evaluation. empowerment method;
Develop advisory committees to create account- b) ensuring access to basic services that are
ability towards marginalized groups. Government responsive to the needs and rights of all
agencies that provide services or develop policy women and girls;
of specific relevance to marginalized groups can
create advisory committees made up of members c) integrating disaster risk reduction and
of that group to provide input on needs, quality of climate change adaptation and mitigation
service delivery and accessibility of the services. considerations and measures into age- and
Participating in such advisory councils provides gender-responsive urban and territorial
opportunities for civic engagement and leadership development and planning processes;
development.
d) promoting well-designed networks of safe,
Develop cultural competency within city staff to accessible, green and quality streets and other
support the sensitive and respectful provision of public spaces that are accessible to all and
services to marginalized groups. It is essential free from crime and violence, including sexual
that city staff and service providers be given proper harassment and gender-based violence and
training in order to fulfil the service delivery aims of
their positions for marginalized groups, including e) promoting capacity development initiatives to
new migrant populations. This includes cultural empower women and girls and making information
and disability competency training and dedicating and communication technologies accessible -
resources to language translation and interpretation NUA 32, 35, 92, 101, 114, 151, 113, 155. SDG
services. For example, Munich, Germany, trained 11 demands access to safe, inclusive and green
city staffers in cultural competency and integrated public spaces and safe and affordable transport
it into recruiting processes. The city also works with for marginalized groups including women - SDG
external organizations, such as sports teams and Targets 11.2, 11.7.

Diagram 3: Gender equality
GENDER
EQUALITY
15 %
x2.5
10%
Women only account for Women spend 2.5 times as much Domestic & care work is
approximately 15% of land and time as men on undervalued estimated to account for
property ownership globally domestic & care work at least 10% of global GDP
PRINCIPLES
Policy linkages Access Migration and Planning for

informal economy vulnerable women
Policies for resource use The empowerment of Women’s migration patterns are Although urbanization is a path
and the spatial layout of women rests in the ability to shaped by cultural norms; women forward for poverty reduction,
cities are linked to gender access land, title, also face unique risks in informal women, girls and other
and cultural expectations. inheritance and financing. settlements, and when engaging in vulnerable populations may not
the informal economy. necessarily stand to benefit
from this process.
Equitable mobility Local government Land titles

When planning for mobility, Engage women in civic participation Support and develop programs to
consider locations that women and local government. provide women access to credit, land
need to access both in urban title and financing resources.
cores and peri-urban areas.
Indicators Networks
Develop sex-disaggregated Support cooperatives and support
indicators when possible. groups that allow women to form
relationships and networks.

7Boy|onThe New
a swing. Urban Agenda
© UN-Habitat / Flickr Illustrated
Processes of urbanization are fundamentally living in urban contexts outside of the slums (13 per While there
linked to the cultural, legal and economic aspects cent). The disparity can be found in other regions, are far more
of gender. Gender equality is also the focus of countries and cities. For example, in New Delhi, educational
UN Sustainable Development Goal 5 - SDG 5 – only 43 per cent of slum dwelling urban women opportunities
Achieve gender equality and empower all women have completed a basic education, while the rate in urban areas,
and girls – which articulates nine specific gender is 72 per cent for non-slum urban women (UN- women living
equality targets. Urban populations have historically Habitat 2013). Women are also more susceptible to in informal
become increasingly feminized, with more violence. While approximately 60 per cent of urban settlements are
women and female-led households immigrating dwellers in developing nations have experienced not necessarily
to urban areas. For example, Chant (2013) notes crime, women are twice as likely to experience able to access
that within a span of 20 years, female-headed violent crime (UN-Habitat 2019). these resources.
households increased by a mean of 9.8 per cent
in Latin American urbanized areas (UN-Habitat Finally, women often occupy precarious positions
2013). Because cities are centres for employment in the labour market, and their work is often
and educational opportunities, women often undervalued. Excluding agricultural workers, the
immigrate to cities for economic opportunity and share of women employed in informal sectors in
to lift themselves or their families out of rural the developing world is 7.9 per cent higher than the
poverty. Women also migrate to cities to leave share of men (UN Women). Domestic and care work
adverse situations within rural contexts. As such, is also undervalued in urban areas and elsewhere,
urbanization has the potential to empower women where women spend 2.5 times the hours men
and girls and improve quality of life, but it also holds do on these tasks, which if compensated, would
its own gender-specific perils and challenges. comprise 10–39 per cent of global GDP (Bonet and
others 2019). In fact, SDG Target 5.2 describes the
importance of recognizing and valuing unpaid care
There are more social and economic opportunities and domestic work by adequately providing public
for women within urban contexts. Particularly, land services, infrastructure and policy for this work, and
and property are acquired through marketplaces, also emphasizing the importance of shared familial
not via inheritance. It should follow that women responsibility.
can make considerable gains in land and property
through urbanization. However, as Chant (2013)
notes, a study of 16 different urban areas in the These disparities related to employment, safety,
developing world finds that only one third of owner- land title, access to credit and education are some
occupiers were female. Similarly, an OECD study of of the factors that influence the well-being of wom-
82 countries outside of OECD and the EU estimates en and girls in cities. Gender equity is multifaceted
that women only make up approximately 15 per and will require deliberate planning by municipal
cent of landowners globally. Without proper title, governments to ensure that urbanization benefits
or the ability to leverage title for access to credit all members of the population (UN-Habitat 2013).
and financing, it may be difficult for women to fully
participate in the economy. Similarly, while there
are far more educational opportunities in urban Principles
areas, women living in informal settlements are
not necessarily able to access these resources. Policies regarding resource use and the spatial
For example, in the Philippines, 59 per cent of the layout of cities are inextricable from gender
rural population completed secondary school, and cultural expectations. As women bear
while the share is 75 per cent for urban dwellers. responsibility for domestic labour, the time and
However, 21 per cent of women living in urban effort to access essential resources are expended
slums leave school due to pregnancy or early by women within households. For example, Vij
marriage, while the rate is much lower for women (2014) reviews the status of women in a peri-urban

community in India and frames the loss of common that remittances may make migration by young
property resources such as wells and water women more culturally permissible. Women may
sources as an additional time and labour burden also migrate to seek services or flee persecution;
for women (Vij 2014). When water, sanitation and for example, Hughes and Wickeri (2010) document
waste management services are absent or limited, how HIV-positive women migrate to the city in
the burden falls on women to seek out these Tanzania. However, migration is context specific
services or perform time-consuming tasks to cover within countries and regions, making it difficult to
basic household needs. This burden can also lead make sweeping generalizations about the state of
to heightened risks; women who must travel farther female migration and urbanization (Chant 2013).
to access infrastructure may have to do so through Regarding employment, some industries, such as
unsafe areas where they may be more vulnerable information technology, have provided employment
to violence (Gill and Wellenstein 2019). Similarly, opportunities for women. However, even within
transit is often designed to cover the needs of male industries that commonly employ women, they are
employment routes: transportation systems shuttle often paid less than men, occupying “lower-end”
residents into central business districts or urban positions (Satterthwaite and Tacoli 2013).
cores during peak hours. Women may have multiple
obligations and may need access to decentralized Though urbanization is a path forward for
areas for informal work, childcare and necessary poverty reduction, it presents unique challenges
household resources (Gill and Wellenstein 2019). for women and girls. Urbanization presents its
own challenges for women, and there are many
The empowerment of women rests in the ability to intersecting issues that may affect quality of life
access land, title, inheritance and financing; these
same abilities influence the migration of women, Figure 6: A group of female students
especially between rural-urban zones. Poverty going to school in Goa, India.
is associated with landlessness in rural contexts;
in many regions, women are not able to access
title to land or property that they expend labour in
maintaining (Gill and Wellenstein 2019). This issue
also persists in cities. Cities should consider how
administrative services can be inclusive of women
and support programs that allow women to fully
participate in the economy.
Women’s migration patterns are shaped by

cultural norms; women also face unique risks in
informal settlements and when engaging in the
informal economy. Women’s employment is often
limited. In places where women have less freedom
of movement and fewer employment opportunities,
the sex ratio for urban migrants is skewed towards
men. When women migrate to urban areas, it is
often for longer periods of time than men, and
within export zones or peri-urban areas farther
away. In a review of multiple peri-urban areas
around the globe, Mabala and Tacoli (2010) find
that men tend to migrate shorter distances on
a more temporary basis, while women’s urban
migration is often longer term. The particularities
of migration are a reflection of power dynamics
within households and the economic forces that A group of female students going to school in Goa, India. © Sandra Cohen-Rose / Flickr
affect them. For example, Tacoli (2012) notes

and economic status. Lower fertility rates are Chant (2013) describes women in Brazil leading Female
associated with higher economic status and participatory budgeting efforts, and the greater participation
education levels. While fertility rates in urbanized involvement of women in local council government in governance
areas are generally lower than in rural areas, this in municipalities in India (Chant 2013). Because and government
may not be the case for urban areas that lack women are affected by a number of issues within appears to be
reproductive health services. For example, a study the built environment and are responsible for on the rise,
found that in Cairo, fertility rates in peri-urban areas maintaining households, the narrative of collective especially
were comparable to rates in rural areas (Chant struggle towards neighbourhood improvement following
2013). A review of sub-Saharan African fertility and the betterment of governance is appealing. trends of
rates showed that rates were universally higher However, local governments are not often well decentralization;
in urban slums than in urban non-slum areas resourced, and volunteer participation by women women have
(Tacoli 2012). Because the benefits of urbanization may be a means for ineffective governments become involved
are not currently being equally shared, it follows to outsource labour to residents, rather than in fighting for
that planning around gender should focus on adequately provide service. improvements
vulnerable women. within their own
Support and develop programs to provide women neighbourhoods.
Illustrative Actions access to credit, land title and financing resources.
Without the formal resources to participate in
When planning for mobility and connectivity, the larger economy, women will not be able to
consider the locations that women need to access, advance their status in urban areas. Programs that
in addition to traditional notions of access and emphasize access to title and financing should
design; extend access to education and healthcare also be prioritized by municipal governments. Tsai
to peri-urban areas, in addition to urban cores. (2000) documents rotating savings and credit
Basic services should be planned with the input agreements in South China, where groups led and
of women who expend the time and labour to managed by women provided community access to
access them. For example, in a Mumbai informal microfinance.
settlement, women were engaged in planning the
location of sanitary facilities. These facilities were Develop sex-disaggregated indicators when
also planned so that women and children using possible. Data is not often current or available by
wash and toilet felt safer and more at ease (UN- gender; therefore, it becomes difficult to support
Habitat 2013). Transit routes should be planned the effective mainstreaming of gender in urban
with household and domestic needs in mind; policies and to measure the success of policies and
instead of simply planning for access to central programs for women.
business districts or employment centres, planning
should be conducted to allow women to access Support cooperatives and support groups that
household resources, sanitary facilities, potential allow women to form relationships and networks;
informal work located elsewhere, schools and this is especially important for new migrants.
facilities for children. Communal kitchens, community spaces and
credit cooperatives can help build social capital
Engage women in civic participation and local for women who may otherwise be isolated. These
government. Female participation in governance services are especially critical for new migrants and
and government appears to be on the rise, individuals living in informal housing. For example,
especially following trends of decentralization; Lima, Peru has communal kitchens to support the
women have become involved in fighting for nutritional needs of women and children, while
improvements within their own neighbourhoods. Mother Centers in Germany opened to assist with
social isolation.

1.1.3 Planning for migrants, their roles without discrimination based on ethnicity It is estimated
ethnic minorities and persons through measures including strengthening public that 15 per cent
with disabilities dialogue and participation and promoting inclusive of the world’s
and accountable institutions for land registration population lives
The New Urban Agenda pays special attention to and governance - NUA 42, 104. with a disability;
marginalized groups. There are many groups within this figure
cities that fit a definition of marginalized, on the The New Urban Agenda promotes policies that amounts to a
basis of gender, age, ability, migration status or are responsive to the needs of persons living with total of 1 billion
housing status. This section focuses on planning for disabilities and demands adopting measures that individuals, one
migrants, refugees and displaced persons, ethnic facilitate their access to housing, public transport, fifth of whom
minorities and persons with disabilities, while other health, facilities, education, public information (between
groups are discussed throughout the handbook. and communication technologies, both in rural 110 and 190
and urban areas - NUA 31, 36, 113, 148, 156. million people)
Migration status is a significant source of Furthermore, the New Urban Agenda highlights the experience
vulnerability, as it can severely impact the access importance of capacity building of governments significant
to services, housing and livelihood opportunities. at all levels and the need for cooperation with civil disabilities
The New Urban Agenda commits Governments society and academic institutions to integrate (World Bank
to “ensuring full respect for the human rights persons with disabilities into decision-making 2019a).
of refugees, internally displaced persons and processes in urban development - NUA 42, 48.
migrants, regardless of their migration status, and
support their host cities in the spirit of international It is estimated that 15 per cent of the world’s
cooperation, taking into account national population lives with a disability; this figure
circumstances and recognizing that, although the amounts to a total of 1 billion individuals, one fifth
movement of large populations into towns and of whom (between 110 and 190 million people)
cities poses a variety of challenges, it can also experience significant disabilities (World Bank
bring significant social, economic and cultural 2019a). According to the United Nations publication
contributions to urban life” - NUA 28. Good Practices of Accessible Urban Development,
for the 15 per cent of the world’s population with a
Worldwide, around 71 million individuals are disability, “available evidence reveals a widespread
displaced from their homes. In 2019, approximately lack of accessibility in built environments, from
26 million individuals were identified as refugees, 41 roads and housing, to public buildings and spaces.
million had been identified as internally displaced, Evidence also reveals a lack of accessibility to
and 4 million individuals were asylum seekers basic urban services such as sanitation and water,
(UNHCR 2019). City governments and local health, education, transportation, emergency
authorities are often on the frontlines of receiving, and disaster response, resilience building, and
supporting and integrating new immigrants and access to information and communications.
refugees. The integration of migrants, refugees and These accessibility limitations greatly contribute
internally displaced persons is an essential task of to the disadvantages and marginalization faced by
municipalities and national Governments, especially persons with disabilities, leading to disproportionate
as migration due to climate change is expected to rates of poverty, deprivation and exclusion” (United
increase in the coming decades. Fostering social Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
and economic inclusion while enhancing social 2016).
cohesion between communities needs multi-level
governance cooperation and inclusive multi- Fortunately, evidence also shows that designing
sectoral and multi-stakeholder processes (whole- and building urban infrastructure and services
of-government and whole-of-society approach). to conform with accessible, inclusive “universal
design” principles adds a negligible cost, which
Ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples around means that designing for accessibility to persons
the world are often subject to exclusion and with disabilities is not unaffordable for low-income
discrimination. The New Urban Agenda upholds countries (United Nations Department of Economic
the principle that Governments should seek to fulfil and Social Affairs 2016).

Diagram 4: Planning for migrants, ethnic minorities, and persons with disabilities
PLANNING FOR MIGRANTS,

ETHNIC MINORITIES AND
PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
71
million
26
million
4
million
15%
were displaced from identified as were asylum 15% of the world’s

population lives with a
their homes by the refugees seekers
disability, this figure
end of 2018 amounts to a total of
1 billion individuals.
PRINCIPLES
Right to the city Universal design Participation

Migrants, refugees and internally Accessible and disability-inclusive Participation of disability
displaced persons have a right to the urban planning is “universal design” stakeholders is essential to the urban
city, which must be reinforced and can be realized everywhere. development process.
through explicit welcoming, inclusion
and integration efforts.
Vocational Labor Inclusion and Cooperatives

education protection diversity
Strengthen vocational Improve the Build a city identity based Support cooperatives and
education for new protection of labor. in values of inclusion and mutual aid groups that allow
migrants and internally celebrating diversity. new migrants to form
displaced persons. relationships and networks.
Social Transit Building

protections equity standards
Extend universal, tax-financed Plan for transit equity for Enforce standards that create
social protections for ethnic marginalized groups and accessibility for persons
minorities and indigenous peoples. especially persons with with disabilities.
disabilities. The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | 12
Principles any type of contract with their employers. Cities Vocational

should take steps to ensure that industries in which education allows
Migrants, refugees and internally displaced migrants work are governed by policies that protect new migrants,
persons have a “right to the city”, which must be workers and ensure their integration into the larger especially those
reinforced through explicit welcoming, inclusion society and economy (Chunyan 2011). from rural
and integration efforts. Migrants and refugees are contexts, to
contributing citizens of the cities that they inhabit Build a city identity based on values of inclusion gain the skills
and must be included and welcomed into the public and celebration of diversity, including the diversity they need to be
life of the city at all levels (UNESCO 2016a). of migrants, refugees, internally displaced persons employable in
and ethnic minorities. Support communities cities.
Accessible and disability inclusive urban and NGOs in creating spaces that allow dialogue,
planning is “universal design” and can be realized intercultural encounters and cultural celebration.
everywhere. This means that urban development Dedicate resources to supporting these efforts
can and must be disability inclusive in all contexts, (UNESCO 2016a, UNU-GCM 2014).
sectors, policy frameworks and regulatory
structures. Figure 7 shows the importance of Support civil society engagement, cooperatives
accessible transport for people with disabilities. and mutual aid groups that allow newly arrivals
When we “design for the margins”, we “design to form relationships and networks. Communal
for all”, and it benefits everyone (United Nations kitchens, community spaces, sport clubs and
Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2016). credit cooperatives can help build social capital
Participation of disability stakeholders is Figure 7: Public transport should be

essential. Persons with disabilities and the accessible for people with disabilities.
organizations that they lead are stakeholders,
rights holders and agents in the urban development
process.
Illustrative Actions
Strengthen vocational education for migrants,

refugees and internally displaced persons.
Vocational education allows migrants, especially
those from rural contexts, to gain the skills they
need to be employable in cities. In addition,
governments should actively support small
businesses and entrepreneurship in immigrant
and refugee communities, including through the
provision of business financing and technical
assistance.
Improve the protection of labour. Migrants

in vulnerable situations are susceptible to
labour exploitation because of their precarious
status, lack of formal eduction or language
skills. Undocumented migrants are specifically
endangered of applying unhealthy coping strategies
for survival. For example, a study on rural-urban
migration in China noted that a large percentage
of migrant workers in Nanjing were unable to
articulate their rights; many had also not signed © Diane Diederich / iStock

for migrants who are sometimes excluded from

economic opportunities and social inclusion. These
Box 3: Metro Toronto’s changing
services can be especially critical for migrants who communities: Innovative responses
are also ethnic minorities and individuals living in
informal housing.
In 1996, Toronto was in the midst of major community
Extend universal, tax-financed social protections transitions, with increasing numbers of immigrants from Asia, Latin
for ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples. Due America, Africa and the Caribbean. Toronto’s ethno-racial communities
to high levels of segregation and discrimination, represented 3 per cent of its population in 1961 and exceeded 50 per
ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples are often cent by 2001, making it one of the most multicultural cities in the world.
employed in the informal sector and are therefore
excluded from employment contribution-based As a response to the diversifying population in Metro
social protections (United Nations Department of Toronto, the government made six changes to its community service
Economic and Social Affairs 2018). divisions. It focused on housing, homes for older persons, an advisory
committee, a residential council and a family and volunteer committee
Plan for transit equity for marginalized groups and to create community accountability and ensure community confidence
especially persons with disabilities. Accessibility in in service delivery.
transit requires that transit facilities, entrance ways,
connections and services are physically accessible These divisions were effective because of a combination of principles
and that the cost of using transit is affordable. applied in their implementation. The first was built-in flexibility to
Accessible transit requires that all segments of a change and make improvements within a strategic and appropriate
transit journey be well-connected, accessible, and framework. The Housing Company’s mission and strategic directions
affordable. At Melbourne’s Southern Cross train were reviewed to ensure they met the new needs of the communities.
station, a new “beacon navigation system” allows This review resulted in a resident involvement plan that was inclusive
users to receive audio cues on their smartphones, of tenants, front line staff, board members and community agents,
which provide directions and alerts about escalator in an effort to shift the culture. The organization could respond to a
outages, among other information (Salman 2018). changing landscape through the establishment of flexible funds, such
as the multicultural access policy for grants and the Ethno-racial and
Strengthen accessible building standards, Aboriginal Access Fund, which reallocated funding based on changing
laws and enforcement mechanisms. As new community needs.
urban environments are built and existing ones
are renovated, governments must enforce Second, these changes integrated representatives across communities
standards that create accessibility for persons into decision-making. For instance, the metro’s Homes for the
with disabilities. Enforcement is essential to Aged developed a community advisory committee with a volunteer
institutionalizing these norms. system that successfully increased inquiries into the quality of care
in homes. Established committees recruited members of ethno-
Box 3 explains how Toronto made changes to racial communities to sit on their boards and participate as staff and
its community services divisions to integrate volunteers.
immigrant voices in decision-making.
Third, the city prioritized accountability between political staff and
communities, and effective collaboration with stakeholders. Social
1.1.4 Age-responsive planning Services created clear policies, procedures and protocols that were
publicly available to customers, staff and community partners,
The New Urban Agenda recognizes the importance resulting in an authentic exchange of information and a commitment
of age-responsive planning, for both youth and to shared goals. Moreover, the programming was inherently culturally
older persons, as a component of providing access sensitive. To meet the needs of all racial and cultural groups, the Race
and enabling the participation of all marginalized Relations working group mandated anti-racism policies for childcare
groups in every area of urban development. programs, as well as the development of anti-racism training for staff,
The New Urban Agenda commits to addressing administrators and programme directors.
multiple forms of discrimination faced by, inter
Source: UN-Habitat

alia, women and girls, children and youth, persons both decreased worker productivity and slower Municipal
with disabilities, people living with HIV/AIDS, labour force growth (Maestas and others 2016). governments will
older persons, indigenous peoples and local Aging presents a number of challenges including need to adjust
communities” - NUA 20. It also commits “to a loss of local revenue, an aging labour supply, service
promoting equitable and affordable access to an increase in public spending for health care, delivery to
sustainable basic physical and social infrastructure infrastructure and urban form adaptation, social changing
for all, without discrimination, including affordable isolation and housing affordability. However, demographics
serviced land, housing, modern and renewable there are a number of opportunities that may be around the
energy, safe drinking water and sanitation, safe, addressed as a result, including new technology world.
nutritious and adequate food, waste disposal, development centred around the older persons,
sustainable mobility, health care and family design and urban form changes that could result
planning, education, culture, and information in greater accessibility for all, voluntary work and
and communications technologies. We further social capital development for the older persons
commit ourselves to ensuring that these services and the reimagination of the public sector by a
are responsive to the rights and needs” of older larger citizenry.
persons and all other vulnerable and marginalized
groups - NUA 20, 34. The New Urban Agenda also particularly recognizes
the needs and rights of children and youth. The
Municipal governments will need to adjust service New Urban Agenda commits Governments to
delivery to changing demographics around the
world. In OECD countries, it’s expected that 25.2
per cent of the population will be over 65 years Figure 8: Cities must be designed
old by 2050, while cities in these countries are to accommodate older persons.
currently home to 43.7 per cent of older persons.
Based on the OECD average, the older persons are
more likely to occupy urban hinterlands than inner
cores (OECD 2015). The New Urban Agenda also
highlights the need for age-responsive planning in
regard to road safety, mobility and transport access;
stakeholder inclusion in shaping governance
processes; and in civic dialogue - NUA 113, 114,
148, 155. SDG 11 also affirms the importance
of giving special consideration to the access
needs of older persons in the target areas of safe,
affordable and accessible transport and access
to safe, inclusive and accessible green and public
spaces - SDG Targets 11.2, 11.7. SDG 11.2 aims to
“provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and
sustainable transport systems for all, improving
road safety, notably by expanding public transport,
with special attention to the needs of those in
vulnerable situations, women, children, persons
with disabilities and older persons”. SDG 11.7 is
about providing “access to safe and inclusive green
and public spaces” by 2030.
Regarding the labour force, Maestas and others

(2016) use historic data from the United States to
demonstrate that for every 10 per cent increase
in the share of older persons, the per capita GDP
growth rate decreases 5.5 per cent, resulting from © iStock Getty Images

Diagram 5: Age-responsive planning
AGE-
RESPONSIVE
PLANNING
25.2%
of the population is The elderly are more
1.2B
youth aged 15-24 In developing
expected to be over 65 likely to occupy urban years accounted countries young
years old on average hinterlands than inner for one out of people represent 30
OEC D countries. cores in OEC D countries every six people percent of the
on average. worldwide in 2015. population.
PRINCIPLES
Holistic Child Built Positive

planning responsive environment youth development
Planning for aging should The safety and needs of The built environment is an Principles such as
be holistic and children should be important factor for the considering holistic
multi-sectoral; cities incorporated quality of life for the elderly, well-being needs should be
should begin their in all aspects of urban as well as consistent prioritized in urban youth
planning process with a planning and communication and public focused programming.
vision statement. development. sector service delivery.
Indicators Lifelong Affordable Skills for Connect

learning housing emerging employers
industries and youth
Develop indicators to Promote a culture of Provide affordable, Prepare youth to Create information
measure the impact of lifelong multi-generational enter new job hubs and networks to
aging on society, and learning, where housing for elderly markets. connect employers
relative access to services. volunteerism residents. and youth.
and education
opportunities are
available for the elderly.

“promoting a safe, healthy, inclusive and secure Principles According to the

environment in cities and human settlements United Nations,
enabling all to live, work and participate in urban The built environment is an important factor for there were 1.2
life without fear of violence and intimidation, taking the quality of life of older persons; also important billion youth
into consideration that women and girls, children are consistent communication and service aged 15–24 years
and youth, and persons in vulnerable situations are delivery from the public sector. Urban form and old globally in
often particularly affected”, to “promoting access accessibility changes for older persons have the 2015, accounting
for youth to education, skills development and potential to benefit a larger populace. Information for one out of
employment to achieve increased productivity and technology, in addition to hard infrastructure, is every six people
shared prosperity in cities and human settlements” another component of accessibility. worldwide.
and to promoting “capacity-development initiatives These numbers
to empower and strengthen the skills and abilities” Commit to child-responsive urban planning. The are growing,
of children and youth - NUA 39, 62, 155. safety and needs of children should be incorporated particularly
in all aspects of urban planning and development. in developing
According to the United Nations, there were Children should be understood as stakeholders and countries, where
1.2 billion youth aged 15–24 years old globally involved in development processes and evaluations. in many places
in 2015, accounting for one out of every six young people
people worldwide. These numbers are growing, Use “Positive Youth Development” principles. represent 30
particularly in developing countries, where in Principles such as considering holistic well-being per cent of the
many places young people represent 30 per needs, promoting gender equality, promoting population.
cent of the population. For the youth, it will be youth participation and leveraging technology and
essential for cities and nations to plan for the innovation should be prioritized in urban youth
long-term economic future. Without employment focused programming (Making Cents International
and education opportunities, young people may 2015).
end up as NEET (not in employment, education
or training). In Peru, around one fifth of urban Take a holistic approach to building human
youth were living in this state; in Tunisia, around capital. Policymakers and service providers should
the same share of boys are NEET status, and seek to address challenges and capacity issues in
the share is even higher for girls (Making Cents urban education systems in an effort to support
International 2015). According to metrics tracking youth in their development as future workers.
the progress of UN Sustainable Development Goal
8 - SDG 8 – Promote sustained, inclusive and
sustainable economic growth, full and productive Illustrative Actions
employment and decent work for all – globally,
youth unemployment is three times the aggregate Develop indicators to measure the impact of
global employment rate. Municipalities will need aging on society and relative access to services.
to focus on providing employment and education Some of the indicators suggested by OECD (2015)
opportunities for young people to ensure the are number of people by age group in need of
stability of economies. health support services, number of opportunities
and percentage of participation in recreational
and cultural activities, labour participation rate by
gender and age group, housing expenses for older
persons, transport ridership by age and gender,
and so forth. Indicators can be developed in the
visioning stage (OECD 2015).

Promote a culture of lifelong learning, where

volunteerism and education opportunities are
Box 4: Hong Kong’s age-friendly urban policies
available for older persons. Not only will this
strategy improve quality of life for older persons,
it will also improve intergenerational linkages and Hong Kong has an extremely progressive approach to older persons’
relationships within communities. These activities participation and policy. There are two main entities working on
can strengthen social capital as well. For example, aging society in Hong Kong: the municipality’s Elderly Commission
in Lisbon, Portugal, the city operates a Senior and an NGO called Hong Kong Housing Society (HKHS). The Elderly
University, where volunteer seniors can both attend Commission is an advisory group that seeks to obtain security, health
and teach classes (OECD 2015). maintenance and enabling environments for older persons (Chang
and Cao 2015). HKHS aims to ameliorate physical barriers to ageing
Provide affordable, multigenerational housing persons, such as in level changes and narrow doorways within the
for older persons. Though housing for older home (Lui 2015). The municipality has established a three-point
persons is often associated with images of age- framework for the care of older persons:
segregated senior centres or senior communities,
developing affordable housing for older persons 1. Security of living, including social, financial and physical needs as
that is also multigenerational can improve quality people age.
of life for seniors and those interacting with 2. Health maintenance, including both personal efforts and
them. For example, in Cologne, Germany, shared supplementary health and social services provided by the
housing is offered to university students and older government.
persons; both are able to forge multigenerational 3. Enabling environment for social participation.
connections while also gaining access to housing
(OECD 2015). More than political bluster, Hong Kong has both developed initiatives
to create age-friendly neighbourhoods as well as taken active steps
Provide job training in emerging industries for to implement some initiatives in collaboration with NGOs and faith-
youth. As information technology sectors grow, based organizations. The structure of its programs is wholly bottom-
youth should be prepared to enter jobs that don’t up, guaranteeing a level of inherent support for the initiative. This
exist yet. For example, Rockefeller’s Digital Jobs programme was successful because it approached the problem
Africa initiative is seeking to train youth across six from the community level. The programs were based on building
countries so they will be prepared to enter Africa’s partnerships with the older people and emphasized their roles as both
emerging information and technology driven labour decision maker and participant.
markets (Goldin 2016).
Source: UN-Habitat
Create information hubs and networks to connect

employers and youth. For youth to seek appropriate
training and join the labour market, they must be
aware of opportunity areas and sectors. Similarly,
employers and industry leaders must be able to
connect with youth and youth training programs.
Box 4 summarizes Hong Kong’s approach to

treating older persons.

1.2 Economic sustainability

Economic sustainability is an important goal of The New Urban
Economic sustainability refers the New Urban Agenda. It recognizes sustained Agenda commits
to the New Urban Agenda and inclusive economic growth with decent to increasing
principle “ensure sustainable employment for all as a key element of sustainable economic
and inclusive urban economies”. urban development - NUA 43. Further, the New productivity by
Governments can achieve economic Urban Agenda envisions cities as places for providing the
sustainability “by leveraging the equal opportunities, that allow citizens to live labour force
agglomeration benefits of well- productive and prosperous lives - NUA 43. The “with access to
planned urbanization, including high New Urban Agenda commits to increasing income-earning
productivity, competitiveness and economic productivity by providing the labour force opportunities,
innovation; by promoting full and “with access to income-earning opportunities, knowledge, skills
productive employment and decent knowledge, skills and educational facilities that and educational
work for all; by ensuring the creation contribute to an innovative and competitive urban facilities that
of decent jobs and equal access economy” - NUA 56. It also commits to increasing contribute to
for all to economic and productive economic productivity through employment and an innovative
resources and opportunities; and “decent work” and livelihood opportunities in and competitive
by preventing land speculation, cities and human settlements. It highlights the urban economy”
promoting secure land tenure and importance of transitioning informal labour force - NUA 56.
managing urban shrinking, where in the cities to the formal sector. SDG 11 sets an
appropriate”. intention to promote positive economic linkages
between urban, peri-urban and rural areas by
strengthening national and regional development
planning - SDG Target 11.A.
Figure 9: Women selling fruits in downtown Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
19 | ©The New
Julius Urban
Mwelu Agenda Illustrated
/ UN-Habitat
The value of the economic output of a city 1.2.1 Job creation and livelihoods Through
relative to its labour force is measured by the industrialization
gross domestic product (GDP) and is increased Cities are essential to the creation of jobs and the and urbanization,
in better allocation of production factors by its improvement of livelihoods (Bourdic, Kamiya and cities can
productivity. Productivity can be described via Salat 2017). The New Urban Agenda acknowledges develop to
multiple economic indicators; the output of the the linkages between good urbanization and job the point of
firms within a municipality (often expressed as creation, livelihood opportunities and improved achieving a
GDP per capita) as well as individual earning and quality of life, demanding their inclusion in every per capita GDP
wages can both serve as descriptors to compare urban renewal policy. In several instances, the upwards of
different jurisdictions (Glaeser and Xiong 2017). NUA emphasizes the need to create “decent jobs”. $20,000.
High economic productivity can occur in large NUA commits to “sustaining and supporting urban
landholdings with industrial production in rural economies to transition progressively to higher
areas, but at the urban level it cannot be achieved productivity through high-value-added sectors, by
without urbanization; economic development promoting diversification, technological upgrading,
in the West and the rapid development of East research and innovation, including the creation
Asia occurred within the context of urbanization of quality, decent and productive jobs, including
(Hommann and Lall 2019). Urbanization allows through the promotion of cultural and creative
labour to shift from the agricultural sector to industries, sustainable tourism, performing arts and
more diversified, productive sectors, including heritage conservation activities, among others” -
manufacturing and services. World Bank Group NUA 60.
(2015) describes tiered levels of production for
individual settlements: initially, market towns where Furthermore, the New Urban Agenda “underlines
locally produced goods are traded have per capita the linkages between good urbanization and job
GDPs less than $2,500. Through industrialization creation, livelihood opportunities, and improved
and urbanization, cities can develop to the point of quality of life, which should be included in every
achieving a per capita GDP upwards of $20,000. For urban area” - NUA p. iv. This means that a good
cities to have GDP values that rise above $20,000, urban strategy includes strategies for job creation
service sector, technology and innovation industries and enhanced livelihood opportunities to achieve
must be cultivated (World Bank Group 2015). High shared prosperity.
productivity is essential for long-term development
and growth, as well as participation in the global To do so, the New Urban Agenda recommends
market. Typically, export industries that are traded developing inclusive urban economies, by “building
globally are located within high-density urban on endogenous potential, competitive advantages,
centres (Glaeser and Xiong 2017). cultural heritage and local resources, as well as
resource-efficient and resilient infrastructure,
As key components of economic sustainability, promoting sustainable and inclusive industrial
the New Urban Agenda highlights a) Job development and sustainable consumption and
Creation and Livelihoods and b) Productivity production patterns and fostering an enabling
and Competitiveness. Figure 9 illustrates an environment for businesses and innovation, as well
example of female entrepreneurship in earning as livelihoods” - NUA 45.
income and contributing to household income in
a developing country.

Diagram 6: Job creation and livelihoods
ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY
JOB CREATION
AND LIVELIHOODS
PRINCIPLES
Job growth Policy design Automation Low skill jobs

Exports and Government A sound economic Automation is Low skill jobs are
spending is not enough development strategy changing the nature as important as
to drive job creations, includes stakeholders in of jobs worldwide. high skill jobs.
private consumption will policy design.
be the main driver of the
job growth in the
coming years.
Human capital Financing Digital infrastructure

Develop human capital. Develop financing Build digital
opportunities. infrastructure to enable
service and commerce.
Automation Growth sectors

Embrace automation and To create new jobs, link with
leverage it for creating better other “growth” sectors such
and higher paying jobs. as infrastructure, renewable
energy, education, and so on.

Principles and social factors will affect adoption. McKinsey Automation

Global Institute (2017) examined scenarios across technologies
Exports and government spending are not enough 46 countries and found that automation impacts (artificial
to drive job creation; private consumption will jobs differently in different countries: advanced intelligence and
be the main driver of job growth in the coming economies will be more affected by automation robotics) will
years. The strongest growth is seemingly in than developing countries. be instrumental
service sectors such as health, finance, education, in lifting
transportation and entertainment. In developing Low skill jobs are as important as high skill jobs. productivity
countries, the large informal sector can limit While most governments are focused on creating and economic
consumption because of lack of access to credit high paying “tech” jobs, the lower-skilled and growth, while
to make investments in housing, education or mostly informal workers should also be considered generating
businesses (Augustinraj and others 2018). as contributors to the economy. significant
economic
A sound economic development strategy includes benefits for
stakeholders in policy design. Cities that are Illustrative Actions countries.
seeking to grow existing industries and cultivate
new ones should work with industry stakeholders Develop human capital. Cities should strive
to understand their needs and requirements in towards developing the skills, training and capacity
designing policy and programs. Cities should be of the members of their labour pools. Cities can
deliberate in this process and understand their also provide training and support networks for
target industries and businesses as well as the entrepreneurs and small- and medium-sized
costs and benefits of working with different types business owners; skills or outcome based
of businesses. Designing policy considering
the needs of large multinational corporations
may result in large infusions of capital and Figure 10: A woman making batik in Bali, Indonesia.
investment, while consulting with small- and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) can lead to
the cultivation of both local talent and quality
employment, in addition to city and cultural identity.
Understanding intra-municipal relationships is key
to implementation; for example, a neighbourhood
or spatially based strategy may be particularly
effective in assisting SMEs due to their reliance on
relationships with each other and suppliers (Kuah
2002). In developing countries, cities should also
consult with workers in informal sectors in order
to determine ways by which informal, already
embedded economic activity may be formalized
and supported (UNDP 2016).
Automation is changing the nature of jobs

worldwide. Automation technologies (artificial
intelligence and robotics) will be instrumental in
lifting productivity and economic growth, while
generating significant economic benefits for
countries. According to McKinsey Global Institute
(2017), about half of all work activities in the world
could be automated, but the proportion of work
that will actually be displaced by 2030 is estimated
to be lower. This is because technical, economic © Rana Amirtahmasebi

human capital development have been found to Embrace automation and leverage it to create It is estimated
be especially effective (Frese and others 2011). better and higher paying jobs. A McKinsey report that globally,
Investment in the education and training of the estimated that between 400 million and 800 there is a need
larger municipal population is especially crucial million individuals around the world could lose jobs to invest about
for cities that have seen additional population because of automation by 2030 (McKinsey Global 3.8 per cent of
influxes and can be one way by which migrants are Institute 2017). Cities must develop strategies GDP annually,
integrated into larger urban economies. On the local to help workers transition to higher technology or an average
level, neighbourhood-level programs and special jobs, while providing income support for workers of $3.3 trillion
initiatives may be of interest for areas lagging who lose jobs due to automation. Mid-career job per year, to fill
behind (Dutton, Lindsay and McQuiad 2007). training and worker redeployment will be crucial, infrastructure
Human capital may also need to be developed and educational and workforce training models gaps (Garemo
through institutional interventions. For example, in will have to adapt to automation and technology and others 2016).
the European Union, secondary cities in non-core enhancements.
countries do not have the institutions, capital or
resources to reinvent themselves to attract new, To create new jobs, link with other “growth”
tertiary industries. Interventions or partnerships sectors such as infrastructure, renewable energy,
with international governing bodies or universities education and so on. It is estimated that globally,
may be a means of economic development in these there is a need to invest about 3.8 per cent of GDP
cases, especially for cities suffering the effects of annually, or an average of $3.3 trillion per year, to
deindustrialization (Kinossian 2018). fill infrastructure gaps (Garemo and others 2016).
Historically, governments underspend on the
Develop financing opportunities. Beyond skills infrastructure and construction sectors, which have
training, business owners and entrepreneurs may the potential to create millions of jobs. These types
need capital or credit access to spur ventures or of jobs include architecture, engineering, skilled
the development of markets. Municipalities can construction and lower-skilled jobs. Similarly, cities
develop business development centres, loan and can invest in the renewable energy sector (wind
grant programs, and technical assistance and and solar, energy efficiency technologies and so on)
public visibility opportunities for SMEs, and they (McKinsey Global Institute 2017).
can shape these services programmatically around
industries of interest (World Bank Group 2015b).
For cities with many migrant-owned businesses, 1.2.2 Productivity and
there may be an interest in reducing the transaction competitiveness
costs associated with remittances and financial
transactions between countries (Maimbo and The New Urban Agenda commits to “increasing
Ratha 2005). economic productivity, as appropriate, by providing
the labour force with access to income-earning
Build digital infrastructure to enable services opportunities, knowledge, skills and educational
and commerce. Some of the fastest growing facilities that contribute to an innovative and
services in the world are those enabled by digital competitive urban economy. We also commit
technologies. E-commerce is a good example with ourselves to increasing economic productivity
an estimated $22 trillion in global annual revenue. through the promotion of full and productive
In China, e-commerce’s share of consumption employment and decent work and livelihood
rose from 3 to 15 per cent from 2010 to 2017, and opportunities in cities and human settlements” -
it is projected to account for more than 40 per NUA 56. Productivity and competitiveness relate
cent of growth in consumption through 2020. In to the concept of the “competitive city”, which is
India, while the physical infrastructure continues to one that facilitates foreign investment, job creation,
lag behind world standards, digital infrastructure increased productivity and enhanced incomes
has grown considerably due to innovations in the (Kilroy and Mukim 2015).
telecommunications sector (Augustinraj 2018).

The linkage between productivity and urbanization workers and entrepreneurial networks can facilitate Agglomeration
is produced by agglomeration economies, which the growth of several similar businesses. Common allows workers
cluster services, households and resources. One suppliers and supply chains can also produce this to live closer to
of the New Urban Agenda’s principles is to “ensure clustering effect; and access to information and jobs and access
sustainable and inclusive urban economies by the concentration of consumer demand can ensure educational
leveraging the agglomeration benefits of well- the success of a group of businesses (Martin and opportunities,
planned urbanization, including high productivity, Sunley 2003). while permitting
competitiveness and innovation” - NUA 14. b. firms access
As such, in order to reap the benefits of to suppliers,
Agglomeration allows workers to live closer agglomeration, cities must invest in human capital consumer
to jobs and access educational opportunities, development through education and skills training markets and
while permitting firms access to suppliers, in addition to addressing spatial equity and issues the labour
consumer markets and the labour pool. Through of access. The exact effects of agglomeration pool. Through
agglomeration, overall productivity increases. and their magnitude differ between regions and agglomeration,
This effect can be quantitatively demonstrated, countries. For example, Chauvin and others overall
though the magnitude of the agglomeration effect (2017) finds that agglomeration is linked to wage productivity
varies considerably based on urban form, industry, increases in the United States and Brazil, but increases.
working skills and education, infrastructure service the linkage is much stronger in India and China
delivery and spatial equity, and so forth. As such, it (Chauvin and others 2017). Agglomeration effects
is difficult to translate findings from city to city in also differ between industries (Glaeser and Xiong
empirical studies (Graham, Melo and Noland 2009). 2017). Finally, the concept of agglomeration is
For example, Chauvin and others (2017) find that often associated with images of megacities around
high density is positively associated in earnings in the world, while secondary cities are becoming
a study of Chinese prefectures, but a World Bank increasingly more important in this discourse
study of Latin American and Caribbean countries (Roberts 2014).
does not find a strong relationship between density
and productivity (Ferreira and Roberts 2018). The productivity gains associated with clustering
Beyond pure density, proximity and connectivity are and greater density can be offset by negative
also essential to entrepreneurship and innovation, externalities, such as congestion and the under
as talent and resources cluster within urban delivery of public services to growing populations.
environments (Glaeser and Xiong 2017). Broadly speaking, cities are continually having to
navigate the push and pull of the positive economic
Agglomeration allows firms a larger pool of labour effects of agglomeration and these negative
to choose from, and workers can be better matched congestion effects (Grover and Lall 2015). These
to jobs that they are suited for (Andersson, Burgess issues have caused public authorities to divert
and Lane 2007). Porter (1998) proposed the notion development elsewhere or impose growth limits
of “industrial clustering” and competitiveness, a or barriers to urbanizing areas (Goswami, Grover
concept that builds on value chains and supply and Lall 2016). Holistically, the larger the scope
chains and was of particular interest as the and implementation capacity of local governments,
world grew increasingly globalized. Businesses the more likely it is that infrastructure service
can form clusters where well-suited workers are delivery and policies and programs geared towards
located. This discourse relates to tertiary and economic development will be successful (World
high-technology industries, where highly educated Bank Group 2015).

Diagram 7: Productivity and competitiveness
ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY
PRODUCTIVITY AND
COMPETITIVENESS
PRINCIPLES
Comparative advantage Diverse industries

Cities have a comparative There is a value in developing
advantage to be leveraged. diverse industries. Cities that
rely on single industries are
more vulnerable to changes in
the economy.
Smart Infrastructure Value

regulations and land use chains
Design smart regulations Get infrastructure Lengthen value chains
and government services development and land use and develop industries
geared towards planning right. by actively working
economic development. with businesses.

