GRADE 10

Author: Renny K. Saini

BA.ED (UNZA)

©2018

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INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF LITERATURE

What is Literature?
The term literature, in its broadest sense, refers to any collection of texts of;
 a writer,
 a school of thought,
 a period in time,
 a subject field,
 a language, or
 a nation.

As such, we can speak of, for example;

 Chinua Achebe’s Literature – Writer.
 Romantic Literature – School of Thought.
 Twentieth Century Literature – Period in time.
 Literature on Mathematics – Subject Field.
 Literature in French – Language.
 French Literature – Nation.

The term literature can be said to encompass writings and oral works which are
regarded as worth preserving because they express some universal emotion or idea.

Literature can therefore, be generally defined as “any written or oral work which is of
artistic value.”

To completely understand what literature is, we need to distinguish the uses of language
namely; (i) scientific use, (ii) literary use and (iii) everyday use.

(i) Scientific Language

Scientific language is highly denotative because science aims at objectivity. The
term denotative refers to that aspect of the meaning of the word which is based
on a clear and conventionalised reference to a given section of the observable
external world. Scientific language aims at a one-to-one correspondence between
sign and referent.

(ii) Literary Language

Literary language is highly connotative, that is, it is based on feelings and ideas
which a group of words arouses in an individual. Because it is highly connotative,
literary language sometimes has a lot of ambiguities and even in irrationalities.
Literary language is therefore, expressive while scientific language is basically
informative.

(iii) Everyday Language

Everyday language may be said to be a situation in between scientific language
and literary language in the sense that it has both the expressive and informative
function. It is both denotative and connotative.

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Scholarly views of literature
1. Literature as Fiction.
Some scholars claim that literature is mere fiction in the sense that it is entirely
created by the imagination of the author. That it is only a made up world by the writer
which has nothing to do with the actual world.

2. Literature as a Reflection of Society.

Other scholars view literature as an imitation of life. Furthermore, they argue that
Literature is simply a mirror of life, and that its purpose to reflect our day to day
activities in society.

3. Literature as Imaginative Work.

Some other scholars say that literature is simply a collection of imaginative tastes
whose purpose is to enrich man. In this way, they say, it makes man a better human
being.

All the above views can be seen to focus on what literature wants to do for man. This
simply shows us that Literature, like any other art form, is meant to be enjoyed by man.

Why should we study literature?

1. To develop our appreciation and enjoyment of various works of art.
A student of literature will appreciate and enjoy works of art such as; Plays (Drama),
Poems, and Novels. Enjoying or simply making use of such works of art can be a very
good way of spending one’s leisure time and can also serve as a foundation to careers
in Acting, Music, Journalism, Writing, Modelling, and others.

2. To develop our intellectual and critical faculties.

A student of literature will think critically and rationally on all issues of human
endeavour. He or she will be able analyse a challenge or problem with a wide scope
hence be able to tackle it easily or from different angles. He or she will also not just
agree to anything he or she is told, but will be able to objectively argue out points,
thanks to his or her wide literary experience.

3. To develop our mastery of basic literacy.

Through the study of literature, one is bound to improve in almost all aspects of the
English language. For example, reading widely improves ones’ vocabulary, spellings,
pronunciations and general variety of language expression.

4. To develop our awareness of culture.

Literature helps us learn more about our culture as well as that of others. This is as a
result of the exposure we get through reading widely.

Functions of literature
Literature, as a field of study, is there;
(i) To educate.
(ii) To entertain.
(iii) To rebuke.
(iv) To encourage.

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Literature as a school subject
As a subject in school, literature may be defined as ‘the study of written composition,
especially written work, which qualifies and has artistic merit in it.’ In schools, the study
of literature usually focuses on fiction. Fiction is any written work created by the
imagination of the author, aimed at entertaining the reader and also to give some moral
teaching.

Advantages of taking literature as a subject

 It improves one’s command of the English language.
 It teaches us about life and culture in other parts of the world.
 It provides useful information about places and parts of the world where one may
not have been or may never go to in their life.
 It entertains us and provides useful occupation in our spare time.
 It serves as a good foundation for careers in Acting, Music, Writing, Law, Journalism,
Teaching, Modelling and others.

