CHAPTER V

CULTURAL CHANGES

The Bahmani Rule predominantly institutionalized Islamic culture

in Deccan which was reflected in literature, art, architecture and other

spheres of life. The rulers attached great significance to the advancement

of culture in Deccan and contributed notably for the cultural promotion of

the region. They invited scholars, saints, artists and other cultural

personalities from the Middle East and enabled them to institutionalize

the salient features of Persian culture which enhanced the status of

Deccan in several ways. The rulers raised a new nobility based on aliens

coming from Iraq, Iran and Central Asia, writes Siddiqi (1996) 1

Scholars have studied the development of language and literature

of Bahmani Kingdom under three heads namely – Arabic, Persian and

Urdu. The rulers had highest respect for Islam and championed the

growth and development of Arabic literature. It was due to the fact that

the West Coast had direct trade relations with Persian Gulf. The

commercial transactions between Deccan and Middle East prompted the

rulers to promote Arabic language and literature as a prominent means of

communication.

224
 Sherwani et.al. (1974) 2 observe: “The Bahmanis emerged as the

patrons of literature and encouraged many Arabic scholars during the

regime of Alaud-din Bahman Shah, Sulthan Mahmmad Shah II,

Muhammad Shah III and Mahmud Gawan who were great patrons of

learning and culture. Some of the prominent literary works of this period

include - Gesu Daraz Bande Navaz’s Divan (collection of poems),

Sahbuddin Ahmad Daultabadi’s Bahre Mawwaj, Mullah Daud Bidari’s

Tohafut Salatin, Azari’s Bahaman Nama and so on”.

Historians have pointed out that Muhammad I was the real maker

of Bahmani institutions. Muhammad II continued the tradition of inviting

eminent scholars and nobles from other countries. Firoz also concentrated

on the achievement of academic progress of the people of Deccan.

Mahmud Gawan played a crucial role in the promotion of literature and

academic excellence in Deccan.

The Sufi movement popularized the Deccani language which

emerged as a language of the Muslim ruling class of Deccan. It was

developed in a similar way like north Indian Urdu. The Sufi saints and

scholars also developed Dakhani grammar and produced a literature in

Dakhani for the ruling class. The Chrishti Sufis also composed songs in

Dakhani which relied on Kannada words to a great extent.

225
 Saki (1998) 3 writes: “Although the syntax of Dakhani was also

written in the Perso-Arabic script, its content differed from Urdu in at

least three respects. First, it retained much of the Old Punjabi that

diminished in the later Urdu of North India, causing one writer to remark

that it is easier today for a Punjabi speaker than for an Urdu speaker to

read and scan Dakhani poetry. Second, Dakhani more than North Indian

Urdu absorbed a large Sanskrit vocabulary, probably brought in with loan

words from Telugu and Kannada, both of which have large amounts of

Sanskrit. Third, Dakhani tended to use much less Arabic and Persian

vocabulary than North Indian Urdu, and the spelling of those Persian or

Arabic words it did retain was often distorted to match local

pronunciation patterns. In short, Dakhani speakers paid scant regard in

their speech to the paramount language of Islam (Arabic) or the language

of Bijapur’s foreigner class (Persian)”.

The Deccani language was promoted by the Sultans of Bahmani

dynasty. Their rule brought about commendable progress in the field of

literature. The literary works were also rated as classic since they

contained abundant scholarship based on rich experience in the lives of

scholars and saints. The Sultans established several centres for the

promotion of literature. Most of the Sultans were great literators and

propogated Persian, Arabic and Urdu literature all over their empire.

226
 Sultan Mohammad Shah II was a great patron of literature and

spent most of his time in the company of scholars and saints. Firoz Shah

also was known for his love of poetry, philosophy, astronomy, botany,

logic, geometry and foreign languages. Siddiqui has pointed out that

Firoz Shah was known for highest intellectural caliber in those times. The

rulers also developed Dakhini Urdu which was different from north

Indian Urdu. The first compositions in this language were made by

Khwaja Banda Nawaz, Shah Miranji of Bijapur, Nizami Bidari, Quarishi

Bidari, Firoz Bidari and others. Several Urdu literary works were

produced during Bahmani rulers in Urdu language. The Bahmani rulers

also developed Persian language which enjoyed royal patronage.

The Bahmani rulers also made Islamic learning highly popular in

the Deccan. The Bahmani court was adorned by scholars like Anju Mulla

Issac Surhindi, Hakim Hasan Geelani, Mulla Qutbuddin, Shaikh Azari

and Mahmud Gawan. The Bahmani rulers patronage Persian and Arabic

while the Rayas of Vijaynagar encouraged Sanskrit, Kannada and Telugu,

writes Sinha (1964). 4

The learned people hailing from distant countries migrated to

Deccan in the hope of improving their fortunes. They were welcomed,

honoured, rewarded and elevated to high positions in accordance with

their talents. Their works, which are mostly in Persian, enriched the
227
contemporary Indo-Persian literature. The rulers established a number of

educational institutions and gave a fillip to the cause of Persian literature.

Hasan Bahman, Sultan Muhammad Shah II, Firoz Shah Bahmani,

Muhammad III and Mahmud Gawan also promoted eminent literary

personalities namely Ain-ud-din Bijapuri, Mulla Haravi, Hakim Tabrizi,

Hakim Shirazi and others. A sizeable chunk of Arabic, Urdu and Persian

literature dealing with religion, mystic, epistolographical and

lexicographical subjects were written by various scholars under the

patronase of Bahmani rulers.