Principles production inputs, such as industrial or commercial Cities need to

land may also encourage growth and entry into be properly
Cities have a comparative advantage to be the market. Expedited permitting or licensing for equipped for
leveraged. Cities are imbued with their own businesses may also be of interest for sectors infrastructure
advantages for production due to their frequent that a local authority is trying to develop. Clear service delivery
abundance of natural resources, talent pools or and transparent government processes, such as to support
spatial configurations. For example, cities with online services may also assist business owners existing
natural resources and historic character can in receiving permits, reviewing land-use law and industries and
become tourism hubs with the development of understanding sector specific regulations. For attract capital
proper infrastructure. Cities do not necessarily example, Kigali developed a streamlined process and investment
need to develop seeking to attract “bandwagon” and centre to attract foreign investment, based from elsewhere.
industries, such as biotechnology and on a programme originally developed in Nairobi
pharmaceuticals, in order to be competitive (World Bank Group 2015). Opportunity and
and create jobs. Existing economic activities enterprise zones designated within developing
can be bolstered and cultivated via job training, countries can also allow for direct foreign
business development support or infrastructure involvement in the development of urban areas
improvements (see the Illustrative Actions section and encourage investment.
below). Informal or underutilized components of an
urban economy can be supported and formalized Get the infrastructure development and land-
through city governments. Tradable goods and use planning right. Cities must strive towards
services, as opposed to retail and public service the provision of infrastructural services equitably
jobs, are important for cities to become and remain across the entire municipality. Land-use planning
competitive (Kilroy and Mukim 2015). and other spatial planning elements are also
essential in ensuring that individual municipalities
There is value in developing diverse industries. are best configured to attract and sustain economic
Cities that rely on single industries are more development. In addition, planning should not be
vulnerable to changes in the economy. For example, limited to coordination within single municipalities.
in the United States, the movement of automobile Agglomeration can also occur regionally within the
manufacturers resulted in municipal bankruptcy purview of multiple municipal governments that
and other financial planning problems in once are linked together. Ellis and Roberts (2016) find
prosperous manufacturing cities such as Detroit that in South Asia, cities have been expanding both
(Kilroy and Mukim 2015). In the developing world, individually and as belts and regions. Coordination
industry diversification through urbanization is an between municipal authorities for infrastructure
essential component of overall economic, social service delivery and land-use planning is also
and environmental resiliency. For example, rural essential to ensuring long-term growth and
and peri-urban populations in Bangladesh that productivity (Ellis and Roberts 2016). Cities need
are particularly dependent on agricultural yields to be properly equipped for infrastructure service
experience severe instability during extreme delivery to support existing industries and attract
weather events (World Bank 2019b). capital and investment from elsewhere. Public-
private partnerships (PPPs) can be leveraged in
order to assist governments with service delivery,
Illustrative Actions but should be considered with caution, especially
for governments that are unable to properly
Design smart regulations and government oversee service delivery by for-profit entities.
services. Regulations should be geared towards Independent public sector authorities funded by
economic development to encourage development user fees can also be used to finance infrastructural
and participation of various industries. For example, improvements (Glaeser and Xiong 2017).
tax incentives for SMEs can encourage entry
into markets and assist existing businesses. As For example, Chinese development in the last three
another example, reducing barriers to acquire key decades has involved land value capture to convert
rural land to urbanized land, while moving rural

agricultural workers to more specialized and higher components. Governments can encourage the Cities may have
productivity manufacturing labour. This mass lengthening of these value chains by actively a comparative
urbanization used land value capture mechanisms working with businesses and industry groups advantage in the
to lift half a billion individuals out of poverty and as well as nonprofit organizations. Value chain production of a
fund infrastructure to further develop urban governance and deliberate planning by both private particular good
areas as they grow (World Bank, Development associations and the public sector can identify but may not be
Research Center of the State Council, the People’s individual needs of producers and provide financial able to bring
Republic of China 2014). This success is not and technical assistance to expand and develop this good to the
due to densification or urbanization, but rather individual industries. In the case of Agona Swedru, international
the infrastructural planning associated with this the development of a certification system would market.
urbanization. allow business owners to access markets.
Lengthen the value chains and develop industries. The involvement of multinational corporations in
Cities may have a comparative advantage in the the supply chains of SMEs can also be a means by
production of a particular good but may not be able which businesses can enter into global markets.
to bring this good to the international market. For Elsewhere in South Africa’s Cape Town, the city
example, in Agona Swedru, a Ghana municipality, funds individual promoters for industries of interest,
business owners produce agricultural products, including crafts and textiles. These promoters serve
but few can bring their goods to export markets as conveners for individual artisans and businesses
due to poor linkages between the production, (World Bank Group 2015b).
processing, financing and administration
27 | Man
Thegoing
NewtoUrban Agenda
market in India. © Illustrated
Rawpixel / Envato Elements
1.3 Environmental sustainability

and resiliency, it sets a target for cities to adopt Urban officials
Environmental sustainability refers integrated mitigation and adaptation and disaster and policymakers
to the New Urban Agenda principle resilience plans - SDG Target 11.B. Lastly, SDG 11 manage land and
that Governments can achieve expresses an intention to “support least developed environmental
environmental sustainability countries, including through financial and resources, both
“by promoting clean energy technical assistance, in building sustainable and of which are
and sustainable use of land and resilient buildings utilizing local materials” - SDG essential to
resources in urban development, Target 11.C. the long-term
by protecting ecosystems and sustainability
biodiversity, including adopting Cities are at the heart of environmental issues of human
healthy lifestyles in harmony with the world faces. Urban officials and policymakers settlements and
nature, by promoting sustainable manage land and environmental resources, both of the beneficial
consumption and production which are essential to the long-term sustainability linkages
patterns, by building urban of human settlements and the beneficial linkages between the
resilience, by reducing disaster risks between the natural and built environment. natural and built
and by mitigating and adapting to Smart resource management, deliberate land- environment.
climate change” - NUA 14. c. use planning and strict policies to preserve the
environment can be determinants of public health,
quality of life and social cohesion. In addition, cities
both contribute to climate change and therefore can
The issue of environmental sustainability is be effective instruments in curbing emissions, and
present throughout the New Urban Agenda. The at the same time are vulnerable to climate impacts
New Urban Agenda calls for the development of and thus need to adapt.
cities that “protect, conserve, restore and promote
their ecosystems, water, natural habitats and Throughout the world, urban areas contain a high
biodiversity, minimize their environmental impact concentration of people and assets. They produce
and change to sustainable consumption and more than 80 per cent of global GDP and timely
production patterns” - NUA 13. h. It emphasizes action to adapt to climate change impacts can have
the importance of environmental sustainability by tremendous positive externalities. For example, in
promoting clean energy and sustainable use of coastal cities, the cost of adaptation is one tenth
land and resources, ecosystems and biodiversity the cost of the consequences if there is no action.
protection, and sustainable consumption and In coastal cities, rising sea levels along with storms
production. The New Urban Agenda calls for and other weather events could force hundreds of
building urban resilience by reducing disaster risk, millions of people from their homes, with a total
mitigating climate change and adapting to its cost to coastal urban areas of more than $1 trillion
impacts - NUA 14. c. each year by 2050 (Global Center on Adaptation
and WRI 2019). While mitigation actions aim at
SDG 11 establishes several environmental minimizing global warming by reducing greenhouse
sustainability targets for creating inclusive, safe, gas emissions, adaptation is a set of actions that
resilient and sustainable urban settlements. Most fortify a city for the impacts of climate change.
broadly, SDG 11 sets the intention to “reduce the
adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, This principle has three outstanding elements:
including by paying special attention to air quality a) Biodiversity and Ecosystem Conservation, b)
and municipal and other waste management” Resilience and Adaptation to Climate Change and c)
- SDG Target 11.6. Regarding climate change Climate Change Mitigation.

1.3.1 Biodiversity and The preservation of natural ecosystems and the The New
ecosystem conservation services they provide are fundamentally linked to Urban Agenda
urban sprawl and land area expansion in cities. warns about
Biodiversity and ecosystem conservation are Researchers from Yale University’s Seto Lab unprecedented
essential considerations in sustainable urban found a number of ecologically rich “hot spots” threats due
development. The New Urban Agenda warns about threatened by the current expansion trajectory of to loss of
unprecedented threats due to loss of biodiversity - cities around the world. Sprawling cities and the biodiversity -
NUA 63, and draws special attention to conserving erosion and land degradation caused by this type NUA 63, and
and protecting biodiversity and urban ecosystems of urbanization threatens many endangered and draws special
- NUA 14. c. It asks for “particular consideration critically endangered species (Huang, McDonald attention to
to urban deltas, coastal areas and other and Seto 2018). conserving
environmentally sensitive areas, highlighting their and protecting
importance as ecosystems’ providers of significant Biodiversity loss also has consequences for biodiversity
resources for transport, food security, economic urban and peri-urban dwellers. The degradation and urban
prosperity, ecosystem services and resilience” - of natural ecosystems can result in greater ecosystems -
NUA 68. SDG 11 speaks to ecosystem conservation economic instability and environmental risk, NUA 14. c.
through the lens of devoting resources to especially for households already living in poverty
conserving natural heritage – “strengthen efforts and those living in peri-urban zones. Informal
to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and and unplanned urbanization can increase the risk
natural heritage” - SDG Target 11.4. of natural disasters, such as floods, landslides
Figure 11: In Seoul, South Korea, the re-creation of Cheonggyecheon stream was an urban
revitalization project that also triggered biodiversity and ecosystem conservation. The project created
a pleasant urban environment with clean water and natural habitats. Various species of fish, birds and
insects started to come back and the stream has helped cool down the temperature of nearby areas.
© Rana Amirtahmasebi

Diagram 8: Biodiversity and ecosystem conservation
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
BIODIVERSITY
AND ECOSYSTEM
CONSERVATION
PRINCIPLES
Urban development Scientific Stakeholders Multi-sector Conservation

strategy analysis planning
Biodiversity and Technical analysis Urban biodiversity For success, integrated Conserve natural
ecosystem and scientific studies planning should solutions and areas and assets
protection are are essential for include stakeholder multi-sector planning providing critical
essential elements developing a sound voices, especially initiatives that ecosystem services
of a sustainable vision and goals for those that are integrate both the through land
urban development protecting directly involved natural and built management and
strategy. biodiversity. with the ecosystems environment must be land-use planning.
of interest. considered.
Built environment Ecosystem services Peri-urban areas

Introduce natural elements Collect data to catalog Address issues of
into clans for the built ecosystem services. environmental degradation
environment. in peri-urban areas.
Land titles Incentives Environmental assessment

Resolving land titling Develop incentives for Require Strategic Environmental
ambiguities and informal stakeholders to comply with Assessment (SEA) for all ma jor
development. biodiversity & ecosystem infrastructure and urban
preservation goals. development projects.

and fires. The poorest populations living in urban

peripheries away from public services and disaster
Box 5: The Aichi Targets
mitigation resources will be most affected by
these events (World Bank 2014b). As such, the
following strategies should be considered by
urban practitioners to preserve biodiversity and Strategic Goal A: Strategic Goal D:
ecosystem services for both societal and ecological Address the underlying Enhance the benefits to
well-being. causes of biodiversity loss all from biodiversity and
by mainstreaming ecosystem services
biodiversity across
Principles government and society Strategic Goal E:
Enhance implementation
Biodiversity and ecosystem protection are Strategic Goal B: through participatory
essential elements of a sustainable urban Reduce the direct pressures planning, knowledge
development strategy. Developing overarching on biodiversity and promote management and
municipal biodiversity goals, which may relate to sustainable use capacity building
a larger national biodiversity strategy or National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP), as Strategic Goal C:
outlined by the Convention on Biological Diversity To improve the status of
and the Aichi targets (see box 5), is a first step biodiversity by safeguarding
in protecting biodiversity. Policymakers should ecosystems, species and
harmonize municipal agencies in order to meet genetic diversity
goals and ensure biodiversity and the maintenance
of forests and ecosystem services. This visioning
Source: Convention on Biological Diversity
process can also be conducted under the purview
of a local planning framework. For example, Local
Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI) proposes
the development of a Local Biodiversity Strategy
and Action Plan (LBSAP), which is a process that guide planning processes by allowing municipalities There are
cities may follow to envision biodiversity goals and to identify important ecological resources and their multiple methods
develop implementation strategies (Avlonitis and function, while also forming the basis for policy and by which
others 2012). programme design. Valuation can be integrated ecosystem
into longer term land-use planning strategies and valuation
Technical analysis and scientific studies are development review processes. services can
essential for developing a sound vision and be conducted.
goals for protecting biodiversity. An ecosystem Urban biodiversity planning should include Guidance can
valuation process is needed to assist practitioners stakeholder voices, especially those that are be found via the
in taking stock of the ecological elements within directly involved with the ecosystems of interest. UN Environment
a municipality. According to the Millennium Policymakers should form stakeholder working Programme
Ecosystem Assessment (2005), ecosystems can groups to ensure that stakeholders conducting (UNEP 2016).
be valued in multiple ways, including their direct formal and informal activity in peri-urban areas
provisioning value (economic and direct use value), understand the importance of biodiversity and
their regulatory value (adaptation and disaster the ways in which stakeholder actions positively
resiliency value), cultural value and supporting value and negatively affect ecosystem services (Borelli
(value for serving a niche in a larger ecological and others 2016). Peri-urban populations are
system). There are multiple methods by which especially vulnerable to environmental hazards,
ecosystem valuation services can be conducted. because they lack access to built environment
Guidance can be found via the UN Environment amenities. Engaging these populations can also
Programme (UNEP 2016). Such analyses can also build social resilience.

For success, integrated solutions and multisector ecosystem services and forestry elements within Buffer zones and
planning initiatives that integrate both the natural cities. Utilize these data in neighbourhood and green corridors
and built environment must be considered. city-level planning processes; determine if there are within peri-
Ecological management can also be accompanied policies or zoning codes that can rely on these data urban areas can
by strategies to improve quality of life, housing to assist in decision-making and spatial planning help stabilize
stability or social resilience. For example, a (Borelli and others 2016). threatened
reforestation effort might be combined with a ecosystems
housing retrofit programme to serve a larger goal of Address issues of environmental degradation and restore
coastal resilience (UNDP Green Climate Fund 2017). in peri-urban areas. Buffer zones and green ecological
corridors within peri-urban areas can help stabilize services (UNEP
Conserve natural areas and assets providing threatened ecosystems and restore ecological 2014).
critical ecosystem services through land services (UNEP 2014). The conservation of existing
management and land-use planning. Urban natural resources can also encourage densification
sprawl and lack of land-use planning has resulted and infill, which is beneficial for resource provision
in the destruction of habitats and wetlands in the and both climate adaptation and mitigation (World
outskirts of many coastal cities. Wetlands are Bank 2010).
vital for protecting the environment and public
health; they act as buffers, filter pollution, recharge Resolve land titling ambiguities and informal
groundwater aquifers, absorb floodwaters and development. Poor, informal peri-urban areas lack
protect coasts from floods, and provide habitat for access to public services and clear titles to land.
plant and animal species. A World Bank study, in As such, urbanization and expansion occur in a
collaboration with the Sri Lankan Government, has way that worsens quality of life, makes dwellers
revealed that restoring and rehabilitating current vulnerable to environmental hazards and the
wetlands could help absorb up to 40 per cent of effects of degradation and does not encourage
the water during flood events (World Bank Group densification or environmental sustainability. The
2018). Cities should make it a goal to conserve protection of biodiversity and ecological resources
their urban and peri-urban wetlands and develop is related to the formalization of services and
comprehensive strategies for their protection. land tenure, as well as the meaningful inclusion of
informal settlements into larger planning processes
(Torres 2008).
Develop incentives for stakeholders to comply
Introduce natural elements into plans for with biodiversity and ecosystem preservation
the built environment. Landscape ecology goals. Borelli and others (2016) suggest subsidies,
and green infrastructure methods of planning tax abatement, ordinances or credit incentives
and management are essential strategies for for landlords or practitioners who maintain or
sustainable water systems management. UNEP contribute to urban forests, green spaces and
provides a number of strategies that may be riparian corridors (Torres 2008). Programmatic
applied within the built environment, including incentives or interventions for peri-urban
green spaces, wetland reconstruction and riparian populations – such as wetland restoration,
buffers. Designing with nature will especially be shoreline protection or reforestation – can also
important in disaster-prone areas, to mitigate serve larger ecological goals while involving
the effects of flooding and extreme weather community members and their livelihoods in
events (UNEP 2014). Design standards, incentives planning processes.
and pilot projects can assist in this effort to
mainstream “designing with nature”. Require a Strategic Environmental Assessment
(SEA) for all major infrastructure and urban
Collect data to catalog ecosystem services. development projects. SEA is considered
Conduct an ecosystem service mapping process a key tool to integrate environmental and
in order to develop a comprehensive inventory of social considerations into policies, plans and

programmes. SEA is a group of approaches that lie to how current practices must change to adjust Adaptation is
on a continuum. While one end focuses on impact to changing conditions, resilience refers to the defined as the
analysis, the other end is fixed on institutional summative social, economic and environmental “adjustment
assessment. SEA is developed to integrate practices that allow for an urban area to weather in natural or
environmental concerns across three levels of the effects of changing conditions, including the human systems
strategic decision-making: plan, programme effects of climate change. It includes the social in response
and policy (World Bank 2013). Some countries and economic sectors as well as adaptation and to actual or
have developed their own versions of SEA. In disaster risk reduction. The New Urban Agenda expected
the United States, the National Environmental commits to “improving the resilience of cities to climatic stimuli
Policy Act (NEPA) requires all federally funded disasters and climate change, including floods, or their effects,
projects to go through an environmental impact drought risks and heat waves, to improving food which moderates
assessment and, if significant impacts are found, security and nutrition, physical and mental health, harm or exploits
to prepare an environmental impact statement and household and ambient air quality, to reducing beneficial
that provides alternatives that are less damaging noise and promoting attractive and liveable cities, opportunities”
to the environment. Many countries legally require human settlements and urban landscapes and to (UNFCCC).
similar environmental review procedures for prioritizing the conservation of endemic species” -
major development projects. However, rather than NUA 67.
simply acting as an inventorying mechanism, SEA
processes should require alternative development The New Urban Agenda commits to following the
schemes if adverse impacts are identified. City Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
governments should integrate environmental 2015–2030. This framework was the first major
assessments with land use planning and master agreement of the post-2015 development agenda
planning. and provides Member States with concrete actions
to protect development gains from the risk of
disaster (UNDRR 2019b). The framework prioritizes
1.3.2 Resilience and adaptation understanding disaster risk, developing capacity to
to climate change address disaster preparedness and recovery and
investing in adaptation measures to reduce disaster
The New Urban Agenda mentions both adaptation risk and build resiliency (UNDRR 2019b). Economic
and urban resilience multiple times. On adaptation, losses worldwide from disasters were $140 billion
it asks for commitment to “supporting the medium- in 2015; (UNDRR 2019a) climate change will only
to long-term adaptation planning process, as well
as city-level assessments of climate vulnerability
and impact, to inform adaptation plans, policies,
programmes and actions that build the resilience Figure 12: Coastal erosion management,
Criccieth, North Wales, UK
of urban inhabitants, including through the use of
ecosystem-based adaptation” - NUA 80.
Adaptation is defined as the “adjustment in

natural or human systems in response to actual
or expected climatic stimuli or their effects,
which moderates harm or exploits beneficial
opportunities” (UNFCCC). Resilience can be
defined as the “ability of a system, community
or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb,
accommodate to and recover from the effects
of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner,
including through the preservation and restoration
of its essential basic structures and functions”
(UNISDR and WMO 2012). While adaptation refers
33 | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated © JRichard Allaway / Flickr

increase the frequency and intensity of natural SDG 11 also articulates a target around supporting SDG 11 also
disasters in addition to having detrimental effects cities in adopting adaptation, mitigation, resilience articulates a
on everyday quality of life. Risks will especially be and disaster relief plans, as well as adherence to target around
compounded for vulnerable populations with limited the Sendai Framework: “Substantially increase the supporting cities
resources for both preparation and recovery. Given number of cities and human settlements adopting in adopting
these predictions, governments will need to adapt and implementing integrated policies and plans adaptation,
to a changing climate and develop contingency towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation mitigation,
plans for disasters and “new normals” regarding and adaptation to climate change, resilience to resilience and
living conditions, infrastructural performance, disasters, and develop and implement, in line with disaster relief
sectoral planning and resource management. the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction plans, as well
2015–2030, holistic disaster risk management at as adherence
all levels” - SDG Target 11.B. to the Sendai
Framework.
Figure 13: In Ahmedabad, India, the city built a wall along the river Sabarmati to prevent
floods and protect the environment from degradation. This wall was self-financed
creatively by training the width of the existing river to 275 meters in order to reclaim
approximately 200 hectares of riverfront land. According to the proposal, 20 percent
of the reclaimed land was to be sold to finance the entire cost of the project while
the rest was to be used for new streets, parks, and development of other civic
amenities. A key feature of this proposal was a continuous promenade along the
east and west banks of the river.
© JRana Amirtahmasebi The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | 34

Diagram 9: Resilience and adaptation to climate change
RESILIENCE AND
ADAPTATION TO
CLIMATE CHANGE
PRINCIPLES
Risk Develop Sector-specific Institutional

reduction scenarios planning capacity
Develop policies for Calibrate policies Risks should be Policies and institutions should
risk reduction to around well-character- considered in the have disaster response
address sectoral and ized and explicated context of specific embedded in governance
financial risks for risks, with agreement industries and practices; disaster planning
urban resilience. between stakeholders. sectors. and recovery practices should
be done so that they add to
civic and institutional capacity.
Resilience strategy Land use Hazard risk Adaptation funding

Develop a citywide Develop land use Develop specific policy Understand adaptation
resilience strategy. policies for actions for each funding as an investment and
climate resilience. category of hazard risk. explore diverse streams of
support available.
Recovery funding Early warning systems Institutions Built environment

Set up recovery funds Develop warning and Prepare existing Improve the built
prior to the emergence information systems that institutions for environment and
of any new risk. are easily accessible to all disasters. housing stock.
members of the public.

Principles Risks should be considered in the context of Cities should

specific industries and sectors. Capital planning find ways to
Sustainable urban development policies should and financing processes should integrate updated integrate climate
be developed directly considering risk reduction, climate predictions into planning processes. For scenarios and
addressing sectoral and financial risks for greater example, changes in seasonal norms for the more localized
urban resilience. Economic activities relate to a agricultural sector will require adaptive changes. impacts such as
city’s ability to adapt and recover. It is essential to Extreme heat and storms will require more resilient urban heat island
integrate economic development and quality of energy infrastructure and electrical grids. While not effects into these
life measures into adaptation planning strategies. all of these changes can be addressed by urban types of planning
These strategies are especially important for the governments, environment standards that are decisions,
urban poor. Prioritizing adaptation strategies with resilient to climate change, such as building and coordinating
economic co-benefits can improve conditions for design standards, are the purview of cities. Cities with regional
vulnerable populations. should find ways to integrate climate scenarios and national
and more localized impacts such as urban governments.
Effective policies are calibrated around well- heat island effects into these types of planning
characterized and explicated risks, with agreement decisions, coordinating with regional and national
among stakeholders. Risks should be considered governments. OECD recommends Strategic
in the context of multiple scenarios. Understand Environmental Assessment and other analytic
the risks and develop scenarios to calibrate and participatory policy analysis techniques to
disaster and climate adaptation plans according systematically evaluate the potential impacts of
to municipal risks. Conduct modeling to determine a changing climate within individual sectors and
the health and economic impacts of events such to make planning decisions (OECD 2010); building
as drought, floods, hurricanes, heat waves, wildfires performance standards such as Leadership in
and other climate disasters. Develop a variety Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) have
of scenarios and develop responses to each. started to integrate how effectively a building is
There are multiple frameworks that can guide risk able to reduce heat islands to minimize impacts
assessment. Folorunsho and others (2009), in a on microclimates and human habitats. LEED is
framework produced for the World Bank, describe the most widely used green building rating system
a three-step process, where cities first identify in the world. It is available for all building types,
climate hazards, then identify vulnerabilities, and providing a framework for healthy, highly efficient
finally determine adaptive capacities for addressing and cost-saving green buildings (USGBC). Urban
risks to vulnerable populations, infrastructure or Land Institute also has published a resource
sectors (Folorunsho and others 2009). that describes how to quantitatively evaluate
infrastructural risk to critical assets (Urban Land
Institute 2015).

Policies and institutions should have disaster Figure 14: Hurricane Katrina flooded New Orleans, USA
response embedded in governance practices; (before and after). These two images from NASA’s
disaster planning and recovery practices Terra satellite show the affected areas. The top
should be done such that they add to civic and image is from 2000 and the bottom image is
institutional capacity. from 2005. The flooded parts of the city that are
still under water appear dark blue and areas that
 Governments should have embedded
have dried out appear light blue gray. On the
leadership and institutional capacity for
left side of the image, the failed 17th Street canal
disaster response. Develop leaders within marks a sharp boundary between flooded city
individual city agencies and work to develop to the east and dry land to the west. The images
disaster response plans on the municipal cover an area of 10.4 x 7.1 kilometres.
level. Government leaders in this work area
should ensure that in their purview as public
servants they are able to properly engage with
neighbourhoods and community groups as
part of leadership and expertise development.
 Disaster response and recovery are contingent

on community knowledge and engagement.
Rely on formal and informal networks of
stakeholders to develop greater social
resilience. Make use of digital media platforms
for risk communication and public engagement
purposes. Ensure that the most vulnerable
members of the population are engaged in
adaptive measures and activities. For example,
women and children in developing nations
may be more adversely affected by extreme
weather events and economic destabilization.
Structuring and funding adaptive efforts around
vulnerable groups can also be in service of
larger social progress (OECD 2010). Identify
existing social vulnerabilities and understand
how they are clustered spatially within the
municipality. Plan disaster preparation efforts
to prepare vulnerable populations for future
risk. For example, urban areas with poorer
air quality and higher rates of respiratory
illness will be more vulnerable to extreme
temperatures (City of Los Angeles 2019).
© NASA / JPL

Illustrative Actions For flood zones (via Grannis 2011): A City Resilience
Strategy is a six-
Develop a citywide resiliency strategy.  Local adaptation plans and planning to-nine-month
Mainstreamed by 100 Resilient Cities, a City processes to engage community members process during
Resilience Strategy is a six-to-nine-month process living within flood hazard zones. Plans that which a city
during which a city develops a better understanding are developed collaboratively can strengthen develops a better
of challenges faced in response to economic, stakeholder buy-in and aid in collective understanding
environmental and social risks. Through this decision-making. of challenges
process, the city reviews its ability to address faced in response
those challenges and provides a platform for  Development restrictions and building code to economic,
bringing together people, projects and priorities specifications. Municipalities can restrict environmental
to collectively act on resilience challenges. The development in potential flood zone areas, and social risks.
outcome is not necessarily a master plan or a while also specifying resilience measures be
legally binding document, but rather a vehicle included for new buildings in these areas.
for kick-starting resiliency efforts. Through the
programme, cities around the world, from New  Rebuilding restrictions. Municipalities (or
York and Medellin to Melbourne and Rotterdam, national Governments administering recovery
have produced their first-ever resilience strategies funding) can specify hazardous areas where
(100 Resilient Cities 2016). The next steps to funding will not be allocated towards rebuilding.
make such strategy documents more tangible is
to employ dedicated staff for the preparation and  Permitting processes requiring or
implementation of identified priority actions and incentivizing grey and green infrastructure.
commit funding to ensure longevity of planning Cities can require that within hazard prone
actions for resiliency. areas potential developers implement green
infrastructure or storm hardening projects.
Develop land-use policies for climate resiliency.
Require lower density development in potential  Transfer development rights and public
hazard zones. Zoning and overlay zones can buyouts.
specify resiliency requirements for building or
restrict new development altogether. For areas with For areas subject to extreme heat (via Hoverter
reduced residential and commercial development, 2012):
fund the development of green space, forestry and
natural buffers to protect more highly developed  Cool roofs, green roofs and pavements. Cities
areas when relevant to the hazard. Building codes can incentivize the installation of cool and
and ordinances can shape new development to green roofs by providing rebates or tax credits
reduce risk in disaster-prone areas (Grannis 2011). for new development. Expedited permitting
and allowances for denser development
Develop specific policy actions for each category can also be incentives deployed in planning
of hazard risk. The list below provides suggested processes. Cities can also use ordinances
planning and land-use tools that may be helpful for and regulations to affect new development.
various hazards. Create demonstration projects on municipally
owned buildings. Consider low- and moderate-
income households or vulnerable populations
in providing incentives to building owners or
developers, so that building improvements and
heat mitigating building practices are not just
provided to higher income neighbourhoods.

 Urban forestry. Urban forests and green  Regarding borrowing and credit, programmes Better
spaces can cool cities significantly. These such as the City Creditworthiness Academy management
can be funded via bonds, taxes or tax- have also allowed municipalities to become of stormwater
deductible donations. Municipalities can also direct borrowers, versus borrowing through and rainwater
mandate requirements for tree planting for national Governments or lacking access to harvesting
new development. They may have existing credit entirely (ODI 2015). For cities that do systems installed
landscaping standards that may be modified have access to credit, in addition to municipal around the
towards heat mitigation (Hoverter 2012). bonds, categorized or designated green bonds municipality can
may be of interest to socially minded investors help conserve
For drought and resource management issues (via (Herst and Levy 2018). water resources.
World Bank 2011):
 Taxes and surcharges on real estate
 Stormwater and rainwater capture systems development at the municipal level may also
city-wide. Better management of stormwater be used to fund adaptation measures. For
and rainwater harvesting systems installed example, surcharges on property taxes are
around the municipality can help conserve used to fund affordable housing initiatives;
water resources. similar policies may be applicable or of interest
for municipal adaptation measures (Herst and
 Water conservation and reuse systems. Levy 2018). Surcharges on insurance policies
Develop water conservation measures and could also fund resilience measures, where
reuse. the contribution by property reflects its overall
vulnerability and climate risk (Herst and Levy
 Groundwater drawing management. Develop 2018).
regulatory structures to manage drawing of
groundwater, especially for industrial and  Stormwater fees or special district fees/
agricultural purposes. resilience charges can be implemented in order
to fund green infrastructure improvements,
 Demand management. Develop demand flood barriers and other mechanisms. Any fund
management systems for water systems to established through these financing sources
avoid shortages. would also need to have transparent terms of
allocation and governance so that adaptation is
 Municipal level food storage systems. Develop funded equitably and through a clear process.
better food storage systems on a municipal
level so that agricultural problems caused by  It may be possible to harness private-sector
drought do not result in food shortages. funding or encourage protective infrastructural
investment via incentives such as tax credits,
Understand adaptation funding as an investment development incentives, abatements or zoning
and explore the diverse streams of support code and land use regulation.
available. Develop funding for adaptation measures
at the municipal level. For developing countries,
the examples below can guide development of an Box 6 presents the participatory resilience planning
investment strategy: process implemented since 2010 in Madagascar,
Malawi, Mozambique and Comoros.
 Multilateral funding sources are available for
individual initiatives and projects. Examples Set up recovery funds prior to the emergence of
include the Global Climate Fund, the Global any new risk. In addition, financial planning for
Environment Fund and the Least Developed adaptation, contingency plans and funds should be
Countries Fund. Approximately $168 million established for disaster recovery. Develop a disas-
in multilateral climate-related funding was ter recovery fund and fund dissemination mech-
provided between 2010 and 2014. anisms. The World Bank (2018) provides detailed

guidance on the types of funds that are possible

and where financing may be possible. Typically, Box 6: Participatory Resilience Planning–
for municipalities, reliance on regional and central Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique and
government contingency funds may be necessary Comoros (2010-ongoing)
following large-scale disaster events (Pigato 2018).
Utilize principles of “Build Back Better”, where In southern Africa, the combination of high vulnerability
recovery and rehabilitation efforts can be struc- among the region’s large and rapidly growing urban poor populations
tured to build adaptive capacity in vulnerable areas and the acute impact of increasingly extreme weather events due to
(UNDRR 2017). climate change has created an urgent need for response. Countries in
the region are affected by several hazards that have led to disasters
Develop warning and information systems including droughts, floods and cyclones. In their aftermath, thousands
that are easily accessible to all members of the are left injured, without shelter, displaced, food insecure, and without
public to disseminate information about flooding, access to clean water and medicine. The deepest and longest lasting
heatwaves, and so on (Field and others 2012). impacts are felt by those most vulnerable.
Build social resiliency and provide the public
access to emergency institutions and services Four countries that experience severe effects of the same
that enable communication and social cohesion. transboundary hazards, -Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique and
Allow members of the public to develop their own the Union of Comoros-, joined forces with UN-Habitat to establish a
disaster management plans on a neighbourhood Technical Centre for Disaster Risk Management, Sustainability and
level or develop their own networks and information Urban Resilience (DiMSUR). The Center developed a tool, the City
technologies. Resilience Action Planning tool, or CityRAP, to facilitate participatory
resilience planning at the city level. The methodology of CityRAP brings
Prepare existing institutions for disasters. together municipal authorities, urban stakeholders and communities.
Emergency services and other existing public They jointly conduct a series of activities, through four phases,
service providers should be prepared for extreme that includes a crash course on urban resilience, data collection
weather and heat. Note that it will also be important and analysis, participatory mapping, focus group discussions and
to get other sectors involved to assist vulnerable prioritization exercises that lead to identifying the most important
populations. Social workers, home health aides and actions the city needs to take to build its resilience to disasters.
individuals that interact with vulnerable members Amongst the first cities to pilot this tool were Morondava, Zomba,
of the public should also be involved in disaster Chokwe and Moroni. Using the tool, the four cities identified their
preparedness. resilience needs, such as reinforcing drainage systems, ecosystem
restoration, better management of solid waste and establishing early
Improve the built environment and housing stock. warning systems and safe havens to protect lives and the city’s assets.
Improve housing stock to better withstand natural
disasters and extreme weather. Infrastructure The four countries and cities, with the support of DiMSUR
planning processes that simultaneously consider and UN-Habitat, combined the outcomes of the CityRAP process
public health in addition to economic risk into a single joint proposal and successfully raised $14 million to
can also be helpful in ensuring the protection implement all of the resilience building needs prioritized in each
of vulnerable populations. Cool roofs, green city, as well as to supplement these with capacity building materials
roofs, cool pavements and forestry initiatives and tools for promoting urban climate adaptation nationally, and for
can reduce the impact of extreme heat. Flood regional knowledge and experience sharing as well. Implementation
protection infrastructure and investment in green has kicked off, and it is expected that by 2024 there will be 23 resilient
infrastructure can provide protection against infrastructure interventions completed in the cities, making those
storms and coastal flooding. Utilize incentives cities far more resilient to disasters and preventing massive loss of
(such as tax credit programmes) to assist lives and livelihoods. Additionally, the experiences in the four cities has
individual homeowners with retrofits and building helped to further develop the CityRAP tool, which since 2016 has been
improvements (Grannis 2011). implemented in a total of 34 locations in 12 countries across Africa.
Source: UN-Habitat

1.3.3 Climate change mitigation Principles Cities consume

two thirds of the
Cities are the core of global climate change A vision based on benchmarks and clear targets world’s energy
mitigation and strategic low-carbon development. is essential to plan emissions reductions. Cities and a significant
Cities consume two thirds of the world’s energy that seek to achieve emissions reduction goals portion of global
and a significant portion of global CO2 emissions. should establish benchmarks and target dates CO2 emissions.
While cities are growing at an unprecedented by which initiatives should be achieved. The While cities are
rate, it is important to keep the urban footprint baseline for such a planning process can be a growing at an
minimal, so that cities consume fewer resources, comprehensive emissions inventory, in addition unprecedented
and be equipped with tools to mitigate the negative to demographic predictions that can serve as rate, it is
impacts of climate change and global warming. a baseline for potential growth. Guides on how important
to prepare a municipal greenhouse gas (GHG) to keep the
To this end, the New Urban Agenda recognizes the emissions assessment are available through urban footprint
importance of cities as climate change mitigation various institutions. These baseline assessments minimal, so that
implementers: “We commit ourselves to promoting are critical for long-term mitigation planning. cities consume
international, national, subnational and local climate Assessments and goal setting should also fewer resources
action, including climate change adaptation and be aligned with national or regional goals for
mitigation, and to supporting the efforts of cities emissions reductions (World Resources Institute,
and human settlements, their inhabitants and all C40 Cities and ICLEI 2014).
local stakeholders as important implementers” -
NUA 79. Economic development and worker empowerment
are important factors in conducting mitigation
The New Urban Agenda also commits to integrating activities, especially in economically depressed
climate change mitigation considerations “into or developing cities. Mitigation and emissions
age- and gender-responsive urban and territorial reductions are important in their own right but are
development and planning processes” - NUA also opportunities to create jobs and vocational
101 and to supporting access to funding sources training, improve housing stock and improve
for climate change mitigation and adaptation access to transportation and public services (City
“including the Green Climate Fund, the Global of Los Angeles 2019).
Environment Facility, the Adaptation Fund and the
Climate Investment Funds, among others” - NUA Integrated solutions are the most effective. Many
143. This section presents tools and policies to mitigation and emissions reduction strategies
mitigate these impacts while also encouraging not only relate to the deployment of technology,
development and economic empowerment for but also to urban form and spatial planning. For
vulnerable and disadvantaged urban populations. example, the development of public transportation
systems relies on a supportive, transit oriented
urban form as well as densified housing stock.
Decisions regarding energy and infrastructure

development in cities are long-lived and have
long-term impacts on emissions reduction
targets. Cities that are already developed follow
the nodes of existing transportation infrastructure.
Developed sprawling cities find it difficult to densify
and implement transit oriented development. In the
developing world, cities that are still in the process
of planning and development should develop

Diagram 10: Climate change mitigation
CLIMATE CHANGE
MITIGATION
PRINCIPLES
Vision Worker Integrated Long-term

empowerment solutions planning
A vision or an Economic development and Integrated Decisions regarding energy
envisioned path worker empowerment are solutions are the and infrastructure
towards mitigation is important factors in conducting most effective. development in cities are
essential to plan mitigation activities, especially long-lived and have
reduction activities. in economically depressed or long-term impacts on
developing cities. emissions reduction
targets.
Integrated land Renewable Financial Finance

use planning energy mechanism retrofits
Engage in integrated land Develop Develop sources of Develop financial mechanism
use planning and community-based financing for mitigation. for home owners and
densification to encourage renewable energy businesses to retrofit buildings,
low-emission systems. especially those located in
transportation use. low-income communities.
Cooling Ordinances Public procurement Circular economy

Invest in built environment Develop ordinances Ensure that public Integrate circular economy,
improvements for cooling. and mandates for procurement and sustainable waste management
high-emission public-sector capital and material reuse principles
buildings and new investments are geared into urban waste disposal and
development. towards low-emissions metabolic systems.
technology.

visions for the spatial characteristics of the urban electric vehicles should also be considered carefully Investments in
fabric. Similarly, infrastructural investments are for their long-term land-use implications (Greater transportation
often made for the long-term. Investment in energy London Authority 2018). For developing cities, should be
infrastructure locks cities into a mode of energy this is especially critical, as development patterns coupled with
generation or distribution. As such, planning and may be “locked in” for decades to come based integrated land-
investment must be forward-looking (Edenhofer on long-run investments in infrastructure. Create use planning
and others 2011). policies that promote densification and greater that allows for
reliance on public transportation and incentivize densification and
the development of housing within transit corridors the promotion of
Illustrative Actions (Edenhofer and others 2011). walking, cycling
and using public
Engage in integrated land-use planning and Develop community-based energy systems transportation.
densification to encourage low-emission to deploy renewable energy (Edenhofer and
transportation use. Investments in transportation others 2011). Aging electrical infrastructure and
should be coupled with integrated land-use the heightened threat of disasters and extreme
planning that allows for densification and the weather necessitates community governance
promotion of walking, cycling and using public and involvement in energy planning, especially
transportation. Low- or zero-carbon technologies for communities and areas vulnerable to natural
for motor vehicles, including fuel cell electric and disasters.
Figure 15: Baltimore, USA. The Inner Harbor Water Wheel combines old and new
technology to harness the power of water and sunlight to collect litter and debris
flowing down the Jones Falls River. The river’s current provides power to turn the water
wheel, which lifts trash and debris from the water and deposits it into a dumpster
barge. When there is not enough water current, a solar panel array provides additional
power to keep the machine running. When the dumpster is full, it is towed away by
boat, and a new dumpster is put in place.
© U.S. Army. Cynthia Mitchell / Flickr

 Develop capacity-building authorities such as subsidized retrofits. These incentives can also be Urban forest
neighbourhood resilience hubs and municipal deployed via ordinances and zoning requirements. canopies, green
technical assistance programmes to allow for Deploy retrofits in low-income and disadvantaged roofs and other
distributed energy investment and community- neighbourhoods. Low income populations are more natural elements
led management. These authorities will likely to live in poor housing stock and face energy can reduce the
allow for individual communities to access cost burdens. As such, it is important that retrofits energy burden
resources, while planning for future extreme and energy efficiency measures be deployed in and resultant
energy events. This is a means by which areas with aging building stock. emissions in
renewable energy can be deployed, but also neighbourhoods
managed and governed democratically. Invest in built environment improvements for that currently
cooling. Urban forest canopies, green roofs and lack these
 Invest in community-based microgrids and other natural elements can reduce the energy amenities.
distributed energy. Especially in disaster burden and resultant emissions in neighbourhoods
prone areas, these can serve as an adaptation that currently lack these amenities. In addition to
strategy in addition to reducing aggregate improving quality of life, reducing the urban heat
emissions. island effect through these practices can result in
lower heating and cooling costs.
Develop sources of financing for mitigation.
Multilateral funds exist for developing countries Develop ordinances and mandates for high-
to fund mitigation projects. Similarly, bilateral emissions buildings and new development.
funding and export credits can also assist Performance standards for new buildings will
developing countries. Green revolving funds, where reduce emissions from new development.
investments in renewable energy and energy Ordinances can also focus on larger buildings
efficiency ultimately save energy costs can be in order to further reduce the impact of these
reinvested into new capital investments. Green structures.
bonds and municipal financing can also be used for
investment, as well as funding from PPPs (Corfee- Ensure that public procurement strategies and
Morlot and Larsen 2009). Creating institutions to public sector capital investment are geared
administer public funds around mitigation and to towards low-emissions technology. Cities should
research and develop funding from other sources ensure that capital purchases that they make for
can be helpful for municipalities and regional public use such as vehicles, building construction
governments. and renovation, transportation infrastructure, and
heating and cooling systems are aligned with
Develop financial mechanisms for individual mitigation strategies and plans.
homeowners and businesses to retrofit
buildings, especially those located in low-income Integrate principles of the circular economy,
communities. Tax credits, subsidies and other sustainable waste management and materials
incentives can assist homeowners and businesses reuse into urban waste disposal and metabolic
in applying emissions-reducing technology such as systems. Emissions also result from waste
energy efficiency retrofits, renewables deployment disposal, so finding sustainable methods of
and more efficient heating and cooling systems. disposal and energy generation are of particular
Develop public education and marketing around importance. Cities should consider waste to energy
subsidy and retrofit programmes. Utilities can also technologies for disposal.
participate in offering energy audits and similar

1.4 Spatial sustainability

spatial and territorial planning that integrates “water On spatial
This handbook includes “spatial resources planning and management, urban-rural development of
continuum on the local and territorial scales and cities, the New
sustainability” as a fourth
including the participation of relevant stakeholders Urban Agenda
Dimension that builds on the
and communities” - NUA 72. refers to the
three principles: leave no one International
behind (social sustainability), Furthermore, SDG 11 includes a number of spatial Guidelines on
ensure sustainable and inclusive sustainability goals, including spatial equity in Urban and
urban economies (economic transit, access to green and public spaces, and Territorial
sustainability) and ensure well-planned links between urban, peri-urban Planning,
environmental sustainability. and rural areas. In regard to transit, it encourages approved by
Spatial sustainability, as a the provision of access to “safe, affordable, the Governing
concept, suggests that the accessible and sustainable transport systems for Council of UN-
all, improving road safety, notably by expanding Habitat in 2015
spatial conditions of a city
public transport, with special attention to the needs - NUA 93.
can enhance its power to
of those in vulnerable situations, women, children,
generate social, economic persons with disabilities and older persons” - SDG
and environmental value and 11 Target 11.2. SDG 11 articulates an intention
well-being. Governments can to “provide universal access to safe, inclusive and
achieve spatial sustainability accessible, green and public spaces, in particular
by guiding the physical form of for women and children, older persons and persons
urban environments to create with disabilities” - SDG 11 Target 11.7. It mentions
equitable access to jobs, housing the importance of “positive economic, social and
and social interactions; enable environmental links between urban, peri-urban and
rural areas by strengthening national and regional
agglomeration economies
development planning” - SDG 11 Target 11.A.
and encourage sustainable
relationships to ecosystems and On spatial development of cities, the New Urban
natural habitats. The physical Agenda refers to the International Guidelines on
form of a city, which is the Urban and Territorial Planning, approved by the
result of intentional planning Governing Council of UN-Habitat in 2015 - NUA
and development, is critical 93. Based on this document of UN-Habitat (2015),
to urban social, economic and adequate spatial development can help cities
environmental well-being. develop sustained economic growth, maintain
sustainable environments and enhance social
development.
The New Urban Agenda encourages “spatial Satellite imagery captures cities and towns
development strategies that take into account, as as they expand around the world. Large urban
appropriate, the need to guide urban extension, settlements are set into the land and visible from
prioritizing urban renewal by planning for the far above, indicative of their scale and density, as
provision of accessible and well-connected well as the livelihoods they sustain. Such images
infrastructure and services, sustainable population are a testament to mass urbanization occurring
densities and compact design and integration in real time.
of new neighbourhoods into the urban fabric,
preventing urban sprawl and marginalization” - Spatial inequalities can also be observed. In
NUA 52. It mentions the importance of adequate South Africa, crowded and irregularly arranged

Diagram 11: Spatial sustainability
SPATIAL
SUSTAINABILITY
1.2
growth
450
million
rate
Globally, cities are of urban populations 80% of ma jor new urban residents
expanding at a faster (1990-2015) South Asian will be added to
rate rather than 1.8 growth rate cities face cities in Africa in the
urban population. of urban extents flood risk. next 20 years.
(1990-2015).
Source: Urban expansion program at New York university, UN Habitat and the Lincoln institute of land policy,2006, Atlas of urban expansion.
PRINCIPLES
Growth management Connectivity and access Affordable housing

Limit and allow for While densification and Housing and the provision
expansion when infill may increase of affordable housing
appropriate. agglomeration, must be key components
connectivity and access of integrated spatial
to services are also key. planning efforts.
Urban growth boundary Polycentric form Urban regeneration

Develop a dynamic Gradually move from Consider policies to
urban growth monocentric urban form to encourage infill and
boundary. polycentric model. urban regeneration.

homes stack up next to each other in a Cape and public services by sprawl. As this sprawl
Town township, while a nearby suburb is green occurred, the quality of public services in urban
with rolling hills. Mumbai’s Dharavi informal cores deteriorated (Wilson 2006). In Europe and
settlement from above is a collection of blue the United States, housing costs within major
tarps and concrete dwellings; just across the river employment centres have continued to increase
is one of the city’s richest commercial districts, and put pressure on the existing housing stock in
containing modern skyscrapers, greenery and communities (Inchauste and others 2018). In the
modern infrastructure. These dramatic breaks developing world, residents of informally settled
in landscapes are indicative of more than just areas go undercounted by official censuses,
changes in urban form, but rather stark differences lack access to basic services such as water and
in the ability of residents to access essential sanitation and are vulnerable to disease outbreaks
services, housing and employment. as well as environmental disasters.
Spatial sustainability relates to the long-term

ability of cities to successfully plan for their 1.4.1 Spatial sustainability
increased urbanization and growth. However, and equity
beyond descriptors of the built environment, spatial
sustainability is fundamentally about people and Urban form and spatial sustainability are important
access. It is imperative that all individuals living because cities are the engines of economic
within a city, regardless of income level or identity, productivity. The agglomeration of services,
can access housing, centres of employment and customers, supply chains, knowledge centres and
essential public services. These public services access to financial capital can result in higher
– including roads, transportation networks, productivity and greater quality of life for residents.
schools, hospitals, water and sanitation – should Because of this agglomeration effect, cities are
be equitably distributed and of equal quality for all said to have “spatial capital”, which describes this
residents. It follows that the outcomes associated characterization and the notion of urban form
with these services – including health, economic as an initial investment towards larger returns.
well-being, upward mobility and overall quality However, spatial capital is not defined purely as
of life – are linked to space and planning policies proximity or the aggregation of populations and
(Wilson 2006). services (see Box 9 on the concept of spatial capital
in Wuhan). Rapid expansion without planning can
For example, in the developed world, disparities result in cutting the poor off from essential public
of access exist within prosperous cities and services. Densification that is conducted without
regions. Access to employment centres, education considering issues of access, connectivity, and
and essential public services can differ radically natural and open space can lead to congestion,
between individual neighbourhoods within unaffordability, inaccessibility and several public
cities and regions even in the developed world; health issues. Harvey (1973) defined spatial
for example, in Paris, all other factors held equity as dependent on accessibility, or relative
equal, neighbourhood is an important factor ease of access to important services. Pitarch-
in the likelihood of finding employment (Korsu Garrido (2015) via the United Nations states
and Wenglenski 2010). These disparities have that “measuring equity through access to the
their roots in longer planning histories. In the education, health and social services by public
United States, discriminatory lending practices, transport provides very reliable results even when
disinvestment and suburbanization have produced the exact location of the demand (the population)
extreme disparities of access along the lines is not available”. As such, equity can be
of class and race, where minorities have been understood by this proxy (Pitarch-Garrido 2015).
cut off from suburban employment centres

Figure 16: High water supply pipeline density in higher

class residential and industrial areas in Cape Coast, Ghana.
LEGEND
Pipe diameter
25 -50 50 -75 75 -100 100 -150 150 -200 200 -225 225 -250 250 -300 300 -375 375- 450 450- 500
Building OSM Residential classes Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Industry/other Greens
Source: Eparque Urban Strategies, 2019
Figure 16 shows a map of Cape Coast in Ghana. 1.4.2 Spatial sustainability