SOME IMPORTANT LITERARY TERMINOLOGIES & DEVICES

Figurative Language
Figurative language is basically the use of Figures of Speech.
o Figures of speech are;
 Deviations from the ordinary uses and meanings of words or groups of words.
 Peculiar combinations of words or groups of words, which make sentences
and texts more expressive and vivid.
The following are some of the important literary terms and devices (figures of speech)
that every student of literature must understand and appreciate.

1. SIMILE
A simile is a form of comparison that expresses the resemblance of one thing to
another of a different category using “...as… as....” or “like” e.g.
 She is as quiet as a shadow.
 The shirt is as white as snow.
 She sings like an angel.
 He works like a donkey.

2. METAPHOR
This is a form of comparison between two things which is implied or direct. This is the
use of a word or phrase to describe somebody or something that is not meant
literally but by means of a vivid comparison, it expresses something about him, her,
or it, e.g.
 My aunt is a snake.
 James is a pillar of the family.
 Elizabeth is a man indeed.
 He is a lion in battle.

3. EUPHEMISM
This is the replacement of an offensive or unpleasant expression with a pleasant or
less shocking expression, e.g.
 To pass away - Meaning to die
 To lay to rest - Meaning to bury
 The underprivileged - Meaning the poor
 Expecting - Meaning to be pregnant
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4. HYPERBOLE
This is an expression used for effect. It is a deliberate and obvious exaggeration used
to emphasise a point, e.g.
 I have advised you a thousand times but you don’t want to change.
 On seeing me, she shed a flood of tears.
 Dinner took ages.

5. PERSONIFICATION
This is the attribution of human qualities to objects or abstract notions. In other
words, personification implies giving human qualities or attributes to animals, objects
and other things. The objects or notions are described in terms of human experience
such as; actions, feelings, attitudes, or responses, e.g.
 The trees sighed and whispered as the impatient wind sifted through
their branches.
 The flames ate hungrily at the wooden foundations.
 Death is calling him.

6. PARADOX
This is an apparent contradiction which may have a lot of truth in it, which is usually
deeper in meaning e.g.
 “The noise of silence.”
 “When am poor, am rich.”
 “There is strength in weakness.”

7. IRONY
This is a manner of speaking or writing in which the meaning is expressed in the
opposite way, usually for humorous effect and or simply for sarcasm. For example,
someone fails an exam, and then you tell him or her that, “oh! You are very
intelligent,” when in fact you mean he is very dull.

8. IDIOM
This is an expression that means something different from actual words or phrases
used e.g.
 “He kicked a bucket.” to mean, he died.
 “You are a wet blanket” to mean, you are foolish, useless, etc.
 “He is a bootlicker” to mean, he always wants to show loyalty or to please
someone.

9. METONYM
A metonym is a figure of speech in which the name of a thing or person is used to
mean another thing or person with which it stands in particular relation e.g.
(a) Container for contents: “The kettle is boiling”
(b) Author for the work: “I was reading George Orwell”

10. SYNECDOCHE.
This is a figure of speech whereby the part is made to stand for the whole, the whole
for a part, the species for the genus, and vice versa, e.g.
 In the phrase “50 head of cattle,” “head” is used to mean whole animals.
 In the sentence “the president’s administration contained the best brains in the
country,” “brains” is used for intellectually brilliant persons.

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TYPES OF LITERATURE
 Oral Literature
 Written Literature

Oral Literature
Oral literature is the oldest form of literature and continues to play an important role in
the lives of most rural communities. Oral literature, in the form of storytelling; songs,
proverbs, riddles, praises, and narratives, has traditionally been the most popular
indigenous way of transmitting societal values. In village gathering places, oral
literature has been used both to entertain and educate.

Forms of oral literature

1. Folktales.
These are stories that are passed down by word of mouth from one generation to
the next and they eventually become part of a community’s tradition. Folktales
include Fables, Myths and Legends.

 Fables.
These are stories about animals, which are usually personified, and they are
usually told to warn or teach about certain human behaviour. The most
common fables in Zambia include animals like Kalulu, Tortoise, Lion, Hyena, etc.,
with situations that are at least familiar with ancient customs and culture. The
fables usually involve the characters passing through difficulty and eventually
overcoming the challenge without supernatural help.