Urdu language which was born in the north became a prominent

means of communication in Deccan. Khwaja Band Nawax Gesu I Daraz

was the foremost scholar in Deccan who produced a treatise in Urdu and

Persian script entitled Mirt ul Ashiqin. Some of the rulers of Deccan were

also eminent scholars, poets, philosophers and humanists who enriched

the cultural legacy of Bahmani Kingdom, states Nizami (1953) 5.

Firoz Shah was a great patron of art and literature. He had invited

many scholars, artists, technicians and other gifted persons to his

kingdom. Mulla Issaq Surhindy, Faizullah Anju, Gaisu Daraz and other

scholars and saints were patronized by the Sultan. He firmly believed that

the king should inculcate certain human values and administrative traits

from the learned scholars and saints. Accordingly, he spent lot of time in
228
the company of noble people and gained better vision and missionary

zeal.

Bahmani rulers were responsible for the promotion of literature

which brought about intellectual progress of Deccan. Persian language

flourished since Bahmani rulers and Persian writers made significant

contributions to poetry, biography, history, religio-mythological writings

and spiritual communication. The Bahmani rulers were indeed great

patrons of arts, architecture, education, spirituality and culture. They

brought into existence an altogether an integrated version of architecture

which represented Turkish, Egyptian, Persian and Indian features. The

mosques, madrasas, schools and other centres were built on the sites and

materials which had Hindu temples and institutions, accord into Siddiqi

(1948) 6.

Yazdani (1947) 7 writes: “The Bahmanis were patrons of Persian

poetry and prose. There was a continuous contact with Persia and other

regions of the Middle East. Poets and learned men from Persia and other

places were persuaded by the Bahmani rulers to visit their courts and

engage themselves in series literary works and social communications.

Azari remained for sometime in the court of Bahmanis and later returned

to Persia. Khwaja Mahmud Gavan, the celebrated Vazir of the Bahmanis

founded a college at Bidar where scholars from Persia and Iraq were
229
invited to deliver lectures”. The rulers developed Dakhani language

which became an independent spoken and literary language afte drawing

resources from Arabic-Persian, Marathi, Kannada and Telugu. It also

became known as Dakhani Urdu which was different from the North

Indian Urdu.

The Sufi saints also gave a new direction to literary progress of

Deccan through their enlightened thoughts and works. Prominent among

them include - Sah Raju Qattal, Burhanuddin Garibsah, Siraj-e-

Junaydi and Aynuddin Ganjul-ulum. They flourished in the early decades

of the Bahmani rule. Khwaja Bande Navaz who died at an advanced age

in the year 1422 A.D. at Gulburga is the author of one hundred works,

twelve of which have been published.

The Sufi saints dealt mostly with theology and principles of

Sufism. Khvaja Bande Navaz was also an internationally reputed poet

whose works are translated into several languages in India and Middle

East. Another Sufi scholar Makhdum Faqih Ali had been the author of

about 11 works in Persian and Arabic languages. Sahbuddin Ahmad

Daulatabadi authored another classic work namely Bahre Mawwaj which

is widely coated by the scholars.

230
 Mahmud Gawan established a reputed educational institution

which consisted of mosque, library, lecture halls, professors' quarters and

students' cubicles. The mosque and library were to the front of the

building on either side of the entrance; the lofty lecture rooms. The basic

amenities and infrastructural facilities were also created with architectural

excellence and social concern. As a scholar Gawan established centres of

learning in various parts of the Kingdom such as Gulburga, Bidar,

Qandhar, Ellichpur, Daulatabad, Junnar, Chaul, Dabhol and other large

cities and towns which attracted large number of scholars across the

country.

Eminent historian Fergusson8 writes: “If we cannot compare the

Bahmani kings with their European contemporaries, with Edward III to

Henry VIII, yet there can be no doubt that high civilization according to

the standard of Muslims existed. Education in Persian and Arabic

literature extended as much as possible by village schools which were

attached to mosques and endowed with lands sufficient for their

maintenance. The system tended as well to the spread of literature as the

faith of the ruling power and its effects are still distinctly traceable

throughout the wide extent of their dominions”.

The Deccani language had come into existence during the Bahmani

period. But the development of its literature took place during the period
231
of the Sultanates. There is no indication of any patronage by the

Bahmanis to the development of Marathi literature. The 13th century

could be regarded as the period of renaissance in the field of literature

which flourished during the beneficent rule of the Bahmani Kings.

Art and Architecture

The Deccan witnessed the general process of fusion of the Hindu-

Muslim cultures with respect to the art and architecture. Historians have

pointed out that two entirely different styles of architecture came in

contact with each other in medieval India. The temple and the mosque

clearly exemplified the Hindu and Muslim beliefs and practices. In

particular, the Muslim architecture underwent a significant change

because of the influence of Persian Gulf.

Siddiqi9 states: “Strangly enough, the Muslim architectural style in

the Deccan, where there was a closer amalgamation of Hindu – Muslim

cultures, was almost entirely borrowed from outside Muslim countries

such as Persia and Turkey”. There is much evidence that the Bahmani

sultans employed architects and craftsmen from Persia to build the Jami

Masjid at Gulbarga, Chand Minar at Daulatabad and the Madrasa of

Mahmud Gawan at Bidar.