The map was created using satellite imagery to and urban density
classify settlements from high class to low class
(informal and low construction quality). Then, a At the core of many of these issues and trends are
map of the city’s water network was overlaid. The density and the spatial concentration of people,
result clearly shows that higher-income areas institutions, goods and services. Density is the
have better water access, and therefore it is a good ratio of the population to the overall land area of a
manifestation of spatial inequalities. Good spatial city. It is generally more expensive to finance and
planning is essential to sustain human settlements construct infrastructure and connect individual
around the world and ensure that urbanization and residents to employment centres and essential
city expansion is properly managed, especially in services or amenities in low-density, sprawling
the rapidly expanding developing world. cities. For example, a well cited study compares

the urban forms of Barcelona (high-density) and

Atlanta (sprawling, low-density), and demonstrates
Box 7: Cape Coast metropolis in Ghana is sprawling
that the length of a rail line is “accessible to 60 per
cent of the population in Barcelona but only 4 per
cent in Atlanta” (Bertaud 2004). The built-up density in Cape Coast Metropolis increased marginally
between 2000 and 2010. The 2000 to 2010 decadal period saw an
Globally, urban land cover is expanding faster than increase from 11,367 persons per square kilometre to 11,410 persons per
urban population. Between 1990 and 2015, the square kilometre.
population of cities in more developed countries
increased by a factor of 1.2; their urban expenses From 2010 to 2018, population density in the Cape Coast
increased by a factor of 1.8. In the cities of Metropolis declined massively from 11,410 persons per square kilometre
developing countries, average urban densities have of built-up area to only 7,091 persons per square kilometre. This means
declined at an average annual rate of 2.1 per cent that fewer people are living in a larger built-up area, implying higher
between 1990 and 2015, which shows an increase levels of urban sprawl or less compact settlement development. In effect,
in urban land consumption per capita (Angel the costs of infrastructure provision and operations and maintenance
2016). For example, Box 7 explains the case of a have increased. This reduction in density also suggests that the
secondary city in Ghana, where many cities are environmental footprint of the Metropolitan Assembly is increasing, in
sprawling while population densities are dropping. opposition to targets of the Sustainable Development Goals for city/
urban management. The two maps below show the extent of this
In both the developing and developed world, expansion. See Figure 17 for an illustration of the growth of settlements.
sprawl can make it difficult for local governments
to improve access and connectivity for residents.
In the developing world, sprawl is often informal
Figure 17: Settlement growth in Cape Coast,
and the result of peri-urban settlement and Ghana, 2010 (left) and 2018 (right).
unavailable or unaffordable housing stock in the
urban core. Alternatively, suburban areas may
also be out of reach or without reliable, affordable
transportation options. In informal development,
residents are left out of censuses or planning
efforts, further alienating them from governance
processes, increasing economic and environmental
vulnerability and reducing overall quality of life
(Arfvidsson and others 2017).
The cost of infrastructure provision is much

higher in sprawling cities. For example, a study
on infrastructure provision in urbanizing Africa
estimates that the cost of providing water service
to an extremely high-density city is a quarter that of
provision in a low-density city on a per capita basis
(Foster and Briceno-Garmendia 2010). Another
finds that the price of water provision is $0.70 to
$0.80 per cubic metre in urban areas, versus $2.00
in rural areas (Bakalian and others 2013). Box 8
Source: Eparque Urban Strategies based on Forestry
describes efforts in the city of Santiago, Chile, to Commission’s Land Cover Data and USGS LandSat8, 2018
curb the spatial growth of the city to decrease
the cost of infrastructure provision. Sprawling
urban forms are also less economically efficient
than compact, dense forms in developed cities

Box 8: Building the city from the inside out: Repopulation of Santiago, Chile
In the late 1980s, a series of studies were conducted to demonstrate the problems associated with sprawl and to make
the case for compact development and infill. One study was called “The Imperatives of the Urban Renovation of Santiago: The Costs of
the Expansion” and was conducted by Santiago Development Corporation. It demonstrated that providing services and infrastructure
for social housing developments located in the periphery was almost 18 times more expensive than allocating the resources in
municipalities with existing infrastructure, services and accessibility, such as Santiago Municipal District. In consolidated areas, the
average cost of infrastructure (water pipes, sewage, electric power networks, access and circulation roads) and services and equipment
(health and education services, police surveillance, sport and recreational furniture) for each housing unit was $363, compared to $6,387
in areas of expansion. See Table 1 for details.
Table 1: Cost of Incorporating a New Residential Unit in the City Centre versus Periphery
ITEM CITY CENTRE ($) CITY OUTSKIRTS ($)

Infrastructure 178 740
Water pipes 45 236
Sewage 12 98
Rainwater drainage 0* 12
Electric power networks 112 161
Access and circulation roads 9 234
Urban Equipment 185 5,747
Health 0* 237
Education 0* 4,100
Police surveillance 133 1,361
Sports and recreation 72 49
Total 363 6,487
Source: Verdugo 2003

*Some costs are recorded as zero because the infrastructure already exists in the inner city and there is no need to build additional.
Inspired by these studies, the “Plan for the Renovation of Santiago” was initiated in 1990 and aimed at developing infill
housing. Based on the findings about cost, the Chilean Ministry of Housing and Urban Development decided to support a programme to
repopulate the inner city of Santiago. To this end, two programmes were created. Santiago’s Repopulation Programme was designed to
attract new residents and activate the housing market in the municipal district based on a PPP structure; and the Housing Rehabilitation
Programme was developed to reconstruct 500 tenements halls comprising 7,500 housing units.
The repopulation programme had four pillars: 1) identifying available land for redevelopment, 2) redefining the national housing
subsidy to fit Santiago’s needs, 3) demonstrating the existence of large housing demand in the district and 4) collaborating with private
developers through repopulation agreements.
The repopulation process took a decade to reverse the depopulation trend in Santiago. From 1992 to 2002, housing stock
increased 21.6 per cent while the population decreased by 13.1 per cent. However, from 2002 to 2012, housing stock almost doubled and
the population grew 55.1 per cent.
Source: Amirtahmasebi and others, 2016

(New Climate Economy 2014). For example, in Figure 18: A tale of two cities: Atlanta, USA and Barcelona,
many sprawling, suburbanized U.S. cities that Spain have similar populations but different urban forms;
were developed during the mid-century, it may be while Barcelona follows a compact urban form,
difficult to design a public transportation system
Atlanta has sprawled significantly.
due to a suburbanized, low-density form. Density
also has implications for environmental impacts. In
the United States, compact development saves an Atlanta
average of 38 per cent on upfront costs for roads,
sewerage, water and other infrastructure (Smart
Growth America 2013). In addition, environmental
impacts are much higher in sprawling cities than
dense ones. For example, in the United States,
2.5
million
suburbs are responsible for 50 per cent of national
household emissions – despite less than half of
the population living in these areas (Jones and 4,280 km2
Kammen 2014). However, it is important that
cities strike a balance between the containment of
sprawl and densification, as well as the necessary
building out of public services, housing and
infrastructure as urban populations continue to
grow. Expansion is inevitable and occurring at an
extremely rapid pace. In a sample of representative
cities in the developing world, Angel (2012) found
the peripheries of cities are an order of magnitude
larger than the cities themselves twenty years ago
(Angel 2018).
Principles
Depending on the context, planners and

policymakers can limit or allow for expansion
when appropriate. Context matters and will affect
the strategies employed; following this logic,
density and infill should not be the only goals
in planning for spatial sustainability. Peri-urban
areas in the developing world are often in need
Barcelona
of infrastructure investment and public services.
In a dense city within the developed world where
2.8
housing costs are pushing residents into outlying
areas, the development of a more equitable
transportation system would provide these outlying
areas greater access to employment and services. million
While densification and infill may increase

agglomeration, connectivity and access to 162 km2
services are also key. If it is too late to limit
expansion, measures should be taken to ensure
that public services are developed as expansion
continues. Based on Angel (2018), urbanization is Source: Eparque Urban Strategies

occurring very quickly, at an unprecedented scale. spatial capital is relatively low. For example, while Rather than
In the developing world, cities cannot realistically global cities such as New York City and Tokyo have simply rezoning
expect to bound their land area but can preserve high amounts of spatial capital in the way of the area for denser
right of way for roads and other infrastructure agglomeration of services, capital, labour, talent and development,
to be allocated. Without planning for future innovation, the housing pressure and cost of living cities can
expansion, cities can be locked into their forms as in each of these cities is prohibitively high. Even in finance transit
urbanization continues. Therefore, cities should cities that are only just developing, unaffordable infrastructure
pursue investments in services and infrastructure housing stock can push rents and land prices to connect
and eventual densification as the city develops upwards and result in sprawl or peri-urban populations that
(Angel 2018). Neighbourhood-level master planning development. Cities cannot consider the spatial are farther away
is a helpful strategy for addressing multiple layout of their jurisdiction without first determining from the urban
issues related to land use, transit improvement, the locations and availability of housing. core.
streetscape design and other issues of access
and movement as infill and densification are
promoted. Rather than simply rezoning area for Illustrative Actions
denser development, cities can finance transit
infrastructure to connect populations that are The following are strategies for encouraging density
farther away from the urban core. In addition, and compactness within cities.
cities should review road and street networks to
determine the ways in which transportation can Develop a dynamic urban growth boundary.
become more efficient. Proximity means little Urban growth boundaries have been employed
if elements of the built environment are made in cities seeking to protect ecological resources,
inaccessible by inadequate transportation systems. such as Portland and Seattle in the United States.
For example, the World Resources Institute (2019) Boundaries can be implemented but should be
proposed a typology of transit and congestion flexible enough to be re-evaluated as cities evaluate
costs. Households can be underserved with low their growth and expansion needs. In addition,
transit cost (the stranded underserved), such natural elements such as parks and preservation
as those living in areas without transportation zones can serve as boundaries and amenities to
options; they may be cut off from employment residents. Cities can work with owners of peripheral
opportunities or vital public services, oftentimes land to transfer development rights in order to
within informal, peri-urban areas. Households can better manage these areas (OECD 2018).
be underserved with a high transit cost (the mobile
underserved), where the household lacks access to Gradually move from a monocentric urban form
adequate transit but can endure a long commute to a polycentric model. Spatial equity and spatial
or expensive costs to access employment and form, both in terms of overall density as well as
services. Households can be served by transit with issues of access and connectivity, are important
a high transit cost (well-located commuters), or drivers of the benefits urbanization can provide.
finally, be served by transit with a low cost (well- Congestion effects may occur when cities are
located urbanites) (World Resources Institute centred around one single employment and
2019). See Figure 18 for a comparison between commercial centre. This can reduce quality of life
the spatial structure of Atlanta and Barcelona, two and efficiency. This is referred to as monocentric
cities with similar populations. urban form. Many cities in the developed world have
transitioned from relying on one central business
Housing and the provision of affordable housing district to several major centres of employment.
must be key components of any integrated spatial This development is referred to as polycentric form.
planning or study effort. Areas with high levels Chicago is an example of a city in the developed
of spatial capital are less likely to be affordable, world that is now polycentric that started out
meaning that affordable and mixed income housing with a single central business district. As Chicago
must be consciously distributed or incentivized grew and expanded, new centres of transportation
throughout an urban area, not just in areas where networks and employment developed at different

locations in the city. Congestion can be reduced areas lacking housing and public services Cities can
when there are multiple high trafficked centres, (Amirtahmasebi 2016). Subsidies can also consider land
each with adequate transportation and road be used to incentivize the development of value capture,
networks (Grover and Lall 2015). affordable housing; however, they must be where rezoning
designed intelligently to avoid misuse of public and specific
Consider policies to encourage infill and urban funds. development
regeneration: Low-density cities can be better rights are offered
managed by regenerating central urban cores  Utilize zoning and spatial planning tools to certain areas
and filling in sparsely developed areas. Instead to allow for denser development. Cities so that private
of building outwards, the provision of housing can strategically rezone areas for denser actors can
and essential services through infill ensures development, encouraging building housing develop them
that housing stock is not just available in the and mixed-use spaces. Rezoning efforts and use the
periphery of a city. Cities can focus on specific can be accompanied by a larger package value generated
target neighbourhoods and conduct an integrated of programmatic incentives to encourage from the
planning process to revitalize businesses, construct development. rezoning to fund
new housing stock and renovate existing housing infrastructure
stock, while also developing infrastructure  Utilize land value capture instruments to and transit.
(Amirtahmasebi 2016). fund transit and other infrastructure. Transit
planning can also be done as part of an
 Develop PPPs to finance housing and integrated process to add housing stock,
infrastructure. Infill development and urban commercial corridors and amenities with the
regeneration projects are costly, and few development of transit infrastructure. Cities can
cities are able to simply fund or finance the consider land value capture, where rezoning
investments required to complete a large-scale and specific development rights are offered to
project. Private-sector investment can be a certain areas so that private actors can develop
good source of capital if the local government them and use the value generated from the
has the capacity to ensure that private rezoning to fund infrastructure and transit.
investments are meeting public needs. Rather than taxes or fees, this method can
fund investment with less public opposition.
 Develop incentives and benefits for infill and This type of development also encourages
densification. Developers can be encouraged the development of transit corridors. It is
via tax and non-tax incentives to build in also a way by which the government can
what were previously low-density areas. For capture value generated from the activities of
example, the tax valuation of properties can developers, while monitoring the development
be frozen for a given period of time, allowing process through stakeholder engagement. For
developers to pay taxes on the original value of example, in Nanchang, China, the government
the property, versus the current value. These provided the necessary zoning and regulatory
incentives can be provided within designated change to increase density to interested
zones for improvement and densification. developers and leased the land around a major
For example, both Santiago (see Box 8) and transit system for a premium (Hong and others
Johannesburg incorporated tax benefits into 2015).
the development of blighted and underutilized

Box 9. Spatial capital and prosperity of Wuhan, China
Between 1990 and 2013, the urban population of Wuhan quadrupled from approximately 2 million to 8 million.
The overall urban extent increased at an annual rate of 15 per cent between 2000 and 2013. As growth occurred largely in peri-urban
areas, density decreased below the indicator value recommended by the United Nations.
With assistance from UN-Habitat, the City of Wuhan undertook a comprehensive study in order to map and characterize
its spatial layout via the City Prosperity Initiative (CPI). Wuhan was ideal for study, given the rapid pace and extent of urbanization.
Via UN-Habitat’s Spatial Capital Index, the city considered the following criteria: street connectivity, density, public open space, di-
versity (both in demographics and in land-use criteria), public transportation and public services. The aggregation of these variables
resulted in a number of overlay maps, which were used to characterize various parts of the city through these individual variables.
These maps helped characterize the overall spatial capital value of individual areas within the city. For example, certain neighbour-
hoods were found to be dense but without proper connectivity or elements to encourage pedestrian level activity.
This quantitative study led to change at the neighbourhood level, where chosen neighbourhoods followed the principles
outlined in the study to undertake master planning efforts. For example, the revitalization of Zhongshan Avenue was conducted to
encourage pedestrian activity and therefore improve economic conditions for commercial entities located along the main arterial.
Access to public transportation as well as open space was also improved in the process, leading to economic development through
greater connectivity and adherence to the spatial planning principles outlined in the spatial capital index study.
Source: UN-Habitat 2018
Figure 19: Images of Wuhan, China.
Tauno Tõhk (right) and Veronique Lamont (left). © Flickr

02
Means of
implementation
Cities and territories are spaces

within which different sectors of
urban development intertwine.
These sectors include hardware –
such as transport, energy and waste
infrastructure – and also software –
such as culture, education, and health
measures – that are necessary for the
urban settlements to thrive and live to
their fullest potential. These sectors
interact and collaborate through
different systems of governance
and intervention mechanisms,
which operate on local, regional and
national levels. Chapter Two provides
a thorough review of these sectors
and the mechanisms that govern and
coordinate them.

Intervention Hard Soft Technology
mechanisms measures measures and innovation
2.1 Intervention mechanisms

Each city and human settlement is part of several data is critical in order to apply the mechanisms The New Urban
different governance systems that rule their listed here. This can be a challenge in some data- Agenda lays out
operations and management. The New Urban scarce developing country contexts, and therefore it standards and
Agenda lays out standards and principles for is of critical importance that data gaps are filled so principles for
directing, governing, planning, designing, financing, the strategies listed can be best applied to address directing,
implementing and managing urban areas and urban challenges. governing,
human settlements along its seven main “pillars planning,
of implementation” or intervention mechanisms The New Urban Agenda highlights that achieving designing,
(IM). The seven IMs described in the New Urban sustainable urban growth requires city-region and financing,
Agenda can be divided into national, subnational metropolitan plans and encourages synergies implementing
and local level interventions, promoting a multi- in the development of all urban areas on all and managing
scalar approach to achieving sustainable urban scales along with urban and peri-urban areas. urban areas and
development, with the ability to scale initiatives Further, it acknowledges that sustainable regional human
across territorial administrative boundaries. infrastructure projects stimulate sustainable settlements
economic productivity, and it promotes equitable along its seven
This chapter explains a series of key intervention growth of regions across the urban-rural main “pillars of
mechanisms that cities can utilize within these continuum. These declarations are the basis for this implementation”
governance systems. These mechanisms allow the chapter on intervention mechanisms that intertwine or intervention
city to address its challenges across sectors and planning activities on all scales and across all mechanisms.
within different government levels. levels of the government to deliver public services
and perform other municipal and metropolitan
The shared vision of the New Urban Agenda administrative tasks - NUA 96.
states that all cities and human settlements “fulfill
their territorial functions across administrative This section will draw the reader’s attention to a
boundaries and act as hubs and drivers for variety of governance models that exist throughout
balanced, sustainable and integrated urban the world. While some countries like Brazil or the
and territorial development at all levels”. The United States have decentralized decision-making
intervention mechanisms listed in the New Urban power to the cities and local authorities, in some
Agenda allow for action across sectors and urban other countries like Mexico or Iran, the central
scales, as well as agglomeration benefits of well- Government is responsible for collecting and
planned urbanization. The seven IMs listed below transferring funds to the city-level authorities. In
(see Diagram 12) can be deployed by national, some other countries such as India, states are more
sub-national and local governments, as well empowered in decision-making, infrastructure
as civil sector organizations and other relevant planning and managing finances for cities in
stakeholders (where appropriate). It is important their boundaries. The intervention mechanisms
to highlight that the availability of quality (accurate described here relate to each of these scales and
and reliable) national and city-level datasets provide a snapshot of different options available for
including socioeconomic indicators and spatial developing and managing ever-growing cities.

Diagram 12: Intervention mechanisms
INTERVENTION
MECHANISMS
National Subnational / City Local
Intervention Mechanisms Actions
National
urban policies
Land DIRECT / SET POLICY

policies (including spatial
development)
Housing &
slum upgrading
policies
Urban
legislation
& regulations GOVERN
Urban
design
PLAN / DESIGN
Municipal
finance FINANCE
Urban
governance IMPLEMENT / MANAGE

2.1.1 National urban policies actors for a common vision and goal that will A National Urban
promote more transformative, productive, inclusive Policy (NUP), is a
The New Urban Agenda commits to “take measures and resilient urban development for the long term” national level
to establish legal and policy frameworks, based on (Cities Alliance and UN-Habitat 2014). Through a intervention
the principles of equality and non-discrimination, new generation of NUPs, national governments mechanism and
to enhance the ability of governments to effectively around the world have begun to plan and manage important tool
implement national urban policies, as appropriate, urbanization in a way that is more sustainable, for governments
and to empower them as policymakers and productive and inclusive than in the past. to establish a
decision makers, ensuring appropriate fiscal, common vision
political and administrative decentralization Countries can achieve tangible processes and and provide a
based on the principle of subsidiarity” - NUA 89. outcomes in urban governance by implementing comprehensive
Similarly, SDG 11 affirms the importance of policy NUPs to analyze and address key planning issues, framework
making and planning frameworks through the such as population trends, urban trends and cross- for urban
goal of supporting “positive economic, social and sectoral coordination for realizing the benefits of development in
environmental links between urban, peri-urban and urbanization at national or subnational levels. UN- cities of varying
rural areas by strengthening national and regional Habitat outlines the five phases of the NUP process, size, population
development planning” - SDG 11.A. which starts with the feasibility phase to determine and rate of urban
the framework and policy direction and continues growth.
A National Urban Policy (NUP), is a national level with diagnosis, formulation, implementation,
intervention mechanism and important tool for and monitoring and evaluation phases. It is
governments to establish a common vision and important to approach monitoring and evaluation
provide a comprehensive framework for urban as an opportunity to review gains and evaluate
development in cities of varying size, population shortcomings. Rather than a final step, monitoring
and rate of urban growth. UN-Habitat defines and evaluation is iterative, ensuring that NUPs are
a national urban policy as “a coherent set of continuously improved through policy design (UN-
decisions derived through a deliberate government- Habitat, 2019b).
led process of coordinating and rallying various
Stone Town, Zanzibar. © MHSKYPIXEL / Envato Elements The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | 58
Diagram 13: National urban policies
INTERVENTION MECHANISMS
NATIONAL
URBAN POLICIES
PRINCIPLES
Compact growth Context Local governance Minimize displacement

National urban policies National urban policies The active National urban policies
should manage the should be sensitive to participation of local should minimize
peripheral expansion of context and the governments and cities displacement and
cities and promote distinctive history and is necessary to achieve proactively prepare
compact and inclusive evolution of cities. national policy goals. land and infrastructure,
urban growth. rather than relocating
informal settlements
once they are built.
Land-use planning Finance infrastructure Territorial planning

Land-use planning is a Use national urban policies to Introduce regional or
tool to manage address the financing of territorial planning tools with
urbanization towards ma jor infrastructure or national urban plans to
mixed use development control improvement projects strengthen the connectively
to promote more by identifying ways of and cooperation between
workable, accessible diversifying funding sources. cities and towns.
and compact cities.

Principles Illustrative Actions The active

participation
NUPs should strive to manage the peripheral Land-use planning is a tool to manage of local
expansion of cities and promote compact and urbanization towards mixed-use development to governments
inclusive urban growth. Compact growth and promote more walkable, accessible and compact and city
urban consolidation require proactive efforts to cities. Land-use planning, which has influenced authorities is
concentrate development within the urban core and national urban policy, has historically been a tool to necessary to
along transit corridors, mixed-use development, separate incompatible activities to protect residents achieve national
the optimal use of vacant land and upgraded urban from adjacent noxious uses such as industrial or policy goals.
infrastructure. NUPs should diagnose current urban agricultural activities identified as “nuisances” and
conditions and analyze shortcomings of existing to make the structural arrangement of the city
policies to promote shorter commutes and contain more efficient. A new generation of NUPs need to
impacts on surrounding agricultural land, fresh revise aspects of established legislation such as old
water sources and other ecosystems. land-use planning regulations and laws governing
the ownership, use and development of land so that
NUPs should be sensitive to context and the they are relevant to contemporary conditions, such
distinctive history and evolution of cities. There is as urban sprawl, and better equipped to deal with
also no single approach for producing a desirable growing informality.
outcome that can be replicated in different national
or local contexts, thus NUPs should be responsive Use NUPs to address the financing of major
to coordinate territorial, rural and regional policies. infrastructure or capital improvement projects by
identifying ways of diversifying funding sources.
The active participation of local governments and One key strategy is capturing a share of the rise in
city authorities is necessary to achieve national land values that accompanies the development of
policy goals. Urban policy requires a broader vacant or under-used land, or the redevelopment
territorial integration of metropolitan regions of buildings to higher-density properties or
and stronger connectivity between cities, towns higher-value uses. Unless countries are benefiting
and rural areas while promoting their distinctive from revenues generated by commodity exports
strengths. or have a robust financial system that enables
them to raise long-term capital investments, the
NUPs should strive to minimize displacement high cost of urban infrastructure requires new
and proactively prepare land and infrastructure, mechanisms beyond conventional tax revenues
rather than redeveloping or relocating informal to generate financial resources. Locally based
settlements once they are built. Wherever possible, investments funded by local taxes can reinforce
existing informal settlements should be formally local accountability (Cities Alliance and UN-Habitat
recognized and upgraded (Cities Alliance and UN- 2014).
Habitat 2014).
Introduce regional or territorial planning tools in
NUPs to strengthen connectivity and cooperation
between cities and towns. Cooperation may extend
to strengthening the role of secondary cities in
the national urban system so that they function
better and help to absorb some of the pressures on
the largest cities. Governments can use territorial
impact assessments to assess the implementation
of spatial planning instruments and to make sure
that all relevant sectorial policies adequately
address the challenges that towns, cities and larger
functional urban areas are facing.

2.1.2 Land policies

Box 10: The use of betterment levies in Colombia
Land is a critical topic in the New Urban Agenda.
Land is at the centre of the shared vision of the
document, where Governments declare: Contribución de Valorización (CV), a betterment levy (or
“special assessment” in the United States), has been collected in
“We envisage cities and human settlements that Colombia since 1921. The levy is a compulsory charge by the government
fulfil their social function, including the social on the owners of selected properties to offset the cost of a specific
and ecological function of land, with a view to improvement or service that is of special benefit to the property owner.
progressively achieving the full realization of
the right to adequate housing as a component The Urban Development Institute (Instituto de Desarrollo Urbano, or IDU)
of the right to an adequate standard of living, determines an area of influence, where the area will benefit from a public
without discrimination, universal access to safe works project such as road construction, in order to collect a betterment
and affordable drinking water and sanitation, as levy. The area of influence determinations take into account the benefits
well as equal access for all to public goods and of proximity and accessibility to the project, as measured by the project’s
quality services in areas such as food security impact on the assessed value and economic conditions of real estate
and nutrition, health, education, infrastructure, properties in the area.
mobility and transportation, energy, air quality and
livelihoods” - NUA 13. a. Once the area of influence is determined, the betterment levy is
calculated according to three parameters, which are the cost of
The New Urban Agenda acknowledges the land the construction project, the value added to properties that can be
issue several times. It commits to promoting attributed to the project and the affordability of the levy (measured
increased security of tenure for all, and it recognizes as the capacity of the property owners to pay). However, there are
the plurality of tenure types and underscores the differences in implementation. For example, while the Bogotá model
importance of developing “fit-for-purpose and age-, is similar to a general tax to finance public works, the Medellin model
gender- and environment-responsive solutions is closer to the concept of a value capture contribution to fund public
within the continuum of land and property rights, works, as it distributes the levy among the property owners by taking
with particular attention to security of land tenure into account their capacity to pay following a dual appraisal process.
for women as key to their empowerment, including Typically, the initial appraisal is intended to create a map of land prices
through effective administrative systems” - NUA before construction, while the second appraisal determines the added
35. Furthermore, the New Urban Agenda underlines value hypothetically generated by new infrastructure. The lot or area
that access to land is one of the fundamental where the “maximum added value” occurs is the “focal point”, which
steps in achieving economic stability and upward is analyzed in detail to calculate the maximum percentage increase in
social mobility for low-income urban residents. value, determining the levy. Finally, once the levy is distributed to property
Many of the challenges in urban development owners in the area, taking into account the affordability, a collection
stem from lack of tenure and informality of land period is determined. While the levy can be collected as early as two
markets. The New Urban Agenda resolves to adopt years before construction, the legal maximum collection term is five
the following principle, among others, in order to years following project completion.
achieve its vision: “Ensure sustainable and inclusive
urban economies by leveraging the agglomeration In Colombia, the betterment levy has played a significant role
benefits of well-planned urbanization … by ensuring in financing public works and has been a major contributor to municipal
the creation of decent jobs and equal access for revenues. Bogotá currently has about $1 billion worth of investment in
all to economic and productive resources and public works from this levy, with eight other smaller cities at a combined
opportunities and by preventing land speculation, $1 billion. Given that the levy is imposed on 1.5 million properties in
promoting secure land tenure and managing urban Bogotá with relatively low default rates, lower than for the property tax,
shrinking, where appropriate” - NUA 14.b. there is general acceptance of the levy by property owners.
In order to get urban development right, cities must Source: Borrero Ochoa, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 2011
reassess their land markets and develop schemes

for better management and administration of land.

Diagram 14: Land policies
LAND
POLICIES
689--- 880 million 46% --- 29%

Number of slum dwellers in the developing Share of urban population living in slums
world has increased from 1990 to 2014. has decreased from 1990 to 2014.
62%
Sub-Sahara
35% Southern
24%
Latin America &
Africa Asia the Caribbean
% urban population living in slums
PRINCIPLES
Land assets Manage informal areas Land titling Land ownership

Land is one of the most Cities in the process of rapid Land tenure regularization or Each city and county should
valuable assets that a city growth must focus on preventing “land titling” can help increase record their unique systems of
possesses. the formation of new informal income and productivity, credit land ownership to plan for
settlements while undertaking access, housing investment and development and
projects on the current slums. child education. management.
Land administration Land assembly Land readjustment Land sharing

Develop a proper system for Account for fragmented land Develop policies for lane Develop land sharing
land administration. and design strategies for land re-adjustment to support schemes through
assembly. urban regeneration. resettlement housing.
Regularize tenure Value capture

Regularize tenure to Develop land value
upgrade informal areas capture methods to
in and around cities. finance infrastructure.

Because of dysfunctional land markets, informal credit access, housing investment and child Land tenure
settlements grow in and around cities. Because of education. Titling is a process by which informal regularization or
the lack of secure tenure, informal settlers cannot tenure is integrated into a system recognized by “land titling” has
incrementally invest in their land and live in better public authorities. Informal settlements can be many social,
conditions. Inefficient land-use plans result in formed on public or private land, and their formation economic and
sprawling settlements where residents do not have could happen naturally or through a broker who political impacts,
access to proper water and sanitation services. organizes a group to occupy a piece of land (see including
Box 10). increases in
income and
Principles Each city/country has different systems of land productivity,
ownership. It is important to record these systems credit access,
Land is one of the most valuable assets that a city to plan for their development and management. housing
possesses. Whether public or private, land assets Land ownership can be private, public, communal investment and
must be accounted for and managed properly to or endowment. child education.
provide housing, public spaces and infrastructure
for all residents.  Public land assets could be owned directly by
a government (central, state or local) or by its
Cities in the process of rapid growth must focus subsidiaries. In some countries like China or
on preventing the formation of new informal Singapore, all land is owned by the government.
settlements, while undertaking projects on the In these cases, the government can choose
current slums. This will be implemented by curbing to lease the land to private bodies for various
spatial growth, while providing affordable land uses. In some Middle Eastern countries (Egypt,
within the cities for poor urban residents and the Saudi Arabia, and so on), desert land is all
migrant population. owned by the government.
Land tenure regularization or “land titling” has  Private land is owned by individuals,
many social, economic and political impacts, corporations, institutions or other private
including increases in income and productivity, bodies. While this land is privately managed,
63
A view| ofThe New of
the center Urban
BogotáAgenda Illustrated
with the Andes in the background. © jkraft5 / Envato Elements
it is regulated by governments through Illustrative Actions New technologies

a series of rules such as land-use plans allow for cheaper
and zoning codes. Private land ownership Develop a proper system for land administration. options
could be formal or informal (such as in the New technologies allow for cheaper options in developing
case of slums). In the case of informal land in developing land cadastres and information land cadastres
ownership, the government can authorize the systems. Exploring these technologies, which and information
population to stay and develop the land if they usually include working with satellite imagery, can systems.
can demonstrate that they have occupied save time and cost and provide an almost perfect
the land for a given period of time. In some land database.
Middle Eastern countries, this rule allows
the occupants of “dead” land (Mowat) such Account for fragmented land and design
as barren or desert land to own and valorize strategies for land assembly. In many cases, the
the land. In Brazil, the law allows residential government needs to assemble land for several
property no greater than 250 square metres to reasons including building public facilities and
be granted Certificados de Direito Real de Uso infrastructure. There are several tools at the
(certificates of real right of use) after five years government’s disposal. These include voluntary and
of continuous occupancy. involuntary tools. Voluntary tools include purchase
at market or negotiated prices, land readjustment
 Communal land is also called customary land or urban development, and land sharing. In special
and is owned by a group of people or a specific cases and when the voluntary tools are unavailable,
ethnic group or tribe. This type of ownership a variety of involuntary tools could be used such as
is dominant in many African countries, such expropriation and the right of preemption.
as Ghana and Zambia. This type of land
is managed by a designated person or a Develop policies for land readjustment. In this
community or tribal leader on behalf of the approach, the municipal government can use land
community. This system interacts with other readjustment schemes to pool or assemble several
land management systems and generally leads privately owned land parcels in order to take on an
to distortions in the functioning of urban land urban regeneration project. Land readjustment is
markets. an effective tool for allowing local governments to
take on regeneration projects through increased
 Endowment land is especially common in land values while engaging and involving the
Muslim societies across the world, and it original residents and landowners as stakeholders.
functions as a land trust. It is called Awqaf in It is also beneficial for the government because
Iran, Egypt and Turkey, and habous in Morocco, it does not require a massive upfront investment
and so on. In these cases, the original owner to buy the land from the owners. A variation of
endows the land and its future revenues to a land readjustment is called urban redevelopment
social or religious cause. A trustee manages and is a very common approach to regenerating
the land and its functions. This land cannot disaster prone areas in Japan under its Urban
be sold or used for any other purpose. It is Redevelopment Law. This law allows landowners,
estimated that 30 per cent of the land in tenants and developers to regenerate unsafe
Islamic countries is endowment land, which areas, develop new transit and create development
makes planning for urban renewal difficult and opportunities. The government helps with and
inefficient. benefits from this process by changing zoning
codes from residential to mixed-use, while also
allowing for upzoning. Urban development schemes
are implemented in existing urban areas and often
involve a rezoning by the government of a given

area from a low-density (single-family housing) be transferred to the occupant. It could mean that Value capture
to higher-density (mixed-use or commercial) the occupant obtains the right to use the land in is an umbrella
development. It is usually accompanied by perpetuity or it could be arranged as a short- or term that
provision of infrastructure improvements (mass long-term lease. In each case, the city must study includes policies
transit, such as metro lines) that can support such the conditions to determine the best course of that focus on
upzoning. action. capturing a
percentage of
Develop a land sharing scheme. Land sharing is Develop land value capture methods. Value the increase in
a method whereby existing public or private land capture is an umbrella term that includes policies land value that
occupied by squatters is redeveloped to enable that focus on capturing a percentage of the results from
the regularization of the existing development increase in land value that results from public public
through resettlement housing to rehouse squatters. infrastructure investments or urban population infrastructure
At the same time, new market-rate land uses growth. In general, governments can use two investments or
are co-located and can benefit from these well- distinct sets of tools to leverage the incremental urban population
located land parcels. This is carried out through a increase in the price of private land to finance growth.
densification of the existing development that can infrastructure: financial tools and regulatory tools
enable a vertical development of existing low-rise (see Table 2).
or low-density residential uses, thus opening up
parts of the land for new development. The land  Financial tools involve direct exchange of
sharing approach benefits existing occupants, funds between the public and private sectors
who have the right to remain on site (though in for a regeneration project. These could include
new multifamily housing in medium- to high-rise a variety of value capture methods such as
configurations), and existing landowners, who can impact fees, levies and special assessments.
recover and benefit from part of the land. A good In this category, there are tools that are more
example of land sharing tools is seen in Bangkok sophisticated and require a high capacity within
in the 1970s and 1980s, where rapid economic the government to execute and implement.
growth resulted in a price hike of urban land. Since More importantly these tools require that the
many of the slums were located in desirable and city is creditworthy and can borrow in the
accessible urban areas, the government brokered financial markets. The second group of such
seven land sharing deals with the slum dwellers to tools do not require a linkage to capital markets
accommodate commercial development without and could be implemented by cities without
displacing the residents. These deals were struck in such access.
cases of longstanding disputed land rights between
the landowners and 10,000 slum dwellers. The deal  Regulatory tools are applicable to private land
allowed for the construction of high rises to house and include fiscal or policy categories. They
the slum dwellers so parts of the land could be generate municipal revenue and are based
released for lucrative real estate development. In all on zoning and spatial planning regulations.
of the cases, the slum dwellers paid a portion of the Private developers often initiate different plans
construction through a loan scheme (World Bank and denser and higher impact development to
2010). boost their financial gains from the projects.
The use of fiscal tools involves any form of
Regularize tenure. Regularization of tenure can monetary assistance to the private sector
be effective in upgrading the informal areas in and allowed by law. But policy tools usually involve
around cities. Several countries have experimented creating an appealing regulatory environment
with different methods, and some lessons have to attract the private sector. These tools solely
emerged. First, an effective way to secure tenure depend on the government’s land-use planning
is to set in place community/collective ownership powers and ability to leverage these powers in
of the land titles to ensure the community stays in achieving urban regeneration.
place. Second, the regularization of tenure does not
necessarily mean that the title to the land would

Table 2: Summary of land value capture tools
TOOL DESCRIPTION
FINANCIAL TOOLS
Developer exactions A popular form of value capture, developer exactions and impact fees are paid by the private sector to cover
and impact fees the cost of additional public infrastructure and services when new parcels of land are being developed. These
are one-time, upfront charges required by the public sector to approve the planned development. Sometimes,
these fees are not in the form of money. The government could ask the developer to set aside land for public
use, pay for utility connections or build infrastructure on the land. These fees in any form are designed to lower
the burden for the government to provide infrastructure or extend the network of services.
Betterment levies Betterment levies are considered the most direct form of value capture and are a form of tax or fee levied on
land that has gained value because of public infrastructure investments. The difference between these levies
and impact fees is that they are applied to private land ex-post (after the land has gained value because of
infrastructure improvements). This means that impact fees and developer exactions work from the cost side
of budgets, and betterment levies try to capture part of the infrastructure investment already incurred by the
government (Peterson 2009). See Box 10 on the use of betterment levies in Colombia.
Tax increment financing (TIF) TIF is an economic and real estate development tool designed to coordinate the actions of public and private
sectors. TIF funds economic development activities in a designated area by earmarking the anticipated prop-
erty tax revenue increases (the “increment”) that will result if the TIF investment stimulates new development
and real estate appreciation. TIF has four core elements:
 A defined geographic boundary called the TIF district

 A defined and limited operation period
 Expenditures that encourage economic development
 Real estate appreciation that generates new property tax revenues (Merriman 2018)
Special assessment districts After a special assessment district is assigned, an additional tax (called an assessment) is levied on the prop-
erties in the district. This assessment is then used to back a bond issuance to pay for public infrastructure. For
this to work, a majority of owners must agree. The appealing aspects of this type of tool are that it expands the
available capital budget and aligns incentives of payees and beneficiaries (Amirtahmasebi and others 2016).
REGULATORY TOOLS
Density bonus, upzoning, and These tools are all incentive based tools that are designed to incentivize development in areas tagged for
inclusionary zoning urban regeneration. Upzoning is a tool that permits a private-sector developer to increase the maximum
allowable development on a site in exchange for either funds or defined policy goals. Cities that experience
high market demand with limited availability of land have used this tool successfully to achieve specific policy
goals. Upzoning is allowing development in restricted zones either higher density or a change of higher-value
land use (for example from industrial to residential or commercial). Density bonuses have been used to pro-
mote, among other policy goals, environmental conservation, public spaces and production of additional units
of low-income housing (Amirtahmasebi and others 2016).
Transfer of development rights Transfer of development rights is a voluntary and incentive based urban planning tool, which allows the owner
of a property and the land associated with it to transfer the allowed development rights to a different lot, with
restricted development rights. Historically, this tool was designed to allow the owners of a landmark building
to generate economic return on the land that was not allowed to be developed and to distribute the financial
cost of historic preservation within the community. Today, it is used for a variety of reasons, and it includes
transferring development rights to adjacent lots, a lot in a different area or even to be “banked” and used later.
Non-capital markets Capital markets

2.1.3 Housing and slum The New Urban Agenda declares housing provision
upgrading policies as a crucial urban planning component and
emphasizes well-located and well-distributed
The New Urban Agenda promotes the housing schemes in order to “avoid peripheral and
implementation of sustainable urban development isolated mass housing developments detached
programmes that position housing at the centre of from urban systems” - NUA 112. It also advocates
their approaches, as well as the full and progressive for housing policies that foster local integrated
realization of the Right to Adequate Housing as one approaches and are based on the principles of
powerful transformative force. social inclusion, economic effectiveness and
environmental protection. This section presents a
Through the New Urban Agenda, Governments review of housing policies as a major part of spatial
reaffirmed their commitment to the realization of planning that drives sustainable and inclusive
the right to adequate housing: economic transformation and economic growth
in cities, and it will highlight different options for
“We commit ourselves to promoting national, housing finance on the national level.
subnational and local housing policies that support
the progressive realization of the right to adequate Governments have committed “to promoting the
housing for all as a component of the right to an development of integrated and age- and gender-
adequate standard of living, that address all forms responsive housing policies and approaches across
of discrimination and violence and prevent arbitrary all sectors, in particular the employment, education,
forced evictions and that focus on the needs of health-care and social integration sectors, and at
the homeless, persons in vulnerable situations, all levels of government – policies and approaches
low-income groups and persons with disabilities, that incorporate the provision of adequate,
while enabling the participation and engagement affordable, accessible, resource efficient, safe,
of communities and relevant stakeholders in the resilient, well-connected and well-located housing,
planning and implementation of these policies, with special attention to the proximity factor and
including supporting the social production of the strengthening of the spatial relationship with
habitat, according to national legislation and the rest of the urban fabric and the surrounding
standards” - NUA 31. functional areas” - NUA 32.
67 | The
Rooftops NewofUrban
at sunset a slum Agenda Illustrated
in the district of Airoli in Mumbai, India. © FiledIMAGE / Envato Elements
Diagram 15: Housing and slum upgrading policies
HOUSING &
SLUM UPGRADING
POLICIES
PRINCIPLES
Adequate housing Housing-centric Community influence

Adequate housing is not Placing housing at the The planning process around
just a roof it is a catalyst centre promotes a housing policy should deploy
for accessing other coordinated approach to effective methods through
rights and should leave urbanization. which communities can
no one behind. influence decisions made about
housing and related provisions.
Multiple typologies Incremental models Rentals

and programs
Encourage the development of a Beyond mass housing, develop Increase supply of
multitude of housing types for the incremental housing approaches to rental housing.
diverse needs of a city’s inhabitants provide access to serviced land and a
through tailored housing programs, minimum core unit, requiring the
financing mechanisms and/or residents to build and expand on their
zoning incentives. own according to the set standards.
Subsidies Mortgage markets Density and transit

Develop a blend of supply-side Fix the Mortgage Markets by To decrease the cost of land
and demand-side subsidies. catering to the lowest income and acquisition, develop dense and
develop primary and secondary mixed-income housing models
housing finance markets. close to transit.