 Myths.
This is a tale, usually historic, whose origins are in most cases unknown. A
collection of such tales is called Mythology. Myths compare lives and reflect the
forces of nature. They are usually based on beliefs of groups of people and are
sometimes regarded as sacred. Traditionally, myths were usually told by
grandparents and elders on many things, especially those things they could not
understand. Myths include stories on the following;
 The origin of the world.
 The creation of mankind.
 The feats of gods or heroes and heroines.
 The tragedies that happened to ancient individuals or families, etc.

 Legends.
A legend is a story about important people or events. In older days, such stories
were handed down from one generation to another by word of mouth, and
were usually exaggerated and glorified to increase the pride of a group, tribe or
people told about. The heroes of those stories could be settlers or leaders who
had faced difficulties on behalf of their tribesmen. Basically, the stories teach us
about morals and good virtues such as bravery, tolerance, patience, courage,
perseverance, etc.

2. Songs.
In singing songs, the human voice is used to produce the music. In earlier times,
songs were primarily communal compositions. They were anonymous expressions
of the society or culture that produced them, although the melody and words of a
specific song may have had their origin in a single, unknown individual. These songs
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 included; hymns (praise and worship songs), political songs, political songs, funeral
songs (dirges), Love songs, and thematic songs.

 Hymns or Praise and worship songs.

These were songs of worship or praises to gods and other supernatural
beings. They were sung to show a people’s reverence to their deity or god.

 Political Songs.
These were songs sung in honour and praise of political leaders such as kings,
chefs and others.

 Funeral Songs (dirges).

These were songs sung in times of bereavement and sorrow. For example,
“icimbo camalilo” among the people of the Luapula Province of Zambia,

 Love songs.
These were sung in appreciation of natural beauty and love in general.

 Thematic Songs
A wide range of songs were composed and sung on various subjects, such as;
poverty, hunger, corruption, HIV/AIDS, etc.

3. Proverbs.
These are anonymous sayings, passed from generation to generation, usually to
offer advice about behaviour, e.g. [BEMBA] “Umunwe umo tausala inda” meaning:
“One finger cannot pick up a louse.” Proverbs usually state true things. They are
written in words which are strait forward to understand.

Why do we follow proverbs?

 Proverbs teach us to recognize wisdom and good advice.
 Proverbs teach us to be honest, trustworthy and fair.
 Proverbs teach us to make correct decisions all the time.
 Proverbs teach us how to be resourceful and self reliant.
 Proverbs teach us how to live intelligently and continue learning and acquiring
more knowledge.

4. Riddles.
A Riddle is a question or statement requiring analytical thought to answer or
understand. In other words, a riddle is usually a question or statement that tests
human intellectual and social ability. It can also be a story that ends in a puzzle
which requires one to find a solution.

Examples:
1. “A dog was running from Roan to Mpatamatu.”
Question: “In which direction was the tail facing?”
Answer: Nowhere, because the tail has no face.

2. Question: “What is a house with no windows?”

Answer: “An Egg.”

3. “A man was trying to cross a river with three animals using a canoe. The
animals were a dog, a cat, and a mouse. The canoe could only accommodate
the man with only one animal at a time. The cat was afraid of the dog and the
mouse was afraid of the cat.”

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 Question: “How did the man safely cross the river with all his animals?”
Answer: “First, he crossed with the cat, leaving behind the dog and the mouse.
Then, he went back and got the dog, left it across and came back with the cat to
collect the mouse. He left the cat, collected the mouse and transported it across.
Later he went across to collect the cat after leaving the mouse with the dog.”

5. Praises.
Praises are an expression of approval or admiration for somebody’s achievements
or for something’s good qualities. Praises, usually in poetic form, were recited and
directed towards gods (deities), kings, chiefs and other heroic or supernatural
figures for what they had done for their people.

6. Narratives.
Narratives are stories or accounts of true events. The narratives were told in the
exact order in which they happened and were passed from generation to
generation in as close to their original versions as possible. Examples of narratives
are stories about the migration of the various tribal groupings into Zambia.

Written Literature
Literature in its written type exists in an array of forms such as prose, drama and
poetry.