232
 The fortresses built during the period were a mixture of the work of

Hindu, Tughlaq and Bahmani sovereigns. Mahur, Bidar, Narnulla and

Golkonda are some of the architectural examples of the Sultans. The

Golgumbaz in Bijapur shows the skill of the architecture of Bahmani

kingdoms. It is one of the largest domes in the world. The Golgumbaz

with its enormous dome covers an area of 18,000 square feet. The Mihtar

Mahal, which is an ornamental gateway to the courtyard of a mosque, is a

notable building. The Sultans patronized Urdu Literature. They were

great patrons of education and learning.

The monuments of Gulbarga namely – Great Jami Masjid, Takht

Mahal, mausoleum of Hadrat Gesu Daraz, the mask built by Qalandar

Khan, Firoz’s tomb, the Bidar Fort, Gumbad Darwaza, tombs of Hadrat

Samsu’d Din, Ala-ud-din Hasan, Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I,

Muhammad Shah II and so on remain as perpetual monuments of the

magnificence of Bahmani dynasty. The tombs of the Bahmani Sultans are

situated in the East of Gulbarga which demonstrates massive square

domed structures and handsome stone tracery on the outer walls. The

decorated tombs vividly depict the free intermingling of Hindu and

Muslim art, writes Sinha (1964) 10. These monuments typify practically all

the peculiarities of architecture in vogue in those days.

233
 Michell et.al. (1999) 11 write: “Bidar also consists of historical

monuments namely Bidar fort, palace, Sola Khamb mosque, Gagan

Mahal, Tarkash Mahal, Chini Mahal, Nagina Mahal, the tombs and the

Madrasa. The Bidar fort commands a country 300 ft. below towards the

West and North. The Bidar palace consists of Rangin Mahal and Shah

Nishin which are known for profusely decorated walls, exquisitively

carved pillars and beautifully painted parts. The lofty structures have

several storeys which have beautiful water channels, cascades and other

salient features of high artistic and architectural excellence. The Bahmani

rulers also promoted painting which is well known in the country”.

Yazdani (1995) 12 observes: “As regards Bahmani architecture, it

may be observed that the general character of the buildings remained

massive, although the architects used different devices to reduce this

effect. Arches of various forms came into fashion and the domes became

stilted (turnship-shaped), and where remaining round they were three-

fourths of an orb instead of being hemispherical. Love of colour was

conspicuous feature, and increased use was made of tiles and paintings

for decorative themes. The work of Hindu masons began to be

appreciated in the building of niches, door-frames, corbels, friezes, and

pillars and their skill in carving was utilized for ornamental work. The

architecture of this period on the whole exhibits a sound knowledge of

234
buiding principles and a refined taste in the disposition of the various

adjuncts and in the arrangement of the decorative features”.

The Bahmani influence also found its place in the architecture of

Vijayanagar. The Hindu temples, Muslim mosques, Christian churches

and other sacred places were constructed because of the grants and other

facilities given by the government. The Bahmani rulers replaced Tughluq

tradition by Dhakani tradition in the fields of art, architecture and culture.

The architectural wealth of Bahmani Kingdom reveals extravagant artistic

designs or huge buildings built in marble slabs with impressive creative

additions. The Bahmani rulers revolutionized the Deccan architecture

which bears a testimony to the new influences which were at work in the

field.

Sherwani (1985) 13 recalls that the Bidar period also opened a new

chapter in the Deccan architecture, for while the Tughluq influence

almost entirely disappears, its place is taken by the influence of the

Iranians and Transoxanians who flocked to the Deccan more than ever,

making their mark in art, architecture, politicas, religion and other aspects

of the life of the land, to the great chagrin of the northern colonists who

were now calling themselves Dakhnis. Firoz Shah played a major role in

the development of architecture and built a model town called Firozabad

235
on the banks of Bheema. The city was very well planned and contained

the best features of an ideal town.

Ahmad (1988) 14 comments: “The Bahmani rulers were

considerably inlfluenced by Iranian architecture which is known for

creativity and professional excellence all over the world. The rulers were

known for their concern for the promotion of arts and culture. They were

determined to make Deccan a land of architectural excellence. As patrons

of art and architecture the Bahmanis have left a profound impact on the

architecture of the Deccan in mediaeval times”.

The Bahmani buildings also consist of Perso-Bahmani arches

supported by Hindu jambs on either side of the doorways, parapets in

original designs and roofs lavishly decorated inside with pendentives. Of

the most typical instances where the influence of the new rulers could be

found at work are the forts especially the ground forts. They were huge

quadrangles, surrounded by circumventing walls, with mots hewn out of

solid rock and having massive bastions.

The Bhahmani Sultans promoted art and architecture. Islamic

influence was greatly found in the monuments of Bahmani Kingdom. The

Hindu houses, monuments and other buildings represented basically the

Dravidian architecture while the Muslim houses, buildings and

236
monuments represented the Deccani architecture which was greatly

influenced by Persian culture. Tarachand 15 writes: “The simple severity

of the Muslim architecture was toned down and the plastic exuberance of

the Hindu was restrained. The craftsmanship, ornamental richness and

general design remained largely Hindu, while the racuated form, plain

domes, smoothfaced walls and spacious interiors were Muslim super-

impositions”.