The housing sector promoted by the New

Urban Agenda emphasizes the principles of
Box 11: The community mortgage
social inclusion, economic effectiveness and programme in the Philippines
environmental protection - NUA 106. It recognizes
the fundamental role of housing in economic
development and poverty reduction, and it
promotes equal access to adequate and affordable In the Philippines, the Community Mortgage Programme
housing as an effective equalizer for shared (CMP), a component of the National Shelter Programme, was set up as a
prosperity and growth, to end poverty in all its group loan/mortgage programme to help legally organized associations
forms and dimensions. Housing, in fact, contributes of underprivileged and homeless citizens buy and develop land and
to capital formation and income and employment also own the lots they occupy or wish to relocate to “under the concept
generation, and it can contribute to driving of community ownership”. The CMP transfers funds to the community
sustainable and inclusive economic transformation association and also offers loans for site improvement and house
at the national, subnational and local levels - NUA construction. The CMP gives the highest degree of land tenure security
46. SDG 11 also affirms the importance of housing through ownership without necessitating the transfer of informal settlers
to sustainable urban development and sets the goal to areas far from their employment and essential urban services. In
of ensuring universal access “to adequate, safe and return, the community organizations have to comply with documentary
affordable housing and basic services, and upgrade and organizational requirements, which are slow processes, taking up
slums” - SDG Target 11.1. to even a few years to accomplish, and to some degree discourage the
landowners from selling to the community organization.
The New Urban Agenda calls for action to
successfully develop cities and human settlements The loan programme works to incrementally develop housing for the
where all persons can enjoy equal rights and poor. The housing loans were planned to be allocated in phases: phase
opportunities as well as their fundamental one covers land acquisition, phase two pays for site development and
freedoms, guided by the purposes and principles phase three covers home improvement. However, most loans were given
of the Charter of the United Nations, including full only to the first phase, since covering all the phases was unaffordable for
respect for international law. In this regard, the the poor. The programme starts when a community (in partnership with
New Urban Agenda is grounded in the Universal a community organization) applies for a loan from the National Home
Declaration of Human Rights, international human Mortgage Finance Corporation (NHMFC). The loan amount is correlated
rights treaties, the Millennium Declaration and the to the value of land as appraised by the NHMFC. All sites and settlements
2005 World Summit Outcome, and it is informed by have to obtain clearance from the Department of Environment and
other instruments such as the Declaration on the Natural Resources and an approved supervision development permit
Right to Development - NUA 12. from the local government.
Since the United Nations Conferences on Human The programme has assisted 217,929 households and
Settlements in Vancouver in 1976 and in Istanbul disbursed PHP8.5 billion in loan assistance from 1989 to 2010.
in 1996, and the adoption of the Millennium
Development Goals in 2000, there has been
significant improvements in the quality of life of
millions of urban inhabitants, including slum and population living in slum conditions in urban areas
informal settlement dwellers. However, despite the was particularly high in sub-Saharan Africa (62
decrease from 46.2 per cent in 1990 to 29.7 per per cent) followed by Southern Asia (35 per cent),
cent in 2014 in the percentage of people living in compared with 24 per cent in Latin America and the
slums (UN-Habitat 2016), the absolute number of Caribbean, and 13 per cent in North Africa (UN-
slum dwellers keeps growing. UN-Habitat estimates Habitat 2014). Increases in conflicts and instability,
that the number of slum dwellers in the developing migration and urban poverty and accelerated
world has increased from 689 million in 1990 to urbanization and population growth explain this
791 million in 2000 and 880 million residents in trend.
2014. Today, there are one billion people living
in slums and informal settlements. According to The New Urban Agenda prioritizes promoting
UN-Habitat estimates, the proportion of the urban measures for strengthening and retrofitting all risky

housing stock, including in slums and informal housing and basic services for all and specifically SDG 11 Target
settlements, to make it resilient to disasters, in mentions the importance of upgrading slums. 1 is measured
coordination with local authorities and stakeholders In particular, the achievement of SDG 11 Target through
- NUA 77. It also promotes inclusive governance 1 – By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, the indicator
and a participatory approach - NUA 13. b, 15. ii, safe and affordable housing and basic services, reflecting the
41. It calls for cities and human settlements that and upgrade slums – is measured through proportion of
fulfil their social function, including through access the indicator reflecting the proportion of urban urban
to land, infrastructure, water, sanitation, mobility population living in slums, informal settlements or population living
and quality services - NUA13. a, 34, 35, 55; inadequate housing. Other SDGs recognize and are in slums, informal
inclusive economic growth and sustainable urban particularly relevant to efforts to upgrade slums, settlements
economies - NUA 13. d; and leaving no one behind, such as SDG 1 – End poverty in all its forms or inadequate
through pro-poor approaches for equally shared everywhere, SDG 5 – Achieve gender equality and housing.
opportunities and access to the benefits that empower all women and girls,
urbanization can offer - NUA 27. SDG 8 – Decent work and economic growth and
SDG 16 Peace, justice and strong institutions.
The New Urban Agenda supports incremental Figure 20 shows the slums in Medellin, Colombia.
housing and self-build schemes for upgrading
slums and informal settlements - NUA 107. Principles
It also supports planned urban extensions
and infill – prioritizing renewal, regeneration Adequate housing is not just a roof, it is a catalyst
and retrofitting of urban areas, as appropriate, for accessing other rights and should leave no
including the upgrading of slums and informal one behind. Adequate, affordable and well-located
settlements – while preserving cultural heritage, housing is a pathway for the enjoyment of several
containing urban sprawl - NUA 97, strengthening human rights, including the rights to work, health,
urban resilience and reducing disaster risks and social security, vote, privacy and education. Hous-
vulnerabilities - NUA 77. ing policy should promote social justice, social
inclusion and development for the whole commu-
Other global frameworks, including the SDGs, nity. A number of conditions other than four walls
recognize the need for action. SDG 11 calls for and a roof must be met to characterize “adequate
ensuring access to adequate, safe and affordable housing” – namely, security of tenure; availability
Figure 20: Slums in Medellin, Colombia.
© UN-Habitat, Julius Mwelu / Flickr

of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure; The planning process around housing policy “Housing at the
affordability; habitability; accessibility; location; and should deploy effective methods through which centre” promotes
cultural adequacy. Housing policies should ensure communities can influence decisions made about the blending of
that the range of housing provision covers the housing and related provisions. Only communities housing policy
particular needs of different communities, ensuring know what communities need in a housing scheme. and national
that no group of people is disadvantaged by its im- In places where land is limited and governments urban policy,
plementation. New housing development in cities move towards building high-rises, the input of with housing
should cater to the housing needs of all vulnera- the community must be recorded and integrated recognized as
ble people, regardless of age, mental or physical to ensure the living spaces accommodate their of increased
health, citizenship, income or background. Policies lifestyles and needs. Providing an option for the importance and
should promote the right density of housing and community to use their own taste and design an imperative for
encourage the development of housing typologies expression would give them voice and cater to their socioeconomic
that can respond to a diverse range of household taste while upgrading old and informal housing. development and
sizes as needed. the sustainable
future of cities.
Placing housing at the centre promotes a Illustrative Actions
coordinated approach to urbanization, by
recognizing the need for a long-term vision and Put people at the centre of the planning process:
commitment to housing sector development to be encourage the development of a multitude of
integrated into National Urban Policies. “Housing at housing types for the diverse needs of a city’s
the centre” promotes the blending of housing policy inhabitants through tailored housing programmes,
and national urban policy, with housing recognized financing mechanisms and zoning incentives.
as of increased importance as an imperative for Cities need a variety of housing typologies to cater
socioeconomic development and the sustainable to different income groups and prevent informality
future of cities. and homelessness. For the rural-urban migrants
Figure 21: Villa 31 is an informal settlement located in the city of Buenos Aires,
Argentina, in the Recoleta and Retiro neighbourhoods.
Source: UN-Habitat /Julius Mwelu via Flickr

71 | ©The New
Jimmy Urban Agenda
Baikovicius / Flickr Illustrated
who need transitional housing, a “minimum shelter” Increase the supply of rental housing. The Developing
model can be developed. This model provides development of affordable rental housing is an affordable
a unit that is designated to match the ability of important part of a housing policy. Rental housing housing near
potential occupants to pay for it, as opposed to is a major assistance for those households without transit corridors
the traditional approach where planners develop sufficient income to buy a home or provide down coupled with
housing and then estimate how many people could payment to access housing finance. In addition, mixed-use
afford it. In Singapore, a “dormitory style” Housing rental housing can assist citizens who work in the development can
New York plan adopted in 2014, for example, has informal sector and do not qualify for mortgage be a forceful tool
accelerated the construction and preservation of loans. Furthermore, rental markets are necessary in combating
affordable housing by encouraging a wide variety of for workers’ mobility. Lastly, developing rental units rising land prices
housing types and programs. in dense urban areas can prevent sprawl as many and ensuring
low-income home buyers are forced to move to the social equity and
Beyond mass housing programs, develop suburbs to be able to afford housing. inclusion of lower
incremental housing approaches to provide income groups
access to serviced land and a minimum core Develop a blend of supply-side and demand-side in the urban
unit, requiring residents to build and expand on subsidies. To develop a healthy housing market, planning
their own according to set standards. Research cities must get the subsidies, financing and taxation framework.
shows that supporting incremental housing right. Experience has shown that demand-side
construction by low-income groups through an subsidies are the most effective form of subsidies
enabling approach can contribute significantly for rental housing. However, they require heavy
to solving housing problems. For incremental fiscal commitments from the government and
housing intervention to be successful, the fact require the collection and update of information
that it is intensively time consuming and process on beneficiaries. On the other hand, supply-side
based must be considered. Many families work subsidies cannot provide affordable units to the
on the improvement and extension of their homes lowest-income groups and are likely to entail long-
throughout an entire family cycle, first to obtain the term budgetary obligations. In order to serve the
minimum standards in size and quality, and later lowest-income groups with rental housing options,
to accommodate changes in family structure or a blend of demand-side and supply-side subsidies
to get income from their investment in the house must be used. On the demand side, the amount of
(Greene and Rojas 2008). Incremental housing direct assistance to low-income tenants should be
usually has three phases: accessing land, building linked to household income, rent and the type of
the housing nucleus and making incremental household or the family size.
improvements (Greene and Rojas 2008). One of
the most successful such programs is Patrimonio Fix the mortgage markets by catering to the
Hoy, which was launched in 1998 in Mexico to lowest income levels and developing primary and
respond to the rising housing needs of very low- secondary housing finance markets, through the
income people. The programme aims to reduce the issuance of credit and guarantees for housing
cost and time needed by the poor to improve their acquisition, construction and project upgrades.
housing. It targets low-income residents earning One successful example of such policies is the
less than four times the minimum wage who lack development of a housing finance system in Mexico
access to credit and government housing finance with the introduction of a comprehensive federal
programs. The programme provides the residents housing policy package in 2001. This package
with microloans, technical assistance and building includes a financial and operational overhaul at
materials. It benefitted to more than 300,000 low- INFONAVIT, the largest public mortgage bank; the
income families and generated a significant number creation of a specialized organization (Comisión
of jobs (IBD 2011). Nacional de la Vivienda, or CONAVI) to coordinate
housing sector efforts; the implementation of a

large scale subsidy programme for low-income 2.1.4 Urban legislation

families to purchase housing (Esta es Tu Casa); and regulations
the development of co-financing products and a
secondary (mortgage-backed securities) market; The New Urban Agenda explicitly recognizes
and the creation of a guarantee programme, the leading role of national Governments in the
operated by a second-tier development bank. development and implementation of legislation
The results have been quantitatively impressive: for sustainable and inclusive urban development,
the number of mortgages issued in the country while calling for the participation of other relevant
increased by 126 per cent over the 2000–2008 stakeholders, including local governments and civil
period and the four largest housing developers are society - NUA 15.b. This is matched by the call,
now traded in the stock market (Inter-American in SDG 11, to “enhance inclusive and sustainable
Development Bank 2011). Box 11 explains a urbanization and capacity for participatory,
mortgage programme in the Philippines. integrated and sustainable human settlement
planning and management in all countries” - SDG
To decrease the cost of land acquisition, develop Target 11.3. Strengthening partnerships and
dense and mixed-income housing models close to enhancing coordination is viewed as critical to
transit. Developing affordable housing near transit the successful development and revision of urban
corridors coupled with mixed-use development can legislation and legal mechanisms - NUA 21. This
be a forceful tool in combating rising land prices implicitly requires a balance between public and
and ensuring social equity and inclusion of lower- private interests and the participation of a diversity
income groups in the urban planning framework. of actors. Transparency in the process and outputs
The land tools above could be coupled with of planning is important in promoting equality in
demand-side subsidies to create a mixed-income outcomes.
and mixed-used community along transit corridors.
In Brazil, the Minha Casa, Minha Vida (My House, Governments have committed to “take measures
My Life) programme, which was responsible for a to establish legal and policy frameworks, based on
third of all low-income housing projects in Brazil the principles of equality and non-discrimination”
in 2013, is also focused on developing affordable as well as to “promoting a safe, healthy, inclusive
housing near transit, when possible. For example, and secure environment in cities and human
this programme has initiated a project in the city settlements enabling all to live, work and
of Rio Grande. It has designated an empty plot participate in urban life without fear of violence
of land in order to avoid real estate speculation. and intimidation” - NUA 89, 39. The New Urban
The Federal Government has donated the land to Agenda makes an explicit reference to “promote
the city, and it is an area that is already equipped the development of adequate and enforceable
with public services, infrastructure, and access to regulations in the housing sector … combating
transport. The vision is to make the neighbourhood and preventing speculation, displacement,
home to 1,300 low-income families, where they can homelessness and arbitrary forced evictions” -
maintain their social relationships and have access NUA 111. The New Urban Agenda also encourages
to services, jobs, education and health resources the “development of policies, tools, mechanisms
throughout the city (Caccia and Zottis 2015). and financing models that promote access to a
wide range of affordable, sustainable housing
options, including rental and other tenure options”
- NUA 107. The New Urban Agenda envisages
cities and human settlements where there is
“universal access to safe and affordable drinking

Diagram 16: Urban legislation and regulations
URBAN LEGISLATION
AND REGULATIONS
PRINCIPLES
Citizen needs Compliance process Legal frameworks Appraisal

Urban laws should The compliances processes Legal frameworks should The law-making
have strong links created by legislative be characterized by process should include
with the needs of frameworks should be simple, clear institutional and an adequate appraisal
citizens. expeditious and affordable. government set-ups. of resources.
Urban law Spatial planning Land management Housing

Promote access to a safe, Develop accountable Target inclusive, effective and Legislation for equal
healthy and inclusive urban and effective spatial multi-dimensional land access to adequate
environment through planning. management and security of and affordable
quality urban law. land tenure. housing.
Urban services Municipal finance Government revenue

Appropriate regulatory Improve accountability Expand local government
frameworks to develop and transparency in revenue powers and
and manage urban basic municipal finance. implementation.
services.

water and sanitation” - NUA 13.a. It also requires Principles The compliance
States to promote “equitable and affordable processes
access to sustainable basic physical and social For legislation to be implementable and be a useful created by
infrastructure for all, without discrimination, tool in directing the management and development legislative
including affordable serviced land, housing, of urban areas as intended by the New Urban frameworks
modern and renewable energy, safe drinking water Agenda, it must be of good quality. Legislative should be simple,
and sanitation” - NUA 34. quality is assessed by its functional effectiveness, expeditious and
which is the ability of a law to accomplish what it affordable for
All too often, the basic elements of urban planning was intended to. Determining features of the quality most urban
are not clearly defined in the regulatory framework of legislation include its purpose, substantive dwellers.
governing the planning system or reflected in content and legislative expression. Its overarching
the plans, making planning ineffective in shaping structure and real-life accomplishments are also
cities and achieving sustainable and inclusive relevant. Legislative effectiveness can be assessed
results. Therefore, to achieve sustainable and through four main components of essential law:
inclusive urban development, the New Urban
Agenda recognizes the role of spatial planning Urban laws should have strong links with
calling for a paradigm shift in the way urban areas the needs of citizens, by being appropriate to
are planned and designed - NUA 15. This means the local contexts in which they operate. This
the “development of urban planning and design is not compatible with the practice of blind
instruments that support sustainable management transplantation of models.
and use of natural resources and land, appropriate
compactness and density, polycentrism and mixed The compliance processes created by legislative
uses, through infill or planned urban extension frameworks should be simple, expeditious and
strategies” - NUA 51. affordable for most urban dwellers. The complexity
and costs of the process should not discourage
otherwise law-abiding residents from compliance.
75 | The New /Urban

© Dany13 Flickr Agenda Illustrated
Legal frameworks should be characterized by

clear institutional and governmental set-ups
Box 12: Flexible land tenure law in Namibia
including horizontal and vertical coordination
mechanisms. They need to specify the roles of each
institution in order to eliminate gaps and overlaps, The Namibian government has introduced the Flexible Land
which often lead to confusion, and eliminate lack Tenure Act of 2012 which provides land tenure security to a special
of transparency, poor accountability and poor category of people who have not been able to own their piece of land.
compliance. The law seeks to address the vulnerability of communities who live
in informal settlements in urban areas across the country. The basic
The law-making process should include an idea is to establish a flexible, interchangeable system parallel and
adequate appraisal of the resources – both complementary to the current formal system of freehold tenure.
financial and human resources – needed for its
implementation. Two new types of tenure have been introduced within the system which
are supplementary to the existing freehold tenure, namely the starter title
and the land hold title. Both titles are individual types of tenure but group
Illustrative Actions based, in that, the outside boundary of a block earmarked for titling under
the Flexible Land Tenure System (blockerf) is professionally surveyed
The call for law reform in the New Urban Agenda and registered under the freehold tenure system at the Deeds Registry.
covers four key areas: equity and governance, Subsequently, the individual tenure rights are registered in the newly
planning, land and environment, housing and basic established Land Rights Offices. Ownership of the block can be with the
services, and economy and finance. The actions local authority, a private owner or a community-based organization.
below correspond to these four key areas.
In 2016, the Ministry of Land Reform decided to pilot the new
Promote access to a safe, healthy and inclusive tenure registration system in different pilot areas, namely in Gobabis,
urban environment through quality urban law. Oshakati, Outapi and Windhoek. In 2020, the Oshakati Town Council
The impact of legislation is important: good laws became the first local authority in Namibia to implement the flexible land
and institutions can set meaningful frameworks tenure scheme. Seven schemes have been created at Onawa informal
for sustainable development, but bad ones can settlement, where currently the flexible land tenure system is being
accentuate inequalities and exclusion. Laws implemented in four blocks. Onawa informal settlement is home to more
influence equity directly by determining policy and than 300 residents. 40 title deeds have been issued and an additional 288
outcomes on spatial equity. They also influence beneficiaries will be given land title deeds in two months.
equity indirectly by providing local governments
with the tools to generate public revenue from
Source: Integrated Land Management Institute, Namibia University of Science and Technology.
urban assets. Urban law is necessary to provide
a framework of rules to mediate and balance
competing public and private interests, especially in
relation to land use and development. Quality urban immense potential for climate change adaptation
law creates a stable and predictable framework for and mitigation. In adaptation, for example, planning,
both public and private-sector action, guaranteeing land-use and building laws may be used to prevent
the inclusion of the interests of vulnerable groups development in vulnerable areas or stipulate the
and providing a catalyst for local and national location of essential infrastructure. Similarly, they
discourse. may be crucial for mitigation by requiring green
public spaces, regulating energy consumption in
Develop accountable and effective spatial buildings and promoting urban forms that promote
planning. Urban plans create a path for urban walkability and compactness.
growth that seeks to maximize the positive and
minimize the negative effects of urbanization. Target inclusive, effective and multidimensional
They help revitalize physical facilities in urban land management and security of land tenure. The
areas as well as develop and conserve areas of importance of land cannot be overstated. It acts
natural environmental significance. By influencing as the anchor of social and economic activities
urban patterns and forms, planning laws also have in most societies and is also a source of cultural

identity. It is the basis of shelter, food production, for sound development in this sector. Indeed, Legal
livelihoods and environmental health. The New urban actors also function as regulators of service frameworks
Urban Agenda advocates for “increased security provision to guarantee universal access, quality should call for
of tenure for all, recognizing the plurality of tenure standards and fair pricing. This role becomes even participatory
types, and to develop fit-for-purpose, and age-, more relevant in places where such services are and inclusive
gender- and environment-responsive solutions externalized to the private sector. budgeting,
within the continuum of land and property rights, which should be
with particular attention to security of land tenure Improve accountability and transparency in a continuous,
for women as key to their empowerment, including municipal finance. Municipal finance in many parts open and
through effective administrative systems” - NUA of the world is heavily reliant on intergovernmental inclusive
35. The supportive framework for implementation transfers and property taxes. Identifying process by
of land policy includes, among other elements, taxable properties and setting the tax rate may which citizens
institutional and regulatory frameworks - NUA 86. progressively affect some individuals or parts of the and local
Box 12 presents the Flexible land tenure system in city disproportionately. Legal frameworks should governments
Namibia. call for participatory and inclusive budgeting, which widen
should be a continuous, open and inclusive process mechanisms
Legislation for equal access to adequate and by which citizens and local governments widen for promoting
affordable housing. The right to adequate hous- mechanisms for promoting direct and indirect direct and
ing means the right to live somewhere in security, citizen participation. The process should involve indirect citizen
peace and dignity. Legal frameworks ought to sup- identifying local needs and deciding preferences, participation.
port the supply of affordable housing for all income as well as the implementation, monitoring and
groups. These may take a variety of forms that in- evaluation of the budget, considering expenditure
clude incentives or disincentives for the developers. requirements and available resources. The New
Incentives may be cross subsidies (such as density Urban Agenda states that Governments will
bonuses for developers to fund affordable housing) “support subnational and local governments in their
and outright subsidies (such as housing vouchers efforts to implement transparent and accountable
or developer tax incentives). They also include mea- expenditure control instruments for assessing
sures that create and promote higher-density urban the necessity and impact of local investment and
land or set quota requirements for developers. projects, based on legislative control and public
Legal frameworks also perform a crucial role in the participation” - NUA 138.
housing context by regulating the rental market. Ur-
ban legislation should foster a well-regulated rental Expand local government revenue powers and
market and promote the production of adequate implementation. Urban services require an
and affordable rental housing. Tenants are particu- enormous amount of resources. Local authorities
larly in need of legal protection from arbitrary action need to access funds for them to provide adequate,
by property owners. quality and timely services. Legal frameworks
support municipal finance by bridging the gap
Appropriate regulatory frameworks to develop between increased functions on the one hand
and manage urban basic services. Basic services and fiscal decentralization on the other. Examples
such as water and sanitation, electricity and energy, include empowering municipalities to raise revenue
and refuse and waste removal are critical for a through other forms of taxes in addition to the
better quality of human life. One of the key features property tax. These other forms include land-
of a developmental state is to ensure that all based finance mechanisms such as betterment
citizens – including the poor and other vulnerable levies, special assessments, developer exactions
groups – have access to basic services. Strong and the sale of development rights. Public finance
regulatory measures coupled with responsive urban legislation should enable municipalities to raise
governance may set up the necessary conditions revenue through municipal borrowing and PPPs.

2.1.5 Urban design Urban design and spatial planning also have Different
a critical role to play in the global response to instruments
Tools of urban design are essential to guiding climate change, by reducing greenhouse gas that govern the
and shaping the built form of cities, relationships emissions while building resilience to climate risks. process of urban
between infrastructural systems and land uses, and The New Urban Agenda recognizes that urban development
the quality of the public realm, which encompasses form, infrastructure and building design can have include master
streetscapes, parks, waterfronts, amenities and significant implications for resource efficiencies planning,
other elements that provide a complete framework achieved through scale “by fostering energy neighbourhood
for the public experience of moving through and efficiency, renewable energy, resilience, productivity, spatial plans,
living in a city. As emphasized in the New Urban environmental protection and sustainable growth regional plans,
Agenda, the accessibility and design of urban in the urban economy” - NUA 44. Urban design heritage and
spaces can “promote or hinder social cohesion, regulations can be instrumental in ensuring that the conservation
equality and inclusion” - NUA 25. Urban design evolving urban form of cities promotes resource plans, and zoning
regulations are essential to achieving some of efficiency, climate mitigation and resilience in ways and land-use
the spatial frameworks outlined in the New Urban that are responsive to and appropriate for local ordinances.
Agenda, including compactness, polycentrism, conditions.
mixed uses, infill or planned urban extension
strategies - NUA 98.
Principles
Different instruments that govern the process
of urban development include master planning, The urban planning and design process should
neighbourhood spatial plans, regional plans, be clear and inclusive, allowing public, private,
heritage and conservation plans, and zoning and and community sectors to contribute their
land-use ordinances. Urban design regulations voices. Good urban design and planning outcomes
are critical for ensuring that key policy objectives promote cities that are open and accessible to all.
are enacted at all urban scales including the Urban design guidelines and ordinances governing
metropolitan region, city, district, neighbourhood, new developments should improve accessibility
block and building scales. The New Urban Agenda and openness by designing places that encourage
emphasizes the importance of “reinvigorating public use, ensuring they are visible and welcoming,
long-term and integrated urban and territorial and promoting affordability in new developments.
planning and design in order to optimize the
spatial dimension of the urban form and deliver the
positive outcomes of urbanization” - NUA 15.c.iii.
Figure 22: In Singapore, different uses and typologies intertwine in a well-established master plan.

Diagram 17: Urban design
URBAN
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES
Clear and Public Sense Design Safety &

inclusive realm of place details comfort
The urban planning and Expand, protect and Create and protect a Address details at every Ensure security
design process should promote the public unique sense of place, by step spanning multiple and bring comfort
be clear and inclusive, realm and enhance the incorporating the history scales from public to inhabitants.
allowing public, private livability of urban and intangible culture of space details to
and community sectors neighborhoods. diverse neighborhoods, large-scale planning
to contribute their vibrant public spaces and and policy initiatives.
voices. natural areas into planning
and policy initiatives.
Master planning Neighborhood plans Zoning

Neighborhoods should develop Ensure that neighborhood In more regulatory advanced
master plans, which are master plans respect an settings, zoning laws should be
long-term strategies to build area’s character, promote a developed to form the bedrock of
connection between buildings, mix of uses and foster urban design regulations to
social settings, economic inclusive development. encourage mixed uses, compactness
activities, geography and culture. and infill development.
Overlays Codes
When necessary, develop Develop building codes to
zoning overlays to provide ensure quality construction,
more specialized controls for address seismic and flood risks,
specific elements such as land and set standards for resource
features, vegetation, heritage and energy efficiency.
or buildings.

Urban planning and design instruments are Illustrative Actions Master plans
created to expand, protect and promote the help guide future
public realm and enhance the liveability of Neighbourhoods should develop master plans, growth in a city.
urban neighbourhoods. City planning agencies which are long-term strategies to build connection The master
should introduce clear guidelines and consistent between buildings, social settings, economic plan serves as
perspective and advocacy in all matters that will activities, geography and culture. Master plans a high-level
affect the public realm and new developments help guide future growth in a city. The master framework for
at any scale. The master planning process in plan serves as a high-level framework for urban urban
Singapore illustrates this well. See Figure 22 and design and planning and forms the basis for local design and
Box 13 for more details. land-use regulations and zoning ordinances that planning and
ensure urban development is consistent with the forms the basis
Urban planning and design regulations are community goals and policies expressed in the for local
necessary to create and protect a unique sense master plan. An effective master plan provides a land-use
of place; they should incorporate the history degree of prescription while allowing for particular regulations
of diverse neighbourhoods, the intangible flexibility through an iterative approach. and zoning
culture of inhabitants, vibrant public spaces and ordinances that
natural areas. Urban design elements, such as Ensure that neighbourhood master plans respect ensure urban
recognizable building types, a vibrant public realm, an area’s character, promote a mix of uses and development is
waterfront esplanades and living edges, can create foster inclusive development. Urban designers consistent with
a rich and welcoming urban environment essential frequently cite neighbourhood character and “sense the community
to liveability and should be protected in urban of place” as what gives an area its distinctive goals and policies
planning regulations and land-use plans. cultural DNA. These are not necessarily quantifiable expressed in the
or generalizable elements, but they are critical master plan.
Urban design and planning mechanisms should qualities that help foster a sense of place and
address details at every step, spanning multiple memory for a community. Guidelines to create
scales from public space details to large-scale neighbourhood character can include low-rise
planning and policy initiatives. Good urban design development typified in the form of detached or
and attention to detail do not necessarily have to townhome developments, commercial cores to
cost more or take more time, but should be initiated be zoned to allow for social events and protect
before the execution of projects in order to guide public amenities such as parks, and preservation
future development. and planting of street trees and other landscaping
initiatives.
Urban planning and design should ensure
security and bring comfort to inhabitants. Zoning In more regulatorily advanced settings, zoning
regulations were initially established at the turn of laws should be developed to form the bedrock
the twentieth century in major metropolitan areas of urban design regulations to encourage mixed
to ensure universal access to light and air. Today, uses, compactness and infill development. Zoning
planners and designers should also take into laws not only regulate the use of land by parcel, but
account issues related to public health, comfort also determine the density and height of structures
and security across the public realm. Planning built. Zoning can delineate physical limitations
and design regulations should strive to promote including setbacks, frontages, open space and
a sense of security, comfort and inclusivity in the parking requirements, which are essential tools
built environment. of urban design to shape built form. While master
plans are not legally binding, zoning ordinances
must be followed by all.

When necessary, develop zoning overlays to

provide more specialized controls for specific land
Box 13: Singapore’s master plan 2003 –
features such as vegetation, heritage or buildings. The blueprint for development
Typical zoning overlays include built form overlays,
which include heritage overlays and neighbourhood
character protection, environmental and landscape In 2003, Singapore developed a Master Plan to guide its
overlays protecting natural features and resources development over the next decade. The plan was intended to improve
and land management overlays helping protect upon Singapore’s simplistic statutory plan in 1998, which only specified
valuable agricultural or cultivable land at risk of land uses for residential, employment and recreational purposes. The
urbanization. key focuses in the 2003 Master Plan were 1) improving the quality
of the living environment through a variety of housing that would
In addition to master plans and zoning meet the aspirations of the people, ease access to recreation and
regulations, develop building codes to ensure recognize Singapore’s natural heritage; 2) providing greater flexibility
quality construction, address seismic and for businesses through new land use zones and 3) reinforcing character
flood risks and set standards for resource and and identity to encourage a sense of rootedness amongst Singaporeans.
energy efficiency. Codes can regulate materials The objectives and strategies included to review the Master Plan every
used, ingress and egress, safety standards and five years, break the plan down into medium- and long-term strategies,
minimum requirements for the built form and may ensure sufficient land is safeguarded for the next 15 years, create a
also include standards regarding inspection. The consultation public loop and create a participatory planning approach to
International Code Council defines building codes design a network of greenery and identity.
as “collections of laws, regulations, ordinances
(or other statutory requirements) adopted by a The Master Plan was developed in conjunction with other government
government legislative authority involved with agencies and underwent two rounds of public consultation including
the physical structure and healthful conditions focus groups, surveys, exhibitions and dialogues that attracted more
of buildings and building sites”. Building codes than 80,000 visitors. The first consultation reviewed two countrywide
are one of the simplest ways to protect citizens guides, the Parks and Waterbodies Plan and the Identity Plan, focused
and cities. However, any given jurisdiction will be on enhancing greenery and improving the quality of Singapore’s living
required to carefully consider what their building environment. The feedback was then incorporated into the Master Plan
code will be, and codes can vary wildly in depth after each round.
and efficacy depending on who implements them.
So-called model codes refer to codes that are Source: UN-Habitat
accepted as current standards and that meet
or exceed known practices in ensuring safe and
healthful construction. At an international level, the
International Code Council (ICC) represents the  Promoting financial mechanisms to develop Recommendations
most established organization whose purpose is and broaden integrated and transparent from this
to set a global model for construction that can be financing frameworks and inclusive platforms handbook
used consistently around the world. through context sensitive approaches to require a proper
financing urbanization and enhancing financial understanding
management capacities at all levels. of costs and
2.1.6 Municipal finance benefits. Municipal
 Developing and expanding finance instruments finance is
The New Urban Agenda supports the creation of to improve transport and mobility infrastructure about the revenue
legal frameworks for sustainable national and and systems at the national, subnational and expenditure
municipal borrowing, accountable expenditure and local government levels and considering decisions of
control instruments for national and subnational establishing urban and territorial transport municipal
governments and an expanding revenue base for infrastructure and service funds at the national government, and
national and subnational governments. In summary, level. about cost-benefit
the New Urban Agenda’s stance on municipal analysis.
finance includes the following:  Reinforcing the link between fiscal systems
and urban planning through the development

Diagram 18: Municipal finance
MUNICIPAL
FINANCE
PRINCIPLES
De-centralization Transfers Financial resources

Fiscal decentralization is There are two main categories Beyond intergovernmental
an important indicator in of intergovernmental transfers, cities should find
success of municipal transfers: conditional and ways to expand their
financial systems. unconditional. financial resources.
Local revenue Credit-worthiness Asset management

Collect own revenues and Move toward credit-worthiness. Develop effective
manage local revenues Most cities in the developing asset management
efficiently. world do not have the capacity or institutions and
authorization to borrow in global practices.
financial markets.
Private investment
Leverage private investment,
local governments can rarely
afford taking on massive
urban infrastructure projects
using only public funds.

of urban management tools; the development

of appropriate and affordable housing
Box 14: Global examples of intergovernmental transfers
finance products; and the encouragement of
participation by a diverse range of multilateral
financial institutions, regional development Different countries have different systems for transferring funds to local
banks and development finance institutions, governments. For example, in Mexico, the federal Government provides
cooperation agencies, private-sector lenders substantial financial support to states and municipalities on an ongoing
and investors, cooperatives, moneylenders and basis, using a mix of unconditional transfers, as well as policy specific
microfinance banks to invest in affordable and transfers. For urban development projects or public transit systems, a
incremental housing in all its forms. city can petition the Mexican Development Bank (Banobras), which is
responsible for promoting and financing infrastructure and services.
 Developing vertical and horizontal models of Banobras acts as the trustee of Mexico’s National Infrastructure
distribution of financial resources to decrease Fund, which was created to increase national and international private
inequalities across subnational territories investment.
through the use of international public finance,
including official development assistance, to In Chile, municipalities do not have borrowing power and have three
catalyze additional resource mobilization from ways to generate revenues: a) autonomous income (property taxes,
all available sources, public and private, for vehicle circulation licenses, building permits and commercial and alcohol
sustainable urban and territorial development. licenses), b) transfer of funds from the Common Municipal Fund (CMF),
NUA 131, 134, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 145 which is a municipal income distribution transfer system and c) transfers
from central Government agencies’ funds. CMF act as the main source of
None of the planning initiatives in this handbook will funds for municipalities in most cases.
be implementable without a proper understanding
of costs and benefits. Municipal finance is In the United States, one example of conditional transfers is the
about the revenue and expenditure decisions of Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) Entitlement Program,
municipal government, and about cost-benefit which provides annual grants to cities and counties for fostering viable
analysis. It covers the sources of revenue that urban communities. These grants can be used for providing housing and
are used by municipal governments – taxes living environments and expanding economic opportunities. They are
(property, income, sales and excise taxes), user calculated based on a formula and target low- and moderate-income
fees and intergovernmental transfers. It includes persons (HUD 2019).
ways of financing infrastructure through the use
of operating revenues and borrowing as well as In South Africa, cities use transfers from the National Treasury for
charges on developers and PPPs. Municipal finance operating and capital expenditures. There, transfers are in the form
also addresses issues around expenditures at of grants and represent an average of 80 per cent of revenue for
the local level and accountability for expenditure capital budgets in rural municipalities and 70 per cent of revenue in
and revenue decisions, including the municipal urban municipalities. The National Treasury reports that, since 1999,
budgetary process and financial management. transfers to local governments have grown faster than total government
expenditures, which signals efforts for fiscal decentralization. The South
African Treasury offers performance based incentives, and cities have to
Principles meet various conditions to obtain them. For example, a municipality must
submit a “Built Environment Performance Plan”, along with potential
Fiscal decentralization is an important urban development projects that need capital investment, with an
indicator for the success of municipal financial implementation strategy.
systems. Fiscal decentralization means that
Source: Amirtahmasebi and others 2016
financial responsibility is transferred from the
central Governments to local entities, making
them responsible for financing and delivering
infrastructure and services. Cities in industrialized
countries have embarked on decentralization earlier
than developing countries. Fiscal decentralization

should be accompanied by sound revenue sources. But beyond intergovernmental transfers, cities Fiscal
Local authorities should be able to impose and should find ways to expand their financial decentralization
collect taxes, but even then, local revenues are resources. Developing PPPs is one way to should be
seldom sufficient to pay for services and capital leverage private investment in all sectors of urban accompanied by
investments. development. Other ways include borrowing in the sound revenue
financial markets or local financial institutions. sources.
There are two main categories of Developing strong asset management institutions
intergovernmental transfers: conditional and and practices can also increase local revenues
unconditional. Unconditional transfers are mostly beyond intergovernmental transfers.
used for budget support. These are usually formula
based and are granted to the local government
based on factors such as population and area of Illustrative Actions
jurisdiction. Conditional transfers have strings
attached. They are allocated for undertaking Collect own revenues and manage local
specific projects or providing specific services revenues efficiently. Local revenues include
and development of infrastructure. Conditional intergovernmental transfers, different taxes (income
transfers could incorporate matching provisions tax, property tax, business tax, VAT, and so on),
so that municipalities are required to use some user fees and charges, investment income, sales
of their internal resources to match the grant. of land and property, licensing fees, and so on.
Dependence on intergovernmental transfers by The municipal government provides services to
local governments is widespread but the extent of the residents and in turn collects taxes to pay for
the dependence varies by country (see Box 14). those services. Therefore, the capacity to pay for
collecting own revenues is essential for providing
Figure 23: Kop van Zuid in Rotterdam, Netherlands, was developed on a large former
port that had lost its function and was left abandoned. An innovative PPP scheme was
used to develop the entire port into a combination of higher-end housing units, offices,
commercial spaces and social function areas. The new tramline and the newly built
Erasmus Bridge also facilitated the connection between this area and the city center.
© ilya131266 / iStock The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | 84

municipal services. Globally, local city-level 4. In some cases, there are restrictions on the Many cities in the
expenditures as a share of total public expenditures type of instrument that is used to incur debt, developing world
vary between 45 per cent in Denmark and 11 per such as a loan or bond. do not possess
cent in Bolivia (Farvacque-Vitkovic and Kopanyi a proper and
2014). Good local revenue management has two 5. The debt could be subject to entitlement, complete
principles: first, municipal services should be such as authorizing individual borrowings or inventory
linked to the revenue sources that finance them; centralizing borrowing operations with on- of their assets.
second, services should be directly or indirectly lending to local governments.
financed by their beneficiaries. Private goods –
such as electricity, water, urban transport, waste 6. In most cases, approval is needed from the
management and parking – can be financed by central Government.
fees or user charges, while public goods – such as
parks, street cleaning and lighting – are financed by 7. In some countries, control is subject only to
local taxes (Farvacque-Vitkovic and Kopanyi 2014). market forces and not based on rules. (GIZ
2012)
Move towards creditworthiness. Many cities in
the developing world do not have the capacity or Develop effective asset management institutions
authorization to borrow in global financial markets. and practices. Many cities in the developing world
Local governments need substantial funding to do not possess a proper and complete inventory
build infrastructure. These amounts are usually of their assets. In this case, inventorying should
not included in the operating budget and need be the highest priority. Assets are usually grouped
to be provided either by large transfers from the in records by type, service sector, or holder or
central Government or by borrowing from external manager. Examples of these groupings include
financial institutions. In many cases, the regulatory utility and sanitation assets, that is sewer and water
framework or the local government’s financial systems, solid waste facilities, and so on; highways,
and governance situation will not allow sub- roads, and bridges; publicly owned buildings; land
sovereign lending to happen. This is determined by or rights to land; certain improvements to land other
intergovernmental fiscal relations and the financial than buildings; and certain equipment, vehicles
and technical capacity of the local government. and furnishings. Good asset management requires
When a local government borrows, the resulting long-term commitment and leadership that
long-term debt can be serviced from local goes beyond election cycles. The sequencing of
municipal income, either from revenue generating actions needs to be defined locally and necessary
projects or indirectly through other sources of technical skills have to be developed or obtained.
revenue. However, the following limitations may Lastly, a good asset management practice needs
apply to this approach: strong ownership that is internalized by the local
government (Farvacque-Vitkovic and Kopanyi
1. Borrowing in foreign currencies exposes the 2014).
local authority to foreign exchange and interest
rate risks. Leverage private investment. It is extremely
rare that local governments can afford to take
2. There should be limits on borrowing. This on massive urban infrastructure projects using
ceiling can be set as a percentage of the only public funds. Therefore, PPPs have become
budget or local revenues, or at a maximum important instruments for urban development.
debt-service ratio. PPPs are used when the public sector lacks
the necessary funds or institutional and human
3. There could be preconditions such as no capacity and so shares the risks and rewards of
current debt obligations in arrears or requiring urban regeneration projects with the private sector.
a balanced annual operating budget, and so on. For such projects to be effective, the partnership

details need to be fully laid out and the institutional ness, rule of law, stability, equity and inclusiveness, Urban
and organizational framework be decided in empowerment, and broad-based participation. governance
advance. These PPPs can be structured in the refers to the
form of concessions (contractual), mixed-income Recognizing the complexities of urban governance, process through
joint ventures (institutionalized) or can fall between the New Urban Agenda acknowledges and which national,
the two models. Concessions have been mostly advocates for a multilevel approach. It calls for subnational
used in projects with user-fee revenues and easily stronger coordination and cooperation among and local
measured metrics, and their potential usage in large national, subnational and local governments, governments
urban regeneration projects needs to be explored including through multilevel consultation and stakeholders
further. Joint ventures are platforms for cooperation mechanisms and by clear definition of mandates; collectively
between the government and one or more private coherence between goals and measures of sectoral decide how to
parties in the development and maintenance policies at different levels of administration; plan,
or execution of the project (Bult-Spiering and and strong metropolitan governance based on finance and
Dewulf 2006). Joint ventures are created through functional territories rather than administrative manage urban
various institutional and legal structures, such as borders - NUA 90. The New Urban Agenda also areas.
partnerships, limited partnerships, private limited emphasizes participation of all urban residents in
companies or public limited companies. The joint urban governance by encouraging collaborations
ventures can be incorporated, in which case a among local governments, communities, civil
special purpose vehicle (SPV) is usually created societies and the private sector in infrastructure
that is free from any pre-existing obligations and and basic services provision as well as urban and
debts and is accountable on its own. Contrary to territorial policy and planning processes - NUA 92.
the concession model, where risks and rewards are
transferred to the private sector, in joint ventures, In the New Urban Agenda, national Governments
public and private sectors share risks and rewards. also have a role to provide subnational and local
In cases where the dominant partner in a joint governments “with adequate, timely and predictable
venture PPP is the public sector, the joint venture resources and enhance their ability to raise
acts as a contracting company. Any contract with revenue and manage expenditures” - NUA 135.
a third party is subjected to the rules of public The New Urban Agenda also contains an express
contracting. If the two sectors have equal shares commitment by Member States to adopt “a smart
in the partnership, it is essential to determine city approach that makes use of opportunities
how much control the public sector has over the from digitalisation, clean energy and technologies,
decision-making process (Bult-Spiering and Dewulf as well as innovative transport technologies,
2006). Figure 23 shows Kop van Zuid in Rotterdam, thus providing options for inhabitants to make
Netherlands, which was developed using an more environmentally friendly choices and boost
innovative PPP scheme on abandoned port land. sustainable economic growth and enabling cities
to improve their service delivery” - NUA 66. It
further identifies several uses of technology and
2.1.7 Urban governance data for better urban governance and provision
of services including better urban planning and
Urban governance refers to the process through design - NUA 94, sustainable urban mobility - NUA
which national, subnational and local governments 114, protection of cultural heritage - NUA 125,
and stakeholders collectively decide how to plan, sustainable energy consumption - NUA 121, and
finance and manage urban areas. The concept of facilitating participation and flow of information
governance recognizes that power exists inside and to urban residents - NUA 156. The New Urban
outside the formal authorities and institutions of Agenda also calls for the creation, promotion
government, and that decisions are made based on and enhancement of open, user-friendly and
complex relationships between many actors with participatory data platforms to transfer and share
different priorities. Urban governance also refers to knowledge among national, subnational and local
the structures and processes that are designed to governments as well as other urban stakeholders
ensure accountability, transparency, responsive- including residents - NUA 160.

Diagram 19: Urban governance
URBAN
GOVERNANCE
PRINCIPLES
Accountable Participation Subsidiarity and Cooperation Digitalization

decision-making and inclusivity proportionality and efficiency and knowledge
management
Government officials All stakeholders Legal frameworks Local authorities While utilizing
should act openly should be should empower should cooperate and e-governance tools,
and share criteria involved in public local and establish governments should
used to make decision-making. subnational inter-municipal ensure that the
decisions and authorities fiscal and institutional data collected
mechanisms to jurisdictional arrangements for promotes social
report pubic autonomy to carry joint decision-making, inclusion in the
misconduct. out urban functions service provision and decision itself and
and service delivery. public investment. outcomes.
Multi-level Metropolitan Stakeholder Fiscal and

governance governance engagement human resource
capacity
Incorporate polycentrism Enable urban inhabitants Involve all stakeholders Equip local authorities
collaboration and to access urban goods (whole-of-civil society with the necessary
networking between and services across the approach) in public resources and carry out
public authorities and urban-rural continuum decision-making to ensure appraisals of existing
other urban stakeholders. through that the outcomes do not resources using a set of
inter-jurisdictional deviate from the needs and performance indicators,
agreements and priorities of the residents. which might include total
collective action. expenditure, degree of
self-sufficiency, budget
management
performance, and service
delivery performance.

Principles Subsidiarity and proportionality. Subsidiarity Local authorities

involves the delegation of resources, competences should cooperate
At its best, urban governance ensures that all and decision-making powers to democratically and establish
urban residents reap the benefits of urbanization. elected lower-level authorities that are independent formal and
It is outcome-oriented and promotes the civil of central government. Local and subnational informal inter-
and political as well as social, economic and authorities should be empowered by legal municipal
cultural rights of all urban residents. For this to be frameworks to have the fiscal and jurisdictional institutional
achieved, institutional arrangements, decision- autonomy to carry out urban functions and arrangements,
making processes and collective action need to be optimize service provision as they are better as well as
coordinated. An inclusive urban governance system placed to understand and respond to local needs. metropolitan
is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, Subsidiarity at the metropolitan level involves governing
transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, allowing metropolitan and regional institutions bodies for joint
equitable and inclusive. It assures that corruption is to assume local powers and functions which are decision-making,
minimized, the views of minorities are considered transferred by mutual agreement. service provision
and that the voices of the most vulnerable in and public
society are heard in decision-making. It is also Cooperation, efficiency and capacity investment.
responsive to the present and future needs of building. Urban management, including policy
society. The following principles lie at the heart of implementation and monitoring must be free
effective governance for sustainable urbanization: of unnecessary bureaucracy. Human resource
capacity is the basis for efficient delivery of public
Transparent and accountable decision-making. goods. In cities where territorial dynamics have
Transparency requires government officials to act surpassed municipal boundaries, local authorities
openly and allow those affected by administrative should cooperate and establish formal and informal
decisions to know about the resulting facts and inter-municipal institutional arrangements, as well
figures (e.g., the city budget) as well as the criteria as metropolitan governing bodies for joint decision-
used to reach those decisions. Availability of making, service provision and public investment.
information on government policies and actions,
a clear sense of organizational responsibility, and
an assurance that governments are efficiently
administered and free of systemic corruption are Figure 24: Residents of Mukuru informal
settlement in Nairobi, Kenya, take part in data
important components of transparent governance.
verification during settlement profiling.
Accountability provides the framework for
community oversight and reporting government
misconduct as well as the framework for
individuals to seek recourse for any harmful acts by
public administrators.
Broad-based participation and inclusivity.

Governments should involve all stakeholders
including communities, civil society organizations
and other public and private institutions in public
decision-making from the planning phase,
implementation and in maintaining and sustaining
the benefits and outcomes (whole-of-civil society
approach). The participation model should always
contain specific mechanisms to ensure that
vulnerable and marginalized groups (based on
gender, age, ethnicity and other characteristics)
have adequate opportunities for their voices to be
heard.

© Muungano wa Wanavijiji
Digitalization and knowledge management.