Forms of written literature

1. Prose.
Prose, as a form of written literature, is basically writing and speech in its normal
continuous form, without the rhythmic or visual line structure characteristic of
poetry. Works of literature in prose form include novels, short stories, essays,
articles, biographies, etc.

 Novels.
A novel is a long work of written fiction. Most novels involve many characters
and tell a complex story by placing the characters in a number of different
situations. Novels are usually divided into chapters, in which the story
traditionally develops through the thoughts and actions of the characters.

 Short stories.
A short story is a work of prose fiction that is shorter than the novel. Short
stories, usually, depict one character’s inner conflict or conflict with others,
usually having one thematic focus.

 Essays.
An essay is a short, non-fiction, piece of writing. It is a short analytic,
descriptive, or interpretive piece of literary or journalistic prose dealing with a
specific topic, especially from a personal and unsystematic viewpoint

 Articles.
An article is a piece of non-fiction writing that can be found in a newspaper, a
magazine, or a reference book, e.g. an article on Ecology.

 Biographies.
A biography is an account of somebody’s life written or produced by another
person, e.g. as a book, movie, or television program. An autobiography is an
account of somebody’s life written or produced by that person.

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 2. Drama (Plays).
Drama or plays, as a form of literature, are basically works of art written for
performance on the stage, television, or radio. We should remember to make a
distinction between drama, which concerns the written text, or script, for the
performance, and theatre, which concerns the performance of this script.

3. Poetry.
Poetry, as a form of literature, basically entails literary works written in verse or
lines of high quality, great beauty, emotional sincerity or intensity, or profound
insight. Poetry, therefore, is a form of literature that emphasizes rhythm, other
intricate patterns of sound and imagery, and the many possible ways that words
can suggest meaning.

Fact and Fiction

Fact or non-fiction literature is based on truth or scientifically proven finding. Fiction,
however, is literature based on imagination. Works of fiction such as most novels and
stories describe imaginary people, places and events.

Literary Genres
These are the various categories of artistic works based on form, style, or subject matter,
into which artistic works of all kinds can be divided. Comedy, Tragedy and Satire are such
examples of literary genres.

1. Comedy.
Comedy is a form of expression that is intended to amuse. It is associated with
humorous behaviour, wordplay, pleasurable feeling, release of tension, and laughter.
Filled with a playful spirit, comedy frequently exposes absurd, ridiculous, or bizarre
aspects of human nature.

Examples of works of comedy include; “Mr. Bean,” by Rowan Atkinson; “The Gods
Must Be Crazy,” by Jammy Uys; and “Mwine Mushi” by Robam Mwape & Webster
Chiluba.

2. Tragedy.
Tragedy as a literary genre presents the heroic or moral struggle of an individual,
culminating in his or her ultimate defeat. The main character, usually through a fault
in them, undergoes difficulties resulting in their sad ending, usually death.

Examples of works of tragedy include; “Things Fall Apart”, by Chinua Achebe; “The
Three Theban Plays,” by Sophocles; and “Romeo and Juliet,” by William Shakespeare.

3. Satire.
This is the use of humour in the form of irony, sarcasm, exaggeration, ridicule, or
outright mockery to expose human wickedness and folly.

Examples of works of satire include; “The Government Inspector” by Nikolai Gogol,

and “Kalaki” by Roy Clarke.

THE STORY (NOVEL)

As earlier discussed, a novel is a long work of written fiction. Most novels involve many
characters and tell a complex story by placing the characters in a number of different
situations. Most novels are usually divided into chapters, in which the story traditionally
develops through the thoughts and actions of the characters.
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Elements of a story
To create a fictional world that seems real to the reader, authors use five main elements;
namely setting, plot, characters, conflict, and theme.

1. Setting.
The setting of story can be looked at from two angles, that is, place and time. In
terms of place, the setting is the location (fictitious or not) where the story takes
place from. In terms of time, the setting entails the period, age or simply the “time”
when the story takes place or is imagined to have taken place, (e.g. the 1700s, the 19th
century, pre-colonial, etc).

2. Plot.
The plot is the sequence of events or actions in a story. It is a set of connected events
on which a story is based. The plot of a novel can be divided into five distinct parts
namely; (i) Exposition, (ii) Complication (iii) Climax, and (iv) Resolution and (v)
Denouement.