Buildings

Buildings built in this period at Golbargah and Bidar could

generally be divided into military and civilian buildings. There is no

significant sign of Persian architecture in military castles, and these

buildings such as Golbargah castle are mainly built in western and

European manner that entered by Europeans in Bahmanyan troop and

other ways into Deccan. Civilian buildings can be divided into mosques,

tombs, palaces and schools. Many of these buildings remain today in

Golbargeh, Bidar and other cities of Deccan. Powerful impact of Persian

architecture could be traced by review of these buildings. Many of these

buildings are built by Persian architects.

Central Mosque of Golbargeh: One of the largest and most admired

buildings remaind from Bahmanis built by Iranian architects is Central

237
Mosque of Golbargeh. According to inscriptions of the mosque, it is built

at first Muhammad in 1368. Elements used in this mosque, including of

domes, arches and decorative architectures extremely influenced the

Deccan architecture until Bahmanian End time and even further. The

architect in an inscription named himself as Rafi ibn Shams ibn Mansur

Qazvini. Apparently, his ancestors were prominent Iranian architect that

he mentioned his ancestry. The Mosque is influenced by the Umayya and

Arabic style common in Iran and other Islamic countries and also

Western church architecture. Some features of architecture of these

churches brought to Deccan by Muslim religious sites in Eastern Europe

and by merchants and slaves. Halister considers this mosque one of the

greatest Muslims mosque due to the unique style and comfort and glory

that is used in its building.

Firuz Shah Tomb: all Tombs of Bahmani Kings remained in Bidar and

Golbaragah. These tombs are very similar in general features and have

small differences in some decorative details or dimentions. Square design

(like four-roofs), lowered domes and minarets at four sides of building

are from primary features of these tombs. Most beautiful and glorious

tomb in Gilbargah is Firuz Shah tomb, the last Bahmanian king. Firuz

shah was the most powerful and wisest king of Bahmanyan whose court

attracted many scientists and architects and craftsmen from different

238
countries and specially Iran. His tomb clearly indicates the growing

Iranian impact on the architecture of this era, and the glory of the Sultan.

The architecture of the tomb is in fact a combination of three styles:

Iranian style, indigenous and Taghlghian and each of these styles impacts

in different parts can be seen, however, Iranian style supremacy is clearly

distinguishable.

Tomb of Ahmed I: The first tomb built in Bidar belongs to the first

Ahmad, one of the greatest kings of Bahmanian, whose court supports

many Iranian scientists and artists and architects. Moreover, he believes

in Shiite and was an extreame pro of Sufi ideas. All these tendencies are

demonstrated in his tomb clearly. Beautiful Stucco and exceptional arch

doors and windows in the building are unique in Deccan architecture. The

Russian traveler Athanasius Nikitin who visited Deccan during 1469-

1474 A.D. had called the Bahmani capital of Bidar as the chief town of

the whole of Muhammeden Hindustan which was a rendezvous not only

for the Deccanis but for the whole of India.

School of Mahmud Gavan

This school represents the highly effective impact of Iranian

architecture in Deccan and also growing impact of Iranians in political-

cultural and social history of this area. The school had a mosque, library,

239
lecture halls, teachers’ quarters, students’ cubicles and allied

infrastructural facilities and academic amenities. Establishment of

Bahmanyan dynasty in southern India caused the entrance of Persian

culture and civilization into the region. Bahmanyan knew themselves as

descendants of Iranian kings and therefore largely supported Iranians. For

nearly two centuries of their kingdom in Deccan, many Iranian architects

and artists and scientists have migrated to the Deccan and supported

strongly by the kings of this dynasty.

The tombs of the Bahmani rulers are situated either in Gulburga or

in Bidar so also the tombs of prominent Muslim saints such as Gesu

Daraj. In Maharastra the tombs of some of the saints at Khuldabad, the

Cand minar at Daulatabad and the forts of Udgir, Ausa, Naldurg, Parenda

and Kandhar date back to the Bahmani period. Khvaja Mahmud Gavan

has been. credited for being responsible for the construction of the forts

of Parenda, Udgir and Ausa1 The Bahmanis showed themselves as good

builders 1 A description of a few of the Bahmani Architectural remains is

given in what follows:—To the period between 1294 when Ala-ud-din

Khalji invaded the country, and 1347, when Bahman established the

Bahmani dynasty, only two monuments can with confidence be

ascribed,namely the Jami 'Masjid at Daulatabad (circa. 1315) and the

240
Deval Mosque at Bodhan of Muhammad Tughluq's reign (1325—51).

These structures bear testimony to the excellence of Islamic architecture.

Although the architectural style in Bidar and Gulbarga cities is the same

in terms of some structure such as usage of large domes, great use of the

minaret, minarets, and some non-use of stone and plaster decoration, but

there are many differences in their features too. Generally buildings in

Golbargah were largely influenced by popular architectural style during

the Mamluk Sultans and Taghlaghs. Buildings simplicity, short wide

domes, wide arches with short legs, ears and decorating plaster and stony

four-edged graves, are some of the most important features of this style,

writes Joshi (1973) 16

Aziz Ahmad (1964) 17 comments: “The Bahmani kingdom

flourished in architectural monuments. In the field of architecture, the

Bahmanis paved way for the distinct style by inviting architects from

Persia, Turkey, and Arabia and blended it with local styles. The culture

that developed during this time was a blend of both north and south styles

and also had its own distinct styles. Gumbaz (the largest dome in the

world) and Charminar located at Hyderabad are the world famous

examples of Bahmani architecture”.