The use of e-governance tools and knowledge
Box 15: Inspiring practices on metropolitan
management strategies can facilitate greater governance from around the world
access to urban services for dwellers and
businesses, as well as creating new options Metropolitan governance has been achieved in different ways around
for gathering and using data. Decision-making the world. The cases of Valle de Aburrá in Colombia; San Salvador in
should be based on the most reliable and accurate El Salvador; Montreal in Canada; Barcelona in Spain; Johannesburg in
available information. Data collected must be South Africa; and Singapore, show how to provide integrative territorial
gender- and age-sensitive, promoting social governance frameworks involving fit-for-purpose institutional solutions,
inclusion in the decision itself and outcomes. representative decision-making bodies and processes, and common
Cities must implement and make sustainable agreements and collective actions.
knowledge management strategies and instances,
such as observatories, information systems, think Regarding institutional solutions, the inter-municipal cooperation
tanks and others that facilitate monitoring and mechanisms such as those of the Barcelona Metropolitan Area (AMB) made
implementation of territorial urban development. up of 36 municipalities, the Montreal Metropolitan Community (CMM) with
82 municipalities or the Metropolitan Area of Valle de Aburrá (AMVA) with
10 municipalities, exemplify how associative schemes optimise territorial
Illustrative Actions management, the provision of services and the implementation of projects
that go beyond their municipal boundaries, without decreasing political-
Multi-level cooperation allows broad consultative administrative or jurisdictional autonomies. In addition, the Metropolitan
processes and provides mechanisms for Agora in Montreal, the Tripartite Commission in Valle de Aburrá, and the
vertical and horizontal integration. Multi- Territorial Commission in Barcelona, are useful informal arrangements for
level governance implies vertical coordination diverse actors from public, private, and social sectors to actively participate
among different government levels such as in shaping inclusive metropolitan management.
municipalities, metropolitan authorities, regional,
state/provincial and national governments. It also Regarding decision-making, some examples like the Council of Mayors
requires horizontal coordination among sectoral of the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador; the Metropolitan Council,
departments, authorities and governments, Portfolio Clusters and Committees, Mayoral Committee, and Executive
as well as non-governmental actors at the Team, in Johannesburg; and the Parliament, Cabinet, Community
same governance level. Multi-level governance Development Councils, and Town Councils, in Singapore, show how
incorporates polycentrism collaboration and different configurations of governing bodies have been set for regulating
networking between public authorities and other metropolitan institutions while achieving horizontal and vertical cooperation
urban stakeholders including civil societies, the and representing local interests and priorities. Moreover, the Metropolitan
private sector, community groups, and residents Observatory, the Gauteng City-Region Observatory, and the Centre for
(whole-of-government approach). Liveable Cities, have allowed San Salvador, Johannesburg and Singapore
respectively, to share information about government activities, carry out
Metropolitan governance enables urban public participation methodologies for inclusive territorial management, and
inhabitants to access urban goods and services increased transparency and social inclusion in decision-making processes.
without jurisdictional constraints. Metropolitan
governance supports the quest to leave no one Regarding common agreements and collective actions, the “Metropolitan
and no place behind since it aims for balanced Agreements” of AMVA; the “Resolutions” of CMM; and the “Metropolitan
territorial development that facilitates housing, Organic Regulations and Decrees” of AMB, are all examples of binding
work, health, education and other fundamental administrative acts approved by their respective governing bodies, enacted
socio-economic rights without the constraints as legal instruments and adopted by their metropolitan institutions for
caused by administrative boundaries and across directing the work they carry out at supra-municipal scales. The “Joburg
the urban-rural continuum. Achieving metropolitan 2040 vision”, the Singapore’s vision on the “Liveable City”, and the San
governance involves actions on three fundamental Salvador’s vision of being a “A sustainable, inclusive, competitive and
fronts (Box 15). First, institutional solutions (formal resilient city, with a polycentric configuration,” have all been instrumental for
and informal arrangements) can offer a more those metropolises in generating collective actions between governments
efficient management of the inter-jurisdictional and other local actors in outlining medium and long-term strategic
objectives.
Source: UN-Habitat. (2020). Metropolitan, Territorial and

Regional Governance Assessment Framework.
and inter-sectoral complexity of territorial

affairs. Second, decision-making processes
Box 16: Participatory budgeting in India (city of Pune)
and avenues (governing bodies and knowledge
management) to approach territorial management
from non-hierarchical perspectives. Third, there
is a need for common agreements and collective Participatory budgeting, an alternative to traditional
action (administrative/ legal acts and common budgeting styles, allows people to deliberate and negotiate over the
development visions) to support integration distribution of public resources.
between several public, private and social actors.
Pune became the first Indian city to successfully implement
Community and stakeholder engagement increase participatory budgeting in 2005. Every August, the city’s municipal
ownership, trust, reduce conflict and ensure corporation publishes an advertisement and invites suggestions from
sustainability. The involvement of all stakeholders its people for civic works to be included in the forthcoming municipal
in public decision-making is key to ensure that budgets. People have a month to submit their proposals by filling up
the outcomes of these processes are realistic and the ‘Citizen Suggestion Form’ available online and at the ward office.
do not deviate from the needs and priorities of Next, the proposals are sent to the prabhag samiti, made up of elected
the residents. Mechanisms such as surveys can representatives of the locality.
be undertaken to identify the needs and views
of a large number of people in a standardized The samiti approves the suggestions and sends the updated list to the
format. It is often best to use a short and concise accounts department of the corporation for scrutiny. The accounts
questionnaire where people’s views on a specific department looks at the financial feasibility and sends a final list which
issue, such as affordable housing development or is then included in the city budget. The regulations mandate that the
transit service improvements, are being sought. individual projects cannot cost more than Rs 5 lakh ($6,677) and that
Charrettes are also useful to assemble key decision each of the 76 prabhags (division) in the city can allocate a maximum of
makers to collaborate on information sharing, Rs 50 lakh ($66,782).
iterative design proposals, feedback and revisions
for the development of complex urban projects, People can demand works on pavements, streetlights, bus stands,
designs or policies. Participatory budgeting public toilets, water, parks, signage, roads, traffic lights, public parking,
programs, in which community members decide garbage management, drainage etc. Civil society played a crucial role in
how to spend part of a public budget, should be popularizing the initiative. In 2010, non-profits Janwani and the Centre
gender responsive and should create regional for Environment Education distributed story-format booklets to sensitize
and thematic assemblies in which every member people and carried out over 100 workshops.
of the community regardless of their status can
participate and vote on budget issues. Box 16 In 2007-08, the budgetary allocation was Rs 17.62 crore
presents the Participatory budgeting mechanism of ($2,353,411), which reached Rs 37.5 crore ($5,009,451) in 2014-15. Even
the city of Pune in India. the total number of suggestions increased from 600 in 2012-13 to 4,645
in 2014-15. The 846 works approved in 2014-15 were for roads (34%),
Fiscal decentralization and human resource electricity (20%), buildings (15%), drainage (14%), slum redevelopment
capacity is key for efficient delivery of urban (13%) and water (4%).
services and responsive governance. As more
urban functions get devolved, local authorities
Source: Our Pune, Our Budget
need to be equipped with the necessary financial,
technical and human resources to fulfil their
mandates. First, urban institutions should
occasionally carry out an appraisal of existing
resources using a set of performance indicators
– which might include total expenditure, degree of
self-sufficiency (i.e., proportion of own revenues
to total), budget management performance
(i.e., absence of deficits), and service delivery
performance (i.e., client surveys). Second, to

address any capacity constraints, institutions sustainability and resilience and the development Development
should implement a systemic approach that of green energy); smart living (by improving visions agreed
mobilises different types of education and training quality of life, increasing safety and security, and through effective
– high and middle-level education, technical reducing risk); and smart people (by creating a participatory
courses, peer-to-peer learning and technical more informed public and fostering creativity, processes must
support. This includes local government and civil inclusivity, empowerment and participation). Given guide both the
society exchanging information and knowledge. the data security concerns and the vulnerability decision making
The involvement of civil society requires capacity of computing systems to hacking, crashing, and processes
building to improve the ability of community leaders viruses, a large amount of personal information is and the work
and public institutions to engage in dialogue to at risk of misuse. Legal frameworks have a crucial made by local
support a collaborative approach. role to play here, to increase data protection and governments
strike a reasonable balance between individual and sectoral
Digital platforms and technology create an rights on the one hand and public interests on the institutions.
enabling environment for smooth provision of city other.
services and infrastructure. Big data, the internet
of things (IOT), social media, blockchain and sensor Decision-making, territorial management
networks offer new ways for urban managers to instruments and administrative acts must include
make informed decisions and strategic choices. common development visions. Development
This process creates smart cities which use visions agreed through effective participatory
information to produce smart governments processes must guide both the decision-
(through new forms of e-government, evidence- making processes and the work made by local
informed decision making, better service delivery, governments and sectoral institutions. Additionally,
and increasing transparency, participation and development visions should be included in territorial
accountability); smart economies (by fostering management instruments, especially in those with
entrepreneurship, innovation, productivity such as medium and long-term time periods. To the extent
the app economy and open data economy); smart possible and as appropriate, development visions
mobility (by creating intelligent transport systems should be inspired by global agendas, as well as
and efficient, inter-operable multi-modal public link territorial management with socio-economic
transport); smart environments (by promoting development.
Aerial
91 view of crowd
| The NewofUrban
people during
Agenda marathon. © Dmitrijs Bindemanis / Shutterstock.com
Illustrated
2.2 Hard measures local levels - NUA 117. When spatial planning is The integration
not oriented around connectivity both in terms of transport and
for infrastructure and of land use and transit investment, cities do not mobility plans
realize the development potential that can result into overall
services from urbanization. These challenges will be even urban plans and
more pressing in the future, when congestion is promotion of a
set to increase. For example, by 2030, passenger wide
2.2.1 Transport and Mobility traffic will increase 50 per cent from the 2015 rate range of
(Sustainable Mobility for All 2017). The New Urban transportation
Transportation is an essential component in Agenda also emphasizes the importance of freight options are
planning and policymaking. It will become an even and the transportation of goods, which are also recommended
more imperative priority as urbanization continues, set to increase, as components of mobility and and emphasized
and the populations and spatial footprints of transportation planning. For example, global freight in the New Urban
cities grow and expand. Transportation is what volumes will grow 70 per cent by 2030, and the Agenda.
allows urban agglomeration effects to occur, as costs of freight and export processes are typically
transit infrastructure is what allows residents to higher in developing countries (Sustainable Mobility
access clustered resources. Residents of cities are for All 2017). Both the quality of life of residents and
connected to employment, resources and education the macroeconomic state of individual countries,
via transportation networks. regions and cities hinge on transit planning.
Transportation and mobility are important topics However, given the rapid growth of cities, public
in the New Urban Agenda especially because they transportation and road networks are not growing
facilitate urban-rural connections and enable fast enough. Existing transportation systems have
“meaningful participation in social and economic fallen into disrepair and neglect and will need to
activities in cities and human settlements” - NUA be retrofitted and expanded. For example, despite
114. The integration of transport and mobility plans being one of the world’s most famous transit
into overall urban plans and promotion of a wide systems, New York City has stated a need for
range of transportation options are recommended
and emphasized in the New Urban Agenda.
Further, the New Urban Agenda recommends a) Figure 25: People on board the Blue Ferry
an increase in accessible and sustainable public in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
transport and developing non-motorized options;
b) transit oriented development (TOD); c) better
coordinated transport and land-use planning and d)
urban freight planning that enables efficient access
to products and services. SDG 11 encourages
cities around the world to “provide access to safe,
affordable, accessible and sustainable transport
systems for all, improving road safety, notably by
expanding public transport, with special attention
to the needs of those in vulnerable situations,
women, children, persons with disabilities and older
persons” - SDG Target 11.2.
Urban connectivity is a function of not only

infrastructural investment and capital planning
for transportation systems, but also land use
planning and density management (Cervero
2016). The New Urban Agenda suggests better
coordination between transport and urban and
territorial planning at the national, subnational and
© Davor Lovincic / Getty Image iStock The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | 92
Diagram 20: Transport and mobility
HARD MEASURES
TRANSPORT
AND MOBILITY
50% 70%
By 2030, passenger Global freight Transportation contributes 1.24 million people

traffic will increase by transportation will to 23% of global die from road
50% compared to grow 70% by 2030. energy-related greenhouse accidents every year.
2015. gas emissions.
PRINCIPLES
Connectivity Economic Land Transit Rural

development use equity areas
Transportation and Development of Land use planning Plans for transit Urban transporta-
connectivity enable economic sectors must accompany the equity, specifically tion should extend
access to clustered follows connectivity development of for the needs and to rural and
resources and the options within and transportation experiences of suburban areas
agglomeration effects of between cities. networks. overlooked groups. when possible.
cities to all residents.
Right-of-way Corridor planning Equitable success

As cities expand, preserve Master planning and transit Develop policies that provide the
right-of-ways and space for corridor planning processes can poor access to transportation,
transportation networks. present an integrated vision of including transit subsidies or caps
transit investment. based on percentage of income.
Value capture Multiple cores Resiliency

Land value capture and Concentrate economic development Plan for disaster resiliency.
transit-oriented development can efforts outside of the urban core to
help fund new infrastructure. reduce congestion.
$16.3 billion in investment in its transit system transportation options, are a lower priority for The New
(Forman 2014). In the developing world, some mobility, lead lower-income households and face Urban Agenda
urbanized settlements will require the development the possibility of harassment (Rivera 2007). underlines the
of transportation systems from scratch. The New importance
Urban Agenda encourages “national, subnational Transportation networks as they exist today are of developing
and local governments to develop and expand also fraught with several negative externalities. “sustainable
financing instruments, enabling them to improve Dependence on individual cars results in and efficient
their transport and mobility infrastructure and pollution, spatial isolation and unequal access transport
systems, such as mass rapid-transit systems, to goods and services, as well as deaths and infrastructure” by
integrated transport systems, air and rail systems, injuries resulting from road safety issues. Public generating and
and safe, sufficient and adequate pedestrian transportation systems are safer than private using renewable
and cycling infrastructure and technology-based vehicle transportation. Private car transportation is and affordable
innovations” - NUA 118. one of the most unsafe and costly modes of travel; energy to reduce
a person traveling on a bus is 10 times safer than the financial,
As governments continue to invest in transit occupants of cars. Around 40 to 50 per cent of road environmental
systems, planners should understand that accidents occur in urban areas, with a larger share and public
inequalities also exist in transit development, of them occurring in developing countries, where health costs
where persons with disabilities, women, road configurations and traffic patterns are more of inefficient
children and low-income residents may not irregular and difficult to navigate. According to WHO mobility,
be adequately considered or included in the (2020), annually, 1.35 million people around the congestion,air
planning of transportation systems, resulting in world die from road accidents. pollution, urban
city transportation networks that are not wholly heat island
inclusive or considerate of the needs of these The New Urban Agenda also underlines the effects and noise
individual groups (Sustainable Mobility for All importance of developing “sustainable and efficient - NUA 54.
2017). For example, women often take more trips transport infrastructure” by generating and using
than men, due to childcare and domestic needs; renewable and affordable energy where possible
they are also more likely to travel as pedestrians to reduce the financial, environmental and public
in the developing world because they have limited health costs of inefficient mobility, congestion,
Figure 26: Air pollution in Cairo, Egypt.
© Nina Hale / Flickr

air pollution, urban heat island effects and noise more particulate matter than recommended by SDG Target 11.2
- NUA 54. Many cities around the world are the World Health Organization (United Nations specifically calls
challenged by air pollution, which in part is caused Sustainable Development Goals). As wealth for the
by automobile use (see Figure 26). Transportation levels increase in developing countries, walking, development
is the highest energy consuming sector in 40 bicycling and motorbike transport are shifting to car of sustainable
per cent of countries worldwide, meaning that driving, which increases pollution and emissions, transit for
it is linked to GHG emissions as well as climate encourages development that is difficult to navigate all, which is
mitigation. Emissions from transportation are set without a personally owned vehicle and reduces important in its
to increase 40 per cent between 2013 and 2040. overall safety in cities (Hong and others 2015). own sense, but
As such, the development of low-emissions public By 2050, it is expected that the number of motor essential for
transportation systems also relates to climate vehicles worldwide will increase to 2.6 billion, other
change mitigation. Currently, the sector contributes with much of the growth occurring in developing SDG goals.
23 per cent of global energy related GHG emissions. countries such as China and India (Cervero
Beyond GHG emissions, the pollution emitted 2013). SDG Target 11.2 specifically calls for the
by vehicles has severe public health impacts for development of sustainable transit for all, which is
those living near highways and major arterials. For important in its own sense, but essential for other
example, a study based in New Delhi estimates that SDG goals. For example, the provision of adequate
vehicular pollution in the city and outlying areas food security - SDG 2 or education and school
causes an estimated 7,350 to 16,200 premature attendance - SDG 4 and others are contingent upon
deaths and 6 million asthma attacks annually (Goel transportation networks (Sustainable Mobility for All
and Guttikunda 2013). 2017). Figure 26 shows traffic build up along a busy
street in Dar es Salaam, showing the advantages of
In accord with the New Urban Agenda, SDG the BRT system over the traditional “daldala”.
11 also relates to this example and air quality
concerns around the world. The text of the Goal
describes the scale of this public health issue; 9
in 10 individuals living in urban areas breathe in
Figure 27: Bus Rapit Transit (BRT) system in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
©Source:
Julius Mwelu
Nina Hale
/ UN-Habitat
via Flickr
Principles in transit infrastructure may not result in increased Sector

connectivity, quality of life and prosperity for all development can
Transportation and connectivity are important for residents of cities. Cities in the developing world be enabled
the fulfilment of several other development goals; are usually denser than their North American and by transportation,
without the ability to access clustered resources, European counterparts, but density levels are and cities should
the agglomeration effects of cities cannot accrue falling at a more rapid rate than in the developed be deliberate
to all residents. Low-income workers living in world as cities expand, meaning that those in about sectoral
the peripheries of cities who are unable to access sparsely served areas are even more isolated and economic
good transportation cannot experience increases from resources. Transportation networks need development
in quality of life due to urbanization. For example, a to be even more extensive to cover cities with when
study of urban peripheries in India concluded that falling densities (Cervero 2013). Land-use and investing in
for peri-urban residents to access the resources transportation planning can be considered together, transportation.
they need, transportation and connectivity where transportation can be adapted to fit the
between urban and rural areas needs to be greatly land-use profile of a city, or land-use changes and
strengthened (Narain and Nischal 2007). A study of densification can occur to suit the needs of new
peri-urban communities in Altos de Cazucá, outside transportation. Four categorizations are helpful to
of Bogotá, describes how residents are extremely consider: 1) adaptive cities, where cities utilize infill
limited in transportation options, sacrificing time and other densification measures in order to plan
and safety in order to access essential services via for the introduction of transportation infrastructure,
informal transportation. Social exclusion can also 2) adaptive transit, where transportation
result when outlying areas do not have access to infrastructure is built considering a city’s layout,
economic opportunities and public services closer even in the case of a low-density urban form,
to the urban core (Hernandez and Titheridge 2016). 3) strong core cities, where cities develop inner
cores for economic primacy and transportation is
The development of economic sectors relates concentrated in these areas and 4) hybrid models
to and follows connectivity options within and where transit hubs exist in several major dense
between cities. Sector development can be enabled centres, while accessibility is still available for
by transportation, and cities should be deliberate lower-density suburbs and exurbs (Beatley and
about sectoral and economic development when Wheeler 2014).
investing in transportation. For example, the
development of road networks in Colombia resulted Plan for transit equity, specifically for the needs
in the development of lighter manufacturing and experiences of overlooked groups. Transit
industries; meanwhile in Chinese cities, highways planning efforts often do not serve groups
within cities have decentralized the services equally. For example, in Los Angeles, the city
sector, and railroads have decentralized the had invested in the development of an urban rail
industrial sector (Sustainable Mobility for All 2017). system that would connect suburban dwellers
Furthermore, developing countries pay 40–70 per with downtown. At the same time, the city’s bus
cent more to ship internationally per dollar of import services were underfunded; bus riders worked
(Sustainable Mobility for All 2017). These dynamics together as a coalition to advocate for funding to
also exist in developed countries. For example, in improve buses, which were widely used by a poorer
St. Paul–Minneapolis, sectors differ by the types of class of residents within the urban core (Grengs
transportation necessary to access them (Fan and 2002). Investment in transportation is not a social
Tilahun 2014). good for its own sake, and the poorest and most
marginalized populations have the most to gain
Land-use planning must accompany the from access to transportation. Cervero (2013)
development of transportation networks. Though describes how bus systems may be more suited
it is important for cities to make investments in for poorer and otherwise isolated populations
transit, without proper land-use planning, investing compared to investment in rail and tram systems.

Urban transportation does not just include should not have to expend more than 10–15 Transportation
transport within cities, but also between them and per cent of overall income on transportation and systems need to
to rural and suburban areas. Without a larger view commuting (Cervero 2011). be able to
of urban-rural linkages, especially in countries that respond to
are seeing mass migration to cities, the peripheries Land value capture and transit oriented emergencies;
of cities will not achieve necessary connectivity. For development can allow for the funding of new their design,
example, Akkoyunlu (2015) prescribes that rural- infrastructure. In general, public transport, cycling financing
urban areas be considered regional administrative and pedestrian commuting are dependent on high and maintenance
units in the context of economic development densities to be efficient (Pojani and Stead 2015). should be aligned
planning, as this is the means by which trade Transit oriented development or infill conducted with climate
and knowledge exchange occurs between urban around transit infrastructure is a solution to this, adaptation and
and rural areas. Such activity may be essential in where infrastructural investment is accompanied emergency
achieving poverty reduction in developing countries. by land-use changes whose values may be preparedness
captured by individual municipalities. Transit systems
oriented development has been leveraged in to ensure their
Illustrative Actions several places. For example, in Hong Kong’s Mass viability.
Transit Rail (MTR) rail network, policies leverage
As cities expand, preserve the right of ways and the value created by transit investments to fund the
space for transportation networks. Transportation expansion of the transit system. The government
networks may not expand at the rate that cities are provides rights to public land at a “before-rail”
expanding. In the developing world where outward development price and following the development
expansion is often informal expansion, right of ways of transit and developer funded improvements, sells
should at least be preserved for the development of the land at a “post-rail” price, to recoup the costs of
public services and future transportation networks. transit investment (Hong and others 2015).
Master planning and transit corridor planning Concentrate economic development efforts
processes can present an integrated vision of outside of the urban core to reduce congestion.
transit investment. Because transportation can Cities in the developing world are more often
serve a number of ends related to economic clustered around one centre of employment in the
development and improvements in quality of life, urban core, rather than multiple centres. The former
master plans that include stipulations for land use is referred to as monocentric development, while
can ensure that the goals of the development are the latter is referred to as polycentric development.
met. For instance, in Jordan, Amman’s master As such, transportation to the urban core tends
plan of 2008 promotes high-density, mixed-use to be highly congested, and transportation is
development through the identification of growth inadequate (Cervero 2013).
centres, intensification along select corridors
across the city and the provision of safe and Plan for disaster resiliency. Natural disasters
efficient public transportation (Cervero 2013). cause direct damage to power generation and
transport infrastructure, costing about $18 billion
Develop policies that are focused on providing the a year in low- and middle-income countries.
poor access to transportation, including transit Transportation systems need to be able to
subsidies or caps based on percentage of income. respond to emergencies; their design, financing
Reduced fare programs or policies that set caps on and maintenance should be aligned with climate
the cost of transportation can ensure that the poor adaptation and emergency preparedness systems
still have access to essential services. Households to ensure their viability.

2.2.2 Energy 2019). Without ambitious policy goals related to The New
climate mitigation, global energy consumption Urban Agenda
Energy is a sector that is mentioned alongside is slated to increase 20–30 per cent by 2040, highlights the
housing, water, sanitation, education, and transport with fossil fuel consumption growing most; while importance of
in the New Urban Agenda. The New Urban Agenda energy consumption in Europe and North America renewable and
highlights the importance of renewable and has been relatively flat, the rapid development of affordable
affordable energy and the issue of equity in energy countries like China and India will increase overall energy and the
distribution. It mentions that the energy needs of consumption (Aldana, Newell and Raimi 2019). issue of equity in
all people, “particularly the poor and those living Given this rapid growth in consumption, cities will energy
in informal settlements must be considered” - need to consider their existing and future building distribution.
NUA 54. Furthermore, it commits to encouraging stock and the ways in which renewable and clean
Governments “to develop sustainable, renewable energy can be incentivized and deployed locally.
and affordable energy and energy-efficient
buildings and construction modes and to promoting
energy conservation and efficiency, which are Principles
essential to enable the reduction of greenhouse gas
and black carbon emissions, ensure sustainable Modeling, data collection, and long-term planning
consumption and production patterns, help create are essential components for energy efficiency
new decent jobs, improve public health and reduce and conservation planning. The work involves
the costs of energy supply” - NUA 75. multiple sectors that operate with disparate goals
and may not necessarily coordinate. Cities that
Energy remains an important issue for municipal seek to reduce energy usage need to consider
planners and higher level governments. Energy use usage from a variety of sectors, including housing,
within urban areas now accounts for approximately major industries and commercial activities,
two thirds of overall energy usage worldwide transportation and publicly owned facilities. Cities
(IRENA 2016). Its governance encompasses should conduct analyses to determine pathways
several issues within the purview of cities, including for energy reduction within individual sectors.
zoning, building codes, publicly owned facilities Stepwise pathways can be helpful to ensure
and assets and the involvement of individual that the city is staying on track and able to meet
businesses and homeowners in energy planning. long-term goals. Cities should consider the detail
While an important issue for municipalities, energy that different analytical scopes encompass. For
also concerns regional and national goals related example, a multisector, comprehensive study
to reducing emissions, climate adaptation and would be highly resource intensive, while a more
extreme weather conditions. cursory review of multiple sectors would be a more
manageable analysis. Cities may also choose
Power reliability and the economic and security to study a single sector or their own internal
consequences of inefficient or unreliable systems operations to begin an energy auditing process.
concern multiple levels of government. Similarly, There are several resources to support energy
public health and quality of life issues relate audits. For example, the World Bank published the
strongly to energy, where pollution and emissions Energy Sector Management Assessment Program
associated with the burning of fossil fuels can (ESMAP) for government, which includes guidance
pose a major public health threat. Liquid fuel on assessments of various scopes. In choosing
(primarily oil) composes a large part of energy sectors to evaluate, governments should also
sources globally; in 2019, RFF (2019) estimated consider the level of influence they have on industry
that 28–32 per cent of global energy consumption practices and where study and policy intervention
resulted from this source (Aldana, Newell and Raimi may be the most impactful (World Bank 2014a).

Diagram 21: Energy
HARD MEASURES
ENERGY
Global energy
consumption
2/3 1/3 will increase
20-30%
without ambitious
Cities account for 2/3 1/3 of global energy 5% of global energy
climate mitigation
of all energy use consumption is is supplied by
policies.
worldwide. fueled by oil. renewables.
Source: IRENA 2016 renewable energy in cities resources for the future (2019) global energy outlook.
PRINCIPLES
Modeling and data Energy efficiency Land use Local governance

Modelling, data collection, Energy efficiency can benefit Energy efficiency Local governance is
and long-term planning those living under the poverty line systems are relative to important for
are essential components by reducing energy costs, current and planned encouraging behavior
for energy efficiency and improving building stock, power land use patterns. change among individual
reduction planning. reliability and climate resiliency. residents and industries.
Institutional Community Performance Retrofits

management energy plans standards
Streamline institutions and clarify Develop community Develop green and Develop building
responsibilities between local, energy plans. energy efficient building retrofit incentive
regional and central governments performance codes and programs.
as it relates to electrification and standards.
energy management.
Municipal renewable energy Informal areas Public procurement

Developing financing In informal areas, Develop procurement
mechanisms to enable improvement programs programs & standards for
individual municipalities to should include public properties.
invest in renewable energy. electrification and
energy planning.
Energy efficiency stands to benefit those living Illustrative Actions Energy

under the poverty line by reducing energy efficiency
costs and also improving building stock, power Streamline institutions and clarify responsibilities measures
reliability and climate resiliency. Energy efficiency among local, regional and central governments as present an
measures present an opportunity for cities to save related to electrification and energy management. opportunity for
money and reduce their carbon footprint, and also Cities and regional governments that are seeking cities to save
to convey important quality of life benefits to the to increase power reliability, energy efficiency money and
poorest residents. For example, improving poor and renewables deployment may have shared reduce their
building stock to make heating and cooling more responsibilities that are not very clear, especially carbon footprint,
efficient can also have indoor air quality and public when private utilities are also involved. For and also
health benefits for individuals living in older and example, in the 1990s in Delhi, peri-urban areas to convey
poorly maintained structures (Bouzarovski 2014). were without clear service providers because the important
The provision of more reliable power in areas government assigned one utility to provide service quality of life
where power is known to be unreliable can improve to rural areas and another to urban areas, without benefits to the
social relations and increase the hours in which considering peri-urban dwellings outside of this poorest
household tasks and studying can be done (Haines clear demarcation (Singh et al. 2015). residents.
and others 2007).
Develop community energy plans. Community
Energy efficiency systems relate to current and or district level energy plans can serve multiple
planned land-use patterns. Land use and city ends. They can allow individual neighbourhoods
layout will affect the ability of cities to implement or communities to have autonomy over energy
energy efficiency and deploy renewables. For systems and also allow for cheaper purchasing
example, a lower-density city may benefit from prices from energy efficiency and renewable energy
the financing and placement of distributed energy vendors. Community level plans can also focus
resources, while a higher-density city would be able on adaptation to extreme weather. For example,
to implement more integrated, district wide heating neighbourhood level microgrids can allow individual
and cooling systems (IRENA 2016). neighbourhoods to save money and also provide
backup power in the event of power loss.
Local governance is important for encouraging
behavior change among individual residents and Develop green and energy efficient building
industries. While cities may not have the ability to performance codes and standards. While many
govern regional or even national energy generation cities in the developed world have building codes
and transmission systems, they are uniquely able tailored around energy efficiency and use, building
to educate residents and commercial entities codes in the developing world are not often as
regarding energy use, efficiency and renewables strictly enforced, and municipalities do not have
within their jurisdictions. Local officials also have the knowledge base or technical expertise to
more direct relationships with industry players develop codes appropriate for their building stock.
and individual residents and are therefore well Rapid urbanization also implies that a large part of
positioned to encourage energy efficient behavior. the built environment is currently being added to
They can also provide education regarding incentive developing cities and will continue to be added in
and subsidy programs to implement retrofits and the future. As such, building with energy efficient
better energy management practices (IRENA 2016). practices is immensely important. There are
multiple international programs that exist to assist
developing cities in this process, including World
Resources Institute’s Building Efficiency Accelerator
Center and the World Bank’s City Energy Efficiency
Transformation Initiative.

Develop building retrofit incentive programs. of waste generation and to promote recycling The New
These programs work by incentivizing homeowners rates NUA 122. SDG 11 asserts that cities should Urban Agenda
and business owners to retrofit homes and pursue environmental sustainability by reducing the encourages
commercial establishments. Retrofit programs can adverse impacts of cities through improvements to investing
assist individual homeowners and businesses in waste management - SDG Target 11.6. in protective,
reducing overall energy usage, while also engaging accessible and
them in energy efficient practices and behaviors. The waste generated by cities is of enormous sustainable
For low-income residents, retrofits can also consequence, and solid waste is a pressing issue infrastructure
improve heating and cooling for overall health and for urbanization, as it relates to public health, land and service
quality of life, especially for those living in poor use and climate mitigation (see Figure 28). Solid provision
building stock. waste generation is set to outpace population systems for
growth by more than double by 2050. Worldwide, water, sanitation
Develop financing mechanisms to enable approximately 2.0 billion tonnes of solid waste is and hygiene,
individual municipalities to invest in renewable generated annually; of this amount, around a third sewage and solid
energy. One example of such financing tools is a is not managed sustainably. Solid waste emits 1.6 waste
green revolving fund, which is used to promote cost billion tonnes of carbon dioxide, accounting for 5 management.
savings. It is called “revolving” because a portion of per cent of emissions. Low-income developing
the savings are used to replenish the fund so it can countries struggle with the management and
be reinvested in future energy efficiency projects. processing of waste; municipalities spend large
shares of their budgets on waste management,
In informal areas, slum improvement programs approximately five times the share that high-
should include electrification and energy income municipalities expend on average.
planning. For example, the provision of tenure Additionally, over 90 per cent of waste in low-
and land regularization was done in conjunction income countries is openly dumped or burned,
with electrification in Bangladesh. Governments rather than being collected and processed formally.
need to provide benefits to informal dwellers to Collection in low-income countries has significantly
formally participate in energy utilities, as illegal or increased from 22 to 39 per cent (Bhada-Tata and
informal connections may be cheaper for already others 2018).
impoverished residents (Ackom and others 2015).
However, per capita waste generation is highest
Develop public procurement programs and in high-income countries. These countries make
standards for public properties. Procurement up 14 per cent of the population but generate 34
policies can be changed to focus on energy efficient per cent of the waste produced globally. Without
purchases, rather than the least cost option. significant action, per capita waste generation in
high-income countries will increase 19 per cent
by 2050; this value is growing at a slower rate
2.2.3 Solid waste than is anticipated for developing countries, where
per capita generation is expected to increase 40
The New Urban Agenda encourages investing per cent. Waste generation is growing rapidly in
in protective, accessible and sustainable sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, North Africa and
infrastructure and service provision systems for the Middle East. In these regions, half of waste is
water, sanitation and hygiene, sewage and solid openly dumped. In high-income countries, around
waste management. It declares its support for one third of waste is recovered through recycling
“decentralized decision-making on waste disposal and composting. Land use is critical to considering
to promote universal access to sustainable solid waste, as cities expend fewer resources on
waste management systems” and highlights the collecting waste from high-density areas. However,
importance of producer responsibility schemes that cities that are extremely dense must also consider
“include waste generators and producers in the allocating land on which waste can be treated and
financing of urban waste management systems” disposed. Around 37 per cent of waste is disposed
in order to mitigate the socioeconomic impacts in a landfill, and open dumping constitutes around

Diagram 22: Solid waste
HARD MEASURES
SOLID WASTE
1/3 14% 34% 90%

14% of the 34% of
1/3 of 2 billion population all waste
tons of solid waste generated Per capita waste is highest in 90% of waste in
globally every year is not high-income countries who account low-income countries
managed sustainably. for 14% of the population but is dumped or burned.
generate 34% of all waste.
PRINCIPLES
Awareness Institutional Include waste Mobilize

capacity workers investments
Minimize waste and Solid waste Make policy inclusive of The local authority
create awareness for management requires waste workers and find should be able to
segregating the waste institutional capacity alternative employment mobilize adequate
suitable for recycling, to manage revenue and/or incorporate investments for
reusing and collections and these workers in the environmentally sound
environmentally enforce regulations. existing institutional waste management.
friendly disposal. arrangements.
Food loss waste Variable fees Funding support

To prevent food loss waste (FLW), Consider charging variable fees Develop national and regional funds
develop industry support networks to reduce waste production for to support struggling municipalities
for agricultural producers, in addition individual households and with infrastructure development and
to promoting behavior change. commercial establishments. revenue management.

a third of overall waste disposal; the remainder Principles Solid waste

is either recycled or incinerated (Bhada-Tata and management
others 2018). Minimizing waste and creating awareness about requires
segregating waste for recycling, reusing and institutional
Much of solid waste management in developing disposing in an environmentally friendly manner capacity at
countries is carried out by manual scavengers is important. Given the diverse social and cultural either the central
(who are called conservancy workers, rag-pickers diversity in urban regions, residents treat solid or municipal level
or waste pickers). Box 17 describes the work waste as a “not-in-my-backyard” issue. Littering to manage
of salvagers in South Africa. These invisible waste on roadsides, riverbanks and lakesides is a revenue
environmental workers are poorly paid, have common disposal practice. It is important to build collections and
no social security, are discriminated against by awareness for minimizing and segregating waste enforce
mainstream society, work in unhygienic and through hygiene campaigns. Such an approach regulation.
unhealthy environmental conditions and have could empower urban communities to play an
poor self-esteem. There is no information on their active and unique role in development initiatives.
distribution worldwide or their contribution to the
economy of solid waste management. Waste Solid waste management requires institutional
Pickers Around the World estimates about 410 capacity at either the central or municipal level
organizations exist worldwide (Global Alliance of to manage revenue collections and enforce
Waste Pickers). Of these, about 27 per cent are regulation. Such capacity cannot be outsourced
in Brazil, 21 per cent in India and 12 per cent in to private-sector actors, as this would require
Colombia. Estimates in India reveal about 1.5 to additional monitoring. For example, a review of solid
4.0 million workers as of 2017 (Dandapani 2017). waste collection for municipal areas in Pakistan is
However, these could be underestimates. Brazil revelatory; there appear to be few policies to define
estimates that there are about 400 to 500 waste solid waste management, and legislation is very
pickers in the country, contributing to about 90 per lacking (Ahmed and others 2007). A review of solid
cent of the waste economy (De Miranda 2016). waste management in Malaysia and India reveals
Some of the activities of these workers need to be that while policies and legislation are in place to
banished; others need to be replaced or formalized. regulate the collection and open dumping of waste,
Brazil has taken steps to create a policy inclusive of they are not well followed by local stakeholders,
these workers.
Figure 28: A solid waste dumping site (left),

waste segregation by waste pickers (right) in Cape Coast, Ghana.

© Eparque Urban Strategies
Box 17: Salvagers in the Waste Management Process: Odi Mortele Region, South Africa
The North West Province, the Odi Moretele region, encompasses 3) Health care and education facilities were provided. Welfare bodies
the towns of Temba, Ga-rankuwa, Mabopane and Winterveld, which were requested to visit the landfill sites on a regular basis.
were dormitory towns during the apartheid period in South Africa.
The total population is 149,068 with a growth rate of 3.5 per cent. Salvagers, mostly discarded by society, were included in
The total area is 3,566 square kilometres, of which only 30 per cent the waste management process. The salvagers reduced the waste
is urban, where 70 per cent of the people live. The poverty level volume going to the landfill sites and enhanced the process.
averages at 45 per cent. There are 32,557 households producing
refuse. Before the upgrading of the uncontrolled waste sites, people were
indifferent to the environmental degradation caused by such acts.
The need for orderly waste disposal was a priority. The waste at these sites was dumped haphazardly and strewn all
To achieve this, all the uncontrolled dumping sites had to be over. The whole area was a quagmire of filth shared by both humans
identified. The type of waste generated had to be analyzed, including and animals. The Mabopane site was not only large, it was a smelly
waste volume and source of generation. Current regulations and ugly sight. Further, it was polluting a stream running alongside.
discourage salvagers at waste sites. All regulations and all the The town was encroaching on the dumping site.
technical requirements were adhered to, except the prevention of
salvagers. Now there is systematic collection of household waste, which
is disposed of under controlled conditions. This site was closed
Each uncontrolled dumping site was properly and turned into a park where children from the surrounding area
investigated in respect to pollution and its effect on the environment. and those of salvagers play. The area in which the salvagers now
The Provincial Department’s main objective was to establish work is clean and dry and no longer the quagmire it was. This is
registered waste disposal sites and manage them effectively and, in a vast improvement in the working environment. As a group, the
the process, accommodate the salvagers. The Provincial Department waste pickers are able to articulate their wishes and concerns and
identified the need for proper waste management in said towns and achieve results. They feel accepted by society and have access to
provided financial support. A Department engineer was tasked with safe drinking water, toilets, healthcare and education. They have
the facilitation of the process. The consultant provided technical established a viable market for their goods through regular buyers.
expertise and monitored the process. The municipalities assisted in The records at the sites from March 1994 to June 1999 show that,
identifying local problems and provided political support. per month, the Mabopane transfer received on average 4430 cubic
metres of waste, Ga-rankuwa 4270 cubic metres and Temba 2205
In addressing the presence of salvagers, the following steps were cubic metres. Salvagers have managed to reduce this incoming
taken. 1) A leader was identified among the group. They were to keep waste volume by 40 per cent. The project has cleaned up the
order among the salvagers and act as spokesperson with the site environment and prevented pollution of the river and groundwater.
operator. 2) Clean drinking water and toilet facilities were provided. The project is built on partnership between the provincial
government, local councils, the private sector and the salvagers.
Source: UN-Habitat

both on the side of enforcement from the public management will be impossible, to the detriment The New
sector and the side of individual commercial of the public’s health and environment. The New Urban Agenda
actors (Abas and Wee 2014). In Ghana, there are Urban Agenda supports decentralized decision- supports
no policies for solid waste management, but a making for waste disposal NUA 122; such an decentralized
company is established under a PPP to promote approach requires a decentralized institutional decision-
waste management. Their outreach and coverage arrangement modelled along the lines of success making for
are limited to collection of public containers and stories. waste disposal
disposal, with local authorities responsible for - NUA122
household collection. With limited financial and Illustrative Actions
regulatory roles, the local authorities are not able
to fulfil these collections. Beyond the development To prevent food loss waste, develop industry
of policies and laws, and their enforcement and support networks for agricultural producers, in
implementation, governments need to have the addition to promoting behavior change. In low-
capability to collect and manage revenue to develop income countries, food waste occurs because there
collection and transfer services. are several limitations along the entire supply chain
(Bennett, Buzby and Hodges 2011). Smaller scale
Solid waste management policy should be farmers could be supported with credit to purchase
inclusive of waste workers. Finding alternative newer infrastructure and technology, while support
employment or incorporating these workers into networks and industry groups are developed to
existing institutional arrangements is important. work collectively on the problem.
Most of the tasks of solid waste management
are carried out by scavengers or rag-pickers who Consider charging variable fees to reduce
segregate and recycle waste in an informal market waste production for individual households
economy. and commercial establishments. In developed
countries, cities will have the capability to
Local authorities should be able to mobilize manage a more sophisticated revenue collection
adequate investments internally or externally system, where individuals and commercial
for environmentally sound waste management. establishments are charged based on their
Case studies have demonstrated that without waste output, rather than a flat user fee. This is
adequate financial and institutional decentralization practiced in Korea and also in some developing
promoting equitable and affordable solid waste nations (Lah and Park 2015).
Figure 29: Residents of Harar, Ethiopia, line up for water.
105 | ©The New Urban

Muungano Agenda Illustrated
wa Wanavijiji
Develop national and regional funds to support Progress has occurred; more than a third of the In managing
struggling municipalities with infrastructure current global population has been able to access the water and
development and revenue management. safe drinking water sources since 1990, amounting sanitation sector,
Worldwide, solid waste remains an issue of local to 2.6 billion individuals (UNICEF and WHO 2015). the New Urban
control because many smaller municipalities may Currently, around 663 million individuals still utilize Agenda commits
not have the capability to raise funds themselves or unimproved drinking water sources, with a large to building the
issue their own debt to finance waste management part living in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. capacity of
infrastructure. They also may not have the Improved access has differed between regions. In public water and
institutional capacity to manage revenue or urban settings, there are vast inequalities between sanitation utilities
conduct long-term planning and make procurement the peripheries and wealthier core neighbour- to be able to
decisions. Larger funds set up at the national level hoods when it comes to water delivery, water implement
and fortified with technical assistance in addition management and sanitation service availability. sustainable
to financial assistance can help municipalities The estimated cost to close the infrastructural gap water
develop the capacity to manage their solid waste to achieve global coverage of water ranges from management
output. For example, India’s Swachh Bharat Mission $116 to $229 billion. This cost estimate specif- systems with
has provided funding to over 4,000 municipalities ically refers to the fulfilment of SDG 6 – Ensure the goal of
(Ghosh 2016). availability and sustainable management of eliminating
water and sanitation for all. While many cities are inequalities and
unable to provide basic services to all residents, “promoting
2.2.4 Water and sanitation non-network solutions can be a crucial first step both universal
in peri-urban areas until more advanced systems and equitable
On the water and sanitation front, the New Urban can be financed, planned and implemented. Figure access to safe
Agenda underscores the importance of “protective, 29 shows residents of Harar Town in Ethiopia and
accessible and sustainable infrastructure and catching water from a communal pipe. affordable
service provision systems for water, sanitation and drinking water
hygiene, sewage, solid waste management, urban Wastewater management has been challenging in for all and
drainage, reduction of air pollution and stormwater many of the developing countries. Only 20 per cent adequate and
management, in order to improve safety in the of the wastewater generated worldwide is treated; equitable
event of water-related disasters, improve health, the rest is disposed into waterways where it creates sanitation and
ensure universal and equitable access to safe and health, environmental and climate-related hazards hygiene for all” -
affordable drinking water for all, as well as access (WWAP 2017). About 70 per cent of the municipal NUA 120.
to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene and industrial wastewater from high-income
for all and end open defecation, with special countries is treated. This drops to 38 per cent for
attention to the needs and safety of women and upper-middle-income countries, 28 per cent in
girls and those in vulnerable situations” - NUA lower-middle-income countries and only 8 per cent
119. In managing the water and sanitation sector, in low-income countries.
the New Urban Agenda commits to building the
capacity of public water and sanitation utilities In Africa, the main challenge related to wastewater
to be able to implement sustainable water treatment is the lack of infrastructure for collection
management systems (including sustainable and treatment, resulting in pollution of surface and
maintenance of urban infrastructure services) with groundwater resources that are already limited.
the goal of eliminating inequalities and “promoting In Asia and the Pacific region, the municipalities
both universal and equitable access to safe and and local governments often lack the human
affordable drinking water for all and adequate and and financial resources necessary to enforce
equitable sanitation and hygiene for all” - NUA environmental regulations. As a result, maintenance
120. SDG 11 aligns with this commitment to of water treatment infrastructure and services is a
improved solid waste management in cities - SDG problem. In India, 78 per cent of sewage remains
Target 11.6. untreated (Down to Earth 2016). The report
recommends more support to municipal and local
governments in managing urban wastewater and
capturing its resource benefits.

Diagram 23: Water and sanitation
HARD MEASURES
WATER AND
SANITATION
$116-$229 20%
billion
1/3 of the global population to cover the Only 20% of the
has gained access to safe infrastructure gap for wastewater generated
drinking water since 1990. global access to water. worldwide is treated.
Source: irena2016 renewable energy in cities; resources for the future (2019) global energy outlook.
PRINCIPLES
Investment Public engagement Land use

Significant investment is needed to Water and sanitation are not only The planning of
ensure full coverage of drinking infrastructural investments, but water resources is
water, sanitation, and sewage also systems where multiple linked to land use.
management. stakeholders must be engaged.
Gender inclusion Decentralized systems Decentralized treatment

Include women in water and Decentralized systems can provide Create integrated system for
sanitation planning efforts. services, but should be carefully decentralized treatment methods.
considered in the long term.
Integrated management Reuse

Integrated water management Consider different types of reuse that are
entails the sustainable treatment of appropriate to the individual municipality
water in tandem with land use and the water resources it relies on.
planning and ecological principles.

Principles
Box 18: European Union project WASSER
Significant investment is needed to ensure full – Water and Sanitation for Settlements
coverage of drinking water, sanitation and sewage in Eastern Sri Lanka
management. Mobilizing funds from national
and international agencies should be adequately
supported through the user pays principle and When the tsunami devastated the towns of Batticaloa
private-sector involvement. Political will and and Kalmunai on the east coast of Sri Lanka, over 500 metres of
commitment from national Governments is of infrastructure for water supply and sanitation were destroyed. Basic
utmost importance. See Box 18 for an example of a facilities like clean water and toilets greatly deteriorated from an already
water and sanitation project in Sri Lanka. under sufficient standard, greatly affecting the urban poor, children, older
persons and those who were already sick.
Water and sanitation are not simply infrastructural
investments, but rather involved systems where Water and Sanitation for Settlements in Eastern Sri Lanka
multiple stakeholders must be engaged. In (WASSER) was third in a row of projects focused on improving living
addition to financing, governments need to carefully conditions as well as capacity training of the local administration.
consider institutional arrangements around water Several measures taken proved to have significant positive effects on
provision to ensure that the most vulnerable are the outlook on water and sanitation. First, technology was inclusively
not left out. Currently, in most urban regions, integrated across all administrators, even when facilities were limited
engineering departments oversee drinking water, and only locally available tools and materials were used. The Batticaloa
and often sanitation and sewage are tertiary or and Kalmunai administration were included at all levels of introducing
even not part of the system. It is important that new spatial planning and management techniques, creating an up-to-
systematic administrative structures are evolved date map of the area and also an atlas to support facts-based planning
for monitoring and implementing these in urban on environmental and health topics. A second measure reinforced
centres. participation and created a sense of ownership for beneficiaries.
Including local personnel’s perspectives and those of minority groups
The planning of water resources is linked to allowed for engagement and patriotism in the collaboration with local
land use. Water system planning should consider government as well as positive feedback.
industrial, commercial and residential land uses,
as well as the potential impacts of industry on The programme created self-employment opportunities by
water sources. Water system planning should also providing training in well drilling, rainwater harvesting and sanitation
consider ecological parameters, such as green techniques. This enabled the creation of more than 500 rainwater
infrastructure and the preservation of ecosystems harvesting tanks, more than 50 toilets, the construction of new tap water
(Brikké and Vairavamoorthy 2016). supply for 400 families and facilities to support more than 1,500 families.
Capacity training enabled the municipal council, and also the well drillers,
Significant awareness campaigns have to be to pursue a livelihood opportunity.
conducted to ensure the social acceptability of
sewage and sanitation in developing countries. Source: UN-Habitat
Include women in water and sanitation planning

efforts. In peri-urban areas, women are often the
members of the household responsible for water
provision.
Decentralized systems can provide services but

should be carefully considered in the long term.
Wastewater treatment is an expensive investment,

one that municipalities may not have funding or ecological principles in mind. Contamination and Take on
financing for. Decentralized treatment systems can limited water resources are issues often faced in integrated water
serve the needs of individual communities; however, developing cities and peri-urban areas. Ecological management, a
they should be pursued with caution because design principles and sound land management can process by which
decentralized, ad hoc solutions are not as easily lead to more holistic treatment and conveyance of water is treated
monitored and still require centralized oversight water (Global Water Partnership 2011). sustainably
(Massoud, Nasr and Tarhini 2009). and in tandem
Consider different types of reuse that are with land-use
Create integrated systems for decentralized appropriate to the individual municipality and planning, with
treatment methods. Integrated systems can be the water resources it relies on. There are several ecological
used for a number of purposes, including the supply types of potential reuse such as irrigation for principles in
of water for agricultural uses in addition to drinking agricultural services, reuse for industrial purposes mind.
water. or reuse for groundwater recharging. Individual
communities will have their own needs, and these
Take on integrated water management, which is needs should be considered in the planning process
a process by which water is treated sustainably (Capodaglio 2017). Box 19 explains efforts to
and in tandem with land-use planning, with upgrade the water supply system in Jiaxing, China.
Young girl drinking clean water from a tap in Bamako, Mali. © Riccardo Mayer / Shutterstock.com

Box 19: Shijiazhuang ecological wetland for safe drinking water, China
Jiaxing city is located in the heartland of China’s Yangtze River Delta Total investment for the project was $10.79 million, of which $1.19
and in the river network of the Taihu Lake river basin plain. million was from the China Central People’s Government, accounting
for 11 per cent. $4.76 million came from the Zhejiang provincial
Jiaxing city government made great efforts to upgrade government, accounting for 44 per cent. $4.84 million was given
its water supply technology, focusing on research to improve water by the Jiaxing Municipal People’s Government, accounting for
quality. Its approach to pollution control shifted from an engineering approximately 45 per cent. The Jiaxing Economic Development
orientation to an ecological orientation. Thus, in China, Jiaxing took Zone management committee provided land amounting to 1.1
the lead in promoting the practice of building artificial ecological square kilometres. free of charge for project construction. The
wetlands to improve water source quality. In the project, aquatic Jiaxing Administrative Committee of Urban-Rural Planning and
plants in the wetlands play a main role in effectively removing Development, Jiaxing Bureau of Water Resources and Jiaxing
pollutants, bringing purified water quality from the wetlands up to Environmental Protection Agency provided full guidance for
national standards. Innovative practices in Jiaxing ensure drinking administrative and technical aspects.
water safety for residents and promote continuous improvement in
ecological and residential environments. This approach also provides There are various results and impacts of the
a meaningful solution for cities around the world facing similar Shijiazhuang Ecological Wetlands project, both in Jiaxing and in its
problems with micro-pollution in drinking water. outskirts and neighbouring districts. Safe drinking water is available
in 100 per cent of Jiaxing municipality’s rural areas. Furthermore,
In 2006, the Chinese Academy of Sciences developed a technical the project improved ecological and residential environments in the
programme for the project on the basis of a thorough survey of project area and surrounding land, promoted real estate development
upstream pollution in the water source and water quality, featuring and increased land value.
the innovative technology of source water control, combining multi-
level interception and biological root-hole purification. The Jiaxing Meanwhile, five towns and districts within the Jiaxing municipality
Economic Development Zone management committee provided land are very active in learning lessons from the Shijiazhuang project.
for construction free of charge. In January 2007, construction on the They are preparing to develop ecological wetlands with the aim of
Shijiuzhuang Ecological Wetlands project commenced in Jiaxing. further strengthening their capacity for sustainable development.
The project occupies an area of 1087 square kilometres upstream
of the water intake, on a planned wedge-shaped green area in the Ecological wetlands for safe source drinking water have been
north-west part of the city. The main component in the project integrated into all Jiaxing city planning, and they will be sustainably
simulates an artificial/natural wetland, including three functional used and benefit future generations. The process of public
zones of biological pre-treatment, root-hole purification and in-depth participation in wetland construction and management further
purification. Contaminants in the water are degraded and absorbed has enhanced public awareness of ecological and environmental
by plants and soil root holes under the influence of water level protection and strengthened determination to protect the mother
changes in the wetland site. At the end of 2007, earth modelling river in Jiaxing.
had been completed. Between 2008 and April 2009, all supporting
projects, including planting aquatic plants, were completed. The municipality has also made further amendments and
improvements to regulations on source water protection. This shows
In June 2009, the project was fully completed and put into operation. that Chinese authorities are developing an awareness of water as a
In December 2011, the project was honoured with the China Award valuable and scarce resource.
for Best Practices to Improve the Living Environment by the China
Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development. At the same time,
the project underwent expert review organized by the Ministry and
became a national level water demonstration project.
Source: UN-Habitat

2.3 Soft measures the present and bestowed for the benefit of future The New
generations” (UNESCO). This definition includes Urban Agenda
“objects”, “sites” and “buildings” in addition to acknowledges
2.3.1 Culture intangible cultural heritage, which ensures cultural culture as
diversity for generations. a source of
In the first effort of its kind, SDG11 calls on “enrichment for
Governments “to protect and safeguard the world’s Beyond these definitions, a new source of cultural humankind”
cultural and natural heritage”, in part by measuring vibrancy is the creative industries. While there that contributes
the total expenditure (public and private) per are still debates on what constitutes a creative to the
capita spent on the preservation, protection and industry, UNESCO defines creative industries as sustainable
conservation of all cultural and natural heritage, “creation, production and distribution of creative development of
by type of government, expenditure and private content”. These include museums and collections, cities, human
funding - SDG 11.4. performing arts, visual arts and photography, film, settlements and
TV and radio, design and publishing, architecture, communities
Similarly, the New Urban Agenda acknowledges newspapers and magazines, gaming and books. and
culture as a source of “enrichment for humankind” The United Nations Conference on Trade and empowers them
that contributes to the sustainable development of Development (UNCTAD) includes digital fabrication to play an active
cities, human settlements and communities and and new media as separate categories in addition and unique role
empowers them to play an active and unique role in to those named in these other reports. Globally, the in
development initiatives. Therefore, the New Urban market for creative goods is estimated to be $508 development
Agenda suggests that culture should be taken into billion as of 2015. Around the world, the top three initiatives.
account in “the promotion and implementation generative industries are television, visual arts and
of new sustainable consumption and production media. Internationally, in 2013, creative industries
patterns that contribute to the responsible use around the world generated revenues of $2,250
of resources and address the adverse impact billion and employed 29 million people (UNCTAD
of climate change” - NUA 10. The New Urban 2019).
Agenda includes culture as a priority of urban
plans and strategies for the adoption of planning Within the urban space, culture and cultural
instruments, including master plans, zoning development are ready opportunities on several
guidelines, building codes, coastal management fronts. First, many cities in the developing world
policies and strategic development - NUA 124. possess physical cultural assets in the form of
The New Urban Agenda promotes innovative historic urban cores. These historic cores are
and sustainable use of architectural monuments sources of culture and history within the city,
and sites, with the intention of value creation, and they must be saved for the benefit of future
through respectful restoration and adaptation. In generations. They usually include a rich stock of
addition to addressing monuments and historic historic housing, monuments and public spaces,
buildings, it engages “indigenous peoples and local along with unique urban design patterns that
communities in the promotion and dissemination weave them together. But despite these assets, the
of knowledge of tangible and intangible cultural historic areas of cities in the developing world are
heritage and protection of traditional expressions usually deteriorated and home to poor and informal
and languages, including through the use of new households. The common underlying causes for
technologies and techniques” - NUA 125. this deterioration are changes in demographics,
intra-urban migration, transportation patterns,
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and lack of efficient land-use plans and lack of
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines cultural public investment in the maintenance of historic
heritage as “the legacy of physical artefacts and structures and neighbourhoods. In designing and
intangible attributes of a group or society that are developing cities for the coming centuries, the role
inherited from past generations, maintained in of culture must be recognized and strengthened.