 Exposition (Introduction).
The exposition, also known as the Introduction, is the part of a literary or dramatic
work in which the basic facts of setting and character are made known.

 Complication (Conflict/Rising action).

Complication or conflict refers to opposition between or among characters or
forces in a literary work that shapes or motivates the action of the plot. In other
words, this is the disagreement or clashing of ideas, opinions or values amongst
characters. As the conflict heightens, the action unfolds in such a way that tension
rises and later reaches the climax or peak of the story.
There are six main types of conflict in novels namely:
1. Man against man.
2. Man against the supernatural.
3. Man against nature.
4. Man against society.
5. Man against himself (this conflict is internal. The character is torn between
opposite forces of his own nature).
6. Two worlds in opposition (this conflict is usually combined with others. It
may be embodied for example in a man-against-man conflict. The emphasis,
however, is on the opposing sets of ideas, values, cultures or ideologies.
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  Climax (Peak).
This is the peak of the story. It is the most exciting, intense and decisive moment
in the story. In other words, it is the turning point of the action in the story. Here,
we see the explosion of the conflict such that henceforth, the story now deals
with the outcome, which is referred to as the Resolution or Falling Action.

 Resolution (Falling Action).

The resolution is the point in a literary work when the conflict is resolved. In other
words, the resolution is where the characters deal with results of the conflict or
conflicts after the climax and this leads to the end of the story which can either be
comic or tragic.

 Denouement (Conclusion).
The denouement is the final part of a story or drama in which everything is made
clear and no questions or surprises remain.

3. Characters.
Characters are the people, animals, etcetera that carry out the action as well as speak
in the story. Novels usually always have a conflict or opposition of some sort. The
main character in a story is called the protagonist or hero/heroine while his or her
main opponent is called the antagonist or anti-hero/anti-heroine. A character may
change or may not change in the course of the story. A character that changes or
develops positively is referred to as a Round or Developing Character, while a
character that remains the same, is referred to as a Flat or Static Character.

4. Theme & Motif.

In analyzing novels (fiction), we must not only look at the work itself but also at the
relationship between the work and the outside world.
 Theme.
A theme, therefore, is the main idea in a piece of art or literature. It is the
dominating thought, the central idea, or the main subject on which the work of
art is based. For example, in the play, Everyman, by Obotunde Ijimere, the theme
is selfishness vs selflessness. It is very important to identify and know the
theme(s) of the book you are reading.

 Motif.
A motif is a recurring theme or idea that spreads through a work of literature.

5. Point of View (Narrative Persona or Voice)

The point of view of a literary work is the perspective from which the reader views
the action and characters. The three major types of point of view in novels are; (i)
omniscient (all-knowing narrator outside the story itself), (ii) first-person
(observations of a character who narrates the story), and (iii) third-person-limited
(outside narration focusing on one character’s observations). Point of view is also
called the narrative distance, voice or persona. It can also be said to be a technical
term referring to the way in which a story is told.

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 (i) Omniscient Point of view.
In a novel written from the point of view of an omniscient narrator, the reader
knows what each character does and thinks. The reader maintains this
knowledge as the plot moves from place to place or era to era. An omniscient
narrator can also provide the reader with direct assessment of action,
character, and environment.

(ii) First Person Point of View.

With the first-person point of view, one of the novel’s characters narrates the
story. For example, a sentence in a novel in the first person might read, “As I
waited on the corner, I remembered the last time I had seen her.”

(iii) Third-Person-Limited Point of View.

The third-person-limited point of view tells the story from the third person
(“he” or “she”), with a knowledge of what the main character thinks. For
example, a sentence from a story in the third person limited might read, “As
she waited on the corner, she remembered the last time she had seen him.”

6. Flashback & Flash-Forward

Normally, a plot of a novel is expected to flow in a chronological manner (i.e. from
beginning to end). Some authors, however, complicate the structure of their plots
with the use of flashbacks and flash-forwards; with frames or scenes that interrupt
the normal flow of the story (stories within a story).

 Flashback.
This is when the author changes or switches to an earlier event or scene,
interrupting the normal sequential development of the story. This is in order to
give the reader information essential for the understanding the present or future
events.
 Flash-Forward.
This is when the author changes or switches to a later event or scene, interrupting
the normal sequential development of the story. This is also in order to give the
reader information essential for the understanding the present or past events.