241
 Persian connections are evident in both palatial architecture and

mausolea at Bidar. Ahmad Shah was a member of the Sufi order of Shah

Nemat-Allah Wali Kermani and this personal tie, cemented by marital

alliances between the two families, led to the transfer of Persian artistic

traditions to the new capital. Ahmad Shah sent lavish gifts to Kerman and

financed construction of a mausoleum over Nemat-Allah’s grave. The

cosmopolitan artistic climate of Bidar is manifest in Ahmad Shah’s own

tomb. The manner in which its hemispherical dome rests on an octagonal

drum has been compared to Timurid examples, but the basic type of

square tomb was so widely diffused in the Indian subcontinent that any

connection to Persia was probably indirect.

The proportions and such embellishment as wall niches and corner

finials resemble those of earlier tombs in Multan, for example, that of

Sams-al-Din Sabzavari and numerous 15th-century tombs in the Delhi

region. It is, rather, the polychrome interior wall paintings that

demonstrate a direct religious and artistic connection with Persia.

Numerous inscriptions are combined with ornamental medallions and

interstitial designs of floral sprays. In the inscriptions prayers appropriate

to a tomb are juxtaposed with texts more characteristic of a kanaqah, or

Sufi monastery, reflecting Ahmad Shah’s ties to Shah Nemat-Allah.

Those just above the prayer niche (mehrab), giving Ahmad Shah’s titles

242
and death date, bear the signature of a certain Sokr-Allah Qazvini

Naqqas, who may have been responsible for the interior decoration of the

entire tomb if so, he must have combined the skills of both calligrapher

and decorator.

Verses composed by Nemat-Allah are inscribed above the

entrances, and the text of one of his mystical treatises encircles the walls

just above the dado. Concentric inscription bands in the dome include two

versions of Nemat-Allah’s spiritual lineage, one through the Qaderiya

order and the other to Hasan Basri. Above and below these texts are

panels containing the dorud, a benedictory prayer that concludes at the

apex of the dome with blessings on the twelve Shiite imams. The

variously shaped medallions and floral sprays in Aḥmad Shah’s tomb are

executed in black, white, gray, and gold against a deep-red ground, a

color scheme that may reflect the range of pigments available in Bidar.

On the other hand, the medallion shapes, the arabesque schemes framed

by them, and the lush blossoms between them have numerous parallels in

the decorative repertoire of the naqqas, or ‘painter-decorator,’ in 15th-

century Persia.

The Bahanamis of Deccan left an important heritage of Indo-

Islamic art and culture. The artistic excellence is duly reflected in the

Bahmani buildings which resemble Middle East features. The date of its
243
erection, as stated in an inscription, was 1367-a few years, that is to say,

before Jauna Shah built the Kali and Khirki mosques at Delhi, and it is

not unlikely therefore that Jauna Shah's architect may have been

acquainted with the design of this Gulbarga prototype and sought to

improve upon it by introducing open aisles across the closed court and

thus obviating the need for the admission of light and air through the

surrounding cloisters. The peculiar form of wide arch with low imposts

initiated at the Jami Masjid was subsequently imitated at Gulbarga in the

stupendous archway over the entrance to the shrine of Banda Nawaz,

which is traditionally ascribed to the reign of Taj-ud-din Firuz Shah.

The height and pierced-stone window screens reflect local taste,

but the basic plan and the scheme of the tile revetments have numerous

close parallels in Timurid architecture. The plan has particularly close

analogies to that of the Timurid madrasa at Kargerd in Khorasan. The

exterior tile revetments include a well-executed inscription signed by Ali

Sufi. Details of the vaults, which include moqarnas in the transition zone,

also suggest the presence of a Persian craftsman.

Brown (1956) 18 writes: “The arts and crafts in Deccan during

medieval India based on metals, alloys, gems and minerals had attained

global fame. Sultan Shah Wali of the Bahmani Kingdom brought from

Iran the master craftsman Abdullah-bin Kaiser to decorate his palaces.

244
Bidar had special properties in making the molds for their creations.

Hence koftgari became known as bidriware. The Iranian craftsman

created many artistic treasures after settling down in Bidar”.

The citadel at Bidar contains structures with tile decorations

founded by various Bahmanid and Baridsahi rulers. Those tile

decorations closest in style and technique to the revetments at Ala-al-

Din’s tomb are panels set into the walls of a columned audience hall and

adjacent chambers, probably erected in the 1460s according to Yazdani

(1947) 19. The views of Yazdani are endorsed by scholars like Necipoglu,

Raby, Tanındı and Beattie.

A new phase in artistic links between Persia and the Deccan was

apparent during the third quarter of the 15th century, when Persian

features appeared in both funerary and palatial architecture. Examples

include the tombs of Ala-al-Din Ahmad Shah II Bahmani and that of

Nemat-Allah’s son and successor, Kalil-Allah as well as several sections

of the Bidar citadel. Persian features include the framing of arches with

twisted-rope moldings and revetments in both mosaic faience and

polychrome-painted tiles. The Deccani miniature painting and

architectural splendors attracted the whole country observes Sherwani

(1953).20

245
 The Bahmani rulers drew the best features of Middle Eastern

architecture while constructing palaces, public institutions, educational

centres and cultural institutions. Bidar represents the artistic and

architectural excellence since the days of Ahmad Shah Wali. “The story

of Deccan architecture continues to unfold itself, boasts, like Gulbarga, of

two separate groups of royal tombs: one of the later Bahmani kings, the

other of the Barid Shahis. The former are twelve in number of generally

similar to their predecessors at Gulbarga, though their scale is larger, their

domes loftier and more bulbous and their facades adorned with a greater

multiplicity of arched recesses or screened windows. The finest of them is

the tomb of Ahmad Shah Wali, the interior of which is adorned with

brilliantly coloured paintings in the Persian style and enriched with bands

Kufic, Tughra and Naskh inscriptions worked out in letters of gold on a

ground of deep blue or vermilion”, according to King (1900) 21.