Diagram 24: Culture
SOFT MEASURES
CULTURE
Globally, the market for Internationally in 2013, Top three generative
creative goods in 2015 creative industries around the
world generated $2,250 billion industries are:
was estimated to be
in revenues and
$508 employed
billion. 29 million Television Vision arts Media
Source: UNCTD (2019) creative economy outlook trends in international trade in creative industries.
PRINCIPLES
Benefits Local know-how Conservation

The role of culture in improving Culture is a fundamental element On the city level, conservation of
social bonds, enhancing the of urban development and is a historic urban cores has evident
image of a locality, and producing primary source of know-how and economic benefits.
better economic jobs must be identity of a given locality.
recognized.
Historic structures Stakeholder mapping Conflict resolution

In most climates, historic Stakeholder mapping and engagement Culture can have a fundamental
structures have lower operating should be a fundamental component of role in conflict resolution.
energy than new construction. any cultural project.
Cultural resources Awareness Sectoral integration Human rights Skill mix

Identify all types of cultural Pay attention to Undertake cultural Mainstream human rights In structuring teams,
resources in the urban attention-raising and development and through an integrated and include an appropriate
community. informing the public conservation projects spatially based approach, skill mix of engineering,
about culture and by integrating them recognizing gendered social science and SME
heritage. with other sectors. experiences of urban expertise.
deprivation and foster
inclusive and culturally
sustainable economic
development.

Principles and their passive design (when a building uses Cultural

the natural climate to maintain a comfortable heritage can
The role of culture in improving social bonds, temperature); passive survivability (ability of a restore the
enhancing the image of a locality and producing structure to maintain critical life-support conditions bonds between
better economic benefits and jobs must be in the event of extended loss of power, heating fuel populations
recognized. Culture contributes to the asset base or water) and the compactness of the urban form by restoring a
of any city and is a direct input for development and positioning of the buildings next to one another, sense of
through cultural and creative industries and which acts as an insulation system. Studies show common
tourism. that building reuse almost always yields fewer ownership of
environmental impacts than new construction. the shared
Beyond its economic and environmental roles, heritage that
culture is a fundamental element of urban Stakeholder mapping and engagement should be has been
development in that it reflects the people and a fundamental component of any cultural project. damaged or
places that are its source and it is a primary Involving all stakeholders is the key in formulating is a source of
source of know-how and identity of a given successful cultural heritage projects in urban cores. conflict.
locality. Cities are a cultural construct, where built Such projects are by nature complex and hard to
structures and open spaces closely relate to social finance. In many cases, the historic cores present
fabrics (World Bank 2018). a challenging land tenure system and include
informal settlements and renters with different
On the city level, conservation of historic urban ethnic backgrounds and identities.
cores has evident economic benefits. Historic
urban cores can act as catalysts for socioeconomic Culture can have a fundamental role in conflict
development of cities through improved urban resolution. It has been argued that culture can be
environment, better infrastructure, higher property the reason for conflict among different ethnic or
values, and cultural activities and tourism. cultural groups. But cultural heritage can restore the
Conservation of historic cores can vastly benefit bonds between populations by restoring a sense of
the local population by creating jobs, increasing common ownership of the shared heritage that has
private-sector investment and enhancing the urban been damaged or is a source of conflict. One good
environment and liveability. Historic cores can example to demonstrate this role is the rebuilding
attract new businesses and the “creative class” of the Mostar bridge, which became an instrument
resulting in development of competitive clusters. for encouraging intercommunity dialogue.
According to UNESCO’s Global Report “Culture:

Urban Future” (2016) a culture-based approach Illustrative Actions
to urban development is needed. This approach is
built on the following three propositions: 1) people- Identify all types of cultural resources in the urban
centred cities are culture-centred spaces; 2) place- community. Many cities take on a cultural asset
based urban planning incorporates local history mapping project to record and collect information
and culture; and 3) integrated policies employ about community cultural resources. In identifying
culture as a tool for sustainability and resilience. cultural resources, it is important to be cognizant
Figure 30 shows the Imam Square in Isfahan, Iran, of cultural properties that at first glance may
which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and attracts not seem artistically or historically valuable but
thousands of tourists every year. are worthy of inclusion in the inventory because
of “their association with the cultural practices
In most climates, historic structures require or beliefs of a living community” (FEMA 2005).
less energy to operate than new construction. Cultural asset maps or inventories must include
This situation can be attributed to the absence of tangible cultural assets that are “immovable”
heating and cooling systems in historic buildings such as monuments (with known architectural or

historic value), structures (such as dams, bridges, ensured that the historic core is accessible, has To formulate
tunnels and canals) and sites (such as traditional water and sanitation for its housing stock, provides successful
gardens, battlefields, historic urban landscapes the community with jobs, is visited by tourists heritage projects,
and archeological sites). Moveable assets include and is not threatened by pollution and vibrations planners must
archeological collections, artworks, maps, family resulting from transport systems. pay attention
records, and historic documentation and artefacts to the link
housed in libraries, museums and archives. In Mainstream human rights through an integrated between the
identifying intangible heritage, collect information and spatially based approach, recognizing preservation of
on traditional craftsmanship, experiential and gendered experiences of urban deprivation, tangible
performing arts, traditional knowledge and oral and foster inclusive and culturally sustainable cultural heritage
traditions, among others. Use site surveys, economic development. To formulate successful and the
secondary literature searches, archival research, heritage projects, planners must pay attention preservation of
participatory planning methodologies, mapping and to the link between the preservation of tangible intangible social
other techniques. cultural heritage (buildings, sites, urban patterns, patterns.
and so on) and the preservation of intangible social
Raise awareness and inform the public about patterns (residents, commercial activities) at the
culture and heritage. Cultural development projects time of the intervention, which usually constitute
will be successful only if the value of heritage is part of the richness, culture and identity of the
well understood and accepted by the community. place. Done wrong urban regeneration can lead
Therefore, such projects should include public to gentrification and a deepening of socio-spatial
outreach and participatory planning as part of the inequalities, as well as destruction of valuable
project cycle. cultural heritage in the name of modernization.
Integrate cultural development and conservation In structuring the team, include an appropriate
projects with other sectors. Successful projects skill mix of engineering, social science and
merge physical rehabilitation of historic structures SME expertise. Cultural heritage projects are
with infrastructure development, solid waste multisectoral and complex and structuring them
management, enhancement of existing road requires a high level of technical savvy in many
networks, street lighting, job creation and promotion different fields.
of creative industries and tourism. This way, it is
Figure 30: Imam Square, Isfahan, Iran, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
© Rana Amirtahmasebi The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | 114

2.3.2 Education contribute to an innovative and competitive The New

urban economy. One key goal of the New Urban Urban Agenda
Education is one of the most vital foundations that Agenda is the promotion of full and productive mentions the
allows an individual to improve their quality of life employment and decent work and livelihood importance
and become a contributor to society. However, opportunities in cities and human settlements. The of harnessing
wide disparities in accessing education exist New Urban Agenda also mentions the importance “the urban
across social, economic, gender and regional lines. of harnessing “the urban demographic dividend” demographic
50 per cent of out-of-school children of primary and promoting access for youth to education, skills dividend”
school age live in conflict affected areas. The development and employment. It sees girls and and promoting
United Nations estimates that 750 million adults boys, young women and young men as “key agents access for
still remain illiterate, and two thirds of them are of change in creating a better future and when youth to
women. The reasons for lack of quality education empowered … to advocate on behalf of themselves education, skills
have also largely to do with poor infrastructural and their communities” - NUA 61. In accordance development
conditions. More than 50 per cent of the schools with UN Sustainable Development Goal 4 - SDG 4 and
in sub-Saharan Africa do not have access to basic – Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education employment.
drinking water, handwashing facilities, the internet and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all
and computers. – this section outlines principles and strategies to
ensure inclusive and equitable quality education to
An educated population increases economic promote lifelong learning.
productivity by providing the labour force
with access to income-earning opportunities,
knowledge, skills and educational facilities that
School students going to school in Djibouti. © Hiren Ranpara / Shutterstock.com

Diagram 25: Education
SOFT MEASURES
EDUCATION
50% 750 million

adults
of out-of-school children
of primary school age still remain illiterate, 50%+ of the schools in
Sub-Saharan Africa do not
live in conflict-affected areas. 2/3 are women. have drinking water,
handwashing facilities, the
internet, and computers.
PRINCIPLES
Universal Equitable Learning Gender

rights education environment equality
Education is a universal Access to education is an Quality of education Focus on gender
right and should be equity issue shaped by is linked to the equality is needed to
treated as a public good. financial means, social status environment for learning. significantly advance
and stability of a region. educational progress.
Quality Subsidies Vocational Equitable

education allocation
Invest in providing Subsidize primary Focus on vocational Allocate resources more
quality education. and secondary learning that is relevant equitable across
education to ensure to the job market. under-resourced areas.
universal access.

Principles having them work. Governments should put in place Allocate

policies and legislation that guarantees 12 years of resources
Education is a universal right and should be free, publicly funded, inclusive, equitable and quality according to
treated as a public good. Education should be a full primary and secondary education where nine years a place-based
right that leaves no one behind, and it should aim are compulsory for all children (Education 2030 approach,
at the full development of the human personality Framework for Action-FPA, 37). paying special
to promote mutual understanding, tolerance and attention to the
peace Focus on vocational learning that is relevant to poorest and most
the job market. Increase access to relevant quality disadvantaged
Access to education is an equity issue. The technical and vocational education that leads areas.
provision of quality, affordable primary and to opportune pathways, validation, recognition
secondary education should be a universal right. and accreditation. For instance, information
However, barriers to education are heavily dictated and communication technology skills should be
by financial means, social status and stability of emphasized and integrated into the curriculum.
a region, factors that must be recognized in any Devise clear policies and benchmarks that
intervention. transition educational skills to the labour market,
and monitor ongoing professional development,
Quality of education is linked to the learning conditions and status.
environment. The condition of a school is just
as important as education itself. Poor building Allocate resources more equitably across under-
infrastructure, high teacher absenteeism or the lack resourced areas. Allocate resources according to
of a developed curriculum are unconducive factors a place-based approach, paying special attention
to learning. to the poorest and most disadvantaged areas,
including a rigorous assessment of policies and
Focus on gender equality is needed to significantly programmes to improve quality.
advance educational progress. Girls are
disproportionately affected in acquiring education
due to a host of discriminatory and exclusionary 2.3.3 Health
forces, affecting their upward mobility and decision-
making potential. SDG 3 aims to reduce global maternal mortality;
end preventable premature mortality; end the
epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria; and
Illustrative Actions provide universal access to sexual and reproductive
health care. While SDG 3 is targeted towards
Invest in providing quality education. The World reduction of measurable health conditions, it
Education Forum in 2015 in Incheon declared an also acknowledges the relationship between the
international and regional benchmark of allocating environment and health. SDG Target 3.9 seeks
at least 4–6 per cent of GDP or at least 15–20 per to “substantially reduce the number of deaths
cent of total public expenditure to public education and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air,
(UNESCO 2015). Budget investments could water and soil pollution and contamination”. The
include educational scholarships, teacher training, causes of death in a city are often influenced by
workshops, school building and improvement of environmental conditions. From raw data returned
water and electricity access to schools. by major global cities around the world, WHO
estimates that the biggest contributor to death
Subsidize primary and secondary education. across cities is disease related to circulation and
Money is one of the biggest deterrents to education respiratory diseases (WHO 2015). These are health
for poor families who have to weigh the opportunity factors that can be accounted for in urban planning.
costs of sending their children to school versus

Diagram 26: Health
SOFT MEASURES
HEALTH
Biggest The World Bank

contributor to estimates that
death across COVID-19, a global
cities was pandemic, will
disease related push more than
to circulation
and respiratory
diseases
according to
100 million The New Urban Agenda
also links health to
WHO.
people into poverty. planning, land use and
open spaces.
PRINCIPLES
Environmental design Preventative Gender-based risks

Health outcomes, Preventative measures Adolescent girls and young women
environmental and urban significantly reduce fatal deaths. face gender-based inequalities
design should be closed linked. that make them especially
vulnerable to health risks.
Building codes Health indicators Research & development

Set regulatory building codes and Set health indicators in urban Fund and support the
standards as to be compliant with planning and measure impacts. research and development
health outcomes. for vaccines and medicines.
Universal health Risk management

Fund universal health coverage. Strengthen capacity for early warning,
risk education, and management of global
health risk through simulation.

The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic is an illustrative for health such as food security and nutrition, The 2020
example of how cities and communities across physical and mental health, and household and COVID-19
the globe are impacted by a public health crisis. ambient air quality, as well as reducing noise by pandemic not
What is evident is that the pandemic not only promoting liveable human settlements and urban only endangered
endangered the health of urban residents, but it landscapes and prioritizing the conservation of the health of
also threatened livelihoods and the social fabric of endemic species - NUA 67. These provisions are urban residents,
cities. The hardest hit are the informal settlements in accordance with SDG 3 which strives to “ensure but it also
and the urban poor, who do not have the luxury of healthy lives and promote well-being at all ages”, threatened
social distancing, are crowded into small homes and addresses child and maternal health, HIV/AIDS, livelihoods and
and use communal facilities for services such as malaria and other diseases. the social fabric
water and sanitation. COVID-19 will likely cause of cities.
the first increase in global poverty since 1998, the
year of the Asian financial crisis (Castaneda Aguilar Principles
and others 2020). The World Bank estimates that
COVID-19 will push more than 100 million people Health outcomes, environmental and urban design
into poverty (Castaneda Aguilar and others 2020). should be closely linked. Cities should recognize
that air quality, traffic, green spaces, water quality
Cities must fight COVID-19 in three phases. The and other environmental factors significantly
first phase is the emergency phase, when cities affect health. Provisions should be created for
can focus on preventing disease transmission infrastructure and buildings to ensure safety,
and caring for the affected. The second phase is access to healthcare and enable quality air and
the early recovery phase, which requires focusing provision. Box 20 describes a food access program
on mitigating the impact on vulnerable groups, in São Paulo that was established to connect low-
jumpstarting the local economy and planning for income communities to food production.
the new normal, under fiscally strained conditions.
The last phase is the new normal phase, which still Preventative measures significantly reduce fatal
carries many uncertainties around the future of deaths. Child mortality statistics are strongly
work and density, among others (UN-Habitat 2020). dictated by region and poverty. Children born into
poverty are almost twice as likely to die before
The New Urban Agenda commits to fostering the age of 5 as those from wealthier families
healthy societies by promoting access to quality (WHO 2015). 4 out of 5 deaths of children under 5
public services and a clean environment, taking occur in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. More
into consideration air quality guidelines. It calls than half of early child deaths are preventable
for universal access to sexual and reproductive by implementing proven interventions such as
health-care services to reduce newborn child immunization, nutrition, safe water and food, and
and maternal mortality. The New Urban Agenda access to health care in these areas.
also links health to planning, land use and open
spaces. It specifically commits to “promoting the Adolescent girls and young women face gender-
creation and maintenance of well-connected and based inequalities that make them especially
well-distributed networks of open, multipurpose, vulnerable to health risks. HIV and AIDS are the
safe, inclusive, accessible, green and quality public leading cause of death for women of reproductive
spaces”. Lastly, it recognizes important links age worldwide (United Nations Sustainable
between resilience and disaster preparedness for Development Goals). Due to societal stigmas,
the long-term health of communities in coping patriarchy, exclusion and discrimination, girls and
with the risk of floods, droughts and heat waves. young women are especially vulnerable to health
Additionally, it calls for quality of life improvements risks.

Box 20: Cities without hunger –
Set regulatory building codes and standards Community gardens in São Paulo, Brazil
to be compliant with health outcomes. Create
a list of measures and standards to ensure
proper circulation and aeration in urban areas.
Set regulations around the use of dangerous Before 2003, São Paulo’s East Side was a dense area
chemicals and fumes, and mandatory disclosures separated from the rest of the city, deeply afflicted by poverty and violence.
when hazardous substances are in a building (for The exclusion largely affected teenagers and the middle-aged, many of
instance, in the United States, landlords must whom were migrants from poorer regions of Brazil. Yet arriving into São
declare the presence of asbestos in a building). Paulo, immigrants found few opportunities beyond temporary or low-skilled
labour. Most of the area’s workforce remained unemployed and received
Set health indicators in urban planning and when food baskets from the city as their only source of nourishment.
measuring impact. Measure disease outcomes by
area against healthy city indicators (green space, “Cities without Hunger” was established in 2004 as an
quality of buildings, public spaces for exercise, intersectional project aiming to connect disadvantaged urban communities
and so on) and keep governance accountable to with the production of food as a means of livelihood and healthy living.
improving metrics (WHO 2015). The project developed private and public vacant land into vegetable
gardens, generating urban jobs that allowed participants to learn new skills,
Fund and support the research and development earn income and create a bridge between communities and the natural
of vaccines and medicines. Make vaccines environment. The creation and maintenance of the gardens, as well as the
accessible everywhere as a public good, and create production of four crops harvested at different times of the year, created
programmes with community groups, schools and sustainable income to break the welfare cycle for dependent community
local hospitals that educate the population about members. Production strategies that were taught included crop rotation,
the efficacy of vaccinations. Allocate substantial soil composting, drying and automatic irrigation, and environmental
spending towards the research and development of conservation strategies. Furthermore, the process for engaging the
medicines and vaccines. communities was highly participatory. The community was invited to form a
committee comprising members from public institutions, influential groups,
Fund universal health coverage. Allocate a NGOs and representatives of beneficiaries. There were also “chat rooms”
percentage of annual spending towards providing on decision making and negotiations with local authorities. Evaluations of
health coverage for every individual that provides projects took place monthly.
essential health-care services, medicines and
vaccines. The project found healthy profit margins of 58 per cent
on each crop, proving a sustainable revenue model. “Cities without
Strengthen capacity for early warning, risk Hunger” started 25 community gardens, reached 14,506 children and
reduction and management of global health has guaranteed livelihoods for 650 individuals. It has also organized 48
risks through simulation. Create preventative professional qualification courses where over 1,000 people have qualified
plans such as simulating the potential spread of for certifications in agriculture or commerce (Cities without Hunger 2018).
an epidemic or virus spatially. Implement infrared
cameras at high-risk areas such as airports or meat
packing districts, creating a plan for managing and
Source: UN-Habitat
containing the spread of an epidemic early in a
break out.

2.3.4 Urban safety know each other, which increases social cohesion The New Urban
and safety. Agenda draws on
The New Urban Agenda draws on the importance the importance
of urban design and planning for safety by Acknowledge the relationship between crime and of urban design
supporting the provision of well-designed networks systemic marginalization. Solutions addressing and planning for
of safe, accessible, green and quality streets criminal activity should acknowledge systematic safety by
and other public spaces that are accessible to and societal questions rather than seeing crime supporting the
all and free from crime and violence, including as a result of individual moral failure. Most often, provision of
sexual harassment and gender-based violence. gangs and criminal activity form because a well-designed
It considers the human scale as an important marginalized group lacks the social or financial networks
factor of urban planning and promotes measures provisions to thrive within a system. Increasing of safe,
that allow for the best possible commercial use crime levels are often associated with widening accessible,
of street-level floors, fostering both formal and income disparities. Perpetuating the idea that crime green and
informal local markets and commerce, as well is a result of individual moral failure can perpetuate quality streets
as not-for-profit community initiatives, bringing systemic racism, marginalization and the policing and other public
people into public spaces and promoting walkability of marginalized people and groups. spaces that are
and cycling with the goal of improving health accessible to
and well-being NUA 100. Additionally, it calls for Increase transit access. Research from the all and free
integrating inclusive measures for urban safety Urban Reform Institute (formerly the Center from crime and
and the prevention of crime and violence, including for Opportunity Urbanism) demonstrates that violence.
terrorism and violent extremism conducive to low-income individuals have greater economic
terrorism by engaging relevant local communities opportunity if they can live in more accessible or
and non-governmental actors in developing multimodal neighbourhoods (Litman 2015). As
urban strategies and initiatives - NUA 103. SDG increasing crime levels can be associated with
11 encourages improvements to urban safety by income disparities, increased access to economic
calling for access to “safe and affordable housing”, opportunity can help prevent crime.
“to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable
transport systems for all, improving road safety, Create accountability, visibility and due process.
notably by expanding public transport” and to Where weak legal infrastructure exists, a
“universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, corrupt environment can develop in which crime
green and public spaces” - SDG Targets 11.1, 11.2, and informality become culturally accepted.
11.7. Accountability, visibility, due process, and checks
and balances are crucial for an equitable and
prosperous society. Governments can model this
Principles by creating transparent and accountable public
systems of law, property and planning, with ample
Creating “eyes on the street” ensures safety. opportunity for public engagement.
Jane Jacobs famously theorized that “eyes on
the street” are critical to urban safety: “There
must be eyes upon the street, eyes belonging Illustrative Actions
to those we might call the natural proprietors of
the street. The buildings on a street equipped to Focus on enhancing sidewalk pedestrian usage.
handle strangers and to insure the safety of both Follow planning principles to ensure that sidewalks
residents and strangers, must be oriented to the continuously have users on them by designing
street” (Jacobs 1961). This principle means that green, sustainable, bikeable and walkable spaces
the presence of people on city sidewalks, streets, that are well-connected throughout an entire city.
stoops and balconies increases the safety of those Focus on compact and mixed-use development
spaces, because people naturally look after spaces to attract sidewalk pedestrians (Jacobs 1961).
that they have a stake in. When these quotidian Pedestrian friendly spaces help maintain “eyes
spaces are accessible and inhabited, they facilitate on the street” and also enhance accessibility to
neighbours, shopkeepers and visitors getting to necessary community amenities.

Diagram 27: Urban safety
SOFT MEASURES
URBAN
SAFETY
PRINCIPLES
Safe environment Marginalization Transit Accountability

Creating “Eyes on the Acknowledge the Increase Create accountability,
street” ensures safety. relationship between transit access. visibility and due
crime and systemic process.
marginalization.
Pedestrian safety Equitable access Non-invasive surveillance

Focus on enhancing Bridge income disparities by Install non-invasive
sidewalk pedestrian providing transportation across all surveillance to reduce risks.
usage. levels of income and
neighborhoods.
Street vendors Rehabilitation programs Highlight role models

Give legitimacy to street Provide social programs, Support programs that help risk
vendors and other informal rehabilitation and employment for youth to connect with mentors and
businesses. drug addicts, formerly incarcerated role models.
persons, and homeless persons.

Bridge income disparities by providing Provide social programs, rehabilitation Communities

transportation connectivity across all levels of and employment for drug addicts, formerly that live in areas
income and neighbourhoods. Communities that incarcerated persons and homeless persons. that are not
live in areas that are not well-connected to public Crime and recidivism persist, in part, when there well-connected
transit, or are pocketed-off, face concentrated is inadequate economic opportunity and social to public transit,
levels of crime. Medellin went from the “murder inclusion. Panama City’s historic district Casco or are pocketed-
capital” of the world to reducing their homicide rate Viejo was once rife with theft, gang activity and off, face
by over 75 per cent after the implementation of the narcotic trades. Through a focused rehabilitation concentrated
cable car (Vulliamy 2013). The cable car connected and alternative employment scheme targeting levels of crime.
low-income communities who lived densely on former gang members and their families, the
steep hills and were previously unable to access historic district has been redeveloped into a thriving
jobs, education and other city amenities. hospitality centre (Kahn 2015). Rehabilitation and
job training programs must include wraparound
Install non-invasive, non-violent surveillance social and economic supports to assist people
to reduce risks. Provide cameras, emergency with re-entry to society. Additionally, governments
devices (such as a panic button) or additional should eliminate or forgive fees, fines and
security guards in high-risk areas to reduce crime, debts that are incurred in relation to drug use,
vandalism or property damage (Fox 2005). At the homelessness or incarceration, which are
same time, surveillance alone will not prevent or counterproductive to social inclusion and economic
eliminate crime in an area that is not well served by opportunity.
transit, economic opportunity, education and other
essential services. Support programs that help at-risk youth to
connect with mentors and role models. Fund and
Give legitimacy to street vendors and other focus on community leaders and non-profits that
informal businesses. Recognize street vendors by engage at-risk youth as model programmes to
supporting their businesses through the provision provide vocational skills training and education.
of subsidized leasing space, permitting and In the United States, mentoring has been shown
licensing, tourism and marketing, and supportive to decrease the risk factors that are associated
business grants and loans. By legitimizing informal with youth violence such as substance abuse,
businesses, governments can improve visibility gang involvement and exposure to violence, and
of their activities and compliance with codes, to enhance the protective factors associated with
regulations and laws. Be careful to legitimize and reducing youth violence such as staying engaged
recognize informal businesses without imposing in school, connectedness to family and other
overly costly or time-consuming fees, fines and adults or displaying positive social behaviours.
processes that could push vendors further into the Mentorship can be effective when it is incorporated
informal or black-market sectors. in programmes with a specific goal or focus, such
as academic achievement or career preparation, or
when it occurs informally with coaches, teachers or
extended family members (Root Cause 2015).

2.4 Technology digital governance tools, tapping into technological As the world
innovations, including capacity-development becomes more
and innovation programmes, in order to make information and urbanized,
communications technologies accessible to the solutions to
public” - NUA 156. address
In dealing with the tremendous challenges of sustainability,
the twenty-first century, having an innovative The SDGs also feature the importance of equitable
approach is necessary. Conventional planning technology and innovation. SDG 9 calls for development
methods are no longer sufficient to tackle the Governments to “build resilient infrastructure, and urban
challenges and leverage opportunities brought on promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization governance
us by urbanization. By innovation, we do not only and foster innovation”. In particular, SDG 9 calls challenges
mean “smart cities”, although some of the most for “increased resource-use efficiency and require
groundbreaking innovations are happening in that greater adoption of clean and environmentally innovation in
realm. Both technological and policy innovations sound technologies and industrial processes”, for technology and
will be essential to tackling the challenges of supporting “domestic technology development, policy to be part
urbanization. In cities around the globe, local research and innovation in developing countries”, of a longer-term
planners, engineers, policymakers and financiers increasing “access to information and transition process
are joining forces to implement innovative methods communications technology” and striving “to in how we govern
for managing urbanization. provide universal and affordable access to the and operate
Internet” - SDG Targets 9.4, 9.B, 9.C. cities.
The New Urban Agenda asks urban development
actors to commit to innovation across issue areas As the world becomes more urbanized, solutions to
and sectors. The New Urban Agenda specifically address sustainability, equitable development and
highlights the need for innovation in urban urban governance challenges require innovation in
economic development by “building on endogenous technology and policy to be part of a longer-term
potential, competitive advantages, cultural transition process in how we govern and operate
heritage and local resources, as well as resource- cities. As data becomes increasingly important in
efficient and resilient infrastructure, promoting the digital society, city leaders need to take action
sustainable and inclusive industrial development to institute systems and standards to ensure that
and sustainable consumption and production data is made available to the public, to democratize
patterns and fostering an enabling environment for and accurately analyze urban trends and dynamics.
businesses and innovation, as well as livelihoods” Leaders understand, however, that multiple and
and “leveraging the agglomeration benefits of well- sometimes conflicting standards exist in this
planned urbanization, including high productivity, nascent space. City governments should support
competitiveness and innovation” - NUA 14.b, the use of open, transparent and interoperable
45. This commitment includes supporting urban digital platforms and data systems to ensure that
economies in transitioning to high productivity, stakeholders can understand the goals of smart-
high-value-added sectors, promoting diversification city projects currently underway, while instituting
and technological upgrading, in service of “the appropriate standards for privacy and also for
creation of quality, decent and productive jobs, the equitable access and use of this data in city
including through the promotion of cultural and government operations.
creative industries, sustainable tourism, performing
arts and heritage conservation activities, among Transitioning the city’s operations to smarter and
others” - NUA 60. more innovative practices requires flexibility and
time. The smart cities concept encompasses many
The New Urban Agenda calls for the application of sectors such as transport, energy, food systems,
innovation to the policy and government arena by procurement, and so on. Actions for developing
promoting “the development of national information smart-city practices involve both technology and
and communications technology policies and policy; they should have a systemic character and
e-government strategies, as well as citizen-centric be centrally managed by the government. This

Diagram 28: Technology and innovation
SOFT MEASURES
TECHNOLOGY
AND INNOVATION
PRINCIPLES
Transparency Capacity building Sensor-based New mobility

solutions
Open and transparent Using smart technologies in Cities must have updated Appropriate governance
practices are essential to urban development requires governance and financing frameworks are
enable stakeholders and national, subnational and models to set up shared necessary to manage
the public to understand local governments to have services across departments the disruptive aspects of
the goals of smart city the capacity to conduct data integrate data and redesign new mobility
projects. collection, mapping, analysis workflow to fully utilize technologies.
and dissemination. sensor-based solutions.
Emerging mobility Resilient construction Track waste

Proactively regulate Promote the construction and Establish requirements to
emerging mobility services retrofitting of sustainable, resilient report for track generation,
to create a level playing and resource-efficient buildings. reuse, recycling or disposal of
field while promoting public construction materials.
transit ridership.
Mobile sensing Satellite imagery

Utilize city assets for data Identify the utility and value of remote
collection such as mobile sensing and artificial intelligence tools
sensing devices for traffic for image classification to establish
and environmental evidence-based governance in land use
monitoring. management and environmental
monitoring.

section addresses four areas of interest in the New programmes, in order to make information and New mobility
Urban Agenda: a) Technology, b) Transportation, communications technologies accessible to the technologies can
c) Construction and Building Technology and d) public, including women and girls, children and help ensure that
Mapping and Spatial Data. youth, persons with disabilities, older persons cities connect
and persons in vulnerable situations, to enable people to jobs
them to develop and exercise civic responsibility, and education
2.4.1 Technology broadening participation and fostering responsible while meeting
governance” - NUA 156. critical climate
The New Urban Agenda highlights the connection targets.
between sustainability and technology, saying SDG 6 – Build resilient infrastructure, promote
“we commit ourselves to adopting a smart-city inclusive and sustainable industrialization and
approach that makes use of opportunities from foster innovation – supports scientific research
digitalization, clean energy and technologies, and technology development by encouraging
as well as innovative transport technologies, Governments to “enhance scientific research,
thus providing options for inhabitants to make upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial
more environmentally friendly choices and boost sectors in all countries, in particular developing
sustainable economic growth and enabling cities countries, including … increasing the number of
to improve their service delivery” - NUA 66. The research and development workers per 1 million
New Urban Agenda supports increased sharing of people and public and private research and
information, knowledge and expertise, through “a development spending” and create a conducive
focus on social, technological, digital and nature- policy environment for technology innovation - SDG
based innovation, robust science-policy interfaces Targets 9.5, 9.B.
in urban and territorial planning and policy
formulation and institutionalized mechanisms for
sharing and exchanging information, knowledge 2.4.2 Transportation
and expertise” - NUA 157.
The transportation sector has a key role in the
The New Urban Agenda calls attention to economic and social development of urban
the need for cooperation and coordination in residents and in promoting inclusion by connecting
technology. This includes the need for enhanced people to schools, hospitals and job opportunities.
cooperation and knowledge exchange on science, However, cities must address three key challenges:
technology and innovation in accordance with 1) a third of the world’s rural population lacks
the processes launched under the 2030 Agenda access to an all-weather road, 2) a fifth of global
for Sustainable Development. It also includes the GHG emissions come from transport and 3) more
need for development of clear, transparent and than a million people are killed on the world’s roads
accountable contractual relationships, including each year (WRI Ross Center for Sustainable Cities).
for data management, between local governments
and transport and mobility services; these As aspirations for mobility continue to rise, new
relationships further protect the public interest and mobility technologies can help ensure that cities
individual privacy and define mutual obligations - connect people to jobs and education while
NUA 116, 150. meeting critical climate targets. A key opportunity
is investing in low-carbon transport technologies
The New Urban Agenda affirms that technology such as electric vehicles and micromobility
should be used to promote the civic engagement solutions, which is particularly critical in developing
and participation of marginalized groups, promoting economies where much of the new urban and
“the development of national information and transport infrastructure is still to be built. Overall,
communications technology policies and low-carbon transport will require investing in a
e-government strategies, as well as citizen-centric range of tested opportunities to deliver urban
digital governance tools, tapping into technological integrated multimodal transport and transit
innovations, including capacity-development systems, deploying road, rail, maritime and air

transport as well as harnessing disruptive trends, and prioritizing the use of local, non-toxic and The New
like shared mobility, autonomous driving and recycled materials and lead-additive-free paints Urban Agenda
electrification. Micromobility services, for example, and coatings - NUA 76. SDG 11 sets the goal of emphasizes the
have begun to resonate with consumers around supporting the least developed countries through role of
the world, as evinced by their rapid adoption in financial and technical assistance for building sustainable
major cities. They are celebrated as a way of better sustainable and resilient buildings utilizing local use of natural
connecting people with public transit, reducing materials. The indicator measuring this goal is the resources and
reliance on private cars and making the most of proportion of financial support to least developed focuses
limited space in cities by “right-sizing” mobility countries for the construction and retrofitting on the resource
vehicles, all while reducing GHG emissions – of sustainable, resilient and resource-efficient efficiency of raw
discounting the need to use conventional vans or buildings utilizing local materials. SDG 12 – Ensure and construction
trucks to collect, charge and reallocate e-scooters sustainable consumption and production patterns materials.
and e-bikes. – recommends that, by 2030, Governments
“achieve the sustainable management and efficient
New mobility services may reduce the number of use of natural resources” - SDG Target 12.2.
single occupancy vehicles on the road and improve
access to transport, but they can also reduce mass Strategies for construction and retrofitting of
transit use, and when used at mass scales, increase sustainable, resilient and resource-efficient
congestion and pollution. To achieve desirable buildings utilizing local materials will directly
outcomes, it is critical for cities to establish increase the use of natural resources and resource
appropriate governance frameworks to manage the efficiency of raw and construction materials (such
disruptive aspects of new mobility technologies. As as concrete, metals, wood, minerals and land).
a result, many governments have already begun to Sustainable sourcing must be complemented by
regulate these services to create a level playing field establishing safe material recovery and recycling
while promoting public transit ridership. facilities, and prioritizing the use of local, non-toxic
and recycled materials and lead-additive-free
paints and coating.
2.4.3 Construction and
building technology The United Nations operates programs that
support and promote sustainable construction. UN
The New Urban Agenda emphasizes the role of Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme
sustainable use of natural resources and focuses (SBC) serves to improve knowledge of sustainable
on the resource efficiency of raw and construction construction and support and mainstream
materials such as concrete, metals, wood, minerals sustainable building solutions around the world. UN
and land. The New Urban Agenda powerfully SHERPA is a sustainable housing self-evaluation
asserts “we commit ourselves to encouraging tool for stakeholders involved in the planning,
national, subnational and local governments, as design, construction and assessment of housing
appropriate, to develop sustainable, renewable and projects that aims to support the transformative
affordable energy and energy-efficient buildings commitments of the New Urban Agenda, the 2030
and construction modes and to promoting energy Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Paris
conservation and efficiency, which are essential to Agreement.
enable the reduction of greenhouse gas and black
carbon emissions, ensure sustainable consumption Timber, which has made a comeback in new
and production patterns, help create new decent construction in North America and Europe, is one
jobs, improve public health and reduce the costs of current trend in sustainable building. Mass timber
energy supply” - NUA 75. construction is currently increasing, with advocates
saying it could revolutionize the building industry
This also must be complemented by establishing and contribute to a climate change solution.
safe material recovery and recycling facilities, While there are criticisms with regards to the

logging and manufacturing required to produce 2.4.4 Mapping and spatial data The New Urban
the new material, the use of mass timber in new Agenda seeks to
construction can sequester considerable amounts Data generated must be high-quality, timely and grow capacity
of CO2, if managed sustainably throughout the life reliable. It should also be disaggregated by income, for promoting
cycle through sustainable forestry management. sex, age, race, ethnicity, migration status, disability, evidence-based
Researchers from interdisciplinary teams including geographic location and other characteristics. governance,
climate scientists, carbon cycle researchers, However, protective policies should be in place to building
metallurgists and foresters are in the process of ensure that the data are not used for discriminatory on a shared
understanding the potential climate impacts of policies. Availability of city-level data is important knowledge
mass timber at scale. According to researchers for benchmarking progress. Many cities in the base using both
from The Nature Conservancy, the U.S. Forest developed and developing world lack this data or globally
Service and other research institutions, CO2 systems to curate and use data. comparable as
savings of mass timber can be significant – the well as locally
substitution of concrete and steel with wood and The New Urban Agenda seeks to improve the generated data,
the long-term carbon storage in mass timber capacity of national, subnational and local including through
account for about 75 per cent of the savings, and governments for data collection, mapping, analysis censuses,
sustainable forestry accounts for about 25 per cent and dissemination. It also seeks to grow capacity household
(Robbins 2019). for promoting evidence-based governance, building surveys,
on a shared knowledge base using both globally population
Reclaiming, reusing and recycling is also becoming comparable as well as locally generated data, registers and
more common in the construction and renovation including through censuses, household surveys, community-
industry. Traditionally, construction and demolition population registers and community-based based monitoring
waste has been disposed of in landfills. However, monitoring processes - NUA 159. To this end, processes -
this has a negative environmental impact, the New Urban Agenda supports that “the use of NUA 159.
contaminating underground water and surrounding digital platforms and tools, including geospatial
habitats. The U.S. National Association of Home information systems, will be encouraged to improve
Builders estimates that building a 2,000 square long-term integrated urban and territorial planning
foot (about 185 square metre) home creates up and design, land administration and management,
to 8,000 pounds (3.6 tons) of waste, 85 per cent and access to urban and metropolitan services”
of which could be reused or recycled, yet most is and supports “institutionalized mechanisms
ending up in landfills. On a per-ton basis, sorting for sharing and exchanging information,
and processing recyclables can create and sustain knowledge and expertise, including the collection,
10 times more jobs than landfilling or incineration analysis, standardization and dissemination of
(Institute for Local Self-Reliance 2002). Further geographically based, community-collected, high-
complicating the issue is the fact that construction quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated
and demolition materials reuse is a decentralized by income, sex, age, race, ethnicity, migration
industry. To support the development of this rather status, disability, geographic location and other
small industry, cities should proactively address characteristics relevant in national, subnational and
the absence of universal requirements to report local contexts” - NUA 157.
or track generation, reuse, recycling or disposal of
construction materials. More specifically, the New Urban Agenda promotes
compliance with legal requirements through
strong, inclusive management frameworks and
accountable institutions that deal with land
registration and governance, applying transparent
and sustainable management and use of land,
property registration and sound financial systems.
It emphasizes the importance of generating high-

quality, timely and reliable data, disaggregated

by all characteristics relevant in the national
Box 21: Housing information and
context to ensure that these data are not used for mapping system in São Paulo, Brazil
discriminatory land-use policies - NUA 104. SDG
17 – Strengthen the means of implementation
and revitalize the global partnership for
sustainable development – also recommends that In 2004, the City of São Paulo Department of Housing and
Governments enhance capacity building support Urban Development (SEHAB) launched a housing information and
to developing countries “to increase significantly mapping system called HABISP. It is a complete data set that contains
the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable information about residents of public housing and informal settlements.
data disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, It provides a comprehensive record of all settlements in São Paulo and
ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic identifies the most vulnerable population groups in order to prioritize
location and other characteristics relevant in interventions on an equitable basis.
national contexts” - SDG Target 17.18. Box 18
describes efforts by the city of São Paulo using Unlike previous record-keeping instruments used by SEHAB,
mapping and housing information to help protect HABISP provides decision makers with updated and comprehensive
the most vulnerable population. information on housing and other socioeconomic conditions of the
urban poor. Furthermore, HABISP is an easy-to-use information system,
As sensor technologies and the internet of things which uses standardized indicators to analyze and compare different
(IoT) become more ubiquitous, it is important that urban programmes. It allows the municipal staff to constantly monitor
cities identify some of the major impediments to and review their working methods and make judicious decisions about
their ability and sustainability to utilize the vast activities based on the latest statistics.
amounts of data being collected more effectively
and intentionally to invest wisely in selected HABISP also benefits other stakeholders by allowing them to access the
priorities. These priorities can include reducing information and actively participate in the conception, implementation
traffic congestion, addressing lack of parking, and fulfilment of municipal interventions. The HABISP website is an
rehabilitating aging water infrastructure and important information source for residents on the policies and plans
recovering lost revenue from water leaks, and under development, project progress and budgetary executions. Resident
promoting transit ridership and public safety. access has led to transparency and accountability.
Cities can also benefit from low-cost methods This online information system has transformed the way São Paulo
to update their land use and land cover data on approaches urban planning. However, it is notable that building such an
a frequent basis to help inform both local and information and management system requires significant investment in
regional level planning processes. Traditionally, city technology and human and financial capacity building.
agencies or ministries responsible for environment,
forestry and natural resource management use
field surveys or analyze satellite images. While
carrying out field surveys is more comprehensive
and authoritative, it is an expensive project and
usually takes a long time to update. With recent
developments in the space technology industry and
the increased availability of satellite images (both
free and commercial) for remote sensing, advances
in computing and convolutional neural networks
are showing promising results in improving and
speeding up land-use classification (ESRI). Machine
learning algorithms have proved to be a powerful
tool for analyzing satellite imagery and providing
nuanced insights. Cities should proactively

identify the utility and value of these tools to spatial integration. E-government strategies and Governments
establish evidence-based governance in land-use citizen-centric digital governance tools can enable should develop
management and environmental monitoring. See citizens, especially those from marginalized groups, clear, transparent
Box 18 for an example. to develop and exercise greater civic responsibility, and accountable
broadening participation and fostering responsible contractual
governance. relationships
Principles with transport
Cities must have updated governance and and mobility
Open and transparent practices are essential to financing models to set up shared services service providers,
enable stakeholders and the public to understand across departments, integrate data and redesign including on data
the goals of smart-city projects. Using a smart- workflow to fully utilize sensor-based solutions. management.
city approach not only enables governments to Sustainable and equitable urban development
improve service delivery and accountability to requires metropolitan governance that is inclusive
stakeholders, but also provides opportunities and encompasses legal frameworks and reliable
and options for urban inhabitants to make more financing mechanisms, including sustainable debt
environmentally friendly choices and boost management. Governments should seek to create
sustainable economic growth. Well-informed integrated financing frameworks that are supported
citizens are better prepared to participate in civic by an enabling environment at all levels. Financing
governance and to contribute to policy making. should be embedded in coherent policy frameworks
when possible.
Using smart technologies in urban development
requires national, subnational and local Appropriate governance frameworks are
governments to have the capacity to conduct data necessary to manage the disruptive aspects of
collection, mapping, analysis and dissemination. new mobility technologies. Governments should
Data collection and analysis is necessary for good develop clear, transparent and accountable
governance, specifically in the creation of non- contractual relationships with transport and
discriminatory housing and land registration and mobility service providers, including on data
governance systems. Improving the transparency management. This is necessary to protect the
of data on spending and resource allocation can be public interest and individual privacy and to engage
a tool for assessing progress towards equity and the private sector to provide high quality services.