7. Imagery
This is the use of figurative language effectively to produce vivid images in the minds
of the readers. Imagery, therefore, is the use of descriptive details that appeal to the
senses and emotions of the reader by creating a sense of real life experience.

8. Symbolism
This is the use of symbols to endow things with a representative meaning or to
represent something abstract by something concrete. Many novels have two layers
of meaning. The first meaning is in their literal plot, while the second meaning is in a
symbolic layer in which images and objects represent abstract ideas and feelings.
Using symbolism allows authors to express themselves indirectly on delicate or
controversial matters.

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DRAMA (PLAYS)
Drama as a form of literature is usually written to be performed. We should always
remember to make a distinction between drama, which concerns the written text, or
script, for the performance, and theatre, which concerns the performance of this script.
Drama, therefore, entails serious plays written for performance on stage, television, or
radio. In the performance of a play, the actors and actresses convey messages with
words gestures and actions. Drama, in other words, is the transformation of ideas into
plays or theatre as though it were in a real life situation.

Drama, therefore, is writing that is meant to be performed by actors for an audience. The
script consists of dialogue – the words the actors say – plus stage directions, which are
comments on how and where the actors move and speak. When you read drama, you
“set the stage” in your own mind, using your imagination to visualize the scenery,
lighting, costumes, and actors.

Background to Drama
The word Drama originated from a Greek word “dram” which means “to act.” Drama is
believed to have originated from the Greek ritual practices of religion many years ago
through festivals. These festivals were called Dionysia and were held annually in spring in
honour of the ancient Greek god of wine and fertility called Dionysus. During the festival
period, people enjoyed feasting (drinking wine and eating) and engaging in sexual orgies.
During these feasts, plays were also performed on sacred grounds reserved for Dionysia,
usually on the hill sides.
A person who writes drama or plays is referred to as a Playwright.

The Elements of Drama

To this day, drama is widely used as a way of educating people. It has Action, Plot, and
Characters as its basic tools.
 Action.
These are activities characters perform to express ideas and flaws of a play. This
includes physical movement, speech and gestures by the actors.

 Plot.
This is simply, the sequence of the action. This could be shaped by a particular
dramatic form and theme. It must, therefore, have a central focus or purpose which
contributes to the provisional units of action. It has the beginning, middle and end.

 Characters.
Characters are the people that make the action move in a play or novel. They are
used both dramatically and non-dramatically to further this end. We should take
note here, however, that a character is not necessarily the same thing an actor.
Whereas the actor is the physical person we see performing on stage, the character
is simply an imaginary or created being in the script of the play. As such, an actor
can play a character (or perform a role of character) whereas the reverse is
impossible.

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 The Script.
The script is simply the written text of a play, film, or broadcast.

The script includes *Stage directions.

As part of the script of a play, Stage directions tell the actors how they are to move
or to speak their lines. Enter, exit, and exeunt are stage directions.

In other words, stage directions are the instructions for performing a play and the
descriptions of settings, characters, and actions. They help you visualize the play
and are usually written in parenthesis. E.g., (Hamlet washes his hands repeatedly.)

 Audience.
This is the group of people who watch the play, film or broadcast. Many playwrights
and actors consider the audience to be one of the most important elements of
drama, as all of the effort put in to writing and producing a play is for the enjoyment
of the audience.

 Dialogue
Dialogue is the conversation between two or more characters in a play, film or
broadcast.

 Monologue
A long speech by one character in a play or film, or as broadcast. Most often,
monologues are a way for characters to express their mental thoughts aloud,
though sometimes also to directly address another character or the audience.

 Soliloquy
A speech by a single character who is ALONE on stage. It is a speech in a play
whereby a character speaks to himself or herself or to the people watching rather
than to the other characters.

 Aside
A remark or comment by one character in a play that is intended to be heard by the
audience but is supposed not to be heard by the other characters in the play. In
other words, an aside is a dramatic device in which a character speaks to the
audience, whereby, the audience is to realize that the character’s speech is unheard
by the other characters on stage. An aside is usually a brief comment, rather than a
long speech, such as a monologue or soliloquy.