The monuments of the Bahmani Kingdom at Gulbarga and Bidar

represent the Indo Muslim architecture which is a symbol of communal

harmony and cultural interaction. The construction of forts at all the

strategic places in the Bahmani Kingdom also constituted the major

architectural excellence of Deccan. They truly exhibited the secular

architectural concepts and technology which represented indigenous and

foreign and Hindu and Muslim cultures.

246
 Mehta (1987) 22 refers to the 7 tombs built by the Bahmani rulers

which represent Hindu influence in the carvings of prayer niche,

doorways of polished black-stone carved in Hindu fashion and beautiful

brackets supporting the cornice or the horizontal projections crowing the

buildings. The twelve tombs of the later Bahmani rulers at Bidar reveal

the intermixture of the Persian and indigenous influences almost in equal

propotions. The rulers of Bahmani Kingdom made great contribution

towards the development of art, architecture, education, society and

cultural aspects of the Deccan in the medieval period.

“The Bahmani rulers left to posterity their names in the shape of

gardens, dams and magnificient edifices. Their architectural monuments

speak of their simplicity and interest in various fields”, appreciates

Radhey Shyam (1966) 23.

The Bahmani rulers inherited Iranian legacy but they were greatly

influenced by the Indian culture and brought about cultural rejuvenation

in Deccan. The Bahmani rulers considered themselves to be natural

successors of the Delhi Sultanate but provided a new socio-cultural

dimension to the Deccan which constituted a repository of ancient Indian

cultural legacy. They also cut off the people of the Deccan from the

imperial government of Delhi and established an Islamic state in which

247
all the powers and privileges were concentrated in the hands of the

Bahmani rulers who were guided by medieval standards.

Venkataramanappa (1976) 24 writes: “The Bahmani rulers had the

benefit of access to Persian culture. There were many factors which were

responsible for the formation of a peculiar Bahmani culture. Historian

Siddiqi has regarded Muhammad II as the founder of the Medieval

Culture of the Deccan. In reality, the immigration of Arabs, Persians and

Turks played the major role in creating a distinct Deccan culture”.

Sherwani (1953) 25 describes the cultural legacy of Bahmani rulers

thus: “The handful of the mulsims of the Deccan had to get moral and

material help from over the seas, and we find an increasing influx of a

vigorous human element in the shape of Newcomers from the coasts

round the Persian Gulf and from further north round the Caspian Sea, i.e.

from Iran, Iraq and Arabia. They comprised all sorts of men, including

poets, litterateurs, saints, artisans, merchants, soldiers and adventurers

and came to settle down in the Deccan, some at the invitation of the

Bahmani Sultans, others of their own accord. Sultan Muhammad Shah II

(1378-1397 A.D) invited the Arab and Persian poets to the Deccan to

make the country the seat of learning and culture. Of cours, the large

scale influx of the foreign blood, with strong exotic cultural traditions

was bound to have a great effect upon the culture and future history of the
248
Deccan. It is remarkable how, while the northern cultural influences are

visibly declining, foreign influences are having their direct play on the

Bahmani Kingom. It was because of these Newcomers who really came

to settle down in the Deccan”.

Ala-ud-Din Hasan Bahman Shah, the founder of Bahmani

Kingdom gave importance to cultural promotion even though he was pre-

occupied with expansion and consolidation of Deccan. His successor

Muhammad was also was also a great ruler, statesmen and builder of

Bahmani Kingdom. Ala-ud-din Mujahid could not achive much

politically and culturally since he was murdered by Daud Shah. His

brother Muhammad Shah II was essentially a man of culture. He

promoted literature, art, architecture and culture in the kingdom. Ghiyas

ud-din Tahamtan also encouraged Arabian nobles and facilitated the

development of Islamic culture in Deccan. Taj-ud-din Firuz also

successfully enhanced the status of Deccan but he is respected for his

contribution to the development of a composite culture which was later

on known as Deccan culture.

Asher (1992) 26 states: “Sultan Ahmad Shah shifted the capital of

Bahmani Kingdom from Gulbarga to Bidar and created several historical

monuments. He too contributed significantly for the promotion of Deccan

culture. Ala-ud-din Ahmad II was a staunch promoter of Islamic culture

249
in Deccan and brought about social reformation in the interest of people.

Humayun Shah played a major role in the appointment of Mahmud

Gawan as the Prime Minister of Bahmani Kingdom who heralded a new

age of cultural promotion, political reformation, social transformation and

economic development of Deccan. Sultan Ahmad Khan became the ruler

at a very engage and suddenly died under mysterious circumstances.

Shams-ud-din Muhammad III could not achieve much politically and

otherwise”.