Illustrative Actions Utilize city assets for data collection, such Support the
as installing sensors with GPS trackers on sustainable
Proactively regulate emerging mobility services to city-owned vehicles, turning them into mobile use of natural
create a level playing field while promoting public sensing devices for traffic and environmental resources, with
transit ridership. Applying an equity lens to mobility monitoring. Use existing data to identify potential a focus on the
and transit development can enable greater equity hot spots where sensors can be selectively resource
in participation in social and economic activities placed, reducing the number of devices needed efficiency of
in cities and human settlements, especially for to monitor sectors such as traffic, transit or water raw and
marginalized groups. This can be accomplished by infrastructure. A smart-city approach that makes construction
supporting a significant increase in accessible, safe, use of opportunities from digitalization can provide materials.
efficient, affordable and sustainable infrastructure opportunities for urban dwellers around the world Additionally,
for public transport, walking and cycling. to make more environmentally friendly choices, prioritizing
Governments should also prioritize equitable transit while boosting sustainable economic growth and smart-grid,
oriented development that minimizes displacement enabling cities to improve their service delivery. district energy
and is accompanied by affordable, mixed-income systems and
housing and accessible jobs and services. Identify the utility and value of remote sensing and community
artificial intelligence tools for image classification energy plans
Promote the construction and retrofitting of to establish evidence-based governance in land- can improve
sustainable, resilient and resource-efficient use management and environmental monitoring. synergies
buildings. Governments should support the These technologies have enabled new approaches between
sustainable use of natural resources, with a focus to land resource management by classification renewable
on the resource efficiency of raw and construction of satellite imagery to understand land uses and energy and
materials such as concrete, metals, wood, minerals boundaries. Cities can use these technologies to energy efficiency.
and land. Additionally, prioritizing smart-grid, create a base map of land uses and ownership
district energy systems and community energy patterns, then update these on an on-demand basis
plans can improve synergies between renewable using community input, on the ground surveys and
energy and energy efficiency. dispute resolution methods.
Establish requirements to report or track the Identify how recent developments in the space
generation, reuse, recycling or disposal of industry and the increased availability of satellite
construction materials. Governments can also images can benefit land use management and
support the establishment and monitoring of reuse environmental monitoring practices. Cities need
centres for overstocked, discontinued, new and to quantify the problem that needs fixing. As
used building materials donated by manufacturers, smart-city approaches gain traction, government
businesses, contractors and individuals. The stakeholders should also endeavor to quantify the
systematic reporting, tracking and professional value that advanced remote sensing tools can bring
handling of large volumes of salvaged or reusable in order to evaluate or justify investments.
building materials can reduce waste and materials
that are sent to landfills. These activities support
the transition to a circular economy while
facilitating ecosystem conservation, regeneration,
restoration and resilience.

Figure 31: Venice, Italy, is surrounded by water. Innovative policies are needed
to save this historic city from the impacts of climate change.
© Mario Duran-Ortiz / Flickr The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | 132

03
Governance,
monitoring and
reporting
This Chapter describes the global

governance mechanisms established
for the follow-up and review of the
New Urban Agenda to achieve the
Sustainable Development Goals.
It presents ongoing work at the
global level to build comprehensive
monitoring and reporting frameworks,
facilitated by UN-Habitat. This
process will guide Member States
and partners in the collection and
analysis of urban data, and in
the identification of actions and
results achieved at all levels of
governments and stakeholders.
The analysis of quantitative and
qualitative data from all over the
world, and systematization on
the Urban Agenda Platform, shall
feed into the Quadrennial Report
on the New Urban Agenda to the
Secretary General of the United
Nations, and inform global action
and recommendations for urban
sustainability.
Global NUA and Monitoring and UN-Habitat
governance SDGs reporting
3.1 Global governance and

means of implementation
While the previous chapters described the ways to 3.1.1 Global governance The Agenda
build urban governance structures NUA 85-92 and requires many
plan and manage urban spatial development NUA Paragraph 127 of the NUA reaffirms the actors and
93-125, this section provides background to the commitments on means of implementation various means of
means of implementations to achieve the included in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable implementation,
NUA 126-160. Development and the Addis Ababa Action Agenda, along with
while paragraph 6 recognizes and reiterates leading an enabling
The complexity of the Agenda requires many global agreements. environment at
actors and various means of implementation, the national,
along with an enabling environment at the national, Among these global agreements, it is salient to subnational and
subnational and local levels. Capacity development, highlight the key global development agreements local levels
cooperation and partnerships, mobilization of and frameworks adopted in 2015. Besides the
financial resources, are all part of the core means. Addis Ababa Action Agenda, the year was marked
Figure 32: Pillars of the effective implementation of the New Urban Agenda.
1 2
Building urban Planning and
governance managing urban
structures development
NUA 85-92 NUA 93-125
3 4
Effective Means of
implementation implementation
of the NUA NUA 126-160

by the endorsement of three other landmark UN Serving as important foundations for the integrated Serving as
agreements: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable mainstreaming of these global agendas are important
Development and the Sustainable Development universal concepts such as ‘leave no one behind’, foundations for
Goals, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk commitments to human rights and gender equality, the integrated
Reduction and the Paris Agreement under the principles enshrined in various UN Conventions mainstreaming
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate and Agreements, and the efforts of some national of these global
Change (UNFCCC). The growing recognition of the and local governments towards the visioning of the agendas are
correlation between urbanization and development ‘right to the city’ in their legislation and declarations universal
is reflected through the adoption of the New Urban - NUA 11. concepts such
Agenda in 2016. as ‘leave no
one behind’,
Together and under the umbrella of the 2030 Agen- 3.1.2 Mobilization of commitments to
da for Sustainable Development, these documents financial resources human rights and
provide the most comprehensive blueprint with gender equality,
a global framework to inspire national strategies, To finance the implementation of the New Urban principles
policies and plans on how to achieve prosperity for Agenda, mobilization of adequate and appropriately enshrined in
all, eliminate inequality and protect the planet. directed financial resources needs to take place. various UN
This can be done by expanding on the traditional Conventions and
The 2030 Agenda as well as the New Urban resources, mobilizing innovative revenue sources Agreements.
Agenda stress the importance of reinforcing and putting in place long-term, predictable
and complementing the global agendas to avoid financing mechanisms.
inefficiencies and reduce or minimize negative
interactions (ICSU, 2017). Resources need to In the New Urban Agenda, the ways to widen
be optimized and effectively utilized, which in the potential revenue base of municipalities and
turn increases positive interactions between attract investments and resources are outlined
the agendas. This can happen when integration in paragraphs 130-145. The New Urban Agenda
takes place across policy and implementation promotes fiscal decentralization, coherent policy
levels, multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder frameworks, mobilizing endogenous resources
governance systems are adopted, partnerships and revenues through the capture of benefits
are strengthened, and financial resources and of urbanization, private-public partnerships,
technology are leveraged (ICSU, 2017). diversifying fiscal revenues and gains-related
fiscal policies and more equitable distribution of
The global agreements and frameworks adopted national financial resources. It also underlines
in the post-2015 era underscore the role of the the need for better debt management through
United Nations system-wide coordination. The role improved local creditworthiness and supports
and mandate of UN-Habitat in these efforts as the access to different multilateral funds and
focal point for sustainable urbanization and human multilateral financial institutions.
settlements is explained in detail in section 3.4.
Box 22: Interlinked global agendas
The NUA emphasizes the importance of strongly interlinking global development agendas NUA 6, 9, 11, 12, 77,
79, 127, 128, and 150. The NUA is an accelerator of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the SDGs,
the Paris Climate Change Agreement, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, the Addis Ababa Action
Agenda on Financing for Development.

This topic is discussed in detail in section 2.1.6 Urban Agenda. A difficult journey lies ahead as only Assessing
on Municipal Finance, where it gives a thorough a low number of countries appear to have concrete the financing
overview of the New Urban Agenda principles for financing plans for the implementation of the 2030 landscape and
sustainable municipal finance, as well as strategic Agenda. To begin with, assessing the financing carrying out cost
actions. The section 1.3.3 on Climate Change landscape and carrying out cost assessments of assessments
Mitigation provides additional reading on the national implementation of the Goals has been of national
funding sources for climate action. The financial found a useful tool (UN, 2019). implementation
and regulatory tools to benefit from land-value of the Goals has
capture, a significant gains-related fiscal tool, is The multilateral climate funds provide the been found a
covered in section 2.1.2. investments for transformative climate-related useful tool (UN,
initiatives. The largest multilateral climate funds 2019).
The sheer scale of the investments needed to are the Climate Investment Funds (CIFs), Green
implement the New Urban Agenda can appear Climate Fund (GCF), Adaptation Fund (AF),
daunting – the estimates for the funding needed to and Global Environment Facility (GEF). In 2016,
close the infrastructure gap with regard to water, these four funds approved $2.78 billion of project
sanitation, transportation, energy, irrigation and support. Most multilateral climate funds use a
flood protection can be between 2 to 8 percent of wide range of financing instruments, including
the GDP per year by 2030 (UN, 2019).In this regard, grants, debt, equity and risk mitigation options.
the progress on the 2030 Agenda offers valuable These are intended to crowd in other sources of
insight into the challenges and opportunities facing finance, whether from domestic governments,
national entities and cities in reaching the New other donors or the private sector.
Figure 33: Key global agendas post-2015
Paris Agreement
Addis Ababa Action Agenda Legally binding framework for an
Global framework with over internationally coordinated effort
100 concrete measures on to strenghten the global response
how to finance sustainable to the climate change to keep
development and transform global warming to under 2
the global economy. degrees Celcius compared
to pre-industrial averages.
2030 Agenda for
Sustainable
Development and
the Sustainable
Development
Goals The New Urban Agenda
Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction Urban action-oriented
International framework blueprint that sets out a
with the aim to prevent and long-term vision for the way
reduce hazard exposure and cities should be planned and
vulnerability to disaster, increase managed, and otlining global
preparedness for response and principles, policies, standards and
recovery, thus strenghtening priorities required to achieve
reilience. urban development.

Figure 34: Mobilization of financial resources
Mobilization of financial resources
Develop financing Mobilize endogenous Promote sound systems of Mobilize and establish
frameworks for (internal) sources of financial transfers from financial intermediaries
implementing the NUA at finance and expand the national to subnational (multilateral institutions,
all levels of government revenue base of and local governments regional development
subnational and local based on needs, priorities banks, subnational and
governments and functions local development funds;
pooled financing
mechanisms etc.) for
urban financing
Climate finance is “finance that aims at reducing emissions, and enhancing sinks of greenhouse gases and aims at reducing vulnerability of, and main-
taining and increasing the resilience of, human and ecological systems to negative climate change impacts”, as defined by the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Standing Committee on Finance.
3.1.3 Capacity development, well as subnational, decentralized and city-to city Capacity
knowledge exchange and cooperation... developing capacities and fostering development is
partnerships exchanges of urban solutions and mutual learning”. fundamental in
improving the
This section looks into NUA 146 to 155 of the human resources,
New Urban Agenda, which present capacity Capacity development organizational
development, knowledge exchange and and institutional
cooperation and partnerships as important Capacity development is well recognized among the functioning
means of implementation that create an enabling international development community and Member of the entities
environment conducive to transformative changes. States as a critical means of implementation to and individuals
They provide mutually beneficial grounds for achieve sustainable urban development and it is a and equipping
the generation and implementation of new key component of global developmental agendas. policy-makers
policies, initiatives and tools and allow national and urban
governments, local governments and urban Capacity development is fundamental in practitioners with
stakeholders to jointly lead on the implementation improving the human resources, organizational the necessary
of the New Urban Agenda. and institutional functioning of the entities and skills and
individuals and equipping policy-makers and knowledge.
Their importance is highlighted in paragraph urban practitioners with the skills and knowledge
146 of the New Urban Agenda, which promotes to understand the complexities underpinning
“opportunities for North-South, South-South and urbanization, make well-informed decisions and be
triangular regional and international cooperation, as able to monitor and report back on the progress.

Figure 35: Capacity building
Capacity building as Capacity building is a

the key to unlocking critical pillar for the
the potential of Capacity building is effective realization of
institutions and rooted in the NUA and sustainable urban
individuals the 2030 Agenda development
Capacity building strengthens, The NUA refers to capacity As a result of capacity building,
develops and consolidates the development throughout its individuals and institutions can
knowledge, skills and abilities of propositions and recommended better formulate, plan,
multiple stakeholders and implementation mechanisms implement, manage, monitor
institutions at all levels of (81, 90, 102, 117, 120, 129, and evaluate public policies
governance. 146-155). It is also the key focus towards sustainable urban
of the SDG target 17.9 on development.
Partnerships.
The need for capacity development, especially stakeholder engagement, and take many forms The New
on the municipal level, is supported by various (trainings, e-learning, on-the-job learning, city- Urban Agenda
studies. While many cities have undergone to-city exchange and others). Irrespective of the underlines the
substantial social, economic, spatial and physical format, an effective capacity building intervention importance
transformations, the human and administrative is rooted in understanding the gaps and needs and for cities and
capacities of municipal and local governments have in iterative development of the materials and tools governments
not kept pace (UNESCAP, 2015). The effectiveness based on lessons learned and new knowledge. to exchange
of municipal governments are often stymied by the experiences
inadequate capacity of local governments in areas on policies,
or urban planning and regulatory control, finance, Knowledge exchange, cooperation programs,
human and administrative capacity and service and partnerships lessons learned
delivery (Avis, 2016). and best
The New Urban Agenda underlines the importance practices in the
Depending on the actual needs, capacity building for cities and governments to exchange development
activities can span all sectors and areas of experiences on policies, programs, lessons learned of novel urban
interest, from improving data collection and policy and best practices in the development of novel solutions and
development to implementation and boosting urban solutions and tools while generating broader tools.
awareness and stimulating political and public
discussions on urban development. Some of the
platforms facilitated by UN-Habitat that support the
sharing of experiences and stimulating cooperation
among national entities, cities and urban

stakeholders are illustrated in sections 3.3. on the Initiatives), which gather large numbers of Strengthened
Urban Agenda Platform and 3.4. on the World Urban knowledge-based institutions and provide training partnerships and
Forum and the UN-Habitat Assembly. and capacity building for various stakeholders, collaboration
to strengthen their ability to participate in policy between urban
The New Urban Agenda - NUA 150 calls for design, monitoring and reporting. Universities are stakeholders,
strengthening of knowledge exchange on increasingly incorporating the New Urban Agenda research
science, technology and innovation. Strengthened and the SDGs in their regular education, serving and tertiary
partnerships and collaboration between urban as important vehicles in knowledge generation, educational
stakeholders, research and tertiary educational dissemination and awareness raising. institutions and
institutions and high-tech industries as well as high-tech
the establishment of science-policy interface The New Urban Agenda - NUA 153 calls for the industries as
practices can ignite innovative ideas, methods and promotion of multi-stakeholder partnerships well as the
approaches - NUA 149. in various urban development processes to establishment
establish clear and transparent policies, financial of science-
In this regard it is useful to highlight partnerships and administrative frameworks and procedures policy interface
between UN agencies and universities worldwide as well as planning guidelines. Section 2.1.4. on practices can
such as HESI (Higher Education for Sustainability Urban Legislation and Regulations provides further ignite
Initiative) and UNI (Habitat University Partnership background on this. innovative ideas,
methods and
approaches -
NUA 149.

3.2 The New Urban Entangled in a nexus between the social, economic,
environmental, and cultural considerations, the
Agenda and the complexity of urbanization underlines the innate
interlinkages between what both the New Urban
urban dimensions of Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals
aim to achieve: an equitable, equal and fair world
the SDGs for the present and future generations, where no
one and no place is left behind. An overview of the
nexus between the SDG 11, other SDGs and the
The past chapters made it clear that the ways cities New Urban Agenda is provided in Table 3.
respond to the needs arising from an increasing
concentration of population in urban areas can lead Some of the linkages between the two global
to vastly different outcomes. They can exacerbate agendas are evident, most clearly seen in the
challenges to sustainable development, including inclusion of the historically first stand-alone goal
inequalities, social and economic exclusion and on sustainable cities, the SDGs 11 to “Make cities
environmental degradation, or provide fertile and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
ground for economic growth, social and cultural and sustainable”.
development, and efficient use of natural resources.
Figure 36: Visual representation of the key interlinkages between SDG 11 and other SDGs

The SDG 11 on sustainable cities and human Evidence shows that integrated urban planning, While the
settlements is intrinsically linked to other SDGs, access to basic services, slum upgrading, and challenges that
as shown in Figure 36. The synergies between decent and affordable housing reduce non- cities, towns
them underscore that the efforts to achieve the communicable diseases and limit environmental and villages
SDGs and the New Urban Agenda must work impacts, responding to goals on health and face in different
in tandem, be it by reducing the unauthorized wellbeing - SDG 3, energy - SDG 7 and climate - countries are
build-up in high-risk areas prone to landslides SDG 13 (ICSU, 2017).Meanwhile, the provision of varied, the New
and floodplains to reduce the number of deaths regional and urban infrastructure, as part of the Urban Agenda
due to natural disasters - SDG target 13.1 or infrastructure goal - SDG 9, boosts markets and is designed to
improving productivity and access to decent jobs value chains, supporting decent work and economic be universally
- SDG target 8.3 through investments in reliable, growth - SDG 8, sustainable consumption and applicable.
accessible and affordable public transportation. production - SDG 12, and in creating better rural- Additionally,
urban interlinkages, it promotes food security - SDG the New Urban
Perhaps less obvious but equally salient are 2, improved nutrition, and sustainable agriculture. Agenda has a
urban issues and topics transcending a host Further, UN-Habitat’s 2016 report “Sustainable long-term vision
of other SDGs. In fact, 11 out of the 17 SDGs Urbanization in the Paris Agreement,” found
include targets with an urban component (see that 113 out of 164 of the submitted nationally
Figure 37). This requires further refined analysis determined contributions (NDCs) reflect evident
on their linkages and policy interactions, key in urban references and content, providing clear
ensuring that the policy actions are integrated and linkages between sustainable urbanization and
mutually reinforcing, without leading to negative, climate action (UN-Habitat, 2017).
unintended consequences.
Figure 37: SDGs featuring urban targets (excluding SDG 11)
SDG 1.4: Ensure that all…have SDG 2.a.: Increase investment…in SDG 5.2.: Eliminate all forms of SDG 6.1.: …achieve universal and SDG 7.3: Double the global
equal rights to economic rural infrastructure violence against… women and equitable access to safe and rate of improvement in
resources [and] access to basic girls in public and private spheres affordable drinking water for all energy efficiency…
services
SDG 6.2:…. achieve success to
SDG 1.5: Build the resilience of the adequate and equitable
poor…and reduce their exposure sanitation and hygiene for all
and vulnerability to climate-
related extreme events and other
…shocks and disasters
SDG 8.3:…Promote…policies that SDG 9.1.: Develop …reliable, SDG 12:…substantially reduce SDG 13.1.: Strengthen resilience SDG 1.4:…ensure that all…have
support productive activities, sustainable and resilient waste generation and adaptive capacity to equal rights to economic
decent job creation, infrastructure…to support climate-related hazards resources [and]access to basic
entrepreneurship, creativity and economic development and services
innovation, and encourage the human well-being
SDG 1.5:…build the resilience of
formation and growth of SMEs...
the poor…and reduce their
SDG8. 5:…Achieve full and exposure and vulnerability to
productive employment and climate-related extreme events
decent work for all… and other…shocks and disasters

Table 3: Nexus between SDG 11, other SDGs and the New Urban Agenda
LINKAGES TO New Urban

THE SDG 11 TARGET LINKAGES TO OTHER SDGS
Agenda PARAGRAPHS
11.1 By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe 31, 32, 33, 34, 46, 61, 70,
and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade 99, 107, 108, 110, 112
slums
11.2 By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, 48, 50, 54, 113, 114, 115
accessible and sustainable transport systems for all,
improving road safety, notably by expanding public
transport, with special attention to the needs of those in
vulnerable situations…
11.3 By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable 29, 39, 40, 41, 42, 92, 149,
urbanization and capacity for participatory, integrated 155, 156, 157, 160
and sustainable human settlement planning and
management in all countries
11.4 Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the 38, 63, 66, 121, 122
world’s cultural and natural heritage
11.5 By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths 65, 68, 69, 71, 73, 74, 75,
and the number of people affected and substantially 76, 77, 78, 119, 123
decrease the direct economic losses relative to global
gross domestic product caused by disasters, including
water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the
poor and people in vulnerable situations
11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita 65, 68, 69, 71, 73, 74, 75,
environmental impact of cities, including by paying 76, 77, 78, 119, 123
special attention to air quality and municipal and other
waste management
11.7 By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive 37, 53, 55, 56, 67, 100, 109
and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular
for women and children, older persons and persons with
disabilities
11.a Support positive economic, social and 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 158, 159
environmental links between urban, peri-urban and
rural areas by strengthening national and regional
development planning
11.b By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities 77, 78, 86, 94, 95, 96,
… adopting and implementing integrated policies and 97, 98
plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation
and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters,
and … disaster risk management …

making choices based on explicit objectives and Countries have

values can give cities the leverage to realize their developed action
A National Urban Policy
developmental potential (UN-Habitat, 2014). But plans for the
(NUP) is a key instrument for implementation
as reported in the Global State of National Urban
governments to support the Policy Report prepared by UN-Habitat and OECD, of of the New
implementation of the New the 150 countries analyzed regarding urban policy Urban Agenda
Urban Agenda and city-related progress, half (76) have adopted explicit NUPs with and the SDGs
SDGs. The NUPs are covered in strong connections to the New Urban Agenda (UN- but they are not
detail in Chapter 2.1.1. Habitat and OECD, 2018). always aligned
with the National
The necessity for policy coherence and integrated Urban Policies.
policies vis-à-vis the global developmental agendas
indeed poses a great challenge to many countries
Institutional and policy implications (UN, 2019), therefore to effectively consider the
New Urban Agenda in the mix further requires
Given that urbanization is and will continue to considerable capacity building and awareness
represent a defining phenomenon in the coming interventions, as well adequate financial support.
decades, viewing the Goals as isolated from the
urban reality would be counterproductive to the Strengthened governance coordination systems
global efforts. As the New Urban Agenda provides across the different sectors, plans and strategies
guidance in planning, design, finance, development, (horizontal coherence), and between all levels
governance and management to address both said of government (vertical coherence), with the
challenges and opportunities of urbanization, it is devolution of appropriate responsibilities, also
a critical lever to accelerate the achievement of the remains of critical importance in this feat.
SDGs. Likewise, throughout the process, there must be an
inclusive stakeholder engagement, including local
Understanding this symbiosis has implications communities, private partners, and other actors.
for domestic institutions, which will need to shift
their focus to increasing understanding of the With less than a decade before reaching the
interlinkages between the urban SDGs and the New 2030 milestone, however, whether this will be
Urban Agenda. achieved will critically depend on the sustained
political commitment and will at all levels of the
This includes ensuring that they are properly government.
mainstreamed in their institutional mechanisms,
policy tools and budgets. Policy planning and
design consequently need to be thoughtful and
nuanced so as to navigate between the policy
trade-offs and benefits to maximize the possible
multiplier effect. If properly integrated, this can
guide cities and countries towards coherent action
on climate mitigation, sustainable urbanization, and
the concurrent realization of the New Urban Agenda
and several SDG targets.
Countries have developed action plans for the

implementation of the New Urban Agenda and
the SDGs but they are not always aligned with
the National Urban Policies. Experience from the
NUPs show that aligning spatial priorities and
143 | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated New York 5th Avenue. © Stephan Guarch / Shutterstock.com
3.3 Monitoring Understanding the Quadrennial Report The follow-up

of the Secretary General and review of the
and reporting New Urban
The paragraph 166 also lays the basis for the Agenda are
Quadrennial Report (QR), through which the UN stipulated in
The follow-up and review of the New Urban Agenda Secretary General presents to the UN Economic paragraphs NUA
are stipulated in paragraphs NUA - 161-175 . and Social Council (ECOSOC) the progress made 161-175.
Encouraging a process that is country-led, inclusive, in the implementation of the New Urban Agenda. A
multilevel and transparent, the agenda gives a total of five reports will have been produced every
prominent role to local governments and reaffirms four years until 2036. Figure 37 below provides an
UN-Habitat as a focal point for sustainable overview of the first three of such reports, leading
urbanization and human settlements. Quantitative up to the mid-term review of the implementation of
and qualitative analysis, regular assessments, along the New Urban Agenda in 2026.
with meetings and conferences, will support follow-
up and review of the New Urban Agenda. The New
Urban Agenda reporting process complements and Four elements to support the
features linkages with the follow-up and review reporting process
of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
to ensure coordination and coherence in the An incremental approach to the reporting and
implementation of the relevant global development monitoring process is based on four interrelated
agendas. elements shown in Figure 39.
Figure 38: Timeline and objectives of the Quadrennial Reports (2018-2026)
The 1st QR (2018) The 2nd QR (2022) The 3rd QR (2026)
Assessment of the Assessment of Mid-term review of the

systems and resources in quantitative and NUA implementation,
place to implement and qualitative data from: progress and challenges
monitor the NUA; (NUA paragraph 175);
Presentation of recommended a) information monitoring systems; Identification of clear actions
steps for the production of b) voluntary inputs from countries; for improving the
subsequent reports. c) contributions from the UN system implementation of the NUA.
and key stakeholders.

To provide the building blocks, UN-Habitat has Figure 39: Four elements supporting
developed: a) the New Urban Agenda standardized the reporting process.
guidelines for reporting, b) the New Urban Agenda
monitoring framework and c) the Urban Agenda
Platform, which are explained in more detail in
sections 3.3.1-3.3.3 of this chapter.
Platforms for
Interlinked, together they provide the basis for the Data platforms engagement,
collection of qualitative and quantitative data, a and systems participation and
harmonized approach to analyzing the progress on collaboration
the NUA, as well as a platform for engagement and
sharing impact between Member States and other
stakeholders.
Preparatory processes informing the Capacities to

production of the Quadrennial Reports to the report on data
Partnerships
Secretary General collection and
with relevant
analysis,
entities of the
The preparatory stages are a mammoth and implementation,
UN system
long-term endeavor. UN-Habitat needs to mobilize and stakeholder
stakeholders through its variety of communications engagement
and convening channels in order to generate an
inclusive and knowledge-rich reporting process.
Involvement of a wide range of stakeholders Understanding the National Reports
Paragraph 167 of the New Urban Agenda requires Using the Guidelines, the preparation of the Report
that reporting on the progress be country-led, but should be led by the key ministry, or a clearly
also calls for an inclusive process with a wide range defined consortium of ministries responsible for
of stakeholders involved in the follow up review and urbanization matters in the country, with clear lines
implementation processes, including all levels and of responsibility and accountability (see Figure
sectors of government, civil society and the private 41). In countries where active National Habitat
sector, members of parliament, and national human Committees and National Urban Forums exist,
rights institutions, as well as the UN system. both can play a key role in preparing the National
Reports. UN-Habitat will assist in building greater
awareness of the reporting guidelines, as well as
3.3.1 Guidelines for reporting provide technical assistance to Member States.
UN-Habitat produced the Guidelines for Reporting The National Reports will provide essential input
on the Implementation of the New Urban Agenda to to the Secretary General’s Quadrennial Report.
support Member States in preparing their National Continuous updates can be made online through
Reports on the progress in implementing the New the New Urban Agenda Platform (Section 3.3.3).
Urban Agenda, as well as on the progress made on
internationally agreed goals and targets relevant to
sustainable urbanization and human settlements.

Figure 40: Overview of consultative channels informing

the Quadrennial Report to the Secretary General
Data and The annual

knowledge High-Level Political
UN-Habitat Numerous fora,
Forum on Regional
gathered from the led events, platforms, expert
Sustainable mechanisms
Urban Agenda group meetings
Platform Development
(HLPF)
Includes voluntary Reviews the i.e. the Habitat Assembly, and other Notably the
reports from progress on the the biannual World Urban consultative Regional Fora for
Member States, SDGs, providing Forum, the World Urban processes with Sustainable
best practices, grounds for Campaign, and other Member States Development
engagement synergies with the events directly tied to the and stakeholders. convened by the
events and others process of implementation of the Regional
preparation of the NUA or the production of Commissions
Quadrennial Report. Quadrennial Report
Structure of the National Reports While it is understood that each Member State will
have varying capacities and methodologies for
The Reporting Guidelines for Member States are measuring success, the National Reports should
split into two areas: Transformative Commitments include the quantitative or qualitative indicators
and Effective Implementation, with proposed specified in the New Urban Agenda Monitoring
themes. The first part of the report focuses on Framework. Publicly accessible (data) platforms,
how the Member States meet the Transformative weblinks, maps, tables and other information
Commitments of the New Urban Agenda while should also be included as annexes to the report
the second part of the report focuses on policy where possible. Each response should incorporate
frameworks at the national level. The New Urban the cross-cutting issue of the inclusion of women
Agenda Monitoring Framework (section 3.3.2) and vulnerable groups (youth, older persons,
provides the indicators for these categories and persons with disabilities and migrants).
themes.
In the follow-up and review section, the report 3.3.2 Monitoring framework
should describe the mechanisms, tools,
frameworks and/or methodologies that have Front-line urban data and statistics compliment
been developed by all levels of government urban policy research and knowledge and support
and stakeholders to monitor and report on the UN-Habitat in influencing the strategic policy
implementation of the New Urban Agenda. The engagements on sustainable urban development.
report should describe the results achieved, The agency has contributed to this vision by
challenges experienced, and lessons learned, best establishing urban indicators databases, launching
practices and case studies. urban data observatories in cities globally and

Figure 41: Overview of the New Urban Agenda implementation reporting procedure
1 Local
governments 2
Lead ministry Task team
dealing with urban Lead/key ministry consults and seeks
development, in Subnational input from sunational
partnership with governments and local governments
UN-Habitat, heads and civil society
the Report Task Team
Task team
Civil society
3 UN National
Habitat
4
Committee
Member states Stakeholders
analyze data and Member submit input through
draft National Report States the NUA Platform
5 6
National reports NUA Reporting Quadrennial reports
submitted through guidelines on the are informed by the
the NUA Platform
Quadrennial National Reports and
NUA Platform
reports 2022-2036 stakeholder input
publishing data-driven urban reports and position In the follow-

papers. To further support the efforts to track up and review
progress on the New Urban Agenda, UN-Habitat
UN-Habitat has worked in
section, the
has developed the New Urban Agenda Monitoring close collaboration with United report should
Framework. Nations system entities and describe the
the Statistics Division to create mechanisms,
an incremental approach to tools, frameworks
Understanding the New Urban Agenda designing the reporting on the and / or
monitoring framework implementation of the New methodologies
Urban Agenda. that have
The New Urban Agenda Monitoring Framework In accordance with the General been developed
provides a set of 78 indicators that all national by all levels of
Assembly resolution 71/235, the
and local governments and partners can use government
to uniformly collect comparable data to track
monitoring framework is to be
and stakeholders
progress on the implementation of New Urban used in national and subnational to monitor and
Agenda commitments. This framework is essential monitoring, and will guide the report on the
for assessing impact. It also allows the residents drafting of national reports, city implementation
of a city or country to hold local and central reports and the Quadrennial of the New
governments accountable for implementation of Report to the General Assembly. Urban Agenda.
the New Urban Agenda.

The complexities of monitoring urban dimensions Alignment with the urban dimensions The New
and progress in cities represent a methodological of the SDGs Urban Agenda
challenge for many statisticians and economists. Monitoring
Some of the challenges include a lack of The Framework is designed to contribute directly Framework
harmonized definitions on cities and urban areas, to understanding and enhancing the urban includes specific
variations in understanding of indicators across dimensions of the SDG related indicators. The New components of
ministries and municipalities, and the need to Urban Agenda recognizes the effective linkages and the New Urban
monitor and track results at the city level, while synergies between self-monitoring and the 2030 Agenda that
reporting progress at the national level. Some Agenda for Sustainable Development, to ensure are not covered
countries also have many cities and urban coherence in their implementation NUA 164 and by existing
centres, bringing about challenges in how to most monitoring. Nearly a third of the indicators of the indicators
effectively monitor and report on them. Monitoring Framework mirror the urban-focused linked to the
SDG indicators, thus allowing Member States and SDG Goals and
The New Urban Agenda Monitoring Framework cities to monitor progress in a way that maintains targets.
aims to redress these challenges. The Framework alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
contains harmonized urban concepts and Development.
operational definitions of cities and urban areas,
thus supporting Member States in producing and This framework builds on the SDG monitoring
providing comparable indicators for monitoring framework by including specific components of
progress and impact. UN-Habitat has also the NUA that are not covered by existing indicators
developed a national sample of cities as a solution linked to the SDG Goals and targets. As the NUA
for monitoring a representative set of cities that articulates “the how”, “with whom” and “the means
would allow reporting progress at the national level of achieving sustainable urban development”, it
with limited selection bias. brings additional layers of urban dimensions and
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. © Michal Vit / Shutterstock.com

goes beyond the core urban indicators of the SDGs.

It is in that context that the framework fills this
Box 23: Main features of
gap as nearly half of indicators of the New Urban the Urban Agenda Platform
Agenda Monitoring Framework are unique. Many
SDG indicators also focus on quantitative statistical
measures. UN-Habitat has proposed various 1. National Reporting: A centralized, virtual reporting mechanism
additional New Urban Agenda measures to balance based on the Reporting Guidelines accessible to the Member States
the integration of a range of qualitative, quantitative that will facilitate the preparation of National Reports.
and spatial measures to complement the SDG
indicators. 2. Knowledge management: Leveraging on the collective experience
and knowledge of partners, it will facilitate knowledge generation
and sharing in support of New Urban Agenda and SDGs
3.3.3 Urban Agenda online Platform implementation.
This global and interactive platform facilitated by a) Urban Data: Linkage to Global Urban Indicators database
UN-Habitat for information sharing and systematic platform; provide an interactive mechanism to visualize data
reporting will be instrumental in collating actions, from progress and demonstrate impact of the implementation
best practices, case studies, lessons learned and of the New Urban Agenda and SDGs.
other valuable inputs from Member States and
other New Urban Agenda partners. b) Urban Best Practice Database: Hosting and management of
best practices from different award schemes, with advanced
The Urban Agenda Platform is a global network search functions to encourage sharing and knowledge uptake.
platform that brings together the UN system, The database facilitates sharing of inspiring breakthroughs
national, regional and local governments, the and success stories, demonstrating results and impacts and
private sector, civil society, academia, and other identifying practices that can be scaled-up.
stakeholders to facilitate monitoring, reporting
and knowledge-sharing on progress, and thereby c) Linkages with global, regional and thematic knowledge
accelerate the implementation of the New Urban platforms: to reinforce collaboration and coherence of thematic
Agenda and SDGs. The Platform builds on the areas and with global and regional-level platforms developed
initial Quito Implementation Platform, designed for through the UN DESA and the UN Regional Commissions.
Habitat III, which content has migrated to the Urban
Agenda Platform. 3. Learning and Capacity Development: Support evidence-informed
country-level action for impact on through capacity development
The Platform responds to the need to enhance and curated, state of the art knowledge. Providing a complementary
access and exchange of information on progress set of webinars, e-learning, workshops, and technical support and
being made on the implementation of the New expanding resources and publications.
Urban Agenda by creating a virtual space of
knowledge exchange and analysis. Key lessons 4. Sharing Action: Initiatives shared by different stakeholders to report
are emerging in terms of innovation, sustainability, their progress in implementing the New Urban Agenda.
efficiency, and engagement that need to be
effectively harnessed, shared and learned from. 5. Engagement and Participation: Accelerating networking globally and
fostering a global community for collective action through podcasts,
The Reporting Guidelines and the Platform will e-groups, videos, events and more.
provide the necessary basis required for the
preparations of the UN Secretary General’s 6. Advocacy and Partnership: Leverage collaborations to scale up
Quadrennial Report on the Implementation of the action and collective response.
New Urban Agenda in 2022 and beyond.

3.4 UN-Habitat’s role Assembly (section 3.4.2) and wider UN-Habitat,

given their reach and strategic importance.
in driving the New
Urban Agenda 3.4.1 UN-Habitat Assembly
and governance structure
The origins and basis upon which UN-Habitat was This section gives a brief overview of the
founded, the earliest traces dating back to the governance structure of UN-Habitat and specifically
1940s, show the evolution in the organizational focuses on the UN-Habitat Assembly, the agency’s
form and thematic focus that reflect the changing main decision-making body, given its integral role
realities of the urban, demographic, environmental, for the implementation of the New Urban Agenda.
spatial and socioeconomic trends and resulting
needs. Over time, the agency has expanded its
thematic scope and rose in relevance as the world UN-Habitat governance structure
was fast urbanizing and the majority of the world’s
population was increasingly residing in urban areas. UN-Habitat’s governing structure is made up of
three decision-making bodies; the UN-Habitat
Naturally, the process leading up to the adoption of Assembly, the Executive Board and the Committee
the Sustainable Development Goals and the New of Permanent Representatives. Together, these
Urban Agenda saw the agency’s involvement to three governing bodies strengthen UN-Habitat’s
ensure that the role of urbanization in sustainable accountability and transparency and provide an
development is reflected in the post-2015 global effective oversight mechanism for UN-Habitat to
agendas. In achieving these global agendas, the enhance its normative and operational activities.
agency has developed critical normative and
knowledge tools to support the coherent reporting
and monitoring on the implementation of the New UN-Habitat Assembly
Urban Agenda and the urban components of the
SDGs. This was described in detail in the preceding The UN-Habitat Assembly is a high-level decision-
section. making body focused on sustainable human
settlements and urbanization. It is a universal body,
Indeed, as the focal point on sustainable composed of the 193 Member States of the United
urbanization and human settlements, UN-Habitat’s Nations, which convenes every four years at the
role, mandate, and normative and technical Headquarters of UN-Habitat in Nairobi. It brings
expertise is reaffirmed in the New Urban Agenda in together Member States, other UN agencies, private
various paragraphs - NUA 165;171. sector and civil society, academia and other urban
stakeholders.
The subsequent section gives an overview of
two large stakeholder gatherings organized by The UN-Habitat Assembly convened following
UN-Habitat, responding to the paragraph 167 UN General Assembly Resolution 73/239, which
of the New Urban Agenda to draw from the dissolved the UN-Habitat Governing Council as a
experiences and inputs of stakeholder platforms subsidiary organ of the General Assembly. Serving
in monitoring and reporting on the New Urban as the main governing body, the establishment of
Agenda. Understanding that there is a plethora of the UN-Habitat Assembly aimed at strengthening
initiatives and events supporting the New Urban the organization through its organizational
Agenda, this section in particular draws attention structure. By doing so, it responds to the paragraph
to the advocacy, knowledge and stakeholder 172 of the New Urban Agenda, which requested
platform known as the World Urban Forum (section the review of the governance structure of the UN-
3.4.1) and the governance structure of the Habitat Habitat and making the membership in it universal.

Figure 42: UN-Habitat’s governance structure
The Committee of
The UN-Habitat Assembly Permanent Representatives Executive Board
of UN-Habitat (CPR)
The UN-Habitat Assembly is the The Committee of Permanent The Executive Board is
main decision-making body. It Representatives of UN-Habitat composed of 36 member states
has universal governmental (CPR), is comprised of all elected by the UN-Habitat
membership and provides the Permanent Representatives Assembly with representatives
political and strategic frame- accredited to the United from every regional group.
work under which UN-Habitat Nations Office at Nairobi and The board meets thrice yearly
functions. It is dedicated to the meets biennially. The Commit- to increase the oversight by
promotion of sustainable urban tee meets once prior to the Member States of UN-Habitat
development and human UN-Habitat Assembly for operations.
settlements. The UN-Habitat preparation of the session and
Assembly meets every four a second time for a high-level
years and reports to the United mid-term review meeting.
Nations General Assembly
through the Economic and
Social Council (ECOSOC).
Responsibilities of the UN-Habitat Assembly UN-Habitat Assembly and the

New Urban Agenda
The UN-Habitat Assembly convenes in Nairobi for
a five-day period every four years to undertake the The UN-Habitat Assembly has important linkages
following responsibilities: with the New Urban Agenda as this convening
platform will be informed by, and simultaneously
In addition, the Assembly should also ensure the inform, the development of the Quadrennial Report
active engagement of local authorities and other on the progress and impact of the New Urban
stakeholders in the Assembly, its subsidiary bodies Agenda. The Assembly plays a key role in validating
and in inter-sessional meetings. and reinforcing the messaging of Quadrennial
Reports with outcomes of its dialogues,
deliberations and side events providing seed for
future reports.

Figure 43: Responsibilities of the UN-Habitat Assembly
Identify key issues and Review major trends Examine global norms
areas of focus for the related to human and standards in
normative and policy settlements and human settlements
work of UN-Habitat. urbanisation. and sustainable
urbanisation.
Adopt resolutions, Recommend strategies for

declarations, coherent implementation of
recommendations, formal urban and human settlement
decisions, reports and other dimensions of the 2030
documents pertaining to RESPONSIBILITIES Agenda, the New Urban
strategic vision and political OF THE HABITAT Agenda and other global
guidance in accordance with ASSEMBLY agendas, including the work
its mandate. of the United Nations System.
Review the
Examine and approve Secretary-General’s
UN-Habitat’s strategic quadrennial report on
plan, to be prepared by the implementation of
the Executive Board. the New Urban Agenda.
Furthermore, the Assembly represents Agenda. The timing of the Assembly has also The Assembly
an opportune place to follow-up on the been aligned to correspond with the quadrennial represents an
recommendations of past Quadrennial Reports comprehensive policy review process. opportune place
and to bring to the fore innovative and cutting- to follow-up on the
edge practices in cities and their progress in Lastly, the Assembly will also provide the chance recommendations
implementing the New Urban Agenda to inspire to further showcase the applications of the New of past
increased engagement of Member States through Urban Agenda Platform (explained in section 3.3.3), Quadrennial
exhibition spaces and focused events. increasing awareness on the need for evidence- Reports and to
based reporting from different stakeholders. The bring to the fore
Likewise, the Assembly can bring together other preparation of the Quadrennial Report will therefore innovative and
roundtable dialogues with civil society to discuss feed from a plethora of sources and, in tandem with cutting-edge
the New Urban Agenda and SDG achievements. many partners, ensure a truly inclusive process in practices in cities
Future Habitat Assemblies will advise the a system-based approach to reporting on the New and their progress
implementation of the SDGs and the New Urban Urban Agenda. in implementing
the New Urban
Agenda.

3.4.2 The World Urban Forum Director of UN-Habitat. Established by the United The UN General
Nations in 2001 with the First Session of the WUF Assembly
The World Urban Forum (WUF) is the world’s in Nairobi, Kenya, in 2002, the Forum examines recognizes
largest platform for dialogue on sustainable urban rapid urbanization and its impact on communities, the WUF as
development. It is a non-legislative technical economies, climate change and related policies. the foremost
forum, convened every two years by the Executive global arena
The WUF has proved to be a vital platform for for interaction
increasing the awareness and knowledge of among
The World Urban Forum is the sustainable urban development, enhancing the policymakers,
coordinated implementation of the New Urban local
world’s premier conference
Agenda among urban actors, while recognizing the government
for exchanging views and leaders,
diverse commitments and actions for the Secretary
experiences on urban challenges General’s Decade of Action. It aims to ensure that non
and issues. sustainable urban development is increasingly governmental
incorporated in the political and media global organizations
It is the key platform to discuss agenda. and expert
the implementation of the New practitioners
Urban Agenda and the urban The UN General Assembly recognizes the WUF in the field of
dimensions of the Sustainable as the foremost global arena for interaction sustainable
Development Goals. among policymakers, local government leaders, urban
non-governmental organizations and expert development.
practitioners in the field of sustainable urban
Figure 44: The Objectives of the World Urban Forum
Knowledge Awareness Coordination Reporting
Collective knowledge on Awareness is raised on Coordination and Substantive and strategic

sustainable urban sustainable urban cooperation is increased inputs from multilateral
development is improved development among within UN system and with organizations, national
through inclusive open stakeholders and different stakeholders and and subnational
debates, sharing of lessons constituencies, including constituencies for an governments and
learned and the exchange the general public effective implementation stakeholders, are provided
of urban solutions, good of the NUA and the urban into the reporting of the
practices and policies dimension of the implementation of the
Sustainable Development NUA (in accordance with
Goals Paragraph 167 of the NUA)

Figure 45: Cities which have hosted the World Urban Forum
development and human settlements. The strategy and work of UN-Habitat. Experts at
experts include community-based organizations, WUF include
professionals, research institutions and This is in line with the paragraph 167 of the New community-
academicians, the private sector, development Urban Agenda, in which it requests the report on based
finance institutions and foundations, media, UN the implementation of the New Urban Agenda to organizations,
organizations and other international agencies. incorporate the inputs of multilateral organizations, professionals,
civil society, the private sector and academia, and research
to build on existing platforms and processes such institutions and
The World Urban Forum and as the WUF. academicians,
the New Urban Agenda the private
Since its first session in Nairobi in 2002, the Forum sector,
The biennial nature of the WUF allows the plat- has been held in different cities around the globe: development
form to be a continuing advocacy, partnership and Barcelona (2004), Vancouver (2006), Nanjing (2008), finance
knowledge platform and tool for an inclusive and Rio de Janeiro (2010), Naples (2012), Medellin institutions and
effective implementation, reporting on and follow-up (2014), Kuala Lumpur (2018) and Abu Dhabi (2020). foundations,
and review of the New Urban Agenda and the urban Due to its concurrence with the United Nations media, UN
dimensions of the Sustainable Development Goals. Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban organizations
Development (Habitat III), in 2016, the Eighth and other
Its high-level participation, engagement and Session of the WUF was not convened. international
promotion, together with innovative formats and agencies.
effective mechanisms to capture inputs ensure that
the outcomes result in an improved implementation
and follow up of the New Urban Agenda and the

Final words
No country has ever reached middle-income status

without being urbanized. The world is more than 50
per cent urban and by 2030, two billion additional
residents will move to cities. Cities have a major im-
pact on prosperity, inclusiveness and resilience. 80
per cent of global economic activity is generated in
cities. About 1 billion slum dwellers live in the world
in sub-standard conditions and without access to
basic services. Urban agglomeration makes popu-
lations increasingly vulnerable to natural disasters
and social and economic shocks.
Urbanization is a paradox. Cities concentrate pros-

perity, poor people and risk. The proximity caused
by urban agglomeration is a driver for economic
development, innovation and prosperity-enhancing
ideas, and at the same time, spatial concentration
in cities increases vulnerability to natural hazards
and climate change impacts, as well as the impacts
of major economic or social crises.
The New Urban Agenda is the newest global at-

tempt to grapple with this paradox. It is an overar-
ching document encompassing different concepts
and sectors under one umbrella. This handbook
illustrates all these ideas to systematically define
an urban development approach. This approach
helps city-level decision makers develop spatial
policies that contribute to compact and dense
urban settlements, where all residents have access
to good transportation and are close to economic
activity and jobs. It will also guide cities in mak-
ing equitable investments to create jobs, promote
innovation, expand services and reduce the cost of
doing business.
Using the New Urban Agenda’s approach, cities

can move towards resiliency by mainstreaming risk
management in planning and development and re-
placing a culture of post-disaster construction with
a culture of preparedness and prevention. Lastly,
this approach will pave the path to inclusiveness
by improving access to basic services, education,
housing, transport and health care for poor urban
residents.