 Scenery
The scenery is made up of theatrical equipment such as curtains, backdrops, and
platforms to communicate the environment. An example might be trees to show a
forest environment.

 Costumes
These are the clothing and other items an actor can wear to help him or her
“become” the character. In combination with other aspects of stagecraft, theatrical
costumes can help actors portray characters and their contexts as well as

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 communicate information about the historical period/era, geographic location and
time of day, season or weather of the theatrical performance.

 Props
A prop, formally known as (theatrical) property, is an object used on stage or on
screen by actors during a performance or screen production. In practical terms, a
prop is considered to be anything movable or portable on a stage or a set, distinct
from the actors, scenery, costumes, and electrical equipment. An example might be
a table on the stage. Consumable food items appearing in the production are also
considered props.

 Make-Up
Make-up is the use of costumes, wigs and body paint to transform an actor into a
character.

 Sound and Music

Sound is the effect an audience hears during a show, like the sound of rain,
etcetera. And music – well, you know what music is.

 Lighting
This is the placement, intensity, and colour of lights to help communicate
environment, mood, or feeling.

Plays are arranged and written in Acts and Scenes.

Acts and Scenes are vital in sequencing or separating the narration or story into
manageable parts for the audience, the actors, and the people working behind the
curtains. The division of the performance is also important for ensuring a good flow of
the narration or story itself.

An act is often defined as the major division of drama, and it forms the basic structure of
a performance. An act is very long because it is a collection of different scenes that flow
together, and it establishes a major part of the story.

A scene on the other hand refers to the actual action that takes place in a specific and
single setting and moment in time. It usually begins with the entrance of an actor (which
starts the action) and ends with the exit of the actor (the signal of the end of action).
This brief dialogue and action move the flow of the narration from scene to scene and
from act to act until the whole performance is over.

Since a scene is not long and needs to move on to another scene, it is a component of an
act and a smaller portion of the whole play. It is usually a few minutes long (depending
on the dialogue and action) compared to a whole act. A scene also refers to the scenery
or fixtures placed on the stage to provide the atmosphere and environment of a
particular scene or piece of action. The scene, as a fixture, reinforces the action and gives
it depth and a realistic context.

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POETRY
Poetry can be said to be “literary work in which the expression of feelings and ideas is
given intensity by the use of distinctive style and rhythm as poems collectively or as a
form of literature.”

The Merriam-Webster Online dictionary defines poetry as “writing that formulates a

concentrated imaginative awareness of experience in language chosen and arranged to
create a specific emotional response through meaning, sound, and rhythm.”

Poetry, therefore, is a way of expressing certain ideas and feelings indirectly. A person
who composes or writes poems (poetry) is called a poet. In writing poetry, the poet uses
what are called Stanzas and Verses. A verse is simply a line, (equivalent to a sentence)
while a stanza is a group of related lines or verses (equivalent to a paragraph).

Background to Poetry
Poetry as an art form existed before written text. The earliest poetry is believed to have
been recited or sung as a way of remembering oral history, genealogy, and law. Poetry is
often closely related to musical traditions, and the earliest poetry exists in the form of
hymns, and other types of song such as chants. As such poetry is a verbal art. Many of
the poems surviving from the ancient world are recorded prayers, or stories about
religious subject matter, but they also include historical accounts, instructions for
everyday activities, love songs, and fiction. Poetry, therefore, appears among the earliest
records of most literate cultures.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Major Types of Poetry

There are three major types of poetry and these are; Narrative Poetry, Lyric Poetry and
Dramatic Poetry.
1. Narrative Poetry
These are poems whose main purpose is to tell a story about something that
happened. They may be short or long. Narrative poetry may look at marriage, hunger,
drought, starvation, etc.

2. Lyric Poetry
Originally composed for musical accompaniment, these are poems whose main
purpose is to express feelings and experience with the audience. One may express
feelings about love, joy, etc.

3. Dramatic Poetry
These are poems which are dramatized (or acted) and usually involve more than one
character.

Forms of Poetry
There are basically two main forms of poetry, i.e.; the Physical Form and the Mental
Form.
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 1. The Physical Form of Poetry
A poem can be physical in form. This refers to the poet who should be in a
position to write it down, so that it can be kept for future use.