Bahmani rulers provided a meaningful platform for the socio -

cultural integration of Hindus and Muslims which demonstrated a

synthesis between the indigenous and exotic cultural traits without

prejudice against either. The Bahmani court was shifted from Gulbarga to

Bidar by Sultan Ahmad Shah in 1429 A.D. The Bahmani court at Bidar

gained a distinct cultural personality of its own because of the

intermixture of South Indian Hindu and exotic Muslim traits. The Hindus

also played a major role in the art, architecture, culture, trade and

commerce of Bahmani Kingdom. The citizens were identified and

respected as Dakhinis from all points of view, writes Mehta (1983). 27

The Bahmani rulers also followed a policy of non-interference in

religious matters and allowed religions to grow to their full stature. They

strictly followed the Prophet Muhammad who did not favor forcible
250
conversions which is found in Quran. It reads: “Let there be no

compulsion in religion. No soul can believe but the persuasion of God”.

The Sultans also encouraged Ulemas and other learned persons to come

over to the Deccan from Persia and other places in order to guide them

and facilitate the over all advancement of the society.

Subrahmanyam (1999) 28 observes: “The Bahmani rulers invited

Persian and Arabic scholars from other parts of India and abroad in order

to strengthen the educational and cultural foundations of Bahmani

Kingdom. In particular, Fazulullah Inju and Mahmud Gawan provided a

solid intellectual and cultural foundation to the Bahmani Kingdom by

promoting inter-cultural relations, academic transactions, public libraries

and madrasas. Ferishta belonged to an aristocratic family from Persia and

spent his life in the Deccan and wrote the history of the Bahmani

Kingdom”.

The buildings, palaces, public offices and aqueducts represented

artistic excellence and cultural heritage. The rulers also encouraged the

growth and development of a new generation of artisans who were

trained by the foreigners. The Bahmani Sultans in the Deccan erected a

number of buildings in a distinctive style at Bidar and Gulbarga which

were borrowed from the styles of Middle East and Southern India, writes

Yazdani (1992).29
251
 The Bahmani Kingdom also facilitated inter-cultural exchanges

which brought about commendable cultural integration between the north

and south. Indo-Arab cultural relations were also enriched by the

Bahmani rulers.

Sherwani (1947) 30 recalls: “It was during the regime of Mahmud

Gawan that the Deccan established the closest contacts with the cultural

world of the East. His renowned College at Bidar carried the reputation of

the Deccan to remote parts and he was himself regarded as a litterateur of

very great merit. Among those with whom he was in constant

communication was Maulana Jami, Ali el-Yazdi the biographer of Timur,

and many others. He wrote to and received replies from some of the most

famous rulers of the world of Islam, such as Muhammad II the conqueror

of Constantinople, and the Sultans of Iraq, Egypt and Jilan and he left no

stone unturned to make the name and fame of the Deccan spread far and

wide”.

The Bahmani Kingdom produced eighteen sultans who ruled for

about 180 years during 1347–1527 A.D. The Bahmani Kingdom included

vast areas from Berar in the north to the Krishna river in the south and

constituted the nucleus of the muslim power in the Deccan. There were

great rulers who had enriched the socio-cultural foundations of Bahmani

Kingdom according to historians Sherwani (1953) 31 and Mehta (1982). 32

252
 The Bahmani rulers were primarily responsible for the

advancement of literature, art, architecture, culture and other aspects of

life. The growing Middle Eastern influence on the Deccan architecture

especially marked and is evident in the buildings constructed by the rulers

who enlisted the active support and participation of eminent craftsmen.

The exterior and interior decorations in the buildings of Bidar and

Gulbarga demonstrate Sufic or perhaps Shia influence par excellence,

observes Sherwani (1953). 33

A perusal of the historical documents concerning the Bahmani

dynasty of Deccan clearly reveals that the history of Deccan implies the

meeting of two traditions – Hindu and Muslim culturally. Khan (1962) 34

states: “The contribution of the Bahmanis to bring the heterogenous

elements together is truly a great achievement. This is due to the pioneer

works of the saints and reformers, a Deccani culture came into existence

which integrated people in every field of life and at every echelon, the

traditions of which are fairly conspicuous in the life and thought people

upto this day living in the region”.

Radhey Shyam (1966) traces the cultural contribution of Bahmani

Sultans thus: “Throughout the medieval period of our history, the people

of the Daccan always displayed an urge to preserve their local cultural

traditions, their individual characteristics and the territorial integrity of

253
the region by overthrowing the central authority and setting at naught the

concept of a unified empire. Apart from the political role which the

kingdom played on the political chess-board of the Daccan, its cultural

contribution was by no means small or negligible. In spite of its pre-

occupation with military activities, the rulers took genuine interest in

promoting the various aspects of Indo-Muslims culture. Their court was

the centre of poets, writers, theologieans, artists, diplomats and

statesmen”.

The Bahmani Sultans had a number of cultural contributions to

their credit in the fields of art, music, literature and architecture. The

Bahmani rulers were also great patrons of culture who have left a

remarkable cultural legacy which needs to be cherished by generations. In

philosophy also, the Bahmani Kingdom made significant advances in

medieval times under the enlightened leadership of the rulers. They

developed a rich and dynamic culture always ever-growing through its

internal evolution and contacts with other cultures. In its variety the

Deccan culture is one of the richest in the Indian sub-continent.

There were many Hindu and Muslim festive occasions which were

intimately connected with religious and social fields. There used to be

mass prayers and large congregations on the occasion of Urs and other

festivals. The organizers used to invite scholars, saints and statesmen

254
during these special events in order to deliver special lectures and

enlighten the subjects about social and cultural values and obligations.