Glossary
Agglomeration economies – The clustering of services, stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits
households and resources. Agglomeration allows beneficial opportunities”.
workers to live closer to jobs and access educational
opportunities, and it permits firms to access suppliers, Climate change mitigation – A set of actions that aim at
consumer markets and the labour pool. Through slowing down the impacts of climate change by reducing
agglomeration, overall productivity increases. greenhouse gas emissions.
Building code – Codes that dictate the form and Climate change resilience – Can be defined as the “ability
specifications of buildings allowed to be constructed in of a system, community or society exposed to hazards
cities. Codes can regulate materials used, ingress and to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from
egress, safety standards and minimum requirements the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner,
for the built form; they may also include standards including through the preservation and restoration of its
regarding inspection. The International Code Council essential basic structures and functions”. Refers to the
defines building codes as “collections of laws regulations, summative social, economic and environmental practices
ordinances (or other statutory requirements) adopted that allow for an urban area to weather the effects of
by a government legislative authority involved with the changing conditions, including the effects of climate
physical structure and healthful conditions of buildings change.
and building sites”.
Creative industries – Industries that participate in the
Capital planning – Planning and budgeting for future creation, production and distribution of creative content,
investments in infrastructure and other capital including museums and collections, performing arts,
expenditures. Capital expenditures are payments used visual arts and photography, film, TV and radio, design
to acquire assets or to improve the useful life of existing and publishing, architecture, newspapers and magazines,
assets. gaming, books, digital fabrication and new media.
Charrette – Sometimes called a “design charrette”; Cultural heritage – Defined by UNESCO as “the legacy
a collaborative design session in which a group of of physical artefacts and intangible attributes of a group
key stakeholders and decision makers collaborate on or society that are inherited from past generations,
information sharing, iterative design proposals, feedback maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of
and revisions for the development of complex urban future generations”. This definition includes objects, sites
projects, designs or policies. Ranging from several days and buildings as well as intangible cultural heritage, which
to weeks, charrette work sessions allow professionals can ensure the cultural diversity of future generations.
and stakeholders to identify options and rapidly
prototype and judge solutions. For projects requiring Densification – Describes the increasing density of people
public participation, the charrette method is effective in living in urban areas. Urban density can be measured
managing a large audience, encouraging input, producing by residential density, population density, employment
valuable feedback and saving months of sequential density or floor area ratio (FAR), among other measures.
coordination.
Ecosystem services – A method of understanding
Climate change adaptation – A set of actions that and quantifying the benefits to humans afforded by
prepare a city for tackling the impacts of climate change. healthy ecosystems. Benefits include natural pollination
Adaption can be defined as “adjustment in natural or of crops, clean air, extreme weather mitigation, and
human systems in response to actual or expected climatic human mental and physical well-being, among others.

Equity – Fairness through leveling access to political, Informal economy/sectors – Economic activities that
social and economic resources. The Interaction Institute fall outside official regulation (taxation, monitoring and
for Social Change defines equity in process as when “all protection under the law) because the regulations do
groups have access to the resources and opportunities not apply, because of weak enforcement or because of
necessary to improve the quality of their lives”, and evasion of regulation. Activities that sometimes fall within
equity as an outcome when “differences in life outcomes the informal economy include street vending, domestic
cannot be predicted on the basis of race, class or other service, home-based enterprises, waste picking and urban
dimensions of identity”. agriculture.
Fiscal decentralization – The transfer of financial Informal settlement – Living conditions characterized
responsibility from central Governments to local entities, by lack of access to basic services including drinking
making local entities responsible for financing and water or sanitation, energy, waste recollection and
delivering infrastructure and services. transportation; low structural quality of shelters; non-
compliance with planning and building regulations;
Green infrastructure – Sometimes called “green stormwa- overcrowding; dangerous or environmentally sensitive
ter infrastructure”; an approach to managing wet weather locations; or insecure tenure. Informal settlements
impacts using plant and soil systems that protect, restore may arise as a result of rapid urbanization. Informal
or mimic the natural water cycle and provide many other settlements can be formed on public or private land and
community benefits, such as community safety and can form naturally or through a broker who organizes a
improvements to health and well-being. group to occupy a piece of land.
Housing stock – The total number of housing units Informality – Sometimes referred to as urban informality;
in an area. Housing stock can be described based on often ascribed to poor cities in the global south, is
characteristics including number of units, age of units, sometimes associated with illegality and marginalization,
architectural characteristics and typology, among others. and other times associated with the agency and creativity
of urban residents.
Incremental housing – Provides access to serviced land
and a minimum core unit, requiring the residents to build Internet of things (IoT) – Refers to billions of physical
and expand on their own according to set standards. devices (“things” such as sensors and devices) that are
Incremental housing usually has three phases: accessing connected to the internet and are collecting and sharing
land, building the housing nucleus and making incremental data. IoT is enabled by the availability of cheap computer
improvements. Many families work on the improvement chips and the ubiquity of wireless networks, which allow
and extension of their homes throughout an entire family things to communicate real time data without human
cycle, first to obtain the minimum standards in size and interaction or intervention.
quality, and later to accommodate changes in family struc-
ture or to get income from their investment in the house. Intervention mechanism – The tools and techniques
that cities can use and specific actions cities and city
Infill development – A method for regenerating low- stakeholders can take at the national, subnational
density cities and urban areas by filling in sparsely and local scales to achieve their goals. Intervention
developed areas. An alternative to building outwards, infill mechanisms include methods that cities can use to
development refers to the constructing of new housing scope, plan, finance and implement strategies to achieve
stock and renovation of existing housing stock in already New Urban Agenda principles and sectoral goals.
developed areas, rather than in new areas.

Glossary
Joint venture – A public-private partnership (PPP) Master plan – A long-term strategy that builds a
model. Joint ventures are platforms for cooperation of connection between buildings, social settings, economic
the government and one or more private parties in the activities, geography, characterization and culture, to
development and maintenance or execution of the project. guide future growth in a city. The master plan serves as
In joint ventures, public and private sectors share risks a high-level framework for urban design and planning
and rewards. Joint ventures are created through various and forms the basis for local land-use regulations and
institutional and legal structures, such as partnerships, zoning ordinances that ensure that urban development
limited partnerships, private limited companies or public is consistent with the community goals and policies
limited companies. expressed in the master plan.
Land cadastre – A complete record of land parcels and Micromobility – Small, lightweight transportation
their dimensions, locations, ownership, history of land devices, such as bicycles, e-bikes, electric scooters and
use, legal accounts and other information. skateboards, shared bicycles and dockless bicycles,
that enable short distance travel. Sometimes used to
Land titling - Sometimes called land tenure regularization; connect to other modes of transportation. Micromobility
a process by which informal tenure is integrated into a is celebrated for creating connectivity to public transit,
system recognized by public authorities. reducing reliance on private cars, making efficient use of
existing public space and reducing GHG emissions.
Land-use planning – Laws governing the ownership,
use and development of land. Historically, land-use Mixed-use development – Incorporates two or
planning has been a tool to separate incompatible more different uses such as residential, commercial,
activities to protect residents from adjacent noxious uses cultural, institutional, and industrial uses in a single
such as industrial or agricultural activities identified as real estate development, space, commercial corridor
“nuisances” and to make the spatial arrangement of the or neighbourhood. Mixed-use development may be
city more efficient. implemented through infill, new construction or a
combination of the two.
Land value capture – Also known as value capture (VC);
an umbrella term that includes policies that focus on Monocentric form – A pattern of urban development
capturing a percentage of the increase in land value that where a city is centred around one single employment
results from public infrastructure investments or urban and commercial centre. This can reduce quality of
population growth. life and efficiency, and cause congestion. See also
polycentric form.
Marginalized groups – Groups considered marginalized
include women, children, LGBTQ+ people, individuals Participatory budgeting – A deliberative process in which
with disabilities, older persons, people with HIV/AIDS and community members decide how to spend part of a public
other chronic illnesses, homeless people or occupants budget.
of informal dwellings, refugees or new migrants. These
groups have different needs, and municipal governments Participatory planning – An urban planning process that
are obligated to provide a number of services to meet the involves the entire community in the strategic and
needs of these various groups, in addition to designing management processes of urban planning, with special
social programming and offerings around those needs. attention to involving marginalized groups. Participatory
“Planning from the margins” is a principle meaning that planning aims to achieve community buy-in and prevent
all residents benefit when the needs of marginalized conflict between groups. Participatory planning should
populations are centred. be learning-oriented and should promote mutual

accountability between community and public officers to Smart cities – Defined by the International Data
ensure the continued participation of the stakeholders. Corporation (IDC) as development that uses technology
Stakeholders should be engaged at various levels and investments across an entire city, common platforms that
stages of the planning process including validation. increase efficiency, data shared across systems and IT
investments tied to smart missions.
Peri-urban areas – Areas on the outskirts of urban areas,
including formerly rural areas that are undergoing a Social capital – Social relationships that contribute to
process of urbanization and are within the economic and individual and collective well-being and productivity.
social catchment area of a city. Sometimes called a rural- Social capital refers to the value of social networks, bonds
urban transition zone. and trust.
Polycentric form – A pattern of urban development Spatial capital – Refers to how conducive an urban
where a city is centred around several major centres layout’s form is to the provision of public goods and
of employment, instead of a single employment and social interactions. The connectivity and density of high
commercial centre. See also monocentric form. spatial capital cities allow optimal location of amenities
such as social services, education, health, recreation,
Population density – The ratio of the population to the safety and security. In these cities, spatial capital
overall land area of a city or neighbourhood. redefines the relation between the public and the private,
creating more harmonious development.
Public-private partnership (PPP) – A finance instrument
that can be used for urban development when the public Stakeholder – People, groups, communities, agencies and
sector lacks the necessary funds or institutional and other organized units that are impacted by a certain issue
human capacity. In a PPP, the public sector shares the or project.
risks and rewards of urban regeneration projects with
the private sector. PPPs can be structured in the form of Transit connectivity – An indicator of a user’s ability to
concession (contractual), mixed-income joint ventures use more than one transit system for a single trip. “Good”
(institutionalized), or can fall between the two models. connectivity reduces travel times, makes connections
See also joint venture. more reliable and ensures that transfers and payments
are easy and safe. “Poor” connectivity creates barriers
Secondary city – A term used to refer to the second tier, for people to travel to school, work, home, shopping and
or level, in the hierarchy of cities. Secondary cities may government centres in an efficient and affordable manner.
be considered second tier on the basis of population,
size, function and economic status, as well as their Transit oriented development (TOD) – Defined by the
relation to neighbouring or distant cities and their Transit Oriented Development Institute as “the creation of
socioeconomic status. compact, walkable, pedestrian-oriented and mixed-use
communities centred around high quality train systems”.
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) – One of 17
Sustainable Development Goals that form the basis of Upzoning – A tool that permits a private-sector
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which developer to increase the maximum allowable
was adopted by all United Nations Member States in development on a site in exchange for either funds or
2015. The SDGs provide a shared blueprint for peace and defined policy goals. Through upzoning, cities can allow
prosperity for people and the planet. development in restricted zones, higher-density, or
higher-value land use (for example, from industrial to
residential or commercial).

Glossary
Urban growth boundary – A geographic limit on how far

cities can expand, put in place to protect the natural,
agricultural or open land surrounding the city.
Urban heat island effect – Describes developed areas

that are hotter than nearby rural areas, or particular
neighbourhoods that are hotter than the rest of a city.
Heat islands can result in summertime peak energy
demand, high air conditioning costs, air pollution, high
GHG emissions, heat-related illness and mortality, and
water pollution.
Urban sprawl – Also called sprawl or suburban sprawl;

the rapid expansion of the geographic extent of urban
settlements, characterized by low-density housing. Urban
sprawl can be caused by the need to accommodate a rising
urban population or a desire for increased living space and
other residential amenities. It is generally more expensive
to finance and construct infrastructure and connect
individual residents to employment centres and essential
services or amenities in low density, sprawling cities.
Value chain – A business management concept

referring to the full range of activities that are involved in
bringing a product or service from conception to delivery.
Zoning – The bedrock of urban design regulations

that not only regulates the use of land by parcel, but
also determines the density and height of structures
built. Zoning can delineate physical limitations
including setbacks, frontages, open space and parking
requirements, which are essential tools of urban design to
shape built form.
Zoning overlay – Provides more specialized control for

specific land features such as vegetation, heritage or
buildings. Examples of zoning overlays include heritage
overlays and neighbourhood character protection,
environmental and landscape overlays protecting natural
features and resources, and land management overlays
helping protect valuable agricultural or cultivatable land
at risk of urbanization.

References
100 Resilient Cities (2016). How to Develop a Resilience __________ (2018). The New Urban Peripheries, 1990–
Strategy. Accessed on 18 December 2019. 2014: Selected Findings from a Global Sample of Cities.
Working Paper, No. 40 (June). New York City: NYU Marron
Abas, M.A., and Wee, S.T. (2014). The issues of policy Institute of Urban Management.
implementation on solid waste management in Malay-
sia. International Journal of Conception on Management Arfvidsson, H., and others (2017). Engaging with and
and Social Sciences, vol., 2 No. 3, pp. 12–17. measuring informality in the proposed Urban Sustainable
Development Goal. African Geographical Review, vol. 36,
Abreu-Lastra, Raúl, and others (2011). Housing Finance No. 1, pp. 100–114.
in Mexico: Current State and Future Sustainability. IDB
Working Paper, No. IDB-TN-287. Washington, D.C.: Arup and Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2019), Circular
Inter-American Development Bank. Economies in Cities: Planning for Compact, Connected
Cities. Cowes, UK: Ellen MacArthur Foundation.
Ackom, E.K., and others (2015). Electricity (in) acces-
sibility to the urban poor in developing countries. Wiley Augustinraj, Rajah, and others (2018). Why Countries
Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment, vol. 4, Need New Job Creation Strategies. Boston Consulting
No. 4, pp. 339–353. Group, 11 May. Available at https://www.bcg.com/pub-
lications/2018/new-globalization-why-countries-need-
Ahmed, T., and others (2007). Review and analysis of new-job-creation-strategies.aspx.
current solid waste management situation in urban areas
of Pakistan. Proceedings of the International Conference Avis, W. R. (2016). Urban Governance (Topic Guide).
on Sustainable Solid Waste Management, vol. 8, (Septem- Birmingham, UK: GSDRC, University of Birmingham. Avail-
ber), p. 36. able at: https://gsdrc.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/
UrbanGov_GSDRC.pdf
Akkoyunlu, S. (2015). The potential of rural-urban linkag-
es for sustainable development and trade. International Avlonitis, Georgina, and others (2012). Local biodiversity
Journal of Sustainable Development & World Policy, vol. strategy and action plan guidelines: an aid to municipal
4, No. 2, pp. 20–40. planning and biodiversity conservation. Bonn: ICLEI – Lo-
cal Governments for Sustainability; Tokyo: United Nations
Aldana, Gloria, Richard G. Newell and Daniel Raimi (2019). University Institute of Advanced Studies; Montreal: Secre-
Global Energy Outlook 2019: The Next Generation of Ener- tariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
gy. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future.
Bakalian, Alexander E. and others (2013). Harnessing
Amirtahmasebi, Rana, and others (2016). Regenerating urbanization to end poverty and boost prosperity in
Urban Land: A Practitioner’s Guide to Leveraging Private Africa: an action agenda for transformation. Africa region
Investment. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. sustainable development series. Washington D.C.: World
Bank.
Andersson, F., S. Burgess and J.I. Lane (2007). Cities,
matching and the productivity gains of agglomera- Beatley, T. and S.M. Wheeler, eds. (2014). Sustainable
tion. Journal of Urban Economics, vol. 61, No. 1, pp. urban development reader. New York: Routledge.
112–128.
Bennett, B., J.C. Buzby, and R.J. Hodges (2011). Posthar-
Angel, Shlomo (2012). Planet of Cities. Cambridge, Mas- vest losses and waste in developed and less developed
sachusetts: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. countries: opportunities to improve resource use. The

Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 149 No. S1, pp. Caccia, Lara and Luísa Zottis (2015). How Affordable
37–45. Housing and TOD Are Coming Together in Brazil. TheC-
ityFix, 1 July. Available at https://thecityfix.com/blog/
Bertaud, A. (2004). The spatial organization of cities: nossa-cidade-how-affordable-housing-tod-coming-to-
deliberate outcome or unforeseen consequence? Wash- gether-brazil-luisa-zottis-lara-caccia.
ington, D.C.: World Bank.
Capodaglio, A. (2017). Integrated, decentralized waste-
Bhada-Tata, Perinaz, and others (2018). What a Waste water management for resource recovery in rural and
2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to peri-urban areas. Resources, vol. 6, No. 2, p. 22.
2050. Urban Development series. Washington, D.C.: World
Bank. Castaneda Aguilar, R. Andres, and others (2020). The
impact of COVID-19 (Coronavirus) on global poverty: Why
Bonet, Florence, Joann Vanek and Martha Chen (2019). Sub-Saharan Africa might be the region hardest hit. World
Women and Men in the Informal Economy – A Statistical Bank Blogs, 20 April. Available at https://blogs.world-
Brief. Manchester, UK: WIEGO. bank.org/opendata/impact-covid-19-coronavirus-glob-
al-poverty-why-sub-saharan-africa-might-be-re-
Borelli, Simone, and others (2016). Guidelines on urban gion-hardest.
and peri-urban forestry. FAO Forestry Paper, No. 178.
Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Cervero, R. (2011). State roles in providing affordable
Nations. mass transport services for low-income residents. Inter-
national Transport Forum Discussion paper. Leipzig, May.
Borrero Ochoa, Oscar (2011). Betterment Levy in Co-
lombia: Relevance, Procedures, and Social Acceptability. __________ (2013). Linking urban transport and land use
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Lincoln Institute of Land in developing countries. Journal of Transport and Land
Policy. Use, vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 7–24.
Bourdic, Loeiz, Marco Kamiya and Serge Salat (2017). __________ (2016). Public transport and sustainable ur-
Economic Foundations for Sustainable Urbanization: banism: global lessons. In Transit Oriented Development:
A Study on Three-Pronged Approach. Nairobi: United Making it Happen, Carey Curtis, John L. Renne and Luca
Nations Human Settlements Programme. Bertolini, eds. (pp. 43-56). Abingdon: Routledge.
Bouzarovski, Stephan (2014). Energy poverty in the Eu- Chant, S. (2013). Cities through a “gender lens”: a golden
ropean Union: landscapes of vulnerability. Wiley Interdis- “urban age” for women in the global South? Environment
ciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment, vol. 3, No. 3, and Urbanization, vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 9–29.
pp. 276–289.
Chauvin, J.P., and others (2017). What is different about
Brikké, F., and K. Vairavamoorthy (2016). Managing urbanization in rich and poor countries? Cities in Brazil,
change to implement integrated urban water management China, India and the United States. Journal of Urban
in African cities. Aquatic Procedia, vol. 6, pp. 3–14. Economics, vol. 98, pp.17–49.
Bult-Spiering, Mirjam, and Geert Dewulf (2006). Strategic Chen, G., Chaolin Gu and Fulong Wu (2004). Spatial anal-
Issues in Public-Private Partnerships: An International ysis of urban poverty in Nanjing. Scientia Geographica
Perspective. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Sinica, vol. 24, No. 5, pp. 542–549.

References
Chen, J., and others (2016). Spatial determinants of urban Agency, presentation for the International Workshop on
land expansion in globalizing Nanjing, China. Sustainabili- Extended Producer Responsibility in India. New Delhi,
ty, vol. 8 No. 9, p. 868. May. Available at http://www.oecd.org/environment/
waste/Session_2-Part_1-From-informal-to-providers-
Cheung-Ming Chang, Alfred, and Cao Ting (2015). Flavio-de-Miranda-Ribeiro-CETESB-Brazil.pdf.
Age-Friendly Neighbourhoods as Civic Participation.
Journal of Social Work Practice, vol. 29, pp. 53–68. Down to Earth (2016). 78% of Sewage Generated in India
Remains Untreated, April 6. Available at https://www.
Chunyan, W. (2011). The study on social integration downtoearth.org.in/news/waste/-78-of-sewage-generat-
status of migrant workers and countermeasures. Energy ed-in-india-remains-untreated--53444.
Procedia, vol. 5, pp. 2082–2086.
Dutton, M., C. Lindsay and R.W. McQuaid (2007). New
Cineas, Grace, and others (2017). Cities in Europe and approaches to employability in the UK: combining ‘Human
Central Asia: a shifting story of urban growth and decline. Capital Development’ and ‘Work First’ strategies? Journal
Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. of Social Policy, vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 539–560.
Cities Alliance and UN-Habitat (2014). The Evolution Edenhofer, O., and others, eds. (2011). Renewable energy
of National Urban Policies: A Global Overview. Nairobi: sources and climate change mitigation: Special report of
UN-Habitat. the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cam-
bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cities without Hunger (2018). Jobs, Income, Provid-
ing Food: Everything Starts with a Garden. Available at Ellis, Peter, and Mark Roberts (2016). Leveraging Urban-
https://cidadessemfome.org/en/. ization in South Asia: Managing Spatial Transformation
for Prosperity and Livability. Washington, D.C.: World
City of Los Angeles (2019). L.A.’s Green New Deal: Sus- Bank.
tainable City pLAn. Los Angeles.
Eparque Urban Strategies (2019). Draft Local Assessment
City of New York (2017). Housing New York 2.0. New Report: Cape Coast.
York.
Eparque Urban Strategies (2019). Draft Local Assessment
Convention on Biological Diversity (n.d.). What is an Report: Agona Swedru.
NBSAP? Available at https://www.cbd.int/nbsap/intro-
duction.shtml. Accessed on 29 July 2019. Ezquiaga Arquitectura, Sociedad y Territorio S.L. (2015).
The Experience of Latin America and the Caribbean in
Corfee-Morlot, J., B. Guay, and K. Larsen (2009). Financ- Urbanization: Knowledge Sharing Forum on Develop-
ing Climate Change Mitigation. Paris: OECD/IEA. ment Experiences: Comparative Experiences of Korea
and Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington, D.C.:
Dandapani, Swetha (2017). Unpaid and Undervalued, How Inter-American Development Bank.
India’s Waste Pickers Fight Apathy to Keep Our Cities
Clean. The News Minute, 30 November. Fan, Y., and N. Tilahun (2014). Transit and job accessibil-
ity: an empirical study of access to competitive clusters
De Miranda, Flavio (2016). From Informal to Providers: A and regional growth strategies for enhancing transit
São Paulo State Perspective for Waste Pickers at Brazilian accessibility. Transport Policy, vol. 33, pp. 17–25.
Solid Waste Policy. Sao Paulo State Environmental

Farvacque-Vitkovic, Catherine, and Mihaly Kopanyi Gebhardt, Dick (2014). Building Inclusive Cities: Challeng-
(2014). Municipal Finances: A Handbook for Local Gov- es in the Multilevel Governance of Immigrant Integration
ernments. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. in Europe. Washington, D.C.: Migration Policy Institute.
FEMA (2005). Integrating Historic Property and Cultural Ghosh, S.K. (2016). Swachhaa Bharat Mission (SBM) – a
Resource Considerations Into Hazard Mitigation Planning: paradigm shift in waste management and cleanliness
State and Local Mitigation Planning how-to guide. Wash- in India. Procedia Environmental Sciences, vol. 35, pp.
ington, D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency 15–27.
(FEMA).
Gill, Maninder, and Anna Wellenstein (2019). Making
Ferreyra, Maria Marta, and Mark Roberts (2018). Raising Infrastructure Work for Both Women and Men. World Bank
the Bar for Productive Cities in Latin America and the Blog, August 28. Available at https://blogs.worldbank.
Caribbean. Latin America and Caribbean Studies. Wash- org/voices/making-infrastructure-work-both-women-
ington, D.C.: World Bank. and-men.
Field, C. B., and others, eds. (2012). Managing the risks of GIZ (2012). Financing Local Infrastructure – Linking Local
extreme events and disasters to advance climate change Governments and Financial Markets. Bonn: GIZ.
adaptation: special report of the intergovernmental panel
on climate change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Glaeser, E.L., and W. Xiong (2017). Urban productivity in
Press. the developing world. Oxford Review of Economic Policy,
vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 373–404.
Folorunsho, R., and others (2009). Framework for city cli-
mate risk assessment. Paper presented at the Fifth Urban Global Alliance of Waste Pickers (n.d.). Stats: Waste
Research Symposium. Marseille, June. pickers Around the World (WAW). Available at https://
globalrec.org/waw/stats/?continent=all. Accessed on 20
Forman, A. (2014). Caution Ahead: Overdue Investments October 2019.
for New York’s Aging Infrastructure. New York: Center for
an Urban Future. Global Center on Adaptation and World Resources
Institute (2019). Adapt Now: A Global Call for Leader-
Foster, Vivien, and Cecilia Briceno-Garmendia (2010). ship on Climate Resilience. Rotterdam: Global Center on
Africa’s Infrastructure: A Time for Transformation. Africa Adaptation; Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.
Development Forum. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Available at https://cdn.gca.org/assets/2019-09/Global-
Commission_Report_FINAL.pdf. Accessed October 2019.
Fox, Catherine J. (2005). Tripartite Partnerships: Recog-
nizing the Third Sector. Washington, D.C.: Inter-American Global Water Partnership (2011). What is IWRM? July 12.
Development Bank. Available at https://www.gwp.org/en/GWP-CEE/about/
why/what-is-iwrm/. Accessed on 19 September 2019.
Frese, M., and others (2011). Human capital and entre-
preneurial success: A meta-analytical review. Journal of Goel, R., and S.K. Guttikunda (2013). Health impacts of
Business Venturing, vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 341–358. particulate pollution in a megacity—Delhi, India. Environ-
mental Development, vol. 6, pp. 8–20.
Garemo, Nicklas, and others (2016). Bridging global infra-
structure gaps. New York: McKinsey & Company. Goldin, Nicole (2016). A tale of twin demographics:
Youth in cities. World Bank Blog, October 20. Available at
https://blogs.worldbank.org/jobs/tale-twin-demograph-
ics-youth-cities.

References
Goswami, Arti Grover, and Somik V. Lall (2016). Jobs in Hernandez, D.O. and H. Titheridge (2016). Mobilities of
the City: Explaining Urban Spatial Structure in Kampa- the periphery: Informality, access and social exclusion in
la. Policy Research Working Paper, No. 7655. Washington, the urban fringe in Colombia. Journal of Transport Geog-
D.C.: World Bank. raphy, vol. 55, pp. 152–164.
Graham, D.J., P.C. Melo and R.B. Noland (2009). A Herst, Rebecca and David L. Levy (2018). Financing Cli-
meta-analysis of estimates of urban agglomeration mate Resilience: Mobilizing Resources and Incentives to
economies. Regional Science and Urban Economics, vol. Protect Boston from Climate Risks. Boston: Sustainable
39, No. 3, pp. 332–342. Solutions Lab, UMass Boston.
Grannis, J. (2011). Adaptation Tool Kit: Sea-Level Rise Hommann, Kirsten, and Somik V. Lall (2019). Which
and Coastal Land Use: How Governments Can Use Land- Way to Livable and Productive Cities? A Road Map for
Use Practices to Adapt to Sea-Level Rise. Washington, Sub-Saharan Africa. International Development in Focus
D.C.: Georgetown Climate Center. series. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Greater London Authority (2018). Zero carbon London: Hong, Yuhung, and others (2015). Financing transit-ori-
A 1.5ºC compatible plan. Accessed on 29 July 2019. ented development with land values: adapting land value
London. capture in developing countries – overview. Urban Devel-
opment series. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group.
Greene, Margarita, and Eduardo Rojas (2010). Incremental
Construction: A Strategy to Facilitate Access to Housing. Hoverter, Sara P. (2012). Adapting to Urban Heat: A Tool
Environment & Urbanization, vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 89–108. Kit for Local Governments. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown
Climate Center.
Grengs, J. (2002). Community-based planning as a
source of political change: The transit equity movement of Huang, C.-W., R.I. McDonald and K.C. Seto (2018). The
Los Angeles’ Bus Riders Union. Journal of the American importance of land governance for biodiversity conserva-
Planning Association, vol. 68, No. 2, pp. 165–178. tion in an era of global urban expansion. Landscape and
Urban Planning, vol. 173, pp. 44-50.
Grover, A., and Somik V. Lall (2015). Jobs and land use
within cities: a survey of theory, evidence, and policy. Poli- Hughes, K., and E. Wickeri (2010). A Home in the City:
cy Research Working Paper, No. 7453. Washington, D.C.: Women’s Struggle to Secure Adequate Housing in Urban
World Bank. Tanzania. Fordham International Law Journal, vol. 34, p.
788.
__________ and R.B. Singh (2015). Sustainable Urban
Environment in Delhi Mega City: Emerging Problems and Inchauste, Gabriela, and others (2018). Living and Leav-
Prospects for Innovative Solutions. UN-Habitat Brief for ing, Housing, Mobility and Welfare in the European Union.
GSDR. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Haines, A., and others (2007). A global perspective on Institute for Local Self-Reliance (2002). Recycling Means
energy: health effects and injustices. The Lancet, vol. 370, Business, 1 February. Available at https://ilsr.org/recy-
No. 9591, pp. 965–978. cling-means-business/.
Inter-American Development Bank (2011). IDB to

Support Expansion of CEMEX Microfinance Program for
Low-Income Families. News Release. 28 June. Available

at https://www.iadb.org/en/news/idb-support-expan- Kuah, Adrian T. H. (2002). Cluster Theory and Practice:
sion-cemex-microfinance-program-low-income-families Advantages for the Small Business Locating in a Vibrant
Cluster. Journal of Research in Marketing and Entrepre-
International Council for Science (ICSU), (2017) A Guide neurship, vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 206–28.
to SDG Interactions: From Science to Implementation,
Griggs D.J., Nilsson M., Stevance A., McCollum, eds. Paris Lah, T.J., and S. Park (2015). Analyzing the success of the
volume-based waste fee system in South Korea. Waste
IRENA (2016). Renewable Energy in Cities. Abu Dhabi: Management, vol. 43, pp. 533–538.
International Renewable Energy Agency.
LEED (n.d.). Why LEED. Leadership in Energy and Envi-
__________ (2018). Scaling Up Renewables in Cities: ronmental Design (LEED). Available at https://www.usgbc.
Opportunities for Municipal Governments. Abu Dhabi: org/leed/why-leed.
International Renewable Energy Agency.
Litman, Todd (2015). Smart Planning for Economic
__________ (2019). Climate Change and Renewable Energy: Opportunity. Planetizen, 20 August. Available at https://
National Policies and the Role of Communities, Cities www.planetizen.com/node/80431/smart-planning-eco-
and Regions. Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy nomic-opportunity.
Agency.
Lozano-Gracia, Nancy, Alexandra Panman and Taimur
Jacobs, Jane (1961). The Death and Life of Great Ameri- Samad (2012). Colombia Urbanization Review: Amplifying
can Cities. New York: Random House. the Gains from the Urban Transition. Directions in Devel-
opment series. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Jones, C., and D.M. Kammen (2014). Spatial distribution
of US household carbon footprints reveals suburban- Mabala, R., and C. Tacoli (2010). Exploring mobility and
ization undermines greenhouse gas benefits of urban migration in the context of rural—urban linkages: why
population density. Environmental Science & Technology, gender and generation matter. Environment and Urbaniza-
vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 895–902. tion, vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 389–395.
Kahn, Carrie (2015). In Panama, Restoring Streets And Maestas, N., K.J. Mullen and D. Powell (2016). The effect
Reforming Gangs At The Same Time. National Public Ra- of population aging on economic growth, the labor force
dio, April 18. Available at https://www.npr.org/sections/ and productivity. Working Paper No. w22452. Santa
parallels/2015/04/18/400573672/in-panama-restoring- Monica: RAND Corporation.
streets-and-street-gangs-at-the-same-time.
Maimbo, S.M., and D. Ratha, eds. (2005). Remittances:
Kinossian, N. (2018). Planning strategies and practices in Development impact and future prospects. Washington,
non-core regions: a critical response. European Planning D.C.: World Bank.
Studies, vol. 26, No. 22, pp. 365–375.
Making Cents International (2015). Cities of Opportunity:
Korsu, E., and S. Wenglenski (2010). Job accessibility, Drivers and Priorities for Urban Youth Economic Inclusion.
residential segregation and risk of long-term unemploy- Washington, D.C.: Making Cents International.
ment in the Paris region. Urban Studies, vol. 47, No. 11,
pp. 2279–2324. Martin, R., and P. Sunley (2003). Deconstructing clusters:
chaotic concept or policy panacea? Journal of Economic
Geography, vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 5–35.

References
Massoud, M.A., J.A. Nasr and A. Tarhini (2009). Decen- Pojani, D., and D. Stead (2015). Sustainable urban trans-
tralized approaches to wastewater treatment and man- port in the developing world: beyond megacities. Sustain-
agement: applicability in developing countries. Journal of ability, vol. 7, No. 6), pp. 7784–7805.
Environmental Management, vol. 90, No. 1, pp. 652–659.
Rivera, R.L.K. (2007). Culture, gender, transport: Conten-
McKinsey Global Institute (2017). Jobs Lost, Jobs Gained: tious planning issues. Transport and Communications
Workforce Transitions in a Time of Automation. New York: Bulletin for Asia and the Pacific, vol. 76, pp. 1–20.
McKinsey & Company.
Robbins, Jim (2019). As Mass Timber Takes Off, How
Meaux, A., and W. Osofisan (2016). A review of context Green Is This New Building Material? Yale Environment
analysis tools for urban humanitarian response. Work- 360, 9 April. Available at https://e360.yale.edu/features/
ing Paper. London: IIED. Available at http://pubs.iied. as-mass-timber-takes-off-how-green-is-this-new-build-
org/10797IIED/. ing-material.
Narain, V., and S. Nischal (2007). The peri-urban interface Roberts, B.H. (2014). Managing systems of secondary cit-
in Shahpur Khurd and Karnera, India. Environment and ies: Policy responses in international development. Brus-
Urbanization, vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 261–273. sels: Cities Alliance – Cities without Slums.
New Climate Economy (2014). Better Growth, Better Root Cause (2015). Mentoring: An Investment in Re-
Climate: The New Climate Economy Report. Washington ducing Youth Violence. Boston: Root Cause. Available at
DC: World Resources Institute. Available at https://newcli- https://www.mentoring.org/new-site/wp-content/up-
mateeconomy.report/2014/. loads/2015/12/Youth-Violence-Report-Online.pdf.
ODI (2015). Climate Finance for Cities. Working Paper No. Salman, Saba (2018). What would a truly disabled-acces-
419. London: Overseas Development Institute. sible city look like? The Guardian, 14 February. Available
at https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/feb/14/
OECD (2010). Climate Change: Helping Poor Countries to what-disability-accessible-city-look-like.
Adapt. In Development Co-operation Report 2010. Paris:
OECD Publishing. Satterthwaite, David (2017). Addressing the needs of
vulnerable populations in urban areas. IIED, 26 April.
__________ (2015). Aging in Cities: Policy Brief. Paris: Available at https://www.iied.org/addressing-needs-vul-
OECD. nerable-groups-urban-areas. Accessed on 7 September
2019.
__________ (2018). Rethinking Urban Sprawl: Moving
Towards Sustainable Cities. Paris: OECD Publishing. __________ and C. Tacoli (2013). Gender and urban
change. Environment and Urbanization, vol. 25, No. 1, pp.
Pigato, M.A., ed. (2018). Fiscal Policies for Development 3–8.
and Climate Action. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Smart Cities Dive (n.d.). Do Urban Growth Boundaries
Pitarch-Garrido, Maria (2015). Social sustainability Work to Prevent Sprawl? Available at https://www.
through accessibility and equity. UN-Habitat Brief for smartcitiesdive.com/ex/sustainablecitiescollective/do-
GSDR. urban-growth-boundaries-work/1070356/. Accessed on
23 August 2019.

Smart Growth America (2013). Building Better Budgets. UNDP Green Climate Fund (2017). Improving the
Washington, D.C.: Smart Growth America. resilience of vulnerable coastal communities to climate
change related impacts in Viet Nam. New York: United
Sustainable Mobility for All (2017) Global Mobility Report Nations Development Programme. Available at https://
2017: Tracking Sector Performance. Washington, D.C.: www.gcfprojects-undp.org/tp/project/5708.
World Bank. Available at http://sum4all.org/publications/
global-mobility-report-2017. UNDRR (2017). Build Back Better. Accessed 30 July 2019
at https://www.unisdr.org/files/53213_bbb.pdf.
Tacoli, C. (2012). Urbanization, gender and urban poverty:
paid work and unpaid carework in the city. Urbanization __________ (2019a). Global Assessment Report on Disaster
and Emerging Populations Issues Working Paper 7. Lon- Risk Reduction. Geneva: United Nations Office for Disas-
don: Human Settlements Group, IIED; New York: Popula- ter Risk Reduction.
tions and Development Branch, UNFPA.
__________ (2019b). Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Torres, H. (2008). Social and environmental aspects of Reduction. Geneva: United Nations Office for Disaster
peri-urban growth in Latin American megacities. Paper Risk Reduction.
presented at United Nations Expert Group Meeting on
Population Distribution, Urbanization, Internal Migration UNEP (2014). Green Infrastructure Guide for Water
and Development. New York, January. UN/POP/EGM- Management: Ecosystem-based management approaches
URB/2008/10. for water-related infrastructure projects. Nairobi: United
Nations Environment Programme.
Tsai, K.S. (2000). Banquet banking: Gender and rotating
savings and credit associations in South China. The China ___________ (2016). Unlocking the Sustainable Potential
Quarterly, vol. 161, pp. 142–170. of Land Resources: Evaluation Systems, Strategies and
Tools. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme.
United Nations (2019) E/2019/68. Report of the Sec- DTI/2002/PA.
retary General on the progress towards the Sustainable
Development Goals at the High-level political forum on UNESCAP (2015). Economic and Social Survey of Asia
sustainable development. Available at https://undocs. and the Pacific 2015: Making Growth More Inclusive for
org/E/2019/68 Sustainable Development. New York: UNESCAP. Avail-
able at http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/Eco-
UN Women (n.d.). Facts and Figures: Economic Em- nomic%20and%20Social%20Survey%20of%20Asia%20
powerment. Available at https://www.unwomen.org/en/ and%20the%20Pacific%202015.pdf
what-we-do/economic-empowerment/facts-and-figures.
Accessed on 8 September 2019. UNESCO (n.d.). What is meant by “cultural heritage?”
Available at http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/
UNCTAD (2019). Creative Economy Outlook: Trends in themes/illicit-trafficking-of-cultural-property/unesco-da-
international trade in creative industries. United Nations. tabase-of-national-cultural-heritage-laws/frequent-
UNCTAD/DITC/TED/2018/3 ly-asked-questions/definition-of-the-cultural-heritage/.
UNDP (2016). Sustainable Urbanization Strategy. New __________ (2015). Education 2030: Incheon Declaration
York: United Nations Development Programme. and Framework for Action. Paris: United Nations Edu-
cational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. ED-2016/
WS/28.

References
__________ (2016a). Cities Welcoming Refugees and __________ (2019). Gender and Safety and Security in
Migrants. Inclusive and Sustainable CITIES series. Paris: Cities Fact Sheet. Nairobi: United Nations Human Settle-
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Orga- ments Programme. Available at http://mirror.unhabitat.
nization. org/downloads/docs/GenderandSafetyandSecurityinCi-
tiesfactsheet.pdf.
__________ (2016b). Culture: Urban Future; Global Report
on Culture for Sustainable Urban Development. Paris: __________ (2020). Cities are on the front lines of
United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural COVID-19. UN-Habitat, 12 May. Available at https://un-
Organization. habitat.org/cities-are-on-the-front-lines-of-covid-19.
UNFCCC (n.d.). Fact sheet: The need for adaptation. --------------(2020) Global State of Metropolis 2020 –
Available at https://unfccc.int/files/press/backgrounders/ Population Data Booklet. UN-Habitat. https://unhabitat.
application/pdf/press_factsh_adaptation.pdf. org/sites/default/files/2020/07/gsm-population-da-
ta-booklet-2020.pdf
UN-Habitat (2009). Background Paper on Participatory
Urban Planning. Global Report on Human Settlements. UNHCR (2019). Refugee Statistics. Available at https://
Available at https://unhabitat.org/wp-content/up- www.unrefugees.org/refugee-facts/statistics/. Accessed
loads/2010/07/bg5.pdf. on 10 September 2019.
__________ (2013). State of the World’s Cities 2012/2013: UNICEF and WHO (2015). Progress on Sanitation and
Prosperity of Cities. New York: Routledge. Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment. New
York: United Nations International Children’s Fund.
__________ (2013). State of Women in Cities 2012-2013:
Gender and the Prosperity of Cities. Nairobi: United Na- UNISDR and WMO (2012). UN System Task Team on the
tions Human Settlements Programme. HS/015/13E. Post-2015 UN Development Agenda: Disaster Risk and
Resilience. Geneva: United Nations Office of Disaster Risk
__________ (2014). The Evolution of National Urban Poli- Reduction; Geneva: World Meteorological Organization.
cies: A Global Overview.
United Nations (2017). New Urban Agenda (NUA). Avail-
_________ (2015). International Guidelines on Urban and able at http://habitat3.org/wp-content/uploads/NUA-En-
Territorial Planning. Nairobi: United Nations Human Set- glish.pdf. A/RES/71/256*
tlements Programme. HS/059/15E.
United Nations (n.d.). Sustainable Development Goal
__________ (2017). Sustainable Urbanization in the Paris 11. Available at https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/
Agreement. Available at https://unhabitat.org/books/ SDG11. Accessed on 23 September 2019.
sustainable-urbanization-in-the-paris-agreement/
United Nations Department of Economic and Social
__________ (2018). The Spatial Capital of Wuhan | City Affairs (2016). Good Practices of Accessible Urban Devel-
Prosperity Initiative (CPI). Nairobi: United Nations Human opment. New York: United Nations. ST/ESA/364.
Settlements Programme.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social
__________ and OECD (2018). Global State of National Affairs (2018). Promoting Inclusion through Social Pro-
Urban Policy, p.21. tection: Report on the World Social Situation 2018. New
York: United Nations. Sales No. E.17.IV.2.

United Nations Population Division (n.d.). World Urbaniza- WHO (2020). Road traffic injuries. World Health Organiza-
tion Prospects: 2018 Revision. Accessed via World Bank tion, 7 February. Available at https://www.who.int/news-
at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/sp.urb.totl.in.zs. room/fact-sheets/detail/road-traffic-injuries.
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (n.d.). Wilson, W.J. (2006). The geography of opportunity: Race
Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable and housing choice in metropolitan America. Washington,
Development. Available at https://sustainabledevelop- D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
ment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld.
World Bank (2010). Cities and Climate Change: An Urgent
UNU-GCM (2014). Building City Identities in Contexts Agenda. Urban Development series. Knowledge paper No.
of Diversity. Policy Brief for Mayoral Forum on Mobility, 10. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Migration and Development. Barcelona: United Nations
University Institute on Globalization, Culture and Mobility. World Bank (2011). Guide to Climate Change Adaptation
in Cities. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Urban Land Institute (2015). A Guide for Assessing
Climate Change Risk. Washington, D.C.: Urban Land World Bank (2013). Strategic Environmental Assessment.
Institute. 10 September. Available at https://www.worldbank.org/
en/topic/environment/brief/strategic-environmental-as-
Urquiza, Liviane (2017). Resilient youth seize op- sessment.
portunities, build their future. World Bank Blogs.
Available at https://blogs.worldbank.org/voices/resil- World Bank (2014a). City Energy Efficiency Assessments.
ient-youth-seize-opportunities-build-their-future. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Energy Sector Management
Assessment Program (ESMAP).
Verdugo, M. (2003). Programa de repoblamiento comuna
de Santiago: Un programa de gestion urbana. Urbano, vol. World Bank (2014b). Investing in natural capital for erad-
6, No.8 (September), p. 9. icating poverty and boosting shared prosperity. Working
Paper No. 88753. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Vij, S. (2014). Urbanization, common property resources
and gender relations in a peri-urban context. Vision, vol. World Bank (2015). Rising through cities in Ghana: urban-
18, No. 4, pp. 339–347. ization review – overview report. Washington, D.C.: World
Bank Group.
Vollmer, D. (2009). Urban waterfront rehabilitation: can it
contribute to environmental improvements in the develop- World Bank (2019a). Disability Inclusion. Available at
ing world? Environmental Research Letters, vol. 4, No. 2, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/disability. Accessed
p. 024003. on 8 September 2019.
Vulliamy, ed. (2013). Medellín, Colombia: Reinventing World Bank (2019b). Structural Transformation Can
the World’s Most Dangerous City. The Observer, 9 June. Turn Cities into Engines of Prosperity, April 17. Avail-
Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/ able at https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/fea-
jun/09/medellin-colombia-worlds-most-dangerous-city. ture/2019/04/17/structural-transformation-can-turn-cit-
ies-into-engines-of-prosperity. Accessed on 17 August
WHO (2015). City Fact Sheets: WHO European Healthy 2019.
Cities Network. Copenhagen: World Health Organization.

References
World Bank (n.d.). City Creditworthiness Initiative: A

Partnership to Deliver Municipal Finance. Available at
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/
brief/city-creditworthiness-initiative. Accessed on 29
July 2019.
World Bank, Development Research Center of the State

Council, the People’s Republic of China (2014). Urban
China: Toward Efficient, Inclusive, and Sustainable Urban-
ization. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
World Bank Group (2015a). East Asia’s Changing Urban

Landscape: Measuring a Decade of Spatial Growth. Urban
Development series. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
World Bank Group (2015b). Competitive Cities for Jobs

and Growth: What, Who, and How. Washington, D.C.:
World Bank.
World Bank Group (2018). Urban Wetlands Management

in Colombo: A New Model for Resilience. Washington,
D.C.: World Bank.
World Resources Institute (2019). Mobility to Access for

All: Expanding Urban Transportation Choices in the Global
South. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.
World Resources Institute, C40 Cities and ICLEI (2014).

Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas
Emissions. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.
WWAP (2017). World Water Development Report 2017:

Wastewater: The Untapped Resource. Paris: United Na-
tions Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Aerial photo of Hong Kong. © GaudiLab / Shutterstock.com

A better quality of life for all

in an urbanizing world
Regular updates on UN-Habitat’s work are available on

www.unhabitat.org
@UNHABITAT
UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME

P.O. Box 30030, Nairobi 00100, Kenya HS Number: HS/035/20E
www.unhabitat.org ISBN Number:(Volume) 978-92-1-132869-1

Global Trends in Urbanization - 2020

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Global Trends in Urbanization - 2020

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Global Trends in Urbanization - 2020

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The New

All rights reserved.

United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat)

P.O. Box 30030 00100 Nairobi GPO Kenya

Chapters 1 and 2, Lead author: Rana Amirtahmasebi

Layout and infographic design:

Contents Foreword............................................................................................... viii

1.1 Social sustainability...............................2

1.1.1 Empowerment of marginalized groups................... 3

1.2 Economic sustainability........................19

1.2.1 Job creation and livelihoods......................................... 20

1.3 Environmental sustainability..............28

1.3.1 Biodiversity and ecosystem conservation.............. 29

1.4 Spatial sustainability.............................45

1.4.1 Spatial sustainability and equity................................ 47

iv | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

2.1 Intervention mechanisms....................56 3.1 Global governance and

2.2.1 Transport and mobility..................................................... 92 3.3 Monitoring and reporting....................144

2.4.1 Technology............................................................................. 126

The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | v

vi | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | vii

H.E. Maimunah Mohd Sharif

viii | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | ix

x | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | xi

xii | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

363,844,490 652,012,001 742,648,010 1,287,920,518 4,545,133,094 41,261,212

North Latin America Europe Africa Asia Oceania

Source: United Nations population division “World Urbanization Prospects 2018”

The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | xiii

Box 1: How are cities expanding in different parts of the world?

Africa East Asia

xiv | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

South Asia Latin America

The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | xv

A note about structure Figure 4: New Urban Agenda word cloud

To cover this breadth of topics, the New Urban

Follow-up and review

Source: Eparque Urban Strategies

xvi | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | xvii

Diagram 1: The contents of the New Urban Agenda

Core dimensions of the

Social Economic Environmental Spacial

Empowerment of Job creation and Biodiversity and Spatial

Intervention Hard measures Soft measures Technology

Land policies Energy Education Transportation

Housing and slum Solid waste Health Construction and

xviii | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

The New Urban Agenda

1 | The New Urban Agenda Illustrated

1.1 Social sustainability

Different dimensions of social sustainability

a) providing basic services that are responsive

b) providing youth with access to knowledge,

© Sandra Cohen-Rose / Flickr

The New Urban Agenda Illustrated | 2