2. The Mental Form of Poetry

A poem can as well be in mental form. This refers to the poet’s ability to master
the lines of a poem mentally and be able to recite them without reading.

THE STRUCTURE OF A POEM

As earlier mentioned, a line in poetry is called a verse, while a group of lines (or
paragraph) is called a stanza.

An Example of a poem.

A Glass of Beer
By: James Stephens

The lanky hank of a she in the inn over there

Nearly killed me for asking the loan of a glass of beer
May the devil grip the whey-faced slut by the hair
And beat bad manners out of her skin for a year.

That parboiled ape, with the toughest jaw you will see
On virtue’s path, and a voice that would rasp the dead,
Came roaring and raging the minute she looked at me,
And threw me out of the house on the back of my head!

If I asked her master he’d give me a cask a day

But she, with the beer at hand, not a gill would arrange!
May she marry a ghost and bear him a kitten, and may
The High King of Glory permit her to get the mange!

The Elements of Poetry

 Figurative language
This is a form of language use in which the writers and speakers mean something
other than the literal meaning of their words. Two figures of speech that are
particularly important for poetry are simile and metaphor. A simile involves a
comparison between unlike things using “like” or “as… as.” For instance, “My love is
like a red, red rose.” A metaphor, on the other hand, is a comparison between
essentially unlike things without a word such as like or as. For example, “My love is a
red, red rose.”

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 Rhyme
This is the repetition of identical or similar concluding syllables in different words,
most often at the ends of lines. Rhyme is predominantly a function of sound rather
than spelling; thus, words that end with the same vowel sounds rhyme; for instance,
day, prey, bouquet, weigh, and words with the same consonant ending rhyme; for
instance vain, rein, lane.

The Rhyme Scheme of a poem, describes the pattern of end rhymes. Rhyme schemes
are mapped out by noting patterns of rhyme with small letters: the first rhyme sound
is designated a, the second becomes b and, the third c, and so on.

 Rhythm
This is the term used to refer to the recurrence of stressed and unstressed sounds in
poetry. Poets rely heavily on rhythm to express meaning and convey feeling. Caesura
is a strong pause within a line of poetry that contributes to the rhythm of the line.
When a line has a pause at its end, it is called an end-stopped line. Such pauses reflect
normal speech patterns and are often marked by punctuation. A line that ends
without a pause and continues into the next line for its meaning is called a run-on line
or enjambment.

 Free Verse
Free verse is a literary device that can be defined as poetry that is free from
limitations of regular meter or rhythm, and does not rhyme with fixed forms. Such
poems are without rhythm and rhyme schemes, do not follow regular rhyme scheme
rules, yet still provide artistic expression. In this way, the poet can give his own shape
to a poem however he or she desires. However, it still allows poets to use alliteration,
rhyme, cadences, and rhythms to get the effects that they consider are suitable for
the piece.

 Alliteration
This is the repetition of the same consonant sounds in a sequence of words, usually at
the beginning of a word or stressed syllable: “descending dew drops;” “luscious
lemons.” Alliteration is based on the sounds of letters, rather than the spelling of
words; for example, “keen” and “car” alliterate, but “car” and “cite” do not.

 Assonance
This is the repetition of similar internal vowel sounds in a sentence or a line of poetry,
as in “I rose and told him of my woe.”

 Tone
The tone conveys the speaker’s implied attitude toward the poem’s subject. Tone is
the thought we make from the details of a poem’s language: the use of meter and
rhyme (or lack of them); the inclusion of certain kinds of details and exclusion of
other kinds; particular choices of words and sentence pattern, or imagery and

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 figurative language (diction). Another important element of tone is the order of
words in sentences, phrases, or clauses (syntax).

 Onomatopoeia
In poetry, Onomatopoeia is the use of a word which imitates the natural sound of
something. The word creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making
the description more expressive and interesting. For instance, saying, “The gushing
stream flows in the forest” is a more meaningful description than just saying, “The
stream flows in the forest.” The reader is drawn to hear the sound of a “gushing
stream,” which makes the expression more effective. Some common Examples of
Onomatopoeia include;
 The buzzing bee flew away.
 The sack fell into the river with a splash.
 The books fell on the table with a loud thump.
 He looked at the roaring lion.
 The rustling leaves kept me awake.

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