The Sultans were the great patrons of culture who extended financial

assistance generously for the organization of culturally and social events

including music and dance festivals. Qawwali was a well known musical

performance which had cultural value. Dance programmes were also

organized during festive occasions in order to entertain the masses. The

Sutlans patronized specially popular Qawwalis and dancers who

entertained them in the courts and public places according to Ferishta 35.

The Bahmani rulers also promoted poetry which was acknowledged as a

noble art. Several Sufi Saints and poets adorned the court of Bahmani

rulers. Firoz Shah Bahmani and Muhammad Gawan were great scholars

and poets. The literary works including poetry documented the cultural

legacy of Deccan in a remarkable way.

Sufism is a way of life which facilitates the attainment of union

with God and that people must actualize these divine qualities in

themselves by surrendering before His Almighty. Sufism is considered as

an important way of life which was practiced in Iraq particularly in Basra.

The Sufi saints were persuaded by the Bahmani rulers to establish

institutions and eradicate social evils which impeded the progress of the

people of Deccan. The Sufi saints practically lived like the torch-bearers

255
of the principles of equality and social justice without any organizational

network, resources and operations. They succeeded in achieving the goals

of communal harmony, social integration and social transformation in

Deccan under the patronage of Bahmani rulers. The Persian literature, art,

architecture and culture had definite bearing on the Deccan. The

architectural and artistic evidence suggests that both religious bonds and

the long-standing commercial links between Persia and the Deccan

provided important conduits for cultural traditions. The Bahmani Rule

predominantly institutionalized Islamic culture in Deccan which was

reflected in literature, art, architecture and other spheres of life. The rulers

attached great significance to the advancement of culture in Deccan and

contributed notably for the cultural promotion of the region. They invited

scholars, saints, artists and other cultural personalities from the Middle

East and enabled them to institutionalize the salient features of Persian

culture which enhanced the status of Deccan in several ways.

256
NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. Siddiqi, M.S (1996) Ibid, p.36.

2. Sherwani, Haroon Khan, Ghulam Yazdani and P. M. Joshi

(1974) History of Medieval Deccan, 1295-1724.

3. Saki (1998) Ibid, pp.324-325 .

4. Sinha, S.K. (1964) Ibid, pp.159-160.

5. Nizami, K.A.(1953) Tarik e-Mashaikh-e-Chisht, Delhi, pp.136-

234.

6. Siddiqi (1948) Islamic Culture, pp.165-174.

7. Yazdani, G. (1947) Ibid, p.96.

8. Forgusson: Architecture at Bijapur.

9. Siddiqi (1948) Ibid, p.192.

10. Sinha, S.K (1964) Ibid, p.155.

11. Michell, George and Mark Zebrowski (1999) Architecture and Art

of the Deccan Sultanates, New Cambridge History of India 1/7,

Cambridge.

12. Yazdani, G (1995) Ibid, p.25.

13. Sherwani, H.K. (1985) The Bahmanis of Deccan, Munshiram

Manoharlal Publications, New Delhi, pp.181-182.

14. Ahmad, Khwaja Muhammad and D. Wilber (1988) The Timurid

Architecture of Iran and Turan, vols.2, Princeton, N.J.

257
15. Tarachand ( ) Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p.243.

16. Joshi, P.M. (1973) Economic and Social Conditions under the

Bahmanis, History of the Medieval Deccan, Vol.I, Hyderabad,

pp.209-213.

17. Ahmad, Aziz (1964) Studies in Islamic culture in the Indian

Environment, London, p.48.

18. Brown, P. (1956) Indian Architecture (Islamic Period), Delhi,

19. Yazdani, G (1947) Bidar: Its History and Monuments, London,

pp.4-7.

20. Sherwani, H.K. (1953) The Bahmmnis of the Deccan- An

Objective History, Deccan Publications, Hyderabad, pp.62-64.

21. King, J.S. (1900) The History of the Bahmani Dynasty, London.

22. Mehta, J.L. (1987) Ibid. p.219.

23. Shyam, Radhey (1966) Ibid, Preface to The Kingdom of

Ahmadnagar, i-xvii.

24. Venkataramanappa, M.N (1976) Outline of South Indian History,

Vikas Publishers, Madras.

25. Sherwani, H.K. (1953) Ibid. pp.113-114.

26. Asher, Catherine B. (1992) Architecture of Mughal India, New

Cambridge History of India 1/4, Cambridge.

27. Mehta, J.L. (1987) Ibid, pp.216-217.

258
28. Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1999) Persianization and Mercantilism:

Two Themes in Bay of Bengal History, 1400-1700, In Om Prakash

and Denys Lombard, (eds) Commerce and Culture in the Bay of

Bengal, 1500-1800, New Delhi, pp.47-86.

29. Yazdani, G (1992) Antiquities of Bidar, Asian Educational

Services, New Delhi, p.12.

30. Sherwani (1947) Ibid, p.42.

31. Sherwani, H.K. (1953) The Bahmmnis of the Deccan- An

Objective History, Deccan Publications, Hyderabad, pp.62-64.

32. Mehta, J.L. (1987) Advanced Study in the History of Medieval

India, Sterling Publishers Private Ltd, New Delhi, pp.209-221.

33. Sherwani, H.K. (1953) The Bahmanis of the Deccan, Hyderabad,

pp.18-20.

34. Khan, Mohd. Abdul Waheed (1962) Introduction to Mediaeval

History of the Deccan, Vol.I, Ibid, p.i.

35. Ferishta, Ibid, p.548.